1.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
2.
U.S. state
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A U. S. state is a constituent political entity of the United States of America. There are 50 states, which are together in a union with each other. Each state holds administrative jurisdiction over a geographic territory. Due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the government, Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside. State citizenship and residency are flexible, and no government approval is required to move between states, except for persons covered by certain types of court orders. States range in population from just under 600,000 to over 39 million, four states use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names. States are divided into counties or county-equivalents, which may be assigned some local authority but are not sovereign. County or county-equivalent structure varies widely by state, State governments are allocated power by the people through their individual constitutions. All are grounded in principles, and each provides for a government. States possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, Constitution has been amended, and the interpretation and application of its provisions have changed. The general tendency has been toward centralization and incorporation, with the government playing a much larger role than it once did. There is a debate over states rights, which concerns the extent and nature of the states powers and sovereignty in relation to the federal government. States and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a legislature consisting of the Senate. Each state is represented in the Senate by two senators, and is guaranteed at least one Representative in the House, members of the House are elected from single-member districts. Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census, the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50, alaska and Hawaii are the most recent states admitted, both in 1959. The Constitution is silent on the question of states have the power to secede from the Union. Shortly after the Civil War, the U. S. Supreme Court, in Texas v. White, as a result, while the governments of the various states share many similar features, they often vary greatly with regard to form and substance
3.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
4.
Middlesex County, Massachusetts
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Middlesex County is a county in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, in the United States. As of 2014, the population was 1,570,315, making it the twenty-third most populous county in the United States. For administrative purposes the county held two regions, Middlesex-North with its county seat in Lowell, and Middlesex-South with its county seat in Cambridge, Middlesex County is included in the Boston–Cambridge–Newton, MA–NH Metropolitan Statistical Area. Massachusetts counties also define locations for National Weather Service weather alerts, in 2010, the center of population of Massachusetts was located in Middlesex County, in the town of Natick. The county was created by the Massachusetts General Court on May 10,1643, Middlesex initially contained Charlestown, Cambridge, Watertown, Sudbury, Concord, Woburn, Medford, Wayland, and Reading. On April 19th,1775, it became the site of the first armed conflict of the American Revolutionary War, on July 11,1997, the Massachusetts State Legislature abolished Middlesex County as a governmental entity due primarily to the countys insolvency. Middlesex County continues to exist as a geographic boundary, Middlesex County owned and operated the Superior Courthouses in Cambridge and Lowell and the Middlesex County Hospital in Waltham. Budgets proposed by the County Commissioners were approved by a County Advisory Board that consisted of a representative of each of the 54 cities. The votes of the members of the Advisory Board were weighted based on the overall valuation of property in their respective communities. Additionally, all county maintenance and security employees were absorbed into the corresponding staffs of the Massachusetts Trial Court, the legislation also transferred ownership of the two Superior Courthouses to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Finally, the office of County Commissioner was immediately abolished and the office of County Treasurer was abolished as of December 31,2002. Besides the Sheriff and the two Registers of Deeds, the Middlesex District Attorney, the Middlesex Register of Probate and the Middlesex Clerk of Courts are all elected countywide to six-year terms, records of land ownership in Middlesex County are maintained at the two Registries of Deeds. The first Middlesex County Registry of Deeds was created in 1649 in Cambridge, in 1855, the Massachusetts State Legislature created a Registry of Deeds for the Northern District of Middlesex County in Lowell. The Northern District consists the city of Lowell and the towns of Billerica, Carlisle, Chelmsford, Dracut, Dunstable, Tewksbury, Tyngsborough, Westford, the remaining 44 cities and towns of Middlesex County are in the Southern District which remained in Cambridge. Even after the abolition of county government in Middlesex, communities are now granted the right to form their own regional compacts for sharing services. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 847 square miles. It is the third-largest county in Massachusetts by land area and it is bounded southeast by the Charles River, and drained by the Merrimack, Nashua, and Concord rivers, and other streams. The MetroWest region comprises much of the portion of the county
5.
2010 United States Census
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The 2010 United States Census, is the twenty-third and currently most recent United States national census. National Census Day, the day used for the census, was April 1,2010. As part of a drive to increase the accuracy,635,000 temporary enumerators were hired. The population of the United States was counted as 308,745,538, as required by the United States Constitution, the U. S. census has been conducted every 10 years since 1790. The 2000 U. S. Census was the previous census completed, participation in the U. S. Census is required by law in Title 13 of the United States Code. On January 25,2010, Census Bureau Director Robert Groves personally inaugurated the 2010 Census enumeration by counting World War II veteran Clifton Jackson, more than 120 million census forms were delivered by the U. S. Post Office beginning March 15,2010, the number of forms mailed out or hand-delivered by the Census Bureau was approximately 134 million on April 1,2010. The 2010 Census national mail participation rate was 74%, from April through July 2010, census takers visited households that did not return a form, an operation called non-response follow-up. In December 2010, the Census Bureau delivered population information to the president for apportionment, personally identifiable information will be available in 2082. The Census Bureau did not use a form for the 2010 Census. In several previous censuses, one in six households received this long form, the 2010 Census used only a short form asking ten basic questions, How many people were living or staying in this house, apartment, or mobile home on April 1,2010. Were there any additional people staying here on April 1,2010 that you did not include in Question 1, mark all that apply, Is this house, apartment, or mobile home – What is your telephone number. What is Person 1s age and Person 1s date of birth, is Person 1 of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. Does Person 1 sometimes live or stay somewhere else, the form included space to repeat some or all of these questions for up to twelve residents total. In contrast to the 2000 census, an Internet response option was not offered, detailed socioeconomic information collected during past censuses will continue to be collected through the American Community Survey. The survey provides data about communities in the United States on a 1-year or 3-year cycle, depending on the size of the community, rather than once every 10 years. A small percentage of the population on a basis will receive the survey each year. In June 2009, the U. S. Census Bureau announced that it would count same-sex married couples, however, the final form did not contain a separate same-sex married couple option
6.
Demonym
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A demonym is a word that identifies residents or natives of a particular place, which is derived from the name of that particular place. It is a neologism, previously gentilic was recorded in English dictionaries, e. g. the Oxford English Dictionary, thus a Thai may be any resident or citizen of Thailand, of any ethnic group, or more narrowly a member of the Thai people. Conversely, some groups of people may be associated with multiple demonyms, for example, a native of the United Kingdom may be called a British person, a Brit, or a Briton. In some languages, when a parallel demonym does not exist, in English, demonyms are capitalized and are often the same as the adjectival form of the place, e. g. Egyptian, Japanese, or Greek. Significant exceptions exist, for instance the adjectival form of Spain is Spanish, English widely includes country-level demonyms such as Ethiopian or Guatemalan and more local demonyms such as Seoulite, Wisconsinite, Chicagoan, Michigander, Fluminense, and Paulista. Some places lack a commonly used and accepted demonym and this poses a particular challenge to those toponymists who research demonyms. The word gentilic comes from the Latin gentilis and the English suffix -ic, the word demonym was derived from the Greek word meaning populace with the suffix for name. National Geographic attributes the term demonym to Merriam-Webster editor Paul Dickson in a recent work from 1990 and it was subsequently popularized in this sense in 1997 by Dickson in his book Labels for Locals. However, in What Do You Call a Person From, a Dictionary of Resident Names attributed the term to George H. Scheetz, in his Names Names, A Descriptive and Prescriptive Onymicon, which is apparently where the term first appears. Several linguistic elements are used to create demonyms in the English language, the most common is to add a suffix to the end of the location name, slightly modified in some instances. Cairo → Cairene Cyrenaica → Cyrene Damascus → Damascene Greece → Greek Nazareth → Nazarene Slovenia → Slovene Often used for Middle Eastern locations and European locations. Kingston-upon-Hull → Hullensian Leeds → Leodensian Spain → Spaniard Savoy → Savoyard -ese is usually considered proper only as an adjective, thus, a Chinese person is used rather than a Chinese. Monaco → Monégasque Menton → Mentonasque Basque Country → Basque Often used for French locations, mostly they are from Africa and the Pacific, and are not generally known or used outside the country concerned. In much of East Africa, a person of an ethnic group will be denoted by a prefix. For example, a person of the Luba people would be a Muluba, the plural form Baluba, similar patterns with minor variations in the prefixes exist throughout on a tribal level. And Fijians who are indigenous Fijians are known as Kaiviti and these demonyms are usually more informal and colloquial. In the United States such informal demonyms frequently become associated with mascots of the sports teams of the state university system. In other countries the origins are often disputed and these will typically be formed using the standard models above
7.
