1.
Bennelong
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Woollarawarre Bennelong was a senior man of the Eora, an Aboriginal people of the Port Jackson area, at the time of the first British settlement in Australia, in 1788. Bennelong served as an interlocutor between the Eora and the British, both in Sydney and in the United Kingdom and he had several sisters, including Warreeweer and Carangarang, who married important men from nearby clans, thereby creating political links for their brother. Bennelong had a daughter named Dilboong who died in infancy, and a son who was adopted by the Rev. William Walker, Thomas died after a short illness aged about 20. At that time the Eora conscientiously avoided contact with the newcomers, a man named Arabanoo was captured, but he, like many other Aboriginal people near the settlement, died in a smallpox epidemic a few months later in May 1789. Bennelong was captured with Colbee in December 1789 as part of Phillips plan to learn the language and customs of the local people. His age, at the time of his capture, was estimated at 25 and his appetite was such that the ration of a week was insufficient to have kept him for a day, and love and war seemed his favourite pursuits. Colbee soon escaped, but Bennelong stayed in the settlement for about six months and he then escaped also, but renewed contact with Phillip as a free man. About three months after his escape, he organised for Phillip to visit Manly where he was speared in the shoulder and he maintained ongoing good relations with the colony and in a gesture of kinship, gave Phillip the Aboriginal name Wolawaree. In 1790, Bennelong asked the governor to build him a hut on what became known as Bennelong Point, Bennelong and also another Aborigine named Yemmerrawanne travelled with Phillip on Atlantic to England in 1792. Many historians have claimed that they were presented to King George III, soon after their arrival in England they were hurriedly made clothes that would have been suitable for their presentation to the King. Jack Brook reconstructs some of their activities from the expense claims lodged with the government and they visited St Pauls Cathedral and the Tower of London. A boat was hired, and they went bathing, Yemmerrawanne died while in Britain after a serious chest infection, and Bennelongs health deteriorated. He returned to Sydney in February 1795 on HMS Reliance, the ship that took surgeon George Bass to the colony for the first time and he taught Bass some of his language on the voyage. Bennelong arrived back in Sydney on 7 September 1795 and he returned to a respected position in the colony, advising Governor Hunter as he had advised and educated Phillip, and also returned to a prominent position in Eora political and cultural life. He frequently participated in battles, and officiated at ceremonies. By the early 18th century, he was the leader of a 100-strong clan living on the side of the river to the west of Kissing Point in Wallumedagal country. He died at Kissing Point, in Sydneys North West) on January 1813, and was buried in the orchard of the brewer James Squire, a great friend to Bennelong and his clan. On 20 March 2011 Dr Peter Mitchell of Macquarie University announced that he had located the grave site in the garden of a private house in present-day Putney
2.
Arthur Phillip
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Admiral Arthur Phillip RN was a Royal Navy officer and the first Governor of New South Wales who founded the British penal colony that later became the city of Sydney, Australia. After much experience at sea, Phillip sailed with the First Fleet as Governor-designate of the proposed British penal colony of New South Wales, in January 1788, he selected its location to be Port Jackson. Phillip was a governor who soon saw that New South Wales would need a civil administration. But his plan to bring skilled tradesmen on the voyage had been rejected and his friendly attitude towards the aborigines was also sorely tested when they killed his gamekeeper, and he was not able to assert a clear policy about them. Phillip retired in 1805, but continued to correspond with his friends in New South Wales, Arthur Phillip was born on 11 October 1738, the younger of two children to Jacob Phillip and Elizabeth Breach. His father Jacob was born in Frankfurt, Germany and he was a languages teacher who may also have served in the Royal Navy as an able seaman and pursers steward. His mother Elizabeth was the widow of a seaman, John Herbert. At the time of Arthur Phillips birth, his family maintained a modest existence as tenants near Cheapside in the City of London, there are no surviving records of Phillips early childhood. His father Jacob died in 1739, after which the Phillip family may have fallen on hard times, on 22 June 1751 he was accepted into the Greenwich Hospital School, a charity school for the sons of indigent seafarers. In keeping with the curriculum, his education was focused on literacy, arithmetic and navigational skills. He was a competent student and something of a perfectionist and his headmaster, Rev. Francis Swinden observed that in personality, Phillip was unassuming, reasonable, business-like to the smallest degree in everything he undertakes. Phillip remained at the Greenwich School for two and a half years, considerably longer than the student stay of twelve months. At the end of 1753 he was granted a seven-year indenture as an apprentice aboard Fortune and he left the Greenwich School on 1 December and spent the winter aboard Fortune awaiting the commencement of the 1754 whaling season. Phillip spent the summer of 1754 hunting whales near Svalbard in the Barents Sea, as an apprentice, his responsibilities included stripping blubber from whale carcasses and helping to pack it into barrels. Food was scarce and Fortunes thirty crew members supplemented their diet with eggs, scurvy grass. The ship returned to England on 20 July 1754, the whaling crew were paid off and replaced with twelve sailors for a winter voyage to the Mediterranean. As an apprentice, Phillip remained aboard as Fortune undertook a trading voyage to Barcelona and Livorno carrying salt and raisins, returning via Rotterdam with a cargo of grains. The ship returned to England in April 1755 and sailed immediately for Svalbard for that years whale hunt, Phillip was still a member of the crew, but abandoned his apprenticeship when the ship returned to England on 27 July
3.
Aboriginal Australians
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Aboriginal Australians are legally defined as people who are members of the Aboriginal race of Australia. Until the 1980s, the legal and administrative criterion for inclusion in this category was race. In the era of colonial and post-colonial government, access to human rights depended upon your race. If you were a full blooded Aboriginal native, the Constitution of Australia, in its original form as of 1901, referred to Aboriginals twice, but without definition. Section 51 gave the Commonwealth parliament power to legislate with respect to the people of any throughout the Commonwealth. The purpose of this provision was to give the Commonwealth power to regulate non-white immigrant workers, the only other reference, Section 127, provided simply that aboriginal natives shall not be counted in reckoning the size of the population of the Commonwealth or any part of it. The purpose of section 127 was to prevent the inclusion of Aboriginal people in section 24 determinations of the distribution of House of Representatives seats amongst the states and territories, after both of these references were removed by the 1967 referendum, the Australian Constitution had no references to Aboriginals. Since that time, there have been a number of proposals to amend the constitution to specifically mention Indigenous Australians, the change to Section 51 gave the Commonwealth parliament the power to make laws specifically with respect to Aboriginal peoples as a race. The case concerned an application of legislation that would preserve cultural heritage of Aboriginal Tasmanians and it was held that Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders, together or separately, and any part of either, could be regarded as a race for this purpose. As to the criteria for identifying a person as a member of such a race, Deane said, It is unnecessary, for the purposes of the present case, to consider the meaning to be given to the phrase people of any race in s.51. Plainly, the words have a wide and non-technical meaning, the phrase is, in my view, apposite to refer to all Australian Aboriginals collectively. Any doubt, which might otherwise exist in regard, is removed by reference to the wording of par. The phrase is also apposite to refer to any identifiable racial sub-group among Australian Aboriginals, while Deanes three-part definition reaches beyond the biological criterion to individuals self-identification, it has been criticised as continuing to accept the biological criterion as primary. It has been difficult to apply, both in each of its parts and as to the relations among the parts, biological descent has been a fall-back criterion. If it is to be used to refer to us as a group of people. This has just really crept up on us and we are very happy with our involvement with indigenous people around the world, on the international forum because theyre our brothers and sisters. But we do object to it being used here in Australia and her lecture offered a new perspective on the terms urban, traditional and of Indigenous descent as used to define and categorise Aboriginal Australians. She said, Not only are these categories inappropriate, they serve to divide us, governments insistence on categorising us with modern words like urban, traditional and of Aboriginal descent are really only replacing old terms half-caste and full-blood – based on our colouring
4.
