1.
Photoelectric effect
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The photoelectric effect or photo ionization is the emission of electrons or other free carriers when light is shone onto a material. Electrons emitted in this manner can be called photo electrons, the phenomenon is commonly studied in electronic physics, as well as in fields of chemistry, such as quantum chemistry or electrochemistry. According to classical theory, this effect can be attributed to the transfer of energy from the light to an electron. From this perspective, an alteration in the intensity of light would induce changes in the energy of the electrons emitted from the metal. Furthermore, according to theory, a sufficiently dim light would be expected to show a time lag between the initial shining of its light and the subsequent emission of an electron. However, the results did not correlate with either of the two predictions made by classical theory. Instead, electrons are dislodged only by the impingement of photons when those photons reach or exceed a threshold frequency, below that threshold, no electrons are emitted from the metal regardless of the light intensity or the length of time of exposure to the light. This shed light on Max Plancks previous discovery of the Planck relation linking energy, the factor h is known as the Planck constant. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that illuminated with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily. In 1900, while studying black-body radiation, the German physicist Max Planck suggested that the energy carried by electromagnetic waves could only be released in packets of energy. In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper advancing the hypothesis that energy is carried in discrete quantized packets to explain experimental data from the photoelectric effect. This model contributed to the development of quantum mechanics, in 1914, Robert Millikans experiment supported Einsteins model of the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect requires photons with energies approaching zero to over 1 MeV for core electrons in elements with an atomic number. Emission of conduction electrons from typical metals usually requires a few electron-volts, study of the photoelectric effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and influenced the formation of the concept of wave–particle duality. Other phenomena where light affects the movement of electric charges include the effect, the photovoltaic effect. It is also usual to have the surface in a vacuum, since gases impede the flow of photoelectrons. When the photoelectron is emitted into a rather than into a vacuum, the term internal photoemission is often used. The photons of a light beam have an energy proportional to the frequency of the light
2.
Surface science
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It includes the fields of surface chemistry and surface physics. Some related practical applications are classed as surface engineering, the science encompasses concepts such as heterogeneous catalysis, semiconductor device fabrication, fuel cells, self-assembled monolayers, and adhesives. Surface science is related to interface and colloid science. Interfacial chemistry and physics are common subjects for both, in addition, interface and colloid science studies macroscopic phenomena that occur in heterogeneous systems due to peculiarities of interfaces. The field of surface chemistry started with heterogeneous catalysis pioneered by Paul Sabatier on hydrogenation, irving Langmuir was also one of the founders of this field, and the scientific journal on surface science, Langmuir, bears his name. The Langmuir adsorption equation is used to model monolayer adsorption where all surface adsorption sites have the affinity for the adsorbing species. Gerhard Ertl in 1974 described for the first time the adsorption of hydrogen on a surface using a novel technique called LEED. Similar studies with platinum, nickel, and iron followed, Surface chemistry can be roughly defined as the study of chemical reactions at interfaces. Surface science is of importance to the fields of heterogeneous catalysis, electrochemistry. The adhesion of gas or liquid molecules to the surface is known as adsorption and this can be due to either chemisorption or physisorption, and the strength of molecular adsorption to a catalyst surface is critically important to the catalysts performance. However, it is difficult to study these phenomena in real catalyst particles, instead, well-defined single crystal surfaces of catalytically active materials such as platinum are often used as model catalysts. Results can be fed into chemical models or used toward the design of new catalysts. Reaction mechanisms can also be clarified due to the precision of surface science measurements. The behavior of an interface is affected by the distribution of ions within the electrical double layer. These studies link traditional electrochemical techniques such as cyclic voltammetry to direct observations of interfacial processes, geologic phenomena such as iron cycling and soil contamination are controlled by the interfaces between minerals and their environment. Surface physics can be defined as the study of physical changes that occur at interfaces. The study and analysis of surfaces involves both physical and chemical analysis techniques, several modern methods probe the topmost 1–10 nm of surfaces exposed to vacuum. Many of these techniques require vacuum as they rely on the detection of electrons or ions emitted from the surface under study, at 0.1 mPa, it only takes 1 second to cover a surface with a contaminant, so much lower pressures are needed for measurements
3.
Louisiana State University
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Louisiana State University is a public coeducational university located in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The university was founded in 1853 in what is now known as Pineville, Louisiana, LSU is the flagship institution of the Louisiana State University System. In 2015, the university enrolled over 26,000 undergraduate and over 5,000 graduate students in 14 schools, several of LSUs graduate schools, such as the E. J. Ourso College of Business and the Paul M. Hebert Law Center, have received recognition in their respective fields of study. LSUs athletics department fields teams in 21 varsity sports, and is a member of the NCAA, the university is represented by its mascot, Mike the Tiger. Louisiana State University Agricultural & Mechanical College had its origin in land grants made by the United States government in 1806,1811. It was founded as an academy and is still today steeped in military tradition. In 1853, the Louisiana General Assembly established the Seminary of Learning of the State of Louisiana near Pineville in Rapides Parish in Central Louisiana. Modeled initially after Virginia Military Institute, the institution opened with five professors and nineteen cadets on January 2,1860, the original location of the Old LSU Site is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. On January 26,1861, after only a year at the helm, the school closed on June 30,1861, with the start of the American Civil War. During the course of the war, the university reopened briefly in April 1863, the losses sustained by the institution during the Union occupation were heavy, and after 1863 the seminary remained closed for the remainder of the Civil War. Following the surrender of the Confederates at Appomattox Court House on April 9,1865 and these cannons had been captured from Confederate forces after the close of the war and had been used during the initial firing upon Fort Sumter in April 1861. The cannons are still displayed in front of LSUs Military Science/Aerospace Studies Building, the seminary officially reopened its doors on October 2,1865, only to be burned October 15,1869. On November 1,1869, the institution resumed its exercises in Baton Rouge, in 1870, the name of the institution was officially changed to Louisiana State University. It temporarily opened in New Orleans, June 1,1874 and this prompted the final name change for the university to the Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College. On June 7,1925, Oscar B, turner, a professor of agronomy, was murdered by an axe-wielding assailant on campus. On April 30,1926, the present LSU campus was formally dedicated, prior to this, LSU utilized the quarters of the Institute for the Deaf, Mute, and Blind. Land for the present campus was purchased in 1918, construction started in 1922, the campus was originally designed for 3000 students, but was cut back due to budget problems
4.