Eastern Time Zone
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Places that use Eastern Standard Time when observing standard time are 5 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time. Eastern Daylight Time, when observing daylight saving time DST is 4 hours behind Coordinated Universal Time, in the northern parts of the time zone, on the second Sunday in March, at 2,00 a. m. EST, clocks are advanced to 3,00 a. m. EDT leaving a one-hour gap, on the first Sunday in November, at 2,00 a. m. EDT, clocks are moved back to 1,00 a. m, southern parts of the zone do not observe daylight saving time. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 ruled that daylight saving time would run from the last Sunday of April until the last Sunday in October in the United States, the act was amended to make the first Sunday in April the beginning of daylight saving time as of 1987. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 extended daylight saving time in the United States beginning in 2007. So local times change at 2,00 a. m. EST to 3,00 a. m. EDT on the second Sunday in March, in Canada, the time changes as it does in the United States. However, a handful of communities unofficially observe Eastern Time because they are part of the Columbus, Georgia metropolitan area – Phenix City, Smiths Station, Lanett, and Valley. Florida, All of Florida is in the Eastern Time zone except for the portion of the Florida Panhandle west of the Apalachicola River, as the Eastern–Central zone boundary approaches the Gulf of Mexico, it follows the Bay/Gulf county line. Indiana, All of Indiana observes Eastern Time except for six counties in the Chicago metropolitan area. Kentucky, Roughly, the half of the state, including all of metropolitan Louisville, is in the Eastern Time Zone. Historically the entire state observed Central Time, when daylight saving time was first introduced, the Lower Peninsula remained on DST after it formally ended, effectively re-aligning itself into the Eastern Time Zone. The Upper Peninsula continued to observe Central Time until 1972, when all, Tennessee, Most of the eastern third of Tennessee is legally on Eastern Time. Eastern Time is also used somewhat as a de facto official time for all of the United States, since it includes the capital and the largest city. Major professional sports leagues also post all game times in Eastern time, for example, a game time between two teams from Pacific Time Zone will still be posted in Eastern time. Most cable television and national broadcast networks advertise airing times in Eastern time, national broadcast networks generally have two primary feeds, an eastern feed for Eastern and Central time zones, and a tape-delayed western feed for the Pacific Time Zone. The prime time is set on Eastern and Pacific at 8,00 p. m. with the Central time zone stations receiving the eastern feed at 7,00 p. m. local time. Mountain Time Zone stations receive a separate feed at 7,00 p. m. local time, as Arizona does not observe daylight saving time, during the summer months, it has its own feed at 7,00 p. m. local time
8.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
9.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
10.
Area code 339
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Area code 781 covers most of the Boston suburbs roughly along Route 128 and about two-thirds of the South Shore. It was created as a split from area code 617 on September 1,1997, use of 781 became mandatory February 1,1998. Area code 339 has been sharing the area since May 2,2001. Since then,10 digit local dialing is mandatory, some mobile phone numbers from the 1990s assigned to rate centers in 781 and 339 kept the 617 area code just on those mobile lines after it was split. Portions of the counties are covered, Essex Middlesex Norfolk Plymouth Suffolk Eastcentral Mass
11.
Area codes 781 and 339
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Area code 781 covers most of the Boston suburbs roughly along Route 128 and about two-thirds of the South Shore. It was created as a split from area code 617 on September 1,1997, use of 781 became mandatory February 1,1998. Area code 339 has been sharing the area since May 2,2001. Since then,10 digit local dialing is mandatory, some mobile phone numbers from the 1990s assigned to rate centers in 781 and 339 kept the 617 area code just on those mobile lines after it was split. Portions of the counties are covered, Essex Middlesex Norfolk Plymouth Suffolk Eastcentral Mass
12.
Geographic Names Information System
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It is a type of gazetteer. GNIS was developed by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation with the United States Board on Geographic Names to promote the standardization of feature names, the database is part of a system that includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps that confirm the feature or place name are cited, variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. Each feature receives a permanent, unique feature record identifier, sometimes called the GNIS identifier, the database never removes an entry, except in cases of obvious duplication. The GNIS accepts proposals for new or changed names for U. S. geographical features, the general public can make proposals at the GNIS web site and can review the justifications and supporters of the proposals. The Bureau of the Census defines Census Designated Places as a subset of locations in the National Geographic Names Database, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28 gives standards for addressing mail. In this publication, the postal service defines two-letter state abbreviations, street identifiers such as boulevard and street, department of the Interior, U. S. Geological Survey, National Mapping Division, Digital Gazeteer, Users Manual. Least Heat Moon, William, Blue Highways, A Journey Into America, standard was withdrawn in September 2008, See Federal Register Notice, Vol.73, No. 170, page 51276 Report, Principles, Policies, and Procedures, Domestic Geographic Names, U. S. Postal Service Publication 28, November 2000. Board on Geographic Names website Geographic Names Information System Proposals from the general public Meeting minutes
13.
Boston Manufacturing Company
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The Boston Manufacturing Company was a business that operated the first factory in America. It was organized in 1813 by Francis Cabot Lowell, a wealthy Boston merchant, in partnership a group of known as The Boston Associates. It built the first integrated spinning and weaving factory in the world at Waltham, Massachusetts and they used plans for a power loom that he smuggled out of England as well as trade secrets from the earlier horse-powered Beverly Cotton Manufactory, of Beverly, Massachusetts, of 1788. This was the largest factory in the U. S. with a workforce of about 300, while the Rhode Island System that followed was famously employed by Samuel Slater, the Boston Associates improved upon it with the Waltham System. The idea was copied at Lowell, Massachusetts and elsewhere in New England. Many rural towns now had their own textile mills, by 1810, dozens of spinning mills dotted the New England countryside. However, cloth production was fairly slow with this system. While on a visit to Lancashire, England in 1810, Francis Cabot Lowell studied the workings of the successful British textile industry and he paid particular attention to the power loom, a device for which there was yet no equal in America. He knew that increased production in the United States depended on such a machine. Upon his return trip to Boston in 1812, he committed the plans to memory, disguising himself as a country farmer, in September 1813 The Boston Associates purchased the Boies Paper Mill site in Waltham. With a ten-foot drop in the nearby Charles River, it was a location to establish the new factory they envisioned. The group hired a mechanic named Paul Moody of Amesbury to develop and construct the machinery. After over a year of trials, Moody was able to bring Lowells description of the loom to fruition. It would be the perfection of Moodys power loom that would be the revolution in American industry. For the first time, all phases of production could be brought under one roof. The first mill was completed in late 1814, after almost a year of construction, jacob Perkins was in charge of installing the first waterwheel, dam, flumes and raceway. By early 1815, the cloth was sold, production expanded quickly, as did profits. In 1816 a second mill was built next to the first mill
14.
Waltham-Lowell system
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Their life was very regimented - they lived in company boardinghouses and were held to strict hours and a moral code. The precursor to the Waltham-Lowell system was seen in Rhode Island, Slater drew on his British village experience to create a factory system called the Rhode Island System, based on the customary patterns of family life in New England villages. Children aged 7 to 12 were the first employees of the mill, the first child workers were hired in 1790. It is highly unlikely that Slater resorted to physical punishment, relying on a system of fines, Slater first tried to staff his mill with women and children from afar, but that fell through due to the close-knit framework of the New England family. He then brought in whole families, creating entire towns and he provided company-owned housing nearby, along with company stores, he sponsored a Sunday School where college students taught the children reading and writing. The Waltham-Lowell system pioneered the use of an integrated system. Here there was complete control over all aspects of production, spinning, weaving, dying, and cutting were now completed in a single plant. This large amount of control made it so no other company could interfere with production. The Waltham mill also pioneered the process of mass production and this greatly increased the scale of manufacturing. Water powered line shafts and belts now connected hundreds of power lines, the increase in manufacturing occurred so rapidly that there was no localized labor supply in the early 19th century that could have sufficed. Lowell solved this problem by hiring young women and this new firm, the first in the nation to place cotton-to-cloth production under one roof, was incorporated as the Boston Manufacturing Company in 1814. The Boston Associates tried to create a system of labor unlike the harsh conditions they observed while in Lancashire. The owners recruited young New England farm girls from the area to work the machines at Waltham. The mill girls lived in boarding houses and were subject to strict codes of conduct. They worked about 80 hours per week, six days per week, they woke to the factory bell at 4, 40am and reported to work at 5am and had a half-hour breakfast break at 7am They worked until a lunch break of 30 to 45 minutes around noon. The workers returned to their houses at 7pm when the factory closed. This system became known as the Waltham System, while the Boston Manufacturing Company proved immensely profitable, the Charles River had very little potential as a power source. Lowell died prematurely in 1817, and soon his partners traveled north of Boston to East Chelmsford, Massachusetts, the first mills, the Merrimack Manufacturing Company, were running by 1823
15.