Municipality of Strathfield
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The Strathfield Council is a local government area located in the inner west region of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Strathfield Council was incorporated in 1885, the Council area originally included the suburbs of Redmire, Homebush and Druitt Town. The name Strathfield was adopted as the name of the new council upon incorporation, in 1886, the suburb of Redmire was renamed Strathfield, as was the railway station. The area of Druitt Town became known as Strathfield South in the early 1890s, only Homebush survives as an original location name. Since that time, Strathfield has become an important multicultural centre, Strathfield Council currently comprises over 14. The Mayor of Strathfield Municipal Council is Cr. Andrew Soulos, aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 0. 3% of the population. The median age of people in the Strathfield Local Government Area was 33 years, Children aged 0 –14 years made up 16. 3% of the population and people aged 65 years and over made up 12. 0% of the population. Of people in the area aged 15 years and over,52. 3% were married and 7. 0% were either divorced or separated. Population growth in the Strathfield Local Government Area between the 2001 Census and the 2006 Census was 15. 14%, while in the subsequent five years to the 2011 Census, all Councillors are elected for a fixed four-year term of office. The Mayor is elected by the Councillors at the first meeting of the Council, in 1947 Homebush and Strathfield councils merged and part of Enfield was added in 1949. In 1992, a section of the part of the Municipality was transferred to the Auburn Council area. In return, the area of and between Boundary Creek and the line, occupied by the former Ford factory building, was transferred from Auburn to Strathfield Council. A2015 review of local government boundaries by the NSW Government Independent Pricing, the government proposed a merger of the Burwood, Canada Bay, and Strathfield Councils to form a new council with an area of 41 square kilometres and support a population of approximately 163,000. On 6 May Strathfield Council commenced legal action in the NSW Land, Strathfield Council was proclaimed on 2 June 1885 by the NSW Governor, Sir Augustus Loftus. The Council was incorporated following petitions by residents of the Redmire area to local government. This move was opposed by residents of Homebush and Druitt Town, possibly fearing the dominance of the more affluent, despite counter petitions, the Municipality was incorporated in 1885. Strathfield Council built the current Council Chambers in 1887, between 1885 and 1887 the Council operated from various private homes in Strathfield, pending the building of a permanent Council Chambers. Until 1923, when the current Strathfield Town Hall was built, on 20 December 2004, Strathfield councils mayor, Alfred Tsang stepped down over allegations of corruption
5.
Sydney
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Sydney /ˈsɪdni/ is the state capital of New South Wales and the most populous city in Australia and Oceania. Located on Australias east coast, the metropolis surrounds the worlds largest natural harbour, residents of Sydney are known as Sydneysiders. The Sydney area has been inhabited by indigenous Australians for at least 30,000 years, the first British settlers, led by Captain Arthur Phillip, arrived in 1788 to found Sydney as a penal colony, the first European settlement in Australia. Since convict transportation ended in the century, the city has transformed from a colonial outpost into a major global cultural. As at June 2016 Sydneys estimated population was 5,005,358, in the 2011 census,34 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, representing many different nationalities and making Sydney one of the most multicultural cities in the world. There are more than 250 different languages spoken in Sydney and about one-third of residents speak a language other than English at home and it is classified as an Alpha+ World City by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world. Ranked eleventh in the world for economic opportunity, Sydney has a market economy with strengths in finance, manufacturing. Its gross regional product was $337 billion in 2013, the largest in Australia, there is a significant concentration of foreign banks and multinational corporations in Sydney and the city is promoted as one of Asia Pacifics leading financial hubs. Its natural features include Sydney Harbour, the Royal National Park, man-made attractions such as the Sydney Opera House, Sydney Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge are also well known to international visitors. The first people to inhabit the now known as Sydney were indigenous Australians having migrated from northern Australia. Radiocarbon dating suggests human activity first started to occur in the Sydney area from around 30,735 years ago, the earliest British settlers called them Eora people. Eora is the term the indigenous used to explain their origins upon first contact with the British. Its literal meaning is from this place, prior to the arrival of the British there were 4,000 to 8,000 native people in Sydney from as many as 29 different clans. Sydney Cove from Port Jackson to Petersham was inhabited by the Cadigal clan, the principal language groups were Darug, Guringai, and Dharawal. The earliest Europeans to visit the area noted that the people were conducting activities such as camping and fishing, using trees for bark and food, collecting shells. Development has destroyed much of the citys history including that of the first inhabitants, there continues to be examples of rock art and engravings located in the protected Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park. The first meeting between the people and the British occurred on 29 April 1770 when Lieutenant James Cook landed at Botany Bay on the Kurnell Peninsula. He noted in his journal that they were confused and somewhat hostile towards the foreign visitors, Cook was on a mission of exploration and was not commissioned to start a settlement
6.
New South Wales
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New South Wales is a state on the east coast of Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria to the south and it has a coast line with the Tasman Sea on its east side. The Australian Capital Territory is an enclave within the state, New South Wales state capital is Sydney, which is also Australias most populous city. In March 2014, the population of New South Wales was 7.5 million. Just under two-thirds of the population,4.67 million. Inhabitants of New South Wales are referred to as New South Welshmen, the Colony of New South Wales was founded as a penal colony in 1788. It originally comprised a more than half of the Australian mainland with its western boundary set at 129th meridian east in 1825, in addition, the colony also included the island territories of New Zealand, Van Diemens Land, Lord Howe Island, and Norfolk Island. During the 19th century, most of the area was detached to form separate British colonies that eventually became New Zealand. However, the Swan River Colony has never administered as part of New South Wales. Lord Howe Island remains part of New South Wales, while Norfolk Island has become a federal Territory, as have the now known as the Australian Capital Territory. The prior inhabitants of New South Wales were the Aboriginal tribes who arrived in Australia about 40,000 to 60,000 years ago, before European settlement there were an estimated 250,000 Aboriginal people in the region. The Wodi Wodi people are the custodians of the Illawarra region of South Sydney. The Bundjalung people are the custodians of parts of the northern coastal areas. The European discovery of New South Wales was made by Captain James Cook during his 1770 survey along the eastern coast of the Dutch-named continent of New Holland. In his original journal covering the survey, in triplicate to satisfy Admiralty Orders, Cook first named the land New Wales, however, in the copy held by the Admiralty, he revised the wording to New South Wales. After years of chaos and anarchy after the overthrow of Governor William Bligh, macquaries legacy is still evident today. During the 19th century, large areas were separated to form the British colonies of Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria. Responsible government was granted to the New South Wales colony in 1855, following the Treaty of Waitangi, William Hobson declared British sovereignty over New Zealand in 1840
7.
Geomorphology
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Geomorphology is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features created by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near the Earths surface. Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology. This broad base of interests contributes to many styles and interests within the field. Earths surface is modified by a combination of processes that sculpt landscapes, and geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence. Many of these factors are strongly mediated by climate, the broad-scale topographies of the Earth illustrate this intersection of surface and subsurface action. Mountain belts are uplifted due to geologic processes, denudation of these high uplifted regions produces sediment that is transported and deposited elsewhere within the landscape or off the coast. On progressively smaller scales, similar ideas apply, where individual landforms evolve in response to the balance of additive processes, often, these processes directly affect each other, ice sheets, water, and sediment are all loads that change topography through flexural isostasy. Topography can modify the climate, for example through orographic precipitation. Many geomorphologists are particularly interested in the potential for feedbacks between climate and tectonics, mediated by geomorphic processes, in addition to these broad-scale questions, geomorphologists address issues that are more specific and/or more local. Fluvial geomorphologists focus on rivers, how they transport sediment, migrate across the landscape, cut into bedrock, respond to environmental and tectonic changes, and interact with humans. Soils geomorphologists investigate soil profiles and chemistry to learn about the history of a landscape and understand how climate, biota. Other geomorphologists study how hillslopes form and change, still others investigate the relationships between ecology and geomorphology. Because geomorphology is defined to comprise everything related to the surface of the Earth and its modification, geomorphologists use a wide range of techniques in their work. These may include fieldwork and field data collection, the interpretation of remotely sensed data, geochemical analyses, geomorphologists may rely on geochronology, using dating methods to measure the rate of changes to the surface. Practical applications of geomorphology include hazard assessment, river control and stream restoration, planetary geomorphology studies landforms on other terrestrial planets such as Mars. Indications of effects of wind, fluvial, glacial, mass wasting, meteor impact, tectonics and this effort not only helps better understand the geologic and atmospheric history of those planets but also extends geomorphological study of the Earth. Planetary geomorphologists often use Earth analogues to aid in their study of surfaces of other planets, other than some notable exceptions in antiquity, geomorphology is a relatively young science, growing along with interest in other aspects of the earth sciences in the mid-19th century. This section provides a brief outline of some of the major figures
8.