Physicist
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A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
5.
Cornell University
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Cornell University is an American private Ivy League and land-grant doctoral university located in Ithaca, New York. These ideals, unconventional for the time, are captured in Cornells motto, the university also administers two satellite medical campuses, one in New York City and one in Education City, Qatar. Cornell is one of three private land grant universities in the nation and the one in New York. Of its seven colleges, three are state-supported statutory or contract colleges through the State University of New York system, including its agricultural. Of Cornells graduate schools, only the college is state-supported. As a land grant college, Cornell operates a cooperative extension program in every county of New York. The Cornell University Ithaca Campus comprises 745 acres, but is larger when the Cornell Botanic Gardens are considered. Since its founding, Cornell has been a co-educational, non-sectarian institution where admission has not been restricted by religion or race, the student body consists of more than 14,000 undergraduate and 7,000 graduate students from all 50 American states and more than 120 countries. Cornell University was founded on April 27,1865, the New York State Senate authorized the university as the land grant institution. Senator Ezra Cornell offered his farm in Ithaca, New York, as a site, fellow senator and experienced educator Andrew Dickson White agreed to be the first president. During the next three years, White oversaw the construction of the first two buildings and traveled to attract students and faculty, the university was inaugurated on October 7,1868, and 412 men were enrolled the next day. Cornell developed as an innovative institution, applying its research to its own campus as well as to outreach efforts. For example, in 1883 it was one of the first university campuses to use electricity from a dynamo to light the grounds. Cornell has had active alumni since its earliest classes and it was one of the first universities to include alumni-elected representatives on its Board of Trustees. Today the university has more than 4,000 courses, since 2000, Cornell has been expanding its international programs. In 2004, the university opened the Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar and it has partnerships with institutions in India, Singapore, and the Peoples Republic of China. Former president Jeffrey S. Lehman described the university, with its international profile. On March 9,2004, Cornell and Stanford University laid the cornerstone for a new Bridging the Rift Center to be built, Cornells main campus is on East Hill in Ithaca, New York, overlooking the town and Cayuga Lake
6.
Field ion microscope
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The Field ion microscope was invented by Müller in 1951 It is a type of microscope that can be used to image the arrangement of atoms at the surface of a sharp metal tip. Müller & Bahadur were the first persons to observe individual atoms directly, in FIM, a sharp metal tip is produced and placed in an ultra high vacuum chamber, which is backfilled with an imaging gas such as helium or neon. The tip is cooled to cryogenic temperatures, a positive voltage of 5 to 10 kilovolts is applied to the tip. Gas atoms adsorbed on the tip are ionized by the electric field in the vicinity of the tip, becoming positively charged. The curvature of the surface near the tip causes a natural magnification — ions are repelled in a roughly perpendicular to the surface. A detector is placed so as to collect these repelled ions, FIM like Field Emission Microscopy consists of a sharp sample tip and a fluorescent screen as the key elements. However, there are essential differences as follows, The tip potential is positive. The chamber is filled with an imaging gas, the tip is cooled to low temperatures. Like FEM, the strength at the tip apex is typically a few V/Å. The experimental set-up and image formation in FIM is illustrated in the accompanying figures, in FIM the presence of a strong field is critical. The imaging gas atoms near the tip are polarized by the field, the imaging atoms then lose their kinetic energy performing a series of hops and accommodate to the tip temperature. In FIM, the takes place close to the tip. The electron that tunnels from the atom is picked up by the tip, there is a critical distance, xc, at which the tunneling probability is a maximum. This distance is typically about 0.4 nm, the resolution of FIM is limited by the thermal velocity of the imaging ion. Resolution of the order of 1Å can be achieved by effective cooling of the tip, for these reasons, refractory metals with high melting temperature are conventional objects for FIM experiments. Metal tips for FEM and FIM are prepared by electropolishing of thin wires, however, these tips usually contain many asperities. The final preparation procedure involves the in situ removal of these asperities by field evaporation just by raising the tip voltage. Field evaporation is a field induced process which involves the removal of atoms from the surface itself at very high field strengths and this process is self-regulating since the atoms that are at positions of high local curvature, such as adatoms or ledge atoms, are removed preferentially
7.