Brandeis University
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Brandeis University /ˈbrændaɪs/ is an American private research university in Waltham, Massachusetts,9 miles west of Boston. Founded in 1948 as a non-sectarian, coeducational institution sponsored by the Jewish community, the university is named after Louis Brandeis, the first Jewish Justice of the U. S Supreme Court. In 2015, it had an enrollment of 5,532 students on its suburban campus spanning over 235 acres. The institution offers more than 43 majors and 46 minors, the university has a strong liberal arts focus and a quarter of its students come from outside the United States. Brandeis was tied for 34th among national universities in the United States in the U. S. News & World Report rankings, Forbes listed Brandeis as 36th nationally for research and 37th for entrepreneurship. Times ranks it 185th globally while USA Today ranks it among the top 10 in the country for economics, the university is also home to the Heller School, ranked as one of the top 10 policy schools in the United States. Middlesex University was a school located in Waltham, Massachusetts. The founder, Dr. John Hall Smith, died in 1944, Smiths will stipulated that the school should go to any group willing to use it to establish a non-sectarian university. Within two years, Middlesex University was on the brink of financial collapse, ruggles Smith, was desperate for a way to save something of Middlesex University. He learned of a New York committee headed by Dr. Israel Goldstein that was seeking a campus to establish a Jewish-sponsored secular university. Goldstein agreed to accept Smiths offer, proceeding to recruit George Alpert, Alpert had worked his way through Boston University School of Law and co-founded the firm of Alpert and Alpert. Alperts firm had an association with the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad. He was influential in Bostons Jewish community and his Judaism tended to be social rather than spiritual. He was involved in assisting children displaced from Germany, Alpert was to be chairman of Brandeis from 1946 to 1954, and a trustee from 1946 until his death. By February 5,1946, Goldstein had recruited Albert Einstein, Einstein believed the university would attract the best young people in all fields, satisfying a real need. In March 1946, Goldstein said the foundation had raised ten-million dollars that it would use to open the school by the following year, the foundation purchased Middlesex Universitys land and buildings for two-million dollars. The charter of this operation was transferred to the Foundation along with the campus, the founding organization was announced in August and named The Albert Einstein Foundation for Higher Learning, Inc. The new school would be a Jewish-sponsored secular university open to students and faculty of all races and religions
16.
Bentley University
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Bentley University is a private co-educational university in Waltham, Massachusetts,9 miles west of Boston, focused on business. Founded in 1917 as a school of accounting and finance in Bostons Back Bay neighborhood, Bentley awards bachelor of science degrees in 11 business fields and bachelor of arts degrees in 6 arts and sciences disciplines. Bentleys athletic teams compete in Division II of the NCAA and is known collectively as the Bentley Falcons and they compete in the Northeast-10 Conference. Bentley University was founded in 1917 as the Bentley School of Accounting, Bentley who served as the school’s president until 1953. Gregory H. Adamian, a driving force in the colleges development. Under his guidance, the college became accredited to confer four-year Bachelor of Arts degrees in 1971, during this time, the school also changed its name to Bentley College. In 2002, Bentley College opened up a campus in the Middle Eastern country of Bahrain in partnership with the Bahrain Institute of Banking, the college was accredited to confer its first doctoral degrees in the fields of business and accountancy in 2005. A main fixture of the campus, The Bentley Library, underwent a renovation in 2006 during which time the schools logo was changed to showcase the clock tower that sits atop the building. One year later, Gloria Cordes Larson, a state and federal government official. In 2008, the changed its name to Bentley University after being authorized by the state board of higher education to do so. In 1968, Bentley moved from downtown Boston to Waltham, Massachusetts, the first buildings on the Waltham campus were built between 1965 and 1968. Today, the campus stretches across 163 acres of land, and is accessible by the MBTA554 bus, Bentley Universitys campus is divided into three parts, Upper Campus, Lower Campus and North Campus. Upper Campus contains most of the academic buildings and all of its classrooms. It is located on the North side of Beaver Street, Lower Campus contains much of the upperclassman housing as well as the schools athletic facilities. It is connected to campus via a bridge over Beaver Street. It is located on the South side of Beaver Street, North Campus is located 1/2 mile North of the main entrance to Upper Campus on Forest Street. Transportation to and from North Campus is provided via shuttle bus, North Campus contains only residence hall buildings named, A, B, C and D. Residence halls A and B were opened in 2005 while C and D were opened in 2007 making North Campus the most recent addition to Bentleys facilities, each building has 3 floors and include an elevator and 2 stairwells
17.
Waltham Watch Company
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The companys historic 19th-century manufacturing facilities in Waltham, Massachusetts have been preserved as the American Waltham Watch Company Historic District. In 1850, at Roxbury, Massachusetts, David Davis, Edward Howard and their revolutionary business plan was to manufacture the movement parts of watches so precisely that they would become fully interchangeable. The original name of the company, which operations in 1851, is unclear. Some sources say the name was the American Horologe Company, however, in 1886, Dennison stated that the first company name was the Warren Manufacturing Company, named for General Warren of Roxbury, a famous soldier of the War of Independence. The word watch was specifically omitted to retain secrecy of the novel operation, in 1851, production began in a new factory building. In late 1852, the first watches were complete, the first 17 watches, which ran for 8 days, and were marked Howard, Davis & Dennison, were distributed among company officials. Number 1, given to Howard, is now at the Smithsonian Institution, numbers 18 to 100 were named Warren, Boston and the following 800 Samuel Curtis, after the financial backer of the company. A few, marked Fellows & Schell, sold for $40, January 1853 saw the introduction of the P. S. Bartlett watch, named for early employee Patten Sargeant Bartlett. In September 1853 the company was renamed the Boston Watch Company, a new factory was built in Waltham, Massachusetts, on the banks of the Charles River, which the company occupied in 1854. Growth of the company prompted significant expansion of premises, whose surviving elements now date to the period 1879–1913. Now repurposed to residential and commercial use, the complex was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989, the next movements manufactured were marked Dennison, Howard, & Davis, P. S. Bartlett, and C. T. The company had difficulties and Howard left to form E. Howard & Co. Upon bankruptcy, the company was sold at auction to Royal E. Robbins, the next movements produced, Serial numbers 5001 to 14,000, were used in the Waltham Model 1857 watch, the first pocket watch produced in America of standard parts. Parker was introduced as the 1857 model, in January 1859 the Waltham Improvement Company merged with Appleton, Tracy & Company, forming the American Watch Company. In 1861, as the country entered the American Civil War, the company decided to downsize to the lowest possible level to keep the factory open, which was successful. After the Civil War, the became the main supplier of railroad chronometers to various railroads in North America. In 1876, the company showed off the first automatic screw making machinery, in 1885 the company name changed to the American Waltham Watch Company. In 1907 the company changed to Waltham Watch Co. in 1923 briefly to the Waltham Watch and Clock Company
18.