Ice age
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An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the temperature of Earths surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. Within a long-term ice age, individual pulses of cold climate are termed glacial periods, in the terminology of glaciology, ice age implies the presence of extensive ice sheets in both northern and southern hemispheres. In 1742 Pierre Martel, an engineer and geographer living in Geneva, two years later he published an account of his journey. He reported that the inhabitants of that valley attributed the dispersal of erratic boulders to the glaciers, later similar explanations were reported from other regions of the Alps. In 1815 the carpenter and chamois hunter Jean-Pierre Perraudin explained erratic boulders in the Val de Bagnes in the Swiss canton of Valais as being due to glaciers previously extending further. An unknown woodcutter from Meiringen in the Bernese Oberland advocated a similar idea in a discussion with the Swiss-German geologist Jean de Charpentier in 1834, comparable explanations are also known from the Val de Ferret in the Valais and the Seeland in western Switzerland and in Goethes scientific work. Such explanations could also be found in parts of the world. When the Bavarian naturalist Ernst von Bibra visited the Chilean Andes in 1849–1850, meanwhile, European scholars had begun to wonder what had caused the dispersal of erratic material. From the middle of the 18th century, some discussed ice as a means of transport, the Swedish mining expert Daniel Tilas was, in 1742, the first person to suggest drifting sea ice in order to explain the presence of erratic boulders in the Scandinavian and Baltic regions. In 1795, the Scottish philosopher and gentleman naturalist, James Hutton, two decades later, in 1818, the Swedish botanist Göran Wahlenberg published his theory of a glaciation of the Scandinavian peninsula. He regarded glaciation as a regional phenomenon, only a few years later, the Danish-Norwegian geologist Jens Esmark argued a sequence of worldwide ice ages. In a paper published in 1824, Esmark proposed changes in climate as the cause of those glaciations and he attempted to show that they originated from changes in Earths orbit. During the following years, Esmarks ideas were discussed and taken over in parts by Swedish, Scottish, at the University of Edinburgh Robert Jameson seemed to be relatively open to Esmarks ideas, as reviewed by Norwegian professor of glaciology Bjørn G. Andersen. Jamesons remarks about ancient glaciers in Scotland were most probably prompted by Esmark, in Germany, Albrecht Reinhard Bernhardi, a geologist and professor of forestry at an academy in Dreissigacker, since incorporated in the southern Thuringian city of Meiningen, adopted Esmarks theory. In a paper published in 1832, Bernhardi speculated about former polar ice caps reaching as far as the zones of the globe. When he read his paper before the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, most scientists remained sceptical, finally, Venetz convinced his friend Jean de Charpentier. De Charpentier transformed Venetzs idea into a theory with a limited to the Alps. In fact, both men shared the same volcanistic, or in de Charpentiers case rather plutonistic assumptions, about the Earths history, in 1834, de Charpentier presented his paper before the Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft
9.
Port Jackson
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Port Jackson, consisting of the waters of Sydney Harbour, Middle Harbour, North Harbour and the Lane Cove and Parramatta Rivers, is the ria or natural harbour of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. The harbour is an inlet of the Tasman Sea and it is the location of the Sydney Opera House and Sydney Harbour Bridge. The location of the first European settlement in Australia, Port Jackson has continued to play a key role in the history and development of Sydney. Many recreational events are based on or around the harbour itself particularly the Sydney New Years Eve celebrations, the waterways of Port Jackson are managed by the Roads & Maritime Services. Sydney Harbour National Park protects a number of islands and foreshore areas, swimming spots, bushwalking tracks, the land around Port Jackson was occupied at the time of the European arrival and colonisation by the Eora clans, including the Gadigal, Cammeraygal, and Wangal. The Gadigal occupied the land stretching along the side of Port Jackson from what is now South Head. The Cammeragal lived on the side of the harbour. The area along the banks of the Parramatta River to Rose Hill belonged to the Wangal. The Eora occupied Port Jackson, south to the Georges River, the first recorded European discovery of Sydney Harbour, was by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770 - Cook named the inlet after Sir George Jackson. His ships log notation states at noon we were. about 2 or 3 miles from the land, eighteen years later, on 21 January 1788, after arriving at Botany Bay, Governor Arthur Phillip took a longboat and two cutters up the coast to examine Cooks Port Jackson. Phillip first stayed over night at Camp Cove, then moved down the harbour, landing at Sydney Cove, Phillip returned to Sydney Cove in HM Armed Tender Supply on 26 January 1788, where he established the first colony in Australia, later to become the city of Sydney. From 1938, seaplanes landed in Sydney Harbour on Rose Bay, in 1942, to protect Sydney Harbour from a submarine attack, the Sydney Harbour anti-submarine boom net was constructed. It spanned the harbour from Green Point, Watsons Bay to the battery at Georges Head, on the night of 31 May 1942, three Japanese midget submarines entered the harbour, one of which became entangled in the western end of the boom nets central section. Unable to free their submarine, the crew detonated charges, killing themselves in the process, a second midget submarine came to grief in Taylors Bay, the two crew committing suicide. The third submarine fired two torpedoes at USS Chicago before leaving the harbour, in November 2006, this submarine was found off Sydneys Northern Beaches. The anti-submarine boom net was demolished soon after World War II, and all that remains are the foundations of the old boom net winch house, today, the Australian War Memorial has on display a composite of the two midget submarines salvaged from Sydney Harbour. The conning tower of one of the submarines is on display at the RAN Heritage Centre, Garden Island. Fort Denison is a former site and defensive facility occupying a small island located north-east of the Royal Botanic Gardens in Sydney Harbour
10.
Stream
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A stream is a body of water with a current, confined within a bed and banks. Streams are important as conduits in the cycle, instruments in groundwater recharge. The biological habitat in the vicinity of a stream is called a riparian zone. Given the status of the ongoing Holocene extinction, streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats, the study of streams and waterways in general is known as surface hydrology and is a core element of environmental geography. Brook A stream smaller than a creek, especially one that is fed by a spring or seep and it is usually small and easily forded. A brook is characterised by its shallowness and its bed being composed primarily of rocks, creek In North America, Australia and New Zealand, a small to medium-sized natural stream. Sometimes navigable by motor craft and may be intermittent, in parts of Maryland, New England, the UK and India, a tidal inlet, typically in a salt marsh or mangrove swamp, or between enclosed and drained former salt marshes or swamps. In these cases, the stream is the stream, the course of the seawater through the creek channel at low. River A large natural stream, which may be a waterway, runnel the linear channel between the parallel ridges or bars on a shoreline beach or river floodplain, or between a bar and the shore. Tributary A contributory stream, or a stream which does not reach the sea, sometimes also called a branch or fork. There are a number of names for a stream. Allt is used in Highland Scotland, beck is used in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Dumfriesshire, Cumbria, Norfolk, and Lincolnshire. Bourne or winterbourne is used in the chalk downland of southern England, brook is used in the Midlands, Lancashire and Cheshire. Burn is used in Scotland and North East England, gill or ghyll is seen in the north of England and other areas influenced by Old Norse. Rivulet is an term encountered in Victorian era publications, stream is used in Southern England. Syke is used in lowland Scotland and Cumbria for a seasonal stream, branch is used to name streams in Maryland and Virginia. Falls is also used to name streams in Maryland, for streams/rivers which have waterfalls on them, little Gunpowder Falls and The Jones Falls are actually rivers named in this manner, unique to Maryland. Kill in New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and New Jersey comes from a Dutch language word meaning riverbed or water channel, run in Ohio, Maryland, Michigan, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, or West Virginia can be the name of a stream
11.
River
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A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water, small rivers can be referred to using names such as stream, creek, brook, rivulet, and rill. There are no official definitions for the term river as applied to geographic features. Many names for small rivers are specific to geographic location, examples are run in parts of the United States, burn in Scotland and northeast England. Sometimes a river is defined as being larger than a creek, but not always, Rivers are part of the hydrological cycle. Potamology is the study of rivers while limnology is the study of inland waters in general. Extraterrestrial rivers of liquid hydrocarbons have recently found on Titan. Channels may indicate past rivers on other planets, specifically outflow channels on Mars and rivers are theorised to exist on planets, a river begins at a source, follows a path called a course, and ends at a mouth or mouths. The water in a river is confined to a channel. In larger rivers there is also a wider floodplain shaped by flood-waters over-topping the channel. Floodplains may be wide in relation to the size of the river channel. This distinction between river channel and floodplain can be blurred, especially in areas where the floodplain of a river channel can become greatly developed by housing. Rivers can flow down mountains, through valleys or along plains, the term upriver refers to the direction towards the source of the river, i. e. against the direction of flow. Likewise, the term describes the direction towards the mouth of the river. The term left bank refers to the bank in the direction of flow. The river channel typically contains a stream of water, but some rivers flow as several interconnecting streams of water. Extensive braided rivers are now found in only a few regions worldwide and they also occur on peneplains and some of the larger river deltas. Anastamosing rivers are similar to braided rivers and are quite rare
12.