National Institute of Standards and Technology
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The National Institute of Standards and Technology is a measurement standards laboratory, and a non-regulatory agency of the United States Department of Commerce. Its mission is to promote innovation and industrial competitiveness, in 1821, John Quincy Adams had declared Weights and measures may be ranked among the necessities of life to every individual of human society. From 1830 until 1901, the role of overseeing weights and measures was carried out by the Office of Standard Weights and Measures, president Theodore Roosevelt appointed Samuel W. Stratton as the first director. The budget for the first year of operation was $40,000, a laboratory site was constructed in Washington, DC, and instruments were acquired from the national physical laboratories of Europe. In addition to weights and measures, the Bureau developed instruments for electrical units, in 1905 a meeting was called that would be the first National Conference on Weights and Measures. Quality standards were developed for products including some types of clothing, automobile brake systems and headlamps, antifreeze, during World War I, the Bureau worked on multiple problems related to war production, even operating its own facility to produce optical glass when European supplies were cut off. Between the wars, Harry Diamond of the Bureau developed a blind approach radio aircraft landing system, in 1948, financed by the Air Force, the Bureau began design and construction of SEAC, the Standards Eastern Automatic Computer. The computer went into operation in May 1950 using a combination of vacuum tubes, about the same time the Standards Western Automatic Computer, was built at the Los Angeles office of the NBS and used for research there. A mobile version, DYSEAC, was built for the Signal Corps in 1954, due to a changing mission, the National Bureau of Standards became the National Institute of Standards and Technology in 1988. Following 9/11, NIST conducted the investigation into the collapse of the World Trade Center buildings. NIST had a budget for fiscal year 2007 of about $843.3 million. NISTs 2009 budget was $992 million, and it also received $610 million as part of the American Recovery, NIST employs about 2,900 scientists, engineers, technicians, and support and administrative personnel. About 1,800 NIST associates complement the staff, in addition, NIST partners with 1,400 manufacturing specialists and staff at nearly 350 affiliated centers around the country. NIST publishes the Handbook 44 that provides the Specifications, tolerances, the Congress of 1866 made use of the metric system in commerce a legally protected activity through the passage of Metric Act of 1866. NIST is headquartered in Gaithersburg, Maryland, and operates a facility in Boulder, nISTs activities are organized into laboratory programs and extramural programs. Effective October 1,2010, NIST was realigned by reducing the number of NIST laboratory units from ten to six, nISTs Boulder laboratories are best known for NIST‑F1, which houses an atomic clock. NIST‑F1 serves as the source of the official time. NIST also operates a neutron science user facility, the NIST Center for Neutron Research, the NCNR provides scientists access to a variety of neutron scattering instruments, which they use in many research fields
8.
Field electron emission
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Field electron emission is emission of electrons induced by an electrostatic field. The most common context is field emission from a surface into vacuum. However, field emission can take place from solid or liquid surfaces, into vacuum, air, the field-induced promotion of electrons from the valence to conduction band of semiconductors can also be regarded as a form of field emission. When field emission is used without qualifiers it typically means cold emission, Field emission in pure metals occurs in high electric fields, the gradients are typically higher than 1 gigavolt per metre and strongly dependent upon the work function. Examples of applications for surface field emission include construction of bright electron sources for electron microscopes or the discharge of induced charges from spacecraft. Devices which eliminate induced charges are termed charge-neutralizers, Field emission was explained by quantum tunneling of electrons in the late 1920s. This was one of the triumphs of the nascent quantum mechanics, the theory of field emission from bulk metals was proposed by Ralph H. Fowler and Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim. A family of approximate equations, Fowler–Nordheim equations, is named after them, in some respects, field electron emission is a paradigm example of what physicists mean by tunneling. Unfortunately, it is also an example of the intense mathematical difficulties that can arise. Simple solvable models of the tunneling barrier lead to equations that get predictions of current density too low by a factor of 100 or more. To get even an approximate solution, it is necessary to use special approximate methods known in physics as semi-classical or quasi-classical methods, a consequence of these difficulties has been a heritage of misunderstanding and disinformation that still persists in some current field emission research literature. This article tries to present an account of field emission for the 21st century. Field electron emission, field-induced electron emission, field emission and electron field emission are general names for this experimental phenomenon, the first name is used here. Fowler–Nordheim tunneling is the tunneling of electrons through a rounded triangular barrier created at the surface of an electron conductor by applying a very high electric field. Individual electrons can escape by Fowler-Nordheim tunneling from many materials in different circumstances. Many solid and liquid materials can emit electrons in a CFE regime if a field of an appropriate size is applied. Fowler–Nordheim-type equations are a family of approximate equations derived to describe CFE from the electron states in bulk metals. The different members of the family represent different degrees of approximation to reality, there is no theoretical reason to believe that Fowler-Nordheim-type equations validly describe field emission from materials other than bulk crystalline solids
9.
Atom
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An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter that has the properties of a chemical element. Every solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of neutral or ionized atoms, Atoms are very small, typical sizes are around 100 picometers. Atoms are small enough that attempting to predict their behavior using classical physics - as if they were billiard balls, through the development of physics, atomic models have incorporated quantum principles to better explain and predict the behavior. Every atom is composed of a nucleus and one or more bound to the nucleus. The nucleus is made of one or more protons and typically a number of neutrons. Protons and neutrons are called nucleons, more than 99. 94% of an atoms mass is in the nucleus. The protons have an electric charge, the electrons have a negative electric charge. If the number of protons and electrons are equal, that atom is electrically neutral, if an atom has more or fewer electrons than protons, then it has an overall negative or positive charge, respectively, and it is called an ion. The electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in a nucleus by this electromagnetic force. The number of protons in the nucleus defines to what chemical element the atom belongs, for example, the number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element. The number of influences the magnetic properties of an atom. Atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form compounds such as molecules. The ability of atoms to associate and dissociate is responsible for most of the changes observed in nature. The idea that matter is made up of units is a very old idea, appearing in many ancient cultures such as Greece. The word atom was coined by ancient Greek philosophers, however, these ideas were founded in philosophical and theological reasoning rather than evidence and experimentation. As a result, their views on what look like. They also could not convince everybody, so atomism was but one of a number of competing theories on the nature of matter. It was not until the 19th century that the idea was embraced and refined by scientists, in the early 1800s, John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers
10.