Centennial Exposition
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Nearly 10 million visitors attended the exhibition and thirty-seven countries participated in it. The Great Central Fair of 1864, one of the fairs held during the Civil War, anticipated the combination of public, private. They also made Philadelphia a vital center in the Union war effort, the idea of the Centennial Exposition is credited to John L. Campbell, a professor of mathematics, natural philosophy and astronomy at Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Indiana. In December 1866, Campbell suggested to Philadelphias mayor that the United States Centennial be celebrated with an exposition in Philadelphia. Detractors said the project would not be able to find funding, other nations might not attend, the Franklin Institute became an early supporter of the exposition and asked the Philadelphia City Council for use of Fairmount Park. The Philadelphia City Council and the Pennsylvania General Assembly created a committee to study the project, congressman William D. Kelley spoke for the city and state and Daniel Johnson Morrell introduced a bill to create a United States Centennial Commission. The bill, which passed on March 3,1871, provided that the U. S. government would not be liable for any expenses, the United States Centennial Commission organized on March 3,1872, with Joseph R. Hawley of Connecticut as president. The Centennial Commissions commissioners included one representative from state and territory in the United States. On June 1,1872, Congress created a Centennial Board of Finance to help raise money, the boards president was John Welsh, brother of philanthropist William Welsh, who had raised funds for The Great Sanitary Fair in 1864. The board was authorized to sell up to US$10 million in stock via US$10 shares, the board sold US$1,784,320 worth of shares by February 22,1873. Philadelphia contributed US$1.5 million and Pennsylvania gave US$1 million, on February 11,1876, Congress appropriated US$1.5 million in a loan. John Welsh enlisted help from the women of Philadelphia who had helped him in The Great Sanitary Fair, a Womens Centennial Executive Committee was formed with Elizabeth Duane Gillespie, a descendant of Benjamin Franklin, as president. In its first few months, the group raised US$40,000, when the group learned the planning commission was not doing much to display the work of women, the group raised US$30,000 for a womens exhibition building. In 1873, the Centennial Commission named Alfred T. Goshorn as the general of the Exposition. The Fairmount Park Commission set aside 450 acres of West Fairmount Park for the exposition, the Commission decided to classify the exhibits into seven departments, agriculture, art, education and science, horticulture, machinery, manufactures, and mining and metallurgy. Newspaper publisher John W. Forney agreed to head and pay for a Philadelphia commission sent to Europe to invite nations to exhibit at the exposition, despite fears of a European boycott and high American tariffs making foreign goods not worthwhile, no European country declined the invitation. To accommodate out-of-town visitors, temporary hotels were constructed near the Centennials grounds, Philadelphia streetcars increased service and the Pennsylvania Railroad ran special trains from Philadelphias Market Street, New York City, Baltimore and Pittsburgh. The Philadelphia and Reading Railroad ran special trains from the Center City part of Philadelphia, a small hospital was built on the Expositions grounds by the Centennials Medical Bureau, but despite a heat wave during the summer, no mass deaths or epidemics occurred
19.
Schwa
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In linguistics, specifically phonetics and phonology, schwa is the mid central vowel sound in the middle of the vowel chart, denoted by the IPA symbol ə, or another vowel sound close to that position. An example in English is the sound of the a in the word about. Schwa in English is mainly found in unstressed positions, but in other languages it occurs more frequently as a stressed vowel. In relation to languages, the name schwa and the symbol ə may be used for some other unstressed and toneless neutral vowel. The word schwa is from the Hebrew word shva, designating the Hebrew niqqud vowel sign shva, in Modern Hebrew, the term was introduced into European linguistics by Jacob Grimm in the early 19th century, and so the spelling sch is German in origin. It was first used in English texts between 1890 and 1895, the symbol ⟨ə⟩ was used first by Johann Andreas Schmeller for the reduced vowel at the end of the German name Gabe. Alexander John Ellis, in his alphabet, used it for the similar English sound in. Sometimes the term schwa is used for any vowel. In English, schwa is the most common vowel sound and it is a reduced vowel in many unstressed syllables especially if syllabic consonants are not used. In most varieties of English, schwa occurs almost exclusively in unstressed syllables, in New Zealand English, the high front lax vowel has shifted open and back to sound like schwa, and both stressed and unstressed schwas exist. To a certain extent, that is true for South African English as well, in General American, schwa and ɜː are the two vowel sounds that can be r-colored, r-colored schwa is used in words with unstressed er syllables, such as dinner. See also stress and vowel reduction in English, quite a few languages have a sound similar to schwa. It is similar to a short French unaccented ⟨e⟩, which is rounded and less central and it is almost always unstressed, but Albanian, Bulgarian, Slovene and Afrikaans are some of the languages that allow stressed schwas. In most dialects of Russian an unstressed ⟨a⟩ or ⟨o⟩ reduces to a schwa, in dialects of Kashubian a schwa occurs in place of the Old Polish short consonants u, i, y. Many Caucasian languages and some Uralic languages also use phonemic schwa, in the Eastern dialects of Catalan, including the standard variety, based in the dialect spoken in and around Barcelona, an unstressed ⟨a⟩ or ⟨e⟩ is pronounced as a schwa. In the dialects of Catalan spoken in the Balearic Islands, a stressed schwa can occur, stressed schwa can occur in Romanian, as in mătură. In European and some African dialects of Portuguese, the schwa occurs in unstressed syllables that end in ⟨e⟩, such as noite, tarde, pêssego. However, that is rare in Brazilian Portuguese except in areas as Curitiba in Paraná
20.
Watertown, Massachusetts
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The Town of Watertown is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. It is part of the Greater Boston area, the population was 31,915 at the 2010 census. Watertown is one of fourteen Massachusetts municipalities that have applied for, Watertown is made up of six neighborhoods, Bemis, Brigham, Coolidge Square, East Watertown, Watertown Square and the West End. Archeological evidence suggests that Watertown was inhabited for thousands of years before the arrival of settlers from England, two tribes of Massachusett, the Pequossette and the Nonantum, had settlements on the banks of the river later called the Charles. The Pequossette built a weir to trap herring at the site of the current Watertown Dam. The annual fish migration, as both alewife and blueback herring swim upstream from their home in the sea to spawn in the fresh water where they were hatched. Watertown, first known as Saltonstall Plantation, was one of the earliest of the Massachusetts Bay settlements and it was begun early in 1630 by a group of settlers led by Richard Saltonstall and George Phillips and officially incorporated that same year. The alternate spelling Waterton is seen in early documents. The first buildings were upon land now included within the limits of Cambridge known as Gerrys Landing, for its first quarter century Watertown ranked next to Boston in population and area. Since then its limits have been greatly reduced, thrice portions have been added to Cambridge, and it has contributed territory to form the new towns of Weston, Waltham, Lincoln and Belmont. As early as the close of the 17th century, Watertown was the horse and cattle market in New England and was known for its fertile gardens. Here about 1632 was erected the first gristmill in the colony, the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, after adjournment from Concord, met from April to July 1775 in the First Parish Church, the site of which is marked by a monument. The Massachusetts General Court held its sessions here from 1775 to 1778, committees met in the nearby Edmund Fowle House. Boston town meetings were held here during the siege of Boston, from 1832 to 1834 Theodore Parker conducted a private school here and his name is still preserved in the Parker School, though the building no longer operates as a public school. The Arsenal is notable for being the site of a 1911 strike prompted by the management methods of operations research pioneer Frederick Winslow Taylor, taylors method, which he dubbed Scientific Management, broke tasks down into smaller components. The strike and its causes were controversial enough that they resulted in Congressional hearings in 1911, taylors methods spread widely, influencing such industrialists as Henry Ford, and the idea is one of the underlying inspirations of the factory line industrial method. The site includes the Arsenal Center for the Arts, an arts center that opened in 2005. The Arsenal is now owned by athenahealth, Arsenal Street features two shopping malls across the street from one another, with the Watertown Mall on one side, and The Arsenal Project of Watertown on the other
21.