John Hunter (Royal Navy officer)
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Vice Admiral John Hunter was an officer of the Royal Navy, who succeeded Arthur Phillip as the second governor of New South Wales, Australia and served as such from 1795 to 1800. Both a sailor and a scholar, he explored the Parramatta River as early as 1788, as governor, he tried to combat serious abuses by the military in the face of powerful local interests led by John MacArthur. Hunters name is commemorated in historic locations such as Hunter Valley and Hunter Street, as a boy Hunter was sent to live with an uncle in the town of Lynn in Norfolk, where, and also at Edinburgh, he received the classical education of the time. Hunter was sent to University of Edinburgh, but soon left it to join the navy as a servant to Thomas Knackston in HMS Grampus in May 1754. In 1755 he was enrolled as able seaman on HMS Centaur, became a midshipman and served on HMS Union, while aboard Neptune he was present at the Raid on Rochefort in 1757, and afterwards served during cruises off Brest in 1758 and the capture of Quebec in 1759. Serving aboard Neptune at this time as her first lieutenant was John Jervis, Hunter passed examinations and qualified for promotion to lieutenant in February 1760. He was not, however, appointed lieutenant until 1780, hood gave Hunter an acting-order as master in 1768, and after passing his exams with Trinity House in 1769, Hunter had the order confirmed. His first appointment was to the 28-gun HMS Carysfort for service in the West Indies, Hunter spent his time there making charts and plans of parts of the coast and of the Spanish fortifications at Havana, which he sent back to the Admiralty. Hunter served as master of HMS Intrepid in the East Indies between 1772 and 1775, after which he became master of HMS Kent, the Kent was at this time commanded by Captain John Jervis, Hunters companion from HMS Neptune. Jervis took Hunter with him to his command, HMS Foudroyant. Also serving aboard Foudroyant at this time was Evan Nepean, then the ships purser, but later a leading civil servant and First Secretary to the Admiralty. From Foudroyant Hunter was moved into HMS Eagle in 1776, at the request of Admiral Lord Howe, the American War of Independence having broken out, Hunter served under Howe for the duration of his time in command, acting virtually as master of the fleet. He was active in the Chesapeake raid and the expeditions on the Delaware, on Howes recall, by now out of favour with the Sandwich administration, Hunter was not able to have his request to be made lieutenant honoured. Instead he joined the 74-gun HMS Berwick as a volunteer in 1779, under her captain, There he received a commission from the commander in chief, Sir George Rodney. Hunter returned to England aboard the Berwick in 1781, and was present at the Battle of Dogger Bank on 5 August that year. Howe appointed him lieutenant of his flagship HMS Victory in 1782, and was advanced to first lieutenant by the time she took part in the relief of Gibraltar. Following these engagements Hunter was appointed to his first command, that of the 14-gun sloop HMS Marquis de Seignelay, the fleet was under the overall command of Commodore Arthur Phillip who was going out to found and be governor of the new colony of New South Wales. Hunter carried a dormant commission as successor to Phillip if he should have died or was absent, the expedition arrived in Port Jackson in January 1788
13.
Darling Harbour
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Darling Harbour is a harbour adjacent to the city centre of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. It is also a recreational and pedestrian precinct that is situated on western outskirts of the Sydney central business district. Originally named Long Cove, the locality extends northwards from Chinatown, Cockle Bay is just one of the waterways that makes up Darling Harbour, which opens north into the much larger Port Jackson. The precinct and its surroundings are administered independently of the local government area of the City of Sydney. Darling Harbour is named after Lieutenant-General Ralph Darling, who was Governor of New South Wales from 1825 to 1831, the area was originally known as Long Cove, but was generally referred to as Cockle Bay until 1826 when Governor Darling renamed it after himself. The name Cockle Bay has recently restored in reference to the headwaters of the harbour. It was originally part of the port of Sydney, including the Darling Harbour Railway Goods Yard. During the Great Depression, the part of Darling Harbour became known as The Hungry Mile. Much of the land had been the site of the NSW Railways central marshalling yards, the Sydney Convention and Exhibition Centre at Darling Harbour was a venue of the 2000 Summer Olympic Games and a key meeting venue of APEC Australia 2007. Darling Harbour is accessible via various modes of public transport, the precinct is served by the Dulwich Hill Line of Sydneys light rail network, with access via Paddys Markets, Convention, Exhibition and Pyrmont Bay stations. Ferry wharves including Darling Harbour and Pyrmont Bay provide access to the Inner Harbour ferry services to Circular Quay, the Goods Line is a park and pedestrian pathway connecting Darling Harbour to Railway Square and Central Station. The nearest train station is Town Hall, east Darling Harbour is part of a massive urban renewal development. Plans for the 18-hectare site include half business and residential developments, the state government of NSW declared plans for Globe Street, a street designed to become Australias and Asia Pacifics centre for corporate trade. The urban renewal development is not expected to be completed until 2020, east Darling Harbour will be known as Barangaroo. The Sydney Convention and Exhibition Centre site is being replaced by the new International Convention Centre Sydney, the passenger terminal is now in White Bay and the container terminal has also closed. The area was used for several events during World Youth Day 2008. Darling Harbour is the location of the residence on MTVs reality TV show, The Real World, Sydney. The house has a large Darling Harbour sign along its edge, 20th Century Foxs 1995 film Mighty Morphin Power Rangers, The Movie was shot in Sydney, and featured some scenes filmed in Darling Harbour
14.
Parramatta
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Parramatta is a suburb of Sydney, Australia,23 kilometres west of its central business district on the banks of the Parramatta River. Parramatta is the seat of the City of Parramatta, one of four cities within the Sydney metropolitan area. Parramatta, founded by the British in 1788, the year as Sydney, is the oldest inland European settlement in Australia. Since 2000, government agencies such as the New South Wales Police Force, Parramatta is a major business and commercial centre, and home to Westfield Parramatta, the ninth largest shopping centre in Australia. It is colloquially known as Parra, radiocarbon dating suggests human activity occurred in Parramatta from around 30,000 years ago. The Darug people who lived in the area before European settlement regarded the area as rich in food from the river, the Parramatta Eels Rugby League club chose their symbol as a result of this phenomenon. Parramatta was founded in 1788, the year as Sydney. As such, Parramatta is the second oldest city in Australia, during 1788, Governor Arthur Phillip had reconnoitred several places before choosing Parramatta as the most likely place for a successful large farm. Parramatta was the furthest navigable point inland on the Parramatta River and also the point at which the river became freshwater, as a settlement developed, Governor Phillip gave it the name Rose Hill after George Rose, Secretary for the British Treasury. In 1791 he changed the name to Parramatta, approximating the term used by the local Aboriginal people, a neighbouring suburb acquired the name Rose Hill. In an attempt to deal with the crisis, Phillip in 1789 granted a convict named James Ruse the land of Experiment Farm at Parramatta on the condition that he develop a viable agriculture. There, Ruse became the first person to grow grain in Australia. The Parramatta area was also the site of the pioneering of the Australian wool industry by John Macarthurs Elizabeth Farm in the 1790s, Philip Gidley Kings account of his visit to Parramatta on 9 April 1790 is one of the earliest descriptions of the area. Walking four miles with Governor Phillip to Prospect he saw undulating grassland interspersed with magnificent trees, Governor Arthur Phillip built a small house for himself on the hill of The Crescent. It was used as a retreat by Governors until the 1850s, the house, Old Government House, is currently a historic site and museum within Parramatta Park and is Australias oldest surviving public building. In 1803, another incident occurred in Parramatta, involving a convicted criminal named Joseph Samuel. Samuel was convicted of murder and sentenced to death by hanging, in the second attempt, the noose slipped off his neck. In the third attempt, the new rope broke, Governor King was summoned and pardoned Samuel, as the incident appeared to him to be divine intervention
15.