University of Pennsylvania
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The University of Pennsylvania is a private Ivy League research university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Incorporated as The Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, Penn is one of 14 founding members of the Association of American Universities, the university coat of arms features a dolphin on the red chief, adopted directly from the Franklin familys own coat of arms. Penn was one of the first academic institutions to follow a multidisciplinary model pioneered by several European universities and it was also home to many other educational innovations. The first school of medicine in North America, the first collegiate school. With an endowment of $10.72 billion, Penn had the seventh largest endowment of all colleges in the United States, all of Penns schools exhibit very high research activity. In fiscal year 2015, Penns academic research budget was $851 million, over its history, the university has also produced many distinguished alumni. S. House of Representatives,8 signers of the United States Declaration of Independence, in addition, some 30 Nobel laureates,169 Guggenheim Fellows, and 80 members of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, have been affiliated with Penn. In addition, Penn has produced a significant number of Fortune 500 CEOs, in 1740, a group of Philadelphians joined together to erect a great preaching hall for the traveling evangelist George Whitefield, who toured the American colonies delivering open air sermons. The building was designed and built by Edmund Woolley and was the largest building in the city at the time and it was initially planned to serve as a charity school as well, however, a lack of funds forced plans for the chapel and school to be suspended. According to Franklins autobiography, it was in 1743 when he first had the idea to establish an academy, however, Peters declined a casual inquiry from Franklin and nothing further was done for another six years. Unlike the other Colonial colleges that existed in 1749—Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Franklin assembled a board of trustees from among the leading citizens of Philadelphia, the first such non-sectarian board in America. At the first meeting of the 24 members of the Board of Trustees the issue of where to locate the school was a prime concern. The original sponsors of the dormant building still owed considerable construction debts and asked Franklins group to assume their debts and, accordingly, on February 1,1750 the new board took over the building and trusts of the old board. On August 13,1751, the Academy of Philadelphia, using the hall at 4th and Arch Streets. A charity school also was chartered July 13,1753 in accordance with the intentions of the original New Building donors, June 16,1755, the College of Philadelphia was chartered, paving the way for the addition of undergraduate instruction. All three schools shared the same Board of Trustees and were considered to be part of the same institution, the institution of higher learning was known as the College of Philadelphia from 1755 to 1779. In 1779, not trusting then-provost the Rev. William Smiths Loyalist tendencies, the result was a schism, with Smith continuing to operate an attenuated version of the College of Philadelphia. In 1791 the Legislature issued a new charter, merging the two institutions into a new University of Pennsylvania with twelve men from each institution on the new Board of Trustees
11.
Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy
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Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy, is a direct experimental technique to observe the distribution of the electrons in the reciprocal space of solids. The technique is a refinement of ordinary photoemission spectroscopy, studying photoemission of electrons from a sample achieved usually by illumination with soft X-rays, ARPES is one of the most direct methods of studying the electronic structure of the surface of solids. ARPES gives information on the direction, speed and scattering process of electrons in the sample being studied. This means that information can be gained on both the energy and momentum of an electron, resulting in detailed information on band dispersion, the technique is also known as ARUPS when using ultraviolet light to generate photoemission. Band mapping, in condensed matter physics refers to the process allows for detection of photoelectrons emitted from an observed surface at different emission angles. ARPES is used to investigate the structure of solids, solid surfaces and interfaces. By employing the band mapping process, several physical properties of a solid can be determined. The properties which can be determined using this process include the following, Kinetic energy of the electron, Elasticity, Electrical/Magnetic properties, band mapping has an advantage over optical spectroscopy. In the latter, only the energy-band separations at various optical critical points in k-space — entropy between the initial and final states — are determined. ARPES, on the hand, provides information about the absolute location of energy bands at different values of k relative to the Fermi level. The equations for energy and momentum can be solved to determine the relation between the binding energy, E, and the wave vector, k i = k i ∥ + k i ⊥. Electronic band structure Felix Bloch Laser-based angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy Resonance Raman spectroscopy Two-photon photoelectron spectroscopy Park, photoemission study of the rare earth intermetallic compounds, RNi2Ge2
12.
University of Tennessee
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The University of Tennessee is a public sun- and land-grant university in Knoxville, Tennessee, United States. It hosts almost 28,000 students from all 50 states, in its 2017 universities ranking, U. S. News & World Report ranked UT 103rd among all national universities and 46th among public institutions of higher learning. Seven alumni have been selected as Rhodes Scholars, James M. Buchanan,41, received the 1986 Nobel Prize in Economics. Also affiliated with the university are the Howard H. Baker, the university is a direct partner of the University of Tennessee Medical Center, which is one of two Level I trauma centers in East Tennessee. UT is one of the oldest public universities in the United States, when Samuel Carrick, its first president and only faculty member, died in 1809, the school was temporarily closed until 1820. When it reopened, it began experiencing growing pains, thomas Jefferson had previously recommended that the college leave its confining single building in the city and relocate to a place it could spread out. Ironically, in the Summer of 1826, the trustees explored Barbara Hill as a potential site, in 1840, the college was elevated to East Tennessee University. Tennessee was a member of the Confederacy in 1862 when the Morrill Act was passed, on February 28,1867, Congress passed a special Act making the State of Tennessee eligible to participate in the Morrill Act of 1862 program. In January 1869, ETU was designated as Tennessees recipient of the Land-Grant designation, in accepting the funds, the university would focus upon instructing students in military, agricultural, and mechanical subjects. ETU eventually received $396,000 as its endowment under the program, Trustees soon approved the establishment of a medical program under the auspices of the Nashville School of Medicine and added advanced degree programs. East Tennessee University was renamed the University of Tennessee in 1879 by