Francis Cabot Lowell (businessman)
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Francis Cabot Lowell was an American businessman for whom the city of Lowell, Massachusetts, is named. He was instrumental in bringing the Industrial Revolution to the United States, Lowell was born in the city of Newburyport, Massachusetts. His father was John Lowell II, member of the Continental Congress and he had an aptitude for mathematics in his youth. In 1786, Lowell graduated from Phillips Academy, in 1793, he graduated from Harvard College. In July 1795, after graduation, Lowell set out on a merchant ship carrying cargo to various places including Basque Country in Spain and Bordeaux and he went to learn about shipping and being a merchant, but used the trip to learn about France. He spent a year touring France, gripped in revolution, in July 1796, he returned to Boston and set up as a merchant on Long Wharf. From 1798 to 1808 Lowell was engaged in trade, importing silks and tea from China and hand-spun. In 1802, when his father died, Lowell used his inheritance to invest, primarily, in 8 merchant ships. Starting in 1802, with Uriah Cotting, Harrison Gray Otis and others, Francis Cabot Lowell developed India Wharf and its warehouses on Boston harbor, later, the same group of investors developed the Broad Street area for the retail trade. To enlarge his fortune, Lowell bought a rum distillery, importing molasses from the Caribbean sugar-producing islands, Lowell spent months improving on the machinery of his rum distilling process. Despite political independence, the United States remained dependent on imports for manufactured goods, the conflicts between the European Powers and the Embargo of 1807 severely disrupted trade between the United States, Great Britain, France and Asia. Lowell reached the conclusion that to be independent, the United States needed to manufacture goods at home. In June 1810, he went on a visit with his family to Scotland and England. His poor health was said to be the reason. Lowell developed an interest in the industries of Lancashire and Scotland, especially the spinning and weaving machines. He was not able to buy drawings or a model of a power loom, in Edinburgh he met Nathan Appleton who would later become a partner in the Lowell mills. Lowell had memorized all the workings of British power looms without writing anything down, the BMC was the first integrated textile mill in America in which all operations for converting raw cotton into finished cloth could be performed in one mill building. Lowell and Moody were awarded the patent for their power loom in 1815. and Christopher Gore, Israel Thorndike Sr. and this form of shareholder corporation endures to this day in the well-known form of public stock offerings
22.
Gore Place
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Gore Place is a historic country house, now a museum, located at 52 Gore Street, Waltham, Massachusetts. It is owned and operated by the nonprofit Gore Place Society, the 45-acre estate is open to the public daily without charge, an admission fee is charged for house tours. A number of events are held throughout the year including an annual sheepshearing festival. The mansion was built in 1806 as a home for Massachusetts lawyer. In this house the Gores entertained various notables including the Marquis de Lafayette, Daniel Webster, Christopher Gore was a Massachusetts lawyer, banker, statesman, and Federalist politician. Educated at Harvard, Gore made a fortune speculating in American Revolutionary War debt in the 1780s, becoming, according to John Quincy Adams, in the 1790s he embarked on a career in politics and diplomacy, winning one term as Governor of Massachusetts in 1809. He was appointed to the United States Senate in 1813, serving until ill health prompted his resignation in 1816, in 1785 Gore married Rebecca Amory Payne. She was the daughter of Edward Payne, a wealthy Boston merchant, in 1786 they used the funds from her dowry to purchase a roughly 50 acres tract in Waltham, Massachusetts for use as a country estate. The estate was expanded by further purchase until it was 400 acres in size. In 1789 the Gores realized a windfall from his financial speculations, in 1796 Gore was appointed by President George Washington to be a commissioner in London dealing with maritime issues pursuant to the Jay Treaty between the United States and Great Britain. The Gores spent the year 1796–1804 in Europe, in 1799 they were informed that the Waltham house had been destroyed by fire, and began planning a replacement. The carriage house was not affected, and still stands on the property, in 1801 the couple went on an extended tour of Europe, including a six-month stay in Paris. During this stay they met architect Joseph-Guillaume Legrand, with whom they struck up a good relationship, Rebecca Gore was particularly interested in architecture, and six months after their return to London had sketched out plans for a new building. In October 1802 Gore sent some of her sketches to his friend Rufus King, although there is no definitive evidence that LeGrand drafted the plans used in construction, the house as built has details that are part of his architectural vocabulary. It also betrays the influence of English architect Sir John Soane and they may also have seen his recently published Sketches in Architecture. After the Gores returned to Massachusetts in 1804 they began preparations, construction began on the house in March 1805, it was completed in 1806 at a cost of $23,000. Many materials for the constructions were shipped from England and rafted up the Charles River. During the construction the Gores lived in a wing of the old house that survived the fire, the mansion consists of a central block with symmetrical wings on either side
23.
Christopher Gore
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Christopher Gore was a prominent Massachusetts lawyer, Federalist politician, and U. S. diplomat. Gore entered politics in 1788, serving briefly in the Massachusetts legislature before being appointed U. S. District Attorney for Massachusetts and he was then appointed by President George Washington to a diplomatic commission dealing with maritime claims in Great Britain. He returned to Massachusetts in 1804 and reentered politics, running unsuccessfully for governor several times before winning in 1809. He served one term, losing to Democratic-Republican Elbridge Gerry in 1810 and he was appointed to the US Senate by Governor Caleb Strong in 1813, where he led opposition to the War of 1812. Gore invested his fortune in a variety of businesses, including important infrastructure projects such as the Middlesex Canal and he was a major investor in the early textile industry, funding the Boston Manufacturing Company and the Merrimack Manufacturing Company, whose business established the city of Lowell, Massachusetts. Gore was involved in a variety of causes, and was a major benefactor of Harvard College. His palatial mansion in Waltham, Massachusetts, now known as Gore Place, is one of the finest extant examples of Federalist architecture, and has been declared a National Historic Landmark. Christopher Gore was born in Boston on September 21,1758, one of children of Frances and John Gore. He was the youngest of their three sons to survive to adulthood and he attended Boston Latin School, and entered Harvard College at the young age of thirteen. While at Harvard Gore participated in a club, and formed significant lifelong friendships with Rufus King. Gore graduated in 1776, and promptly enlisted in the Continental artillery regiment of his brother-in-law Thomas Crafts, the Gore family was divided by the war, Gores father was a Loyalist who left Boston when the British Army evacuated the city in March 1776. Gore was consequently called upon to support his mother and three sisters, who remained in Boston, in 1779, Gore successfully petitioned the state for the remaining familys share of his fathers seized assets. After his military service Gore studied law with John Lowell, and was admitted to the bar in 1778 after a comparatively brief tutelage, Gores law practice flourished, in part because many Loyalist lawyers had fled Massachusetts. Gores clients included Loyalists seeking to recover some of their assets and his briefs were generally well-reasoned, and he was seen as a successful trial lawyer. Gore grew his fortune by investing carefully in revolutionary currency and bonds, the securities he purchased were paper that had been given to Continental Army soldiers in lieu of pay, which they often sold at a steep discount. One batch of securities he purchased, for instance, cost him about $3,700 but had a value of $25,000. In 1785 he married Rebecca Amory Payne, daughter of a merchant, maritime insurer. The couple were known for their social graces and became prominent members of Boston society, in 1786 Gore became concerned about a rise in anti-lawyer sentiment in Massachusetts
24.
Robert Treat Paine Estate
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The Robert Treat Paine Estate, known as Stonehurst, is a country house set on 109 acres in Waltham, Massachusetts. It was designed for philanthropist Robert Treat Paine in a collaboration between architect Henry Hobson Richardson and landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted and it is located at 100 Robert Treat Paine Drive. In 1866, Boston lawyer Robert Treat Paine and his wife commissioned architect Gridley James Fox Bryant to build a mansarded Second Empire summer house in Waltham. The house and its site were paid for by George Lyman, Lydias father and owner of an adjacent summer residence and this house was deemed too small for the Paines and their seven children. In October 1883, Richardson and Olmsted made their first visit to the property to discuss relocating the house, in July 1884, Olmsted and Richardson produced sketches for a new site atop a rocky ridge with sweeping views to the southeast. In the spring of 1885, construction began while the Paine family traveled to Europe with Phillips Brooks, when Richardson died at age 47 in April 1886, the commission was close to completion. The terrace and some interior finishes were completed over the summer, Robert Treat Paine Jr. died in 1910, and the Paine family continued to occupy the house until the mid-1960s. In 1974 Theodore Lyman Storer donated the 113-acre property to the city of Waltham, episode #2104 of This Old House featured a tour of the estate. Ann Clifford and Thomas M. Paine, Stonehurst, The Robert Treat Paine Estate, An American Masterwork by H. H. Richardson and F. L. Waltham, Massachusetts, Robert Treat Paine Historical Trust,2007
25.