Eora
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Contact with the first white settlements bridgehead into Australia quickly devastated much of the population through epidemics of smallpox and other diseases. Their descendants live on, though the language, social system, way of life and traditions are mostly lost. The language spoken by the Eora has, since the time of R. H. Mathews, been called Dharuk, the Australian bush term bogey comes from a Port Jackson Dharuk root buugi-. In terms of boundaries, the Kuringgai lay to the north, on the Western edges were the Darug, and to the south, around Kundul were the Gwiyagal. Eora is used specifically of the people around the first area of settlement in Sydney. The generic term Eora generally is used with a wider denotation to embrace some 29 bands, which in turn constituted clans that spoke several distinct languages. Thus, Eora is used collectively to refer to all tribes in the area of the settlement area, the Guringai to the north, the Tharawal people to the south. These have been classified into the language groups. The sizes of bands, as opposed to clans, averaged around 50 members, -gal denominates the clan affixed to the place name. Muringong Camden Cattai Windsor Kurrajong Kurrajong Boo-bain-ora Wentworthville Mulgoa Penrith 4, dharawal South Gweagal Norongerragal Illawarra Threawal Tagary Wandeandegal The Cadigal people are the traditional owners of the inner Sydney city region. Their traditional land and waters are south of Port Jackson, stretching from South Head to Petersham, the people described by British settlers as the Eora people were probably Cadigal people, the Aboriginal tribe of the inner Sydney region in 1788 at the time of first European settlement. The Cadigal clan western boundary is approximately the Balmain peninsula, the traditional territory of the Wanegal people begins around Goat Island and runs west past Concord to what is now called Parramatta, and includes parts of Lane Cove River. The Cammeraygal peoples traditional territory is on the present-day lower North Shore of Port Jackson, the traditional Eora people were largely coastal dwellers and lived mainly from the produce of the sea. They were expert in navigation, fishing, cooking, and eating in the bays. The Eora people did not grow or plant crops, although the women picked herbs which were used in herbal remedies, the Eora placed a time limit on formal battles engaged in order to settle inter-tribal grievances. Such fights were regulated to begin late in the afternoon, the first contact occurred when James Cooks Endeavour anchored in Botany Bay. A drawing, thought recently to be the handiwork of the Polynesian navigator Turpaia who was on board Cooks ship, survives depicting Aboriginals in Botany Bay, around Kurnel. When the First Fleet of 1300 convicts, guards, and administrators arrived in January 1788, by early 1789 frequent remarks were made of great numbers of decomposed bodies of Eora natives which settlers and sailors came across on beaches, in coves and in the bays
16.
Dingo
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The dingo is a wild canine found in Australia. Its taxonomic status as a species remains debated. The dingo is the largest terrestrial predator in Australia, and plays an important role as an apex predator, however, the dingo is seen as a pest by livestock farmers due to attacks on animals. Conversely, their predation on rabbits, kangaroos and rats may be of benefit to graziers, for some Australians, the dingo is a cultural icon. The introduction of the dingo is seen by many as being responsible for thylacine extinction on the Australian mainland about two years ago, although a recent study challenges this view. Dingoes have a prominent role in the culture of Aboriginal Australians as a feature of stories and ceremonies, the dingos habitat ranges from deserts to grasslands and the edges of forests. Dingoes will normally make their dens in deserted rabbit holes and hollow logs close to a supply of water. Despite being an efficient hunter, it is listed as vulnerable to extinction, the name dingo comes from the Dharug language used by the Indigenous Australians of the Sydney area. It was used to describe their camp dogs during the first contact with Europeans, the variants include tin-go for a bitch, din-go for a dog, and wo-ri-gal for a big dog. The people of the Yarralin, Northern Territory region call those dingoes that live with them walaku, the taxonomic classification of the dingo remains both confused and debated. Nomenclature provides the name that is to be used for a taxon, in 1768, James Cook took command of a scientific voyage of discovery from Britain to New Holland, which was the name for Australia at that time. In 1770, his ship HMS Endeavour arrived in Botany Bay, the mission collected specimens and made notes for taking back to Britain. On return to Britain, Joseph Banks commissioned George Stubbs to produce paintings based on his observations, johann Friedrich Blumenbach gathered together a collection from the Cook voyage and was the first to classify the New Holland dog as Canis familiaris dingo. In 1793, the Dog of New South Wales was classified by Friedrich Meyer as Canis dingo, in 1947, a proposal was made to change this classification after it was discovered that the New Holland dog Canis antarticus had been specified a year earlier in a little-known work. Both Kerr and Meyer had based their classifications on the illustration of the Dog of New South Wales, the ICZN ruled that Canis antarticus be suppressed and that Canis dingo was the name to be used for the dingo in its Opinion 451. This name was entered on the ICZNs Official Lists and Indexes of Names in Zoology. A name entered onto the Official List of the ICZN is the available name and this is the scientific name for the dingo that appears on the Official Lists and Indexes of Names in Zoology of the ICZN. This ruling did not deter some zoologists from continuing to use the name Canis antarticus in later publications, however this name has now fallen out of use
17.
Woomera (spear-thrower)
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A woomera is a wooden Australian Aboriginal spear-throwing device. Similar to an atlatl, it is an extension of the arm that enables a spear to travel at a greater speed. The town of Woomera in South Australia, founded in 1947 as the home of the Anglo-Australian Long Range Weapons Establishment, is named after the spear thrower, the woomera is 2 to 3 feet in length. One end is 3 inches wide and possessing a hollow, curved cross-section not unlike an airfoil, the woomera was traditionally decorated with incised or painted designs that indicated belonging to a particular linguistic group that it may be returned to if found abandoned. Records show that the implement began to be used about 5000 years ago and it is still used today in some remote areas of Australia. Like spears and boomerangs, woomeras were traditionally used only by men, some woomeras, especially those used in the central and western Australian deserts, were multi-purpose tools. Often shaped like long narrow bowls, they could be used for carrying water-soaked vegetable matter as well as food items such as little lizards or seeds. Many woomeras had a stone cutting edge attached to the end of the handle with black gum from the triodia plant. This sharp tool had many uses, such as cutting up game or other food and wood and it is supposed that the woomera could be used as a shield for protection against spears and boomerangs. The woomera is held in one hand while the other places the butt of the spear on the woomeras hook. The woomera doubles the length of the arm, greatly increasing the velocity of the spear. Correcting for the animals lateral dodging is accomplished by tilting the wing-shape woomera during the throw for last-second corrections. The extra energy gained from the use has been calculated as four times that from a compound bow. Aboriginal technology A drawing of a woomera, from the book Boy Scouts Beyond the Seas, My World Tour by Sir Robert Baden-Powell,1913
18.
Wallaby
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A wallaby is a small- or mid-sized macropod found in Australia and New Guinea. They belong to the taxonomic family as kangaroos and sometimes the same genus. The term wallaby is an informal designation generally used for any macropod that is smaller than a kangaroo or wallaroo that has not been designated otherwise, there are 11 species of brush wallabies. Their head and body length is 45 to 105 cm and the tail is 33 to 75 cm long, the six named species of rock-wallabies live among rocks, usually near water, two species are endangered. The two species of hare-wallabies are small animals that have the movements and some of the habits of hares. Often called pademelons, the three species of scrub wallabies of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and Tasmania are small and stocky, with hind limbs. They are hunted for meat and fur, a similar species is the short-tailed scrub wallaby, or quokka, this species is now restricted to two offshore islands of Western Australia. The three named species of forest wallabies are native to the island of New Guinea, the dwarf wallaby is the smallest member of the genus and the smallest known member of the kangaroo family. Its length is about 46 cm from nose to tail, the name wallaby comes from Dharug walabi or waliba. Young wallabies are known as joeys, like many other marsupials, adult male wallabies are referred to as bucks, boomers, or jacks. An adult female wallaby is known as a doe, flyer, a group of wallabies is called a court, mob, or troupe. Forest-dwelling wallabies are known as pademelons and dorcopsises, although members of most wallaby species are small, some can grow up to approximately two metres in length. Their powerful hind legs are not only used for bounding at high speeds and jumping great heights, the Tammar wallaby has elastic storage in the ankle extensor tendons, without which the animal’s metabolic rate might be 30–50% greater. It has also found that the design of spring-like tendon energy savings. Wallabies also have a tail that is used mostly for balance. Wallabies are herbivores whose diet consists of a range of grasses, vegetables, leaves. Due to recent urbanization, many wallabies now feed in rural, wallabies cover vast distances for food and water, which is often scarce in their environment. Mobs of wallabies often congregate around the water hole during the dry season
19.