the state legislature, during World War II, UT was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a Navy commission. The campus is headed by a Chancellor who functions as the executive officer of the campus, responsible for its daily administration. The chancellor reports to the president of the university system and is elected annually by the UT Board of Trustees at the recommendation of the system president, jimmy Cheek has been Chancellor of the Knoxville campus since February 1,2009. Joseph A. DiPietro has been president since January 1,2011. Provost and Senior Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs Susan D. Martin is responsible for the administration of the Knoxville campus. On December 15,2016 the UT Board of Trustees confirmed Dr. Beverly J. Davenport as the next Chancellor of the Knoxville campus and she will begin her role on February 15,2017. Campus policing and security is provided by the University of Tennessee Police Department.4 percent from 2000 to 2009, many doctors and nurses at UTMC have integrated careers as teachers and healthcare professionals, and the center promotes itself as the areas only academic, or teaching hospital. The new UT Medical Center Heart Hospital received its first patient on April 27,2010, in Fall 2016, the university enrolled 21,863 undergraduate and 5,982 graduate and professional students, 50% of students are female, 50% are male
13.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
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Oak Ridge National Laboratory is an American multiprogram science and technology national laboratory managed for the United States Department of Energy by UT-Battelle. ORNL is the largest science and energy national laboratory in the Department of Energy system by surface, ORNL is located in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, near Knoxville. ORNLs scientific programs focus on materials, neutron science, energy, high-performance computing, systems biology, ORNL partners with the state of Tennessee, universities and industries to solve challenges in energy, advanced materials, manufacturing, security and physics. ORNL hosts the Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, the BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory is managed by UT-Battelle, a limited liability partnership between the University of Tennessee and the Battelle Memorial Institute, formed in 2000 for that purpose. The annual budget is US$1.65 billion, 80% of which is from the Department of Energy, as of 2012 there are 4,400 staff working at ORNL,1,600 of whom are directly conducting research, and an additional 3,000 guest researchers annually. The total area of the reservation 150 square kilometres of which the lab takes up 18 square kilometres, the town of Oak Ridge was established by the Army Corps of Engineers as part of the Clinton Engineer Works in 1942 on isolated farm land as part of the Manhattan Project. During the war, advanced research for the government was managed at the site by the University of Chicago, in 1943, construction of the Clinton Laboratories was completed, later renamed to Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The site was chosen for the X-10 Graphite Reactor, used to show that plutonium can be extracted from enriched uranium, enrico Fermi and his colleagues developed the worlds second self-sustaining nuclear reactor after Fermis previous experiment, the Chicago Pile-1. The X-10 was the first reactor designed for continuous operation, in 1946 the first medical isotopes were produced in the X-10 reactor, by 1950 almost 20,000 samples had been shipped to various hospitals. As the demand for military science had fallen dramatically the future of the lab was uncertain, management of the lab was contracted by the US government to Monsanto, however, they withdrew in 1947. In 1950 the Oak Ridge School of Reactor Technology was established with two courses in operation and safety, almost 1000 students graduated. Another project was the worlds first light water reactor, with its principles of neutron moderation and fuel cooling by ordinary water it is the direct ancestor of most modern nuclear power stations. The US Military funded much of its development, for nuclear-powered submarines, the US Army contracted portable nuclear reactors in 1953 for heat and electricity generation in remote military bases. The reactors were designed at ORNL, produced by American Locomotive Company and used in Greenland, the United States Air Force also contributed funding to three reactors, the labs first computers, and its first particle accelerators. ORNL designed and tested an aircraft in 1954 as a proof-of-concept for a proposed USAF fleet of long-range bombers. The provision of radionuclides by X-10 for medicine grew steadily in the 1950s with more isotopes available, ORNL scientists lowered the immune systems of mice and performed the worlds first successful bone marrow transplant. In the early 1960s there was a push at ORNL to develop nuclear-powered desalination plants where deserts met the sea to provide water. The Health Physics Research Reactor built in 1962 was used for exposure experiments leading to more accurate dosage limits, dosimeters
14.
Oxide
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An oxide /ˈɒksaɪd/ is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. Oxide itself is the dianion of oxygen, an O2– atom, Metal oxides thus typically contain an anion of oxygen in the oxidation state of −2. Most of the Earths crust consists of oxides, the result of elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or in water. Hydrocarbon combustion affords the two principal carbon oxides, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, even materials considered pure elements often develop an oxide coating. For example, aluminium foil develops a skin of Al2O3 that protects the foil from further corrosion. Individual elements can form multiple oxides, each containing different amounts of the element. Certain elements can form many different oxides, such those of nitrogen, due to its electronegativity, oxygen forms stable chemical bonds with almost all elements to give the corresponding oxides. Noble metals are prized because they resist direct chemical combination with oxygen, two independent pathways for corrosion of elements are hydrolysis and oxidation by oxygen. The combination of water and oxygen is even more corrosive, virtually all elements burn in an atmosphere of oxygen, or an oxygen rich environment. In the presence of water and oxygen, some elements— sodium—react rapidly, even dangerously, in part for this reason, alkali and alkaline earth metals are not found in nature in their metallic, i. e. native, form. Caesium is so reactive with oxygen that it is used as a getter in vacuum tubes, the surface of most metals consists of oxides and hydroxides in the presence of air. A well-known example is aluminium foil, which is coated with a film of aluminium oxide that passivates the metal. The aluminium oxide layer can be built to greater thickness by the process of electrolytic anodising, though solid magnesium and aluminium react slowly with oxygen at STP—they, like most metals, burn in air, generating very high temperatures. Finely grained powders of most metals can be explosive in air. Consequently, they are used in Solid-fuel rockets. In dry oxygen, iron forms iron oxide, but the formation of the hydrated ferric oxides, Fe2O3−x2x. Free oxygen production by photosynthetic bacteria some 3.5 billion years ago precipitated iron out of solution in the oceans as Fe2O3 in the important iron ore hematite. Oxides have a range of different structures, from molecules to polymeric
15.