Henry Hobson Richardson
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Henry Hobson Richardson was a prominent American architect who designed buildings in Albany, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and other cities. The style he popularized is named for him, Richardsonian Romanesque, along with Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, Richardson is one of the recognized trinity of American architecture. He was the great-grandson of inventor and philosopher Joseph Priestley, who is credited with the discovery of oxygen. Richardson went on to study at Harvard College and Tulane University, initially, he was interested in civil engineering, but shifted to architecture, which led him to go to Paris in 1860 to attend the famed École des Beaux Arts in the atelier of Louis-Jules André. He didnt finish his training there, as family backing failed due to the U. S. Civil War, Richardson returned to the U. S. in 1865. He settled in New York in October 1865 and he found work with a builder, Charles, whom he had met in Paris. The two worked together but Richardson was not being challenged. He had little to do and yearned for more, Richardson developed a unique and highly personal idiom, adapting in particular the Romanesque of southern France. His early works, however, were not very remarkable, there are few hints in the mediocre work of Richardsons early years of what was to come in his maturity, when, beginning with his competition-winning design. For the Brattle Square Church in Boston, he adopted the Romanesque, in 1869, he designed the Buffalo State Asylum for the Insane in Buffalo, the largest commission of his career and the first appearance of his eponymous Richardsonian Romanesque style. A massive Medina sandstone complex, it is a National Historic Landmark and, the 1872 Trinity Church in Boston solidified Richardsons national reputation and led to major commissions for the rest of his life. Although incorporating historical elements from a variety of sources, including early Syrian Christian, Byzantine, Trinity was also a collaboration with the construction and engineering firm of the Norcross Brothers, with whom the architect would work on some 30 projects. Of his buildings, the two he liked best, the Allegheny County Courthouse and the Marshall Field Wholesale Store, were completed posthumously by his assistants, Richardson died in 1886 at age 47 of Brights disease, a historical term for the kidney disorder chronic nephritis. On his last day, he signed an informal will directing the three still remaining to carry on the business, which was soon formalized as Shepley, Rutan. One example includes Richardsons design for the Greater Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce Building, Richardson had won the selection process in 1885 and nearly finalized the work, but after his death, his aforementioned successors completed the project. He was buried in Walnut Hills Cemetery, Brookline, Massachusetts, despite an enormous income for an architect of his day, his reckless disregard for financial order meant that he died deeply in debt, leaving little to his widow and six children. Richardsons great grand-daughter is Mill Valley architect Heidi Richardson, Richardson spent much of his later years in his house in Brookline, Massachusetts, which had a studio attached to ease the strain on his health. The house fell into disrepair and was listed in 2007 as an historic site
26.
Frederick Law Olmsted
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Frederick Law Olmsted was an American landscape architect, journalist, social critic, and public administrator. He is popularly considered to be the father of American landscape architecture, in Washington, D. C. he worked on the landscape surrounding the United States Capitol building. The quality of Olmsteds landscape architecture was recognized by his contemporaries and his work, especially in Central Park in New York City, set a standard of excellence that continues to influence landscape architecture in the United States. Olmsted was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on April 26,1822 and his father, John Olmsted, was a prosperous merchant who took a lively interest in nature, people, and places, Frederick Law and his younger brother, John Hull, also showed this interest. His mother, Charlotte Law Olmsted, died before his fourth birthday and his father remarried in 1827 to Mary Ann Bull, who shared her husbands strong love of nature and had perhaps a more cultivated taste. When the young Olmsted was almost ready to enter Yale College, after working as an apprentice seaman, merchant, and journalist, Olmsted settled on a 125-acre farm in January 1848 on the south shore of Staten Island NY, which his father helped him acquire. This farm, originally named the Akerly Homestead, was renamed Tosomock Farm by Olmsted and it was later renamed The Woods of Arden by owner Erastus Wiman. On June 13,1859, Olmsted married Mary Cleveland Olmsted, Daniel Fawcett Tiemann, the mayor of New York, officiated the wedding. He adopted her three children, John Charles Olmsted, Charlotte Olmsted and Owen Olmsted, Frederick and Mary had two children together who survived infancy, a daughter, Marion and a son Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. Their first child, John Theodore Olmsted, was born on June 13,1860, Olmsted had a significant career in journalism. In 1850 he traveled to England to visit gardens, where he was greatly impressed by Joseph Paxtons Birkenhead Park. He subsequently wrote and published Walks and Talks of an American Farmer in England in 1852 and this supported his getting additional work. Interested in the economy, he was commissioned by the New York Daily Times to embark on an extensive research journey through the American South. His dispatches to the Times were collected into three volumes which remain vivid first-person social documents of the pre-war South. A one-volume abridgment, Journeys and Explorations in the Cotton Kingdom, was published during the first six months of the American Civil War at the suggestion of Olmsteds English publisher. To this he wrote a new introduction in which he stated explicitly his views on the effect of slavery on the economy and my own observation of the real condition of the people of our Slave States, gave me. He argued that slavery had made the slave states inefficient and backward both economically and socially, the citizens of the cotton States, as a whole, are poor. They work little, and that little, badly, they earn little, they sell little, they buy little and their destitution is not material only, it is intellectual and it is moral
27.
Lyman Estate
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The Lyman Estate, also known as The Vale, is a historic country house located at 185 Lyman Street, Waltham, Massachusetts. It is now owned by the nonprofit Historic New England organization, the grounds are open to the public daily for free, an admission fee is required for the house. The estate was established in 1793 by Boston merchant Theodore Lyman on 400 acres of grounds and it consisted originally of the mansion and its lawns, gardens, greenhouses, woodlands, a deer park, and a working farm. Today the grounds contain a number of trees, a 600-foot brick peach wall. The fine Federal style mansion, of 24 rooms, was designed by Salem architect Samuel McIntire and its grand ballroom, with high ceiling, decorative frieze, large windows, and marble fireplace, was used for formal parties. A smaller oval room was used for family gatherings, mcIntires design was substantially altered during an expansion of the building in 1882 to designs by Richardson, Hartwell and Driver. The estates first greenhouse was constructed before 1800 and is thought to be the oldest in the United States. The Grape House, built in 1804 to raise exotic fruits such as oranges, pineapples, the Camellia House was built around 1820 for cultivation of camellias, introduced to America via Europe in 1797 from coastal China, Japan, and Korea. Many of the Lyman camellias are more than 100 years old, the greenhouses are open to the public. The estate was one of the locations for the 1979 Merchant Ivory film adaptation of Henry James novel The Europeans
28.
Theodore Lyman
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Theodore Lyman was a U. S. physicist and spectroscopist, born in Boston. He graduated from Harvard in 1897, from which he received his Ph. D. in 1900. He became an assistant professor in physics at Harvard, where he remained, becoming professor in 1917. During World War I he served in France with the American Expeditionary Force and he was the eponym of the Lyman series of spectral lines. The crater Lyman on the far side of the Moon is named after him and he was awarded the Franklin Institutes Elliott Cresson Medal in 1931. He became a member of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States in succession to his father. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds. article name needed, USGS Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature Feature Information 1931 Frederic Ives Medal National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
29.
Waltham Model 1857
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The Waltham Model 1857 is a watch made by the American Watch Company, later called the Waltham Watch Company in Waltham, Massachusetts. The Model 1857 was first made in 1857, prior to that year, pocket watches were not made of standard parts and repairing and making the watches was difficult and expensive. The American Watch Company created and marketed the first successful industrialized watch, in the spring of 1857, the Boston Watch Company did not have enough money to stay running and was forced into insolvency. Most of the Model 57 pocket watches were in coin silver and this watch is now in the collection of the National Museum of American History at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC. The majority of 1857 model Waltham movements are keywind from the rear, a small amount of the total production of 1857 model movements were fitted with a stemwind mechanism from the factory. The earliest stemwind 1857 movements were fitted with no reversing clutch on the stem, and had no setting mechanism. Later stemwind movements were lever setting, with a design of set lever which pivoted out from the movement rather than pulling out. Later 1857 movements also added a reversing clutch, a feature ubiquitous on all subsequent Waltham stemwind watches, all stemwind 1857 movements have the winding stem located at 3,00. Some stemwind 1857 movements were fitted with a screw which could be used to lock the winding click into the off position to allow the mainspring to be let down. This feature can be identified as a small head on the barrel bridge with the word patent next to it. Surviving 1857 model movements also occasionally turn up fitted with an Abbots patent stemwind conversion
30.