Wombat
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Wombats are short-legged, muscular quadrupedal marsupials that are native to Australia. They are about 1 m in length with small, stubby tails, there are three extant species and they are all members of the family Vombatidae. Though genetic studies of the Vombatidae have been undertaken, evolution of the family is not well understood, Wombats are estimated to have diverged from other Australian marsupials relatively early, as long as 40 million years ago, while some estimates place divergence at around 25 million years. Wombats dig extensive burrow systems with their front teeth and powerful claws. One distinctive adaptation of wombats is their backwards pouch, the advantage of a backwards-facing pouch is that when digging, the wombat does not gather soil in its pouch over its young. Although mainly crepuscular and nocturnal, wombats also venture out to feed on cool or overcast days and they are not commonly seen, but leave ample evidence of their passage, treating fences as minor inconveniences to be gone through or under, and leaving distinctive cubic faeces. Wombats are herbivores, their diets consist mostly of grasses, sedges, herbs, bark and their incisor teeth somewhat resemble those of the placental rodents, being adapted for gnawing tough vegetation. Like many other mammals, they have a large diastema between their incisors and the cheek teeth, which are relatively simple. The dental formula of wombats is 1.0.1.41.0.1. 4 × 2 =24, Wombats fur can vary from a sandy colour to brown, or from grey to black. All three known extant species average around a metre in length and weigh between 20 and 35 kg. Female wombats give birth to a young in the spring, after a gestation period. They have well-developed pouches, which the young leave after six to seven months. Wombats are weaned after 15 months, and are mature at 18 months. A group of wombats is known as a wisdom, a mob, Wombats typically live up to 15 years in the wild, but can live past 20 and even 30 years in captivity. The longest-lived captive wombat lived to 34 years of age, the oldest known living wombat, Patrick from Ballarat Wildlife Park, turned 31 years old in 2016. Wombats have a slow metabolism, taking around eight to 14 days to complete digestion. When threatened, however, they can reach up to 40 km/h, Wombats defend home territories centred on their burrows, and they react aggressively to intruders. The common wombat occupies a range of up to 23 ha, while the species have much smaller ranges
20.
Waratah
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Waratah is an Australian-endemic genus of five species of large shrubs or small trees, native to the southeastern parts of Australia. The most well-known species in genus is Telopea speciosissima, which has bright red flowers and is the NSW state emblem. The waratah is a member of the plant family Proteaceae, a family of flowering plants distributed in the Southern Hemisphere. The key diagnostic feature of Proteaceae is the inflorescence, which is very large, brightly coloured and showy. Species of waratah boast such inflorescences ranging from 6–15 cm in diameter with a ring of coloured bracts. The leaves are arranged, 10–20 cm long and 2–3 cm broad with entire or serrated margins. The name waratah comes from the Eora Aboriginal people, the inhabitants of the Sydney area. The genus Telopea is belongs to the plant family Proteaceae, together they make up the subtribe Embothriinae. The genus was first described by Robert Brown in 1810 from the type species Telopea speciosissima, there are five species of plant within the genus, all of which readily hybridize in cultivation. There are two branches, with one being the species pair of T. speciosissima and T. aspera, with the other lineage giving rise to T. truncata first, then T. oreades. The speciosissima-aspera lineage has two synapomorphies—distinguishing common characteristics presumed not present in ancestors—leaves with toothed margins, and large red involucral bracts, the genus Waratah contains five species, Species grow as either large shrubs or small trees with spirally arranged leaves with either entire or serrated margins. The natural distributions of the five species of Telopea are all confined to east coast regions from northern New South Wales to Tasmania, each of the species has its own distinctive natural distribution with minimal or no overlap. Climatic changes may have restricted the expansion of species distribution or led to its isolation in a particular region, however, waratahs can also grow outside of these natural distribution areas. Cultivation mostly occurs north of Sydney and in the Dandenong Ranges, T. speciosissima has also been grown successfully in areas not on the map. In Australia these areas include south-west Western Australia, the Queensland coast, overseas, New Zealand, the USA, South Africa and Israel are all also able to grow waratah with varying degrees of success. It was introduced to England in 1789 but cannot survive English winters out of doors except in the south-west coastal regions, for some time the waratah has had a reputation as difficult plant. It has a culture and for many years there have been cases of people trying to establish the plant only to have the attempt fail. Failures can usually be attributed to the effects of soil conditions
21.
Strathfield, New South Wales
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Strathfield is a suburb in the Inner West of Sydney, Australia. It is located 12 kilometres west of the Sydney central business district and is the centre of the Strathfield Local Government Area. A small section of the north of the railway line sits in the local government area of the City of Canada Bay. North Strathfield and Strathfield South are separate suburbs, to the north and south respectively, the Strathfield district was originally occupied by the Wangal Indigenous Australians tribe. European settlement commenced in 1793 with the issue of land grants, in 1808, a grant was made to James Wilshire, which forms the largest part of the current suburb of Strathfield. In 1867, this grant was subdivided and sold as the Redmire Estate, by 1885, sufficient numbers of people resided in the district to enable incorporation of its own local government. The suburb of Redmire was renamed Strathfield c.1886, the suburb was named after a house called Strathfield House, which was originally called Stratfield Saye. In 1885, Strathfield Council was incorporated, James Wilshire was granted 243 acres of land by Governor Macquarie in 1808 following representations from Lord Nelson, a relation by marriage of Wilshire. Ownership was transferred in 1824 to ex-convict Samuel Terry, the land became known as the Redmire Estate, which Michael Jones says could either be named after his home town in Yorkshire or could be named after the red clay of the Strathfield area. Subdivision of the land commenced in 1867, an early buyer was one-time Mayor of Sydney, Walter Renny who built in 1868 a house they called Stratfieldsaye, possibly after the Duke of Wellingtons mansion near Reading, Berkshire. A plaque marking the location of Stratfield Saye can be found in the footpath of Strathfield Avenue, according to local historian Cathy Jones, ownership of was transferred several times including to Davidson Nichol, who shortened the name to Strathfield House, then Strathfield. Strathfield was proclaimed on 2 June 1885 by the Governor of NSW, Sir Augustus Loftus, residents in parts of Homebush and Druitt Town formed their own unsuccessful counter-petition. It is likely that the region was named Strathfield to neutralise the rivalry between Homebush and Redmire, Strathfield Council was incorporated in 1885 and included the suburbs of Redmire, Homebush and Druitt Town. The adjoining area of Flemington was unincorporated and was annexed to Strathfield Council in 1892, the Council formed three wards - Flemington, Homebush and Strathfield - and Aldermen was elected to represent their ward at Council. Following the introduction of the Local Government Act in 1919, Strathfield Council was one of the first to proclaim the major part of its area a residential district by proclamation in 1920 and this is commonly known as the Strathfield Massacre and it shocked the nation. A Memorial plaque is located at Churchill Avenue, Strathfield, st Patricks College is an independent, day school for boys. Santa Sabina College is a Roman Catholic, Dominican, day school for girls K-12, the primary school is known as Santa Maria Del Monte. Meriden Anglican School for Girls is an independent, Anglican, day school for girls, trinity Grammar School Preparatory School campus is on The Boulevarde and has classes from Pre-Kindergarten to Year 6
22.