Scanning tunneling microscope
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A scanning tunneling microscope is an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level. Its development in 1981 earned its inventors, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer, for a STM, good resolution is considered to be 0.1 nm lateral resolution and 0.01 nm depth resolution. With this resolution, individual atoms within materials are routinely imaged and manipulated, the STM can be used not only in ultra-high vacuum but also in air, water, and various other liquid or gas ambients, and at temperatures ranging from near zero kelvin to over 1000°C. STM is based on the concept of quantum tunneling, when a conducting tip is brought very near to the surface to be examined, a bias applied between the two can allow electrons to tunnel through the vacuum between them. The resulting tunneling current is a function of tip position, applied voltage, information is acquired by monitoring the current as the tips position scans across the surface, and is usually displayed in image form. First, a bias is applied and the tip is brought close to the sample by coarse sample-to-tip control. In this situation, the bias will cause electrons to tunnel between the tip and sample, creating a current that can be measured. Once tunneling is established, the bias and position with respect to the sample can be varied. If the tip is moved across the sample in the x-y plane and these changes are mapped in images. This change in current with respect to position can be measured itself, or the height, z and these two modes are called constant height mode and constant current mode, respectively. In constant current mode, feedback electronics adjust the height by a voltage to the piezoelectric height control mechanism, all images produced by STM are grayscale, with color optionally added in post-processing in order to visually emphasize important features. In addition to scanning across the sample, information on the structure at a given location in the sample can be obtained by sweeping voltage. This type of measurement is called scanning tunneling spectroscopy and typically results in a plot of the density of states as a function of energy within the sample. Framerates of at least 25 Hz enable so called video-rate STM, framerates up to 80 Hz are possible with fully working feedback that adjusts the height of the tip. Video-rate STM can be used to surface diffusion. The components of an STM include scanning tip, piezoelectric controlled height and x, y scanner, coarse sample-to-tip control, vibration isolation system, the resolution of an image is limited by the radius of curvature of the scanning tip of the STM. Additionally, image artifacts can occur if the tip has two tips at the end rather than an atom, this leads to “double-tip imaging. Therefore, it has been essential to develop processes for consistently obtaining sharp, recently, carbon nanotubes have been used in this instance
16.
Los Alamos Neutron Science Center
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The Los Alamos Neutron Science Center, formerly known as the Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility is one of the worlds most powerful linear accelerators. It is located in Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico in Technical Area 53 and it was the most powerful linear accelerator in the world when it was opened in June 1972. The technology used in the accelerator was developed in part by the nuclear physicist Louis Rosen, the facility is capable of accelerating protons up to 800 MeV. Multiple beamlines allow for a variety of experiments to be run at once, and it is also used for medical radioisotope production. LANSCE provides the community with intense sources of neutrons with the capability of performing experiments supporting civilian. LANSCE provides solutions to security problems. It serves an international user community conducting diverse forefront basic and applied research, the Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility, as it was originally called, hosted about 1000 users per year to perform medium energy physics experiments. In 1977, a pulsed neutron source was commissioned to supply moderated and unmoderated neutrons to time-of-flight experiments in the facility called the Weapons Neutron Research Center. Neutron scattering experiments were started immediately and by 1983 the Department of Energy’s Office of Basic Energy Sciences was funding a formal user program, several key events have occurred during the last 20 years that have fostered the growth of the user programs at LANSCE. In 1968 through 1995, the DOE Office of Energy Research funded LAMPF as a facility for medium energy physics. In 2011, this status was extended to WNR and pRad, the Lujan Neutron Scattering Center employs a pulsed spallation neutron source equipped with time-of-flight spectrometers for neutron scattering studies. Neutron scattering is a technique for probing the microscopic structure and dynamics and is used in materials science, engineering, condensed matter physics, chemistry, biology. The Weapons Neutron Research Facility provides neutron and proton beams for basic, applied, Neutron beams with energies ranging from about 0.1 MeV to more than 600 MeV are produced in Target 4 using the 800 MeV proton beam from the LANSCE linac. In the Target-2 area samples can be exposed to the direct 800 MeV proton beam, lANSCEs User Program ensures the research it oversees represents the cutting edge of nuclear and materials science and technology. The User Program plays a key role in training the next generation of top scientists, attracting the best graduate students, postdoctoral researchers, the constant influx of users to LANSCE and the interactions with them benefit the Laboratory directly. Users help keep the Laboratory in touch with members of the scientific community. In addition, many of the Laboratory’s scientists have the opportunity to collaborate with the users, the User Programs demographics count user visits and unique-users. User visits are the number of visits by all users
17.