Watch
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A watch is a small timepiece intended to be carried or worn by a person. It is designed to keep working despite the motions caused by the persons activities, a wristwatch is designed to be worn around the wrist, attached by a watch strap or other type of bracelet. A pocket watch is designed for a person to carry in a pocket, watches evolved in the 17th century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th century. During most of its history the watch was a device, driven by clockwork, powered by winding a mainspring. In the 1960s the electronic quartz watch was invented, which was powered by a battery, by the 1980s the quartz watch had taken over most of the market from the mechanical watch. Today most inexpensive and medium-priced watches, used mainly for timekeeping, have quartz movements, various extra features, called complications, such as moon-phase displays and the different types of tourbillon, are sometimes included. Modern watches often display the day, date, month and year, time-related features such as timers, chronographs and alarm functions are common. Some modern designs incorporate calculators, GPS and Bluetooth technology or have heart-rate monitoring capabilities, some watches use radio clock technology to regularly correct the time. Developments in the 2010s include smartwatches, which are elaborate computer-like electronic devices designed to be worn on a wrist and they generally incorporate timekeeping functions, but these are only small fractions of what the smartwatch can do. The study of timekeeping is known as horology, watches evolved from portable spring-driven clocks, which first appeared in 15th century Europe. Watches werent widely worn in pockets until the 17th century, one account says that the word watch came from the Old English word woecce which meant watchman, because it was used by town watchmen to keep track of their shifts at work. Another says that the term came from 17th century sailors, who used the new mechanisms to time the length of their shipboard watches, the increased accuracy of the balance wheel focused attention on errors caused by other parts of the movement, igniting a two-century wave of watchmaking innovation. The first thing to be improved was the escapement, the verge escapement was replaced in quality watches by the cylinder escapement, invented by Thomas Tompion in 1695 and further developed by George Graham in the 1720s. The British had predominated in watch manufacture for much of the 17th and 18th centuries, aaron Lufkin Dennison started a factory in 1851 in Massachusetts that used interchangeable parts, and by 1861 it was running a successful enterprise incorporated as the Waltham Watch Company. The concept of the wristwatch goes back to the production of the very earliest watches in the 16th century, elizabeth I of England received a wristwatch from Robert Dudley in 1571, described as an arm watch. The oldest surviving wristwatch is one made in 1806 and given to Joséphine de Beauharnais, from the beginning, wrist watches were almost exclusively worn by women, while men used pocket-watches up until the early 20th century. The Garstin Company of London patented a Watch Wristlet design in 1893, officers in the British Army began using wristwatches during colonial military campaigns in the 1880s, such as during the Anglo-Burma War of 1885. In continental Europe Girard-Perregaux and other Swiss watch makers began supplying German naval officers with wrist watches in about 1880 and these early models were essentially standard pocket-watches fitted to a leather strap but, by the early 20th century, manufacturers began producing purpose-built wristwatches
31.
Brass Era car
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The Brass Era is an American term for the early period of automotive manufacturing, named for the prominent brass fittings used during this time for such things as lights and radiators. It is generally considered to encompass 1896 through 1915, a time when vehicles were often referred to as horseless carriages. Within the 20 years that make up this era, the experimental designs. This system specified front-engined, rear-wheel drive internal combustion engined cars with a sliding gear transmission, in the early part of this period steam car development had advanced, and they were among the fastest road vehicles in that period. Electric cars also held a market throughout the era. Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the worlds attention, key developments included the electric ignition system, independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes. Leaf springs were used for suspension, though many other systems were still in use. Safety glass also made its debut, patented by John Wood in England in 1905, angle steel took over from armored wood as the frame material of choice, and in 1912, Hupp pioneered the use of all-steel bodies, joined in 1914 by Dodge. In January,1904, Frank Leslies Popular Monthly magazine catalogued the entire range of available to the mass market in the United States. In both instances, however, the great majority faded out of the once the industry had become firmly established. As late as 1917, there were 127 different makes of American automobiles on the market, a great many more names, including Brush, Duryea, Alco, Speedwell, and Waverly, had already disappeared from the scene by 1917. Sixty Years with Men and Machines, New York and London, McGraw-Hill, available as a reprint from Lindsay Publications. Csere, Csaba,10 Best Engineering Breakthroughs, Car and Driver,33, cars, 1886–1930, New York, Beekman House, distributed by Crown, ISBN 0-517-48073-5
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Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
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Cavity magnetron
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The cavity magnetron is a high-powered vacuum tube that generates microwaves using the interaction of a stream of electrons with a magnetic field while moving past a series of open metal cavities. Electrons pass by the openings to these cavities and cause radio waves to oscillate within, the frequency of the microwaves produced, the resonant frequency, is determined by the cavities physical dimensions. An early form of magnetron was invented by H. Gerdien in 1910, another form of magnetron tube, the split-anode magnetron, was invented by Albert Hull in 1920, but it wasnt capable of high frequencies and was of little use. Similar devices were experimented with by many teams through the 1920s and 1930s, the cavity magnetron tube was later improved by John Randall and Harry Boot in 1940 at the University of Birmingham, England. The compact cavity magnetron tube drastically reduced the size of radar sets so that they could be easily installed in night-fighter aircraft, anti-submarine aircraft. In the post-war era the magnetron became less used in the radar role. This was because the output changes from pulse to pulse. This makes the signal unsuitable for pulse-to-pulse comparisons, which is used for detecting and removing clutter from the radar display. The magnetron remains in use in some radars, but has much more common as a low-cost microwave source for microwave ovens. In this form, approximately one billion magnetrons are in use today, in a conventional electron tube, electrons are emitted from a negatively charged, heated component called the cathode and are attracted to a positively charged component called the anode. The idea of using a grid for control was patented by Lee de Forest, one concept used a magnetic field instead of an electrical charge to control current flow, leading to the development of the magnetron tube. In this design, the tube was made with two electrodes, typically with the cathode in the form of a rod in the center. The tube was placed between the poles of a horseshoe magnet arranged such that the field was aligned parallel to the axis of the electrodes. With no magnetic field present, the tube operates as a diode, in the presence of the magnetic field, the electrons will experience a force at right angles to their direction of motion, according to the left-hand rule. In this case, the electrons follow a path between the cathode and anode. The curvature of the path can be controlled by varying either the field, using an electromagnet. At very high magnetic field settings the electrons are forced back onto the cathode, at the opposite extreme, with no field, the electrons are free to flow straight from the cathode to the anode. There is a point between the two extremes, the value or Hull cut-off magnetic field, where the electrons just reach the anode
34.