Leichhardt, New South Wales
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Leichhardt is a suburb in the Inner West of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Leichhardt is located 5 kilometres west of the Sydney central business district and is the centre for the local government area of the Inner West Council. The suburb is bordered by Haberfield to the west, Annandale to the east, Lilyfield to the north and Petersham, Lewisham, Leichhardt contains a mix of residential and commercial developments and is best known as Sydneys Little Italy. Leichhardt residents and businesses live and work next to the Sydney CBD, Leichhardt was once an area broadly inhabited by the Wangal band of the Dharug language group. Wangal country was known as wanne and it extended from the suburbs of Balmain and Birchgrove in the east to Silverwater. The northern boundary was the Parramatta River, neighbouring Darug bands were the Cadigal to the east, the Wallumattagal on the northern shore of the Parramatta River and the Bediagal to the south. In 1848, he famously vanished without trace on his attempt to cross the continent from the Darling Downs to the Swan River Colony on the Western Australia coast, Leichhardt was proclaimed a municipality in 1871. In 1949, it was merged with the municipalities of Annandale, in 1967, the municipal boundary was altered to include Glebe and parts of Camperdown. In 2003, the boundary was again changed, to exclude Glebe and Forest Lodge. The main commercial area in Leichhardt is located on Norton Street, north of Parramatta Road, the Norton Street commercial area contains a mix of residential buildings, restaurants, cafés, eateries and individual retail outlets, including several bookstores and grocery shops. There are also hotels, a Palace Cinema and two of the two shopping centres – MarketPlace Leichhardt and Norton Plaza. Commercial developments are found along the length of Parramatta Road. The Italian Forum, located just off Norton Street, is notable for its design which seeks to emulate the feel of a Mediterranean town piazza, the second shopping centre, MarketPlace Leichhardt, is located towards Haberfield on the corner of Marion and Flood Streets. MarketPlace Leichhardt has free car parking and is home to Woolworths, Aldi, Target, the centre recently celebrated its 40th birthday milestone of being in the heart of Leichhardt. Leichhardt can be accessed by main roads including Parramatta Road, Norton Street, Balmain Road, Marion Street. The City West Link Road runs along the border of Leichhardt and is a major arterial road. Leichhardt is well serviced by Sydney Buses through city and cross regional services, Leichhardt Bus Depot is located on the corner of William and Derbyshire Street. The following list provides the bus routes in Leichhardt, Metrobus 10 travels from Maroubra Junction through the City to Leichhardt, the station is an eight-minute walk from Norton St, along Railway St
23.
Five Dock, New South Wales
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Five Dock is a suburb in the Inner West of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Five Dock is located 10 kilometres west of the Sydney central business district, Five Dock lies roughly at the foot, or southern end, of the Drummoyne peninsula. Its total area is 2.45 km², Rodd Point lies to the east. Haberfield adjoins Five Dock to the south-east, Iron Cove forms a small section of the suburbs eastern boundary. Ashfield and Croydon lie on the side of Parramatta Road. The suburbs of Canada Bay and Concord adjoin Five Docks western boundary, Burwood lies just beyond Croydon, to the south-west. By road, this distance is about 9-10 kilometres, depending on the route taken. Originally, the local post office was called the Wareemba Locality store, governor Phillips notes suggest that an outbreak of smallpox in early 1789 would have had a devastating impact on the indigenous population in Canada Bay. The earliest written reference to Five Dock is in The Sydney Gazette of 3 February 1805, however, the name probably dates back to the days of the First Settlement. All of the sources referenced are in agreement that it was derived from the shape of the bay along the Parramatta River. According to a publication from the Maritime Services Board, Port of Sydney, At the NE point of the bay there were five water worn indentations that were likened to docks, there is widely contradictory information, however, about how many of these natural formations still exist. The Maritime Services Board publication concludes that there are two of the five remaining, however, Eric Russells Drummoyne, a western suburbs history from 1794 states that one was lost with the construction of the 1881 Gladesville Bridge, but the others remain in 1982. Other sources give different numbers again, Rickard Street, Noble Street, Heath Street and Augusta Street were named after Sir Arthur Rickard and members of his family. Rodd Road, Trevanion Street and Barnstaple Road are named after Brent Clements Rodd, a few streets take their name from local residents, including Mackaness Close and Langsworth Way. The Great White Fleet visited Sydney in August 1908 and several street names recall ships in the fleet. Connecticut Avenue is named after the USS Connecticut, Illinois Street is named after the USS Illinois. Minnesota Avenue takes its name from the USS Minnesota, New Jersey Road takes its name from the USS New Jersey. The name of Coronation Avenue commemorates the coronation of King George VI, St Albans Anglican Church is a 1924 Gothic church, constructed of brick and stone
24.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
25.
Koori
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The Koori People are Indigenous Australians of New South Wales and Victoria. This is their preferred term, expressing pride in their heritage, the word Koori is from Awabakal language gurri, It is an Indigenous Australian language that was spoken in the area of what is today Newcastle. A Koori Court is a division of the Magistrates court in Victoria, Koori Radio is a community radio station based in Redfern broadcasting to Sydney on a city-wide licence. It is part of the Gadigal Information Service and is the radio station in Sydney providing full-time broadcasting to the Aboriginal. Koori Mail is a national Indigenous newspaper based in Lismore, New South Wales, the NSW Koori Rugby League Knockout is one of the largest gatherings of Indigenous people in Australia. A modern-day corroboree for the Koori people of NSW, it has been held annually over the October long weekend since 1971
26.
Kuringgai
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The indigenous people identify themselves as Guringai. Their taurai is known to extend north to the Macleay River, Fraser came up with the name Kuringgai being a conjunction of the native words Koori/Guri to mean black man and Ngai, meaning black woman, or belonging to. According to Fraser, the Kuringgai were bordered by the Wachigari and the Paikalyung to the north, the Kamalarai to the northwest, the Wiradhari to the west and the Murrinjari to the south. However, Norman Tindale would later say in 1974 that the Awabakal are the one of a series of tribes to which the arbitrary term Kuringgai has been applied by Fraser. He divided the area Fraser labelled Kuringgai into several tribes, including the Tharawal, Eora, Dharuk, Darkinjang, Awabakal, Worimi, Birpai, Ngamba, the clan groups are the Garigal, Cammeragal, Borregegal, Awaba, Walkeloa with hundreds more. They were hunters and gatherers within their land, the Guringai lives were dictated by the seasons and the seasonal travels throughout their lands, with great ceremony. The Guringai still live in their traditional homelands, the Aborigines of New South Wales. Sauchie House, West Maitland, University of Newcastle, bibliography of Ku-ring-gai people and language resources, at the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies
27.
Awabakal
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Their traditional territory spreads from Wollombi in the south, to the Lower Hunter River near Newcastle and Lake Macquarie in the north. In the traditional language, Awaba is the word for Lake Macquarie, meaning flat or plain surface, hence, the Awabakal were bounded to the north–west by the Wonnarua, the Worimi to the north–east, and the Darkinjung peoples to the west and south. The Awabakal people, like most of the Aboriginal Australian tribes in Australia, awabagal is a common alternate name for the Awabakal people. Awaba is now the name of a town in the region. Tindale claims that the Ninyowa clan were from the Newcastle area, the Awabakal language was used by the Awabakal people and also by the Wonnarua people. Oral historians and linguists are reviewing the language in order to develop a dictionary of the language of the Hunter River. The eaglehawk or wedge-tailed eagle has special significance for the Awabakal people, koun, their celestial entity, looks like an Aboriginal man, but in flight resembles an eagle-hawk. The Awabakal people played a significant part in shaping the environment of their region and they practised fire-stick farming extensively, which helped them to hunt and to navigate through dense prickly scrub along the coast. Tracks and paths were also maintained, including a path from the shore to the top of a hill which later became Watt Street in Newcastle, fishing, particularly for shellfish, was a significant part of the Awabakal peoples diet and culture pre-colonisation. Academic research by Webb indicates east coast Australia tribes were violent, the Awabakal Newcastle Aboriginal Cooperative Limited is a not-for-profit community controlled organisation operating in the Newcastle, Lake Macquarie and Hunter Region with 195 members. In 2014 financial year, Awabakal had income of $10. 7million, approximately half of the income is used on employee benefits expenses, being $5. 87million in 2014. Total assets for both 2013 and 2014 were ca, also in 1976, the Awabakal Environmental Education Centre began operating. It is a NSW Department of Education and Communities facility, the centre provides opportunities for teachers and students in the Hunter Region to learn about the environment and human interactions with the natural world. The Centre contains examples of habitats including perched lagoons, creek catchments, dry and wet sclerophyll forest. Being located on Awabakal land, the centre provides the opportunity for students to learn about Aboriginal perspectives, issues, knowledge. There is also a significant Awabakal presence at the Wollotuka Institute at the University of Newcastle, Wollotuka is an Awabakal word meaning eating and meeting place. Attempts by the Awabakal Local Aboriginal Land Council to claim native title over land within Newcastle, biraban – a recognised headman of the Awaba clan who assisted the Rev Lancelot Threlkeld compile the first grammar of an Aboriginal language in Australia
28.