American Physical Society
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Not be be confused with the American Physical Society which was absorbed by the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh in 1796. The American Physical Society is the second largest organization of physicists. The Society publishes more than a dozen scientific journals, including the prestigious Physical Review and Physical Review Letters, APS is a member society of the American Institute of Physics. The American Physical Society was founded on May 20,1899 and they proclaimed the mission of the new Society to be to advance and diffuse the knowledge of physics, and in one way or another the APS has been at that task ever since. In the early years, virtually the sole activity of the APS was to hold scientific meetings, in 1913, the APS took over the operation of the Physical Review, which had been founded in 1893 at Cornell University, and journal publication became its second major activity. The Physical Review was followed by Reviews of Modern Physics in 1929, rev. has subdivided into five separate sections as the fields of physics proliferated and the number of submissions grew. In more recent years, the activities of the Society have broadened considerably, in addition, the Society conducts extensive programs in education, science outreach, and media relations. APS has 14 divisions and 11 topical groups covering all areas of physics research, there are 6 forums that reflect the interest of its 50,000 members in broader issues, and 9 sections organized by geographical region. In 1999, APS Physics celebrated its centennial with the biggest-ever physics meeting in Atlanta, einstein@Home, one of the projects APS initiated during World Year of Physics, is an ongoing and popular distributed computing project. During the summer of 2005, the society conducted an electronic poll, the poll became the motivation for a proposal of a name change promised in the leadership election that year. However, because of issues, the planned name change was eventually abandoned by the APS Executive Board. To promote public recognition of APS as a society, while retaining the name American Physical Society. General use of APS Physics to refer to APS or the American Physical Society is encouraged, the new APS Physics logo was designed by Kerry G. Johnson. At least now when you are in an elevator at an APS meeting and someone looks at your badge, the American Physical Society publishes 13 international research journals and an open-access on-line news and commentary website Physics. Physical Review Letters Reviews of Modern Physics Physical Review A, Atomic, molecular, Physical Review B, Condensed matter and materials physics. Physical Review D, Particles, fields, gravitation, and cosmology, Physical Review E, Statistical, nonlinear, and soft matter physics. Physical Review X, Open access, pure, applied, Physical Review Applied, Experimental and theoretical applications of physics. Physical Review Accelerators and Beams, Open access, accelerator science, Physical Review Physics Education Research, Open access, experimental and theoretical research on physics education
18.
National Academy of Sciences
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The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
19.
Frederick G. Donnan
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Frederick George Donnan CBE FRS FRSE was an Irish physical chemist who is known for his work on membrane equilibria, and commemorated in the Donnan equilibrium describing ionic transport in cells. He spent most of his career at University College London, Donnan was born in Colombo, Ceylon, the son of William Donnan, a Belfast merchant, and his wife, Jane Ross Turnley Liggate. He spent his life in Ulster. He was blind in one eye as the result of a childhood accident, Donnan then became a research student at University College London, joining the academic staff in 1901. In 1903 he became a Lecturer on Organic Chemistry at the Royal College of Science, Dublin, in 1913 he returned to University College London, where he remained until his retirement, serving as Head of Department from 1928 to 1937. He died in Canterbury on 16 December 1956 and he was unmarried and had no children. During the First World War, Donnan was a consultant to the Ministry of Munitions, quinan on plants for the fixation of nitrogen, for compounds essential for the manufacture of munitions. It was for work that Donnan received the CBE in 1920. It was also during this period that he coined the word aerosol, donnans 1911 paper on membrane equilibrium was important for leather and gelatin technology, but even more so for understanding the transport of materials between living cells and their surroundings. It was on this so-called Donnan equilibrium that he frequently was asked to lecture across Europe and America, the Donnan equilibrium remains an important concept for understanding ion transport in cells. Just before World War II, Donnan was active in helping European refugees wanting to flee from the Nazis, among those he assisted were Hermann Arthur Jahn and Edward Teller, who wrote their paper on the Jahn-Teller effect while in London. Founder member of the Faraday Society and its president from 1924-6 and he died in Canterbury, England on 16 December 1956. Works by or about Frederick G. Donnan at Internet Archive
20.
Justus von Liebig
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Justus Freiherr von Liebig was a German chemist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and was considered the founder of organic chemistry. As a professor at the University of Giessen, he devised the modern laboratory-oriented teaching method and he also developed a manufacturing process for beef extracts, and founded a company, Liebig Extract of Meat Company, that later trademarked the Oxo brand beef bouillon cube. Justus von Liebig was born in Darmstadt into the family of Johann Georg Liebig. His father was a drysalter and hardware merchant who compounded and sold paints, varnishes and pigments, from childhood Justus was fascinated with chemistry. At the age of 13, Liebig lived through the year without a summer, Germany was among the hardest-hit in the global famine that ensued, and the experience is said to have shaped Liebigs later work. Thanks in part to Liebigs innovations in fertilizers and agriculture, the 1816 famine became known as the last great subsistence crisis in the Western world, Liebig attended grammar school at the Ludwig-Georgs-Gymnasium in Darmstadt, from the age of 8 to 14. He worked with his father for the two years, then attended the University of Bonn, studying under Karl Wilhelm Gottlob Kastner. When Kastner moved to the University of Erlangen, Liebig followed him, Liebig left Erlangen in March 1822, in part because of his involvement with the radical Korps Rhenania but also because of his hopes for more advanced chemical studies. The circumstances are clouded by possible scandal, in late 1822 Liebig went to study in Paris on a grant obtained for him by Kastner from the Hessian government. He worked in the laboratory of Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac, and was also befriended by Alexander von Humboldt. Liebigs doctorate from Erlangen was conferred on 23 June 1823, a time after he left. Kastner pleaded that the requirement of a dissertation be waived, Liebig left Paris to return to Darmstadt in April 1824. On 26 May 1824, at the age of 21 and with Humboldts recommendation, Liebigs appointment was part of an attempt to modernize the University of Giessen and attract more students. He received a stipend, without laboratory funding or access to facilities. Vogt was happy to support a reorganization in which pharmacy was taught by Liebig and became the responsibility of the faculty of arts, Zimmermann found himself competing unsuccessfully with Liebig for students and their lecture fees. He refused to allow Liebig to use existing space and equipment, the deaths of Zimmermann and a Professor Blumhof who taught technology and mining opened the way for Liebig to apply for a full professorship. Liebig was appointed to the chair in chemistry on 7 December 1825, receiving a considerably increased salary. Liebig married Henriette Jettchen Moldenhauer, the daughter of a state official and they had five children, Georg, Agnes, Hermann, Johanna and Marie
21.