Raytheon
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The Raytheon Company is a major U. S. defense contractor and industrial corporation with core manufacturing concentrations in weapons and military and commercial electronics. It was previously involved in corporate and special-mission aircraft until early 2007, Raytheon is the worlds largest producer of guided missiles. Established in 1922, the company reincorporated in 1928 and adopted its present name in 1959, the company has around 63,000 employees worldwide and annual revenues of approximately US$25 billion. More than 90% of Raytheons revenues were obtained from military contracts and, as of 2012, as of 2015, it is the third largest defense contractor in the United States by defense revenue. Raytheons headquarters moved from Lexington, Massachusetts, to Waltham, Massachusetts and its focus, which was originally on new refrigeration technology, soon shifted to electronics. The companys first product was a rectifier that was based on Charles Smiths earlier astronomical research of the star Zeta Puppis. The electron tube was christened with the name Raytheon and was used in a battery eliminator and this made it possible to convert household alternating current to direct current for radios and thus eliminate the need for expensive, short-lived batteries. In 1925, the changed its name to Raytheon Manufacturing Company and began marketing its rectifier, under the Raytheon brand name. In 1928 Raytheon merged with Q. R. S, Company, an American manufacturer of electron tubes and switches, to form the successor of the same name, Raytheon Manufacturing Company. In 1933 it diversified by acquiring Acme-Delta Company, a producer of transformers, power equipment, by the 1930s, it had already grown to become one of the worlds largest vacuum tube manufacturing companies. Within a few months of being awarded the contract, Raytheon had already begun to mass manufacture magnetron tubes for use in radar sets, at wars end in 1945 the company was responsible for about 80 percent of all magnetrons manufactured. During the war Raytheon also pioneered the production of radar systems. Raytheon ranked 71st among United States corporations in the value of World War II military production contracts, Raytheons research on the magnetron tube revealed the potential of microwaves to cook food. In 1945, Raytheons Percy Spencer invented the microwave oven by discovering that the magnetron could rapidly heat food, in 1947, the company demonstrated the Radarange microwave oven for commercial use. In 1945, the company expanded its electronics capability through acquisitions that included the Submarine Signal Company, with its broadened capabilities, Raytheon developed the first guidance system for a missile that could intercept a flying target. In 1948, Raytheon began to manufacture guided missiles, in 1950, its Lark missile became the first such weapon to destroy a target aircraft in flight. Raytheon then received military contracts to develop the air-to-air Sparrow and ground-to-air Hawk missiles—projects that received impetus from the Korean War, in later decades, it remained a major producer of missiles, among them the Patriot antimissile missile and the air-to-air Phoenix missile. In the same year, it changed its name to Raytheon Company, in the 1950s, Raytheon began manufacturing transistors, including the CK722, priced and marketed to hobbyists
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Walter E. Fernald Developmental Center
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The Walter E. Fernald State School, later the Walter E. Fernald Developmental Center, was the Western hemispheres oldest publicly funded institution serving people with developmental disabilities. Originally a Victorian sanatorium, it became a child for the American eugenics movement during the 1920s. It later was the scene of medical experiments in the 20th century, investigations into this research led to new regulations regarding human research in children. The school occupies a 186 acres property off Trapelo Road in Waltham, the school eventually comprised 72 buildings total, located on 196 acres. At its peak, some 2,500 people were confined there, under its third superintendent, Walter E. Fernald, an advocate of eugenics, the school was viewed as a model educational facility in the field of mental retardation. It was renamed in his honor in 1925, following his death the previous year, the institution was involved in several different procedures that used the residents as test subjects some of which include sterilization and radiation experimentation. The institution did serve a population of mentally retarded children. In the 20th century, living conditions were spartan or worse, there were also reports of physical and sexual abuse. A result for Fernald residents of the class action suit which took effect in 1993 was the provision of a level of care, regardless of cost, to compensate for decades of neglect. Remaining residents were successfully integrated into community services or other state-operated programs, the Fernald School was the site of the 1946–53 joint experiments by Harvard University and MIT that exposed young male children to tracer doses of radioactive isotopes. Documents obtained in 1994 by the United States Department of Energy revealed the following details, MIT Professor of Nutrition Robert S. Harris led the experiment, which studied the absorption of calcium and iron. The boys were encouraged to join a Science Club, which offered larger portions of food, parties, the 57 club members ate iron-enriched cereals and calcium-enriched milk for breakfast. In order to track absorption, several radioactive calcium tracers were given orally or intravenously, radiation levels in stool and blood samples would serve as dependent variables. In another study,17 subjects received iron supplement shots containing radioisotopes of iron, neither the children nor their parents ever gave adequate informed consent for participation in a scientific study. The second study, which involved a series of seventeen related subexperiments and it is clear that the doses involved were low and that it is extremely unlikely that any of the children who were used as subjects were harmed as a consequence. These studies remain morally troubling, however, for several reasons, second, there is the question of the fairness of selecting institutionalized children at all, children whose life circumstances were by any standard already heavily burdened. It has been claimed that the highest dose of radiation that any subject was exposed to was 330 millirem the equivalent of less than one years background radiation in Denver. A1995 class-action suit resulted in a 1998 District court decision awarding the victims a $1.85 million settlement from MIT, the school also participated in studies of thyroid function in patients with Down Syndrome and their parents
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Grove Hill Cemetery
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The Grove Hill Cemetery is a historic cemetery at 290 Main Street in Waltham, Massachusetts. Established in 1703, the cemetery was Walthams only cemetery until 1857 and it was authorized in 1703, but its initial 2. 3-acre parcel of land was not purchased until 1704. The first documented burial, however, took place in November 1703, the northwest section of the cemetery is its oldest portion, and includes a number of unmarked gravesites. The cemetery continues in use today, and contains a representative sample of funerary art spanning 300 years. It now covers more than 9 acres, extending between Main and Grove Streets and its main entrance features posts with an Egyptian Revival theme, a style continued with the presence of obelisks dispersed on the grounds. The cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1989, National Register of Historic Places listings in Waltham, Massachusetts
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Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Cambridge is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and is a part of the Boston metropolitan area. According to the 2010 Census, the population was 105,162. As of July 2014, it was the fifth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Cambridge was one of the two seats of Middlesex County prior to the abolition of county government in 1997, Lowell was the other. The site for what would become Cambridge was chosen in December 1630, because it was located safely upriver from Boston Harbor, Thomas Dudley, his daughter Anne Bradstreet, and her husband Simon, were among the first settlers of the town. The first houses were built in the spring of 1631, the settlement was initially referred to as the newe towne. Official Massachusetts records show the name capitalized as Newe Towne by 1632, the original village site is in the heart of todays Harvard Square. In the late 19th century, various schemes for annexing Cambridge itself to the city of Boston were pursued and rejected, in 1636, the Newe College was founded by the colony to train ministers. Newe Towne was chosen for the site of the college by the Great and General Court primarily—according to Cotton Mather—to be near the popular, in May 1638 the name of the settlement was changed to Cambridge in honor of the university in Cambridge, England. Hooker and Shepard, Newtownes ministers, and the colleges first president, major benefactor, in 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston, which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university. It was Governor Thomas Dudley who, in 1650, signed the charter creating the corporation which still governs Harvard College, Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the capital of the colony. By the American Revolution, most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Coming up from Virginia, George Washington took command of the volunteer American soldiers camped on Cambridge Common on July 3,1775, most of the Tory estates were confiscated after the Revolution. On January 24,1776, Henry Knox arrived with artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga, a second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new Middlesex Canal. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and marshland into prime industrial and residential districts, in the mid-19th century, Cambridge was the center of a literary revolution when it gave the country a new identity through poetry and literature. Cambridge was home to some of the famous Fireside Poets—so called because their poems would often be read aloud by families in front of their evening fires, the Fireside Poets—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes—were highly popular and influential in their day. Cambridge was incorporated as a city in 1846, the citys commercial center began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the downtown of the city around this time. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three changes in the city, the development of massive brickyards and brickworks between Massachusetts Ave. For many decades, the citys largest employer was the New England Glass Company, by the middle of the 19th century it was the largest and most modern glassworks in the world
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Newton, Massachusetts
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Newton is a suburban city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. Rather than having a city center, Newton resembles a patchwork of thirteen villages. According to the 2010 U. S. Census, the population of Newton was 85,146, Newtons proximity to Boston along with its historic homes, good public schools, and safe and quiet neighborhoods make it a desirable community for those who commute to Boston. Newton is served by three modes of transit run by the MBTA, light rail, commuter rail. Newton has been ranked as one of the best cities to live in in the country. In August 2012, Money magazine named Newton fourth best small city among places to live in America and has named the safest city in the country according to Aneki. Newton was settled in 1630 as part of the newe towne, there are several historical sites of interest in the Newton area. These include Crystal Lake, the East Parish and West Parish Burying Grounds, and the Jackson Homestead, historian and local resident Diana Muir has written about the history surrounding Bulloughs Pond, a scene from the 2008 production of The Women was also filmed there. Portions of the 2016 drama film Patriots Day, about the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing and starring Boston native Mark Wahlberg, were filmed at Lasell College in the city, Newton was settled in 1630 as part of the newe towne, which was renamed Cambridge in 1638. Newton was incorporated as a town, known as Cambridge Village, in 1688, then renamed Newtown in 1691. It became a city in 1873, Newton is known as The Garden City. Newton, according to Muir, became one of Americas earliest commuter suburbs, the Boston and Worcester, one of Americas earliest railroads, reached West Newton in 1834. Wealthy Bostonian businessmen took advantage of the new commuting opportunity offered by the railroad, building homes on erstwhile farmland of West Newton hill. Muir points out that these early commuters needed sufficient wealth to employ a groom and keep horses, one wave began with the streetcar lines that made many parts of Newton accessible for commuters in the late nineteenth century. The next wave came in the 1920s when automobiles became affordable to a upper middle class. Even then, however, Oak Hill continued to be farmed, mostly market gardening, Newton is not a typical commuter suburb since many people who live in Newton do not work in downtown Boston. Most Newtonites work in Newton and other surrounding cities and towns, the city has two symphony orchestras, the New Philharmonia Orchestra of Massachusetts and the Newton Symphony Orchestra. Each April on Patriots Day, the Boston Marathon is run through the city and it then turns right onto Route 30 for the long haul into Boston
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