Bundjalung
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Bundjalung people all share in common descent from ancestors who once spoke as their first, preferred language, one or more of the dialects of the Bandjalang language. The Arakwal people are a sub-group or tribe of the Bundjalung people of Byron Bay, wollumbin itself is the site at which one of the chief warriors lies, and it is said his face can still be seen in the mountains rocks when viewed from the north. Much of the Bundjalung peoples culture and heritage continues to be celebrated, nowadays people gather annually in the Bundjalung national park as a community to celebrate as a Bundjalung Peoples Gathering. We want to celebrate our Aboriginal traditions and customs, in November 2007 the Federal Court made a positive determination regarding the existence of native title within Githabul country. Throughout Australia, Aborigines believe that illness and death is caused by spirits or persons who intentionally and deliberately cause or inflict harm towards others. Even trivial ailments, or accidents such as falling from a tree, are attributed to malevolence. These spiritual doctors ware men and women of great wisdom and stature with immense power, trained from an early age by their elders and initiated into the deepest of tribal secrets, they are the supreme authorities on spiritual matters. They can visit the skies, witness events from afar, only they can pronounce the cause of serious illness or death, and only they, by performing sacred rites, can effect a cure. Medicine men and women usually employ plants and herbs in their rites, the healing of trivial non-spiritual complaints, using herbs and other remedies, is still practiced by most Aboriginal People, although older women were usually the experts. To ensure success, plants and magic were often prescribed side-by-side, plants ware prepared as remedies in a number of ways. Leafy branches are placed over a fire while the patient squats on top. Sprigs of aromatic leaves might be crushed and inhaled, inserted into the nasal septum, to make an infusion, leaves or bark are crushed and soaked in water, which is then drunk, or washed over the body. Ointment is prepared by mixing crushed leaves with animal fat, other external treatment includes rubbing down the patient with crushed seed paste, fruit pulp or animal oil, or dripping milky sap or a gummy solution over them. Most plant medicines are externally applied, medicine plants are always common plants. Aboriginal People carried no medicine kits and have remedies that grow at hand when needed, if a preferred herb is unavailable, there is usually a local substitute. Except for ointments, which were made by mixing crushed leaves with animal fat, very occasionally two plants are used together. Aboriginal medicines are never quantified, — there are no measured doses or specific times of treatment, since most remedies are applied externally, there is little risk of overdosing. Some medicines are known to vary in strength with the seasons, one area of Aboriginal medicine with no obvious Western parallel was baby medicine
29.
Darug
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Other versions of the name include Daruk, Dharruk, Dharrook, Darrook, Dharug, Broken Bay tribe, and Dharung. There is some dispute about the extent of the Darug nation, while some historians believe the coastal Eora people were a separate group to the Darug people, others believe the two groups were part of the same grouping. Taking the first perspective, the Darug were situated North-West of the Eora, convesely, the territory that was indisputably Darug Boorooberongal-Warmuli was the Cumberland Plain in western Sydney, that stretches from Wisemans Ferry in the north down to around Camden in the south. Some think the Darug people extended into the foothills of the Blue Mountains and they likely extended into the Hills District to the east. A strong centre of cultural attachment for the Darug people has been the Blacks Town in the Blacktown local government area, however, in September 2012 the Blacktown City Council de-recognised the Darug tribe, which it had previously recognised as the former owners of the area. The Council also passed a motion, opposed by some Councillors, an online petition was launched which called for the official re-recognition of the Darug. According to one of the Liberal Councillors, Cr Jess Diaz, there was a cultural divide between the western Darug and the coastal Darug. The coastal Darug were katungal or sea people and they built canoes and their diet was primarily seafood including fish and shellfish from Sydney Harbour, Botany Bay and their associated rivers. The inland Darug were paiendra or tomahawk people and they hunted kangaroos, emus and other land animals and used stone axes more extensively. The Darug nation was divided up into a number of clans who tended to live in a certain geographic area. This geographic area would also house descendant clans, each clan typically included 50 to 100 people. Numbers in a geographic descendant clan area were kept at the lowest levels necessary for the survival of the clan and it was often the case that men and women married between the clans, and thus the members of the clans were interrelated. They lived in the caves and overhangs in the sandstone of the Hawksbury region, although some did choose to make huts out of bark, sticks
30.
Dunghutti
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Dunghutti country includes the main towns of Kempsey, Bellbrook, South West Rocks, Crescent Head, and Walcha. From evidence found in the area, the Dunghutti peoples territory extends over the entire Macleay River valley including the Oxley Wild Rivers National Park, the Dunghutti occupied the upper catchment of the Macleay River system. Above the river valleys, the Anaiwain tribal group occupied the Tablelands, archaeological evidence of camp sites have been found on the upper terraces of the Macleay and Apsley rivers. To the north Dunghutti share a border with Gumbaynggirr and to the west Anaiwan, the southern linguistic border is with Biripi language. The Dunghutti people have living in the Macleay Valley for at least 6,000 to 9,000 years going by the dating of the Clybucca midden in the Gumbaynggirr territory. However it is longer because the sea level rose to about current levels 6,000 years ago. In the Clybucca area are ancient camp sites with shell beds in the form of mounds which are up to 2 metres high. These are places where kitchen waste was placed in orderly fashion, food was plentiful especially in the lower Macleay. The people in the climates of the upper Macleay could easily move into warmer places on the floor of the valley during winter. There are significant sites remaining in the Dunghutti land away from ground which has been cultivated, stone implements have been found which give evidence of antiquity. Spears, boomerangs, shields, digging sticks, water and food carriers have been collected, in the colder areas cloaks were made from possum skins. Sacred sites were marked with carved trees and stone arrangements, gatherings took place to celebrate ceremonies to mark special events in the lives of the people. The last great gathering took place towards the end of the nineteenth century, other language groups from north and south of the Macleay gathered near Smoky Range not long before the last marked tree was cut down and taken to the Australian Museum for preservation. Dunghutti people were hunters and gathers, a group who shared a common language and they lived in harmony with the land and their pattern of life was governed by codes of conduct regarded as sacred, having been handed down through countless generations. Remnants of the ancient culture remain in Macleay valley — middens and a trap in the Limeburners Creek Nature Reserve. Along the creeks and on the tablelands there are artefact scatters, scarred trees, the Macleay River and the tidal creeks supplied fruits and fish, but due to the dense growth of rainforest in these areas, these areas were generally not suitable for camping unless cleared. The adjacent dunes provided pigface and other plants, as well as grasses for grazing kangaroos, wallabies, snakes and lizards, as well as worms, grubs. The four main tribes of the Dunghutti people are the Dangaddi, many non-Aboriginal writers and some Aboriginal people have recorded these creation stories from different parts of the country over time
31.
Gamilaraay
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The Kamilaroi is one of the four largest indigenous nations in Australia. The Kamilaroi language is classified in the Pama–Nyungan family of Australian languages, the Kamilaroi Highway, Sydney Ferries Limiteds vehicular ferry Kamilaroi, and a cultivar of Durum wheat have all been named after the Kamilaroi people. The language is no longer spoken, though parts have bneen reconstructed by late field work. Robert M. W. Dixon and his student Peter Austin recorded some around Moree, while Corinne Williams wrote a thesis on the Yuwaaliyaay dialect spoken at Walgett, the Gamilaroi were hunters and gatherers with a band-level social organization. Important vegetable foods were yams and other roots, as well as a sterculia grain, insect larvae, frogs, and eggs of several different animals were also gathered. Various birds, kangaroos, emus, iguanas, possums, echidnas, dingo pups were regarded as a delicacy. Fish were also consumed, as were crayfish, mussels, men typically hunted, cleaned, and prepared the game for cooking. Women did the cooking, in addition to fishing and gathering. Individual Kamilaroi did not eat animals that were their totems, the Gamilaroi or Gomilaroi from the word Kamil or Gamil meaning no, are a large nation of Aborigines consisting of many tribes. The Gamilaroi are the second largest Aboriginal nation on the side of Australia. The nation was made up of smaller family groups who had their own parcels of land to sustain them. One of the great Kings of this tribe was Red Chief, the last link with tribal law and custom in Mungindi would be the forebear of the present Cubby family, who was the last known Respected Elder in the tribe. The Kamilaroi were regarded as fierce warriors and there is evidence of intertribal warfare. The Northern Gamilaroi people have a cultural connection with the Bigambul people. Kamilaroi tradition includes Baiame, the ancestor or patron god, the Baiame story tells how Baiame came down from the sky to the land, and created rivers, mountains, and forests. He then gave the people their laws of life, traditions, songs and he also created the first initiation site. This is known as a bora, a place where boys were initiated into manhood, when he had finished, he returned to the sky, and people called him the Sky Hero or All Father or Sky Father. He is said to be married to Birrahgnooloo, who is identified as an emu
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