Adolf von Baeyer
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Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf von Baeyer was a German chemist who synthesised indigo, developed a nomenclature for cyclic compounds and was the 1905 recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Baeyer was born in Berlin as the son of Johann Jacob Baeyer, a Prussian officer who reached the rank of lieutenant general and a well-known geodesist, and his wife Eugenie Hitzig. His mother was daughter of Julius Eduard Hitzig, member of the Jewish Itzig family, Baeyer had four sisters, Clara Emma, Johanna, Adelaide and two brothers, Georg, Edward. Baeyer lost his mother at young age while she was giving birth to his sister Adelaide, although his birth name was Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Adolf Baeyer, he was known simply as Adolf Baeyer, throughout most of his life. The poet Adelbert von Chamisso and the astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel were his godparents, on his 50th birthday he was raised to the hereditary nobility by King Ludwig II of Bavaria, conferring on him the “von” distinction. Three years later, he synthesized a previously unknown chemical compound -double carbonate of copper, on his 13th birthday, he initiated his lifework, buying a chunk of indigo worth two talers for his first dye experiments. When still a schoolboy, his teacher at the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium appointed him as his assistant. After graduating from school in 1853, he entered the Berlin University to study physics and mathematics. A stint in the Prussian army interrupted his study until 1856, after an argument with the renowned chemist, however, he changed his mentor to August Kekulé. He continued to collaborate with Kekule even after he returned to Berlin in 1858 for the completion of his doctorate on arsenic methyl chloride, after completed his doctorate, he followed Kekulé to the University of Ghent, when Kekulé became professor there. He became a lecturer at the Royal Trade Academy in 1860, in 1875 he succeeded Justus von Liebig as Chemistry Professor at the University of Munich. He was the first to propose the correct formula for indole in 1869 and his contributions to theoretical chemistry include the strain theory of triple bonds and strain theory in small carbon rings. In 1871 he discovered the synthesis of phenolphthalein by condensation of phthalic anhydride with two equivalents of phenol under acidic conditions and that same year he was the first to obtain synthetic fluorescein, a fluorophore pigment which is similar to naturally occurring pyoverdin that is synthesised by microorganisms. Baeyer named his finding resorcinphthalein as he had synthesised it from phthalic anhydride, the term fluorescein would not start to be used until 1878. In 1872 he experimented with phenol and formaldehyde, the product was a precursor for Leo Baekelands later commercialization of Bakelite. In 1881 the Royal Society of London awarded Baeyer the Davy Medal for his work with indigo and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1884. 1881, Davy Medal of the Royal Society in London 1884, American Academy of Arts and his name is reflected in various name reactions as the Baeyer-Villiger Oxidation and Baeyers reagent. There is also the Von Baeyer nomenclature in chemistry and Baeyer strain theory of alicyclic compounds
22.
Victor Villiger
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Victor Villiger was a Swiss-born German chemist and the discoverer of the Baeyer-Villiger oxidation. He studied at University of Geneva and, following his graduation and he started working at BASF in Ludwigshafen in 1905
23.
Robert Bunsen
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Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen was a German chemist. He investigated emission spectra of heated elements, and discovered caesium and rubidium with the physicist Gustav Kirchhoff, Bunsen developed several gas-analytical methods, was a pioneer in photochemistry, and did early work in the field of organoarsenic chemistry. With his laboratory assistant, Peter Desaga, he developed the Bunsen burner, the Bunsen–Kirchhoff Award for spectroscopy is named after Bunsen and Kirchhoff. Robert Bunsen was born at Göttingen in 1811, in what is now the state of Lower Saxony in Germany, Bunsen was the youngest of four sons of the University of Göttingens chief librarian and professor of modern philology, Christian Bunsen. Sources disagree on Robert Bunsens exact birth date, according to his biographer Georg Lockemann, Bunsen himself celebrated his birthday on the 31st in his later years. Lockemann nevertheless regarded the 30th as the correct date, in 1833 Bunsen became a lecturer at Göttingen and began experimental studies of the solubility of metal salts of arsenous acid. His discovery of the use of iron oxide hydrate as an agent is still today the most effective antidote against arsenic poisoning. This interdisciplinary research was carried on and published in conjunction with the physician Arnold Adolph Berthold, in 1836, Bunsen succeeded Friedrich Wöhler at the Polytechnic School of Kassel. Bunsen taught there for three years, and then accepted a professorship at the University of Marburg, where he continued his studies on cacodyl derivatives. He was promoted to professorship in 1841. While at University of Marburg, Bunsen participated in the 1846 expedition for the investigation of Icelands volcanoes, Bunsens work brought him quick and wide acclaim, partly because cacodyl, which is extremely toxic and undergoes spontaneous combustion in dry air, is so difficult to work with. Bunsen almost died from poisoning, and an explosion with cacodyl cost him sight in his right eye. In 1841, Bunsen created the Bunsen cell battery, using an electrode instead of the expensive platinum electrode used in William Robert Groves electrochemical cell. Early in 1851 he accepted a professorship at the University of Breslau, in late 1852 Bunsen became the successor of Leopold Gmelin at the University of Heidelberg. There he used electrolysis to produce pure metals, such as chromium, magnesium, aluminum, manganese, a long collaboration with Henry Enfield Roscoe began in 1852, in which they studied the photochemical formation of hydrogen chloride from hydrogen and chlorine. From this work, the reciprocity law of Bunsen and Roscoe originated and he discontinued his work with Roscoe in 1859 and joined Gustav Kirchhoff to study emission spectra of heated elements, a research area called spectrum analysis. For this work, Bunsen and his assistant, Peter Desaga, had perfected a special gas burner by 1855. The newer design of Bunsen and Desaga, which provided a very hot and clean flame, is now called simply the Bunsen burner, there had been earlier studies of the characteristic colors of heated elements, but nothing systematic
24.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
25.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
