1.
Victoria (Australia)
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Victoria is a state in southeast Australia. Victoria is Australias most densely populated state and its second-most populous state overall, most of its population is concentrated in the area surrounding Port Phillip Bay, which includes the metropolitan area of its state capital and largest city, Melbourne, Australias second-largest city. Prior to British European settlement, the area now constituting Victoria was inhabited by a number of Aboriginal peoples. With Great Britain having claimed the entire Australian continent east of the 135th meridian east in 1788, Victoria was included in the wider colony of New South Wales. The first settlement in the area occurred in 1803 at Sullivan Bay, and much of what is now Victoria was included in the Port Phillip District in 1836, Victoria was officially created as a separate colony in 1851, and achieved self-government in 1855. Politically, Victoria has 37 seats in the Australian House of Representatives and 12 seats in the Australian Senate, at state level, the Parliament of Victoria consists of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council. Victoria is currently governed by the Labor Party, with Daniel Andrews the current Premier, the personal representative of the Queen of Australia in the state is the Governor of Victoria, currently Linda Dessau. Local government is concentrated in 79 municipal districts, including 33 cities, although a number of unincorporated areas still exist, Victorias total gross state product is ranked second in Australia, although Victoria is ranked fourth in terms of GSP per capita because of its limited mining activity. Culturally, Melbourne is home to a number of museums, art galleries and theatres and is described as the sporting capital of Australia. The Melbourne Cricket Ground is the largest stadium in Australia, and the host of the 1956 Summer Olympics, Victoria has eight public universities, with the oldest, the University of Melbourne, having been founded in 1853. Victoria, like Queensland, was named after Queen Victoria, who had been on the British throne for 14 years when the colony was established in 1851. The first British settlement in the later known as Victoria was established in October 1803 under Lieutenant-Governor David Collins at Sullivan Bay on Port Phillip. In the year 1826 Colonel Stewart, Captain S. Wright, fly and the brigs Dragon and Amity, took a number of convicts and a small force composed of detachments of the 3rd and 93rd regiments. Victorias next settlement was at Portland, on the south west coast of what is now Victoria, edward Henty settled Portland Bay in 1834. Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman, who set up a base in Indented Head, from settlement the region around Melbourne was known as the Port Phillip District, a separately administered part of New South Wales. Shortly after the now known as Geelong was surveyed by Assistant Surveyor W. H. Smythe. And in 1838 Geelong was officially declared a town, despite earlier white settlements dating back to 1826, days later, still in 1851 gold was discovered near Ballarat, and subsequently at Bendigo. Later discoveries occurred at sites across Victoria
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Postcodes in Australia
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Postcodes are used in Australia to more efficiently sort and route mail within the postal system. All postcodes in Australia have four digits and are placed at the end of the Australian address, Australian postcodes are managed by Australia Post. Postcodes are published in booklets available from post offices or online from the Australia Post website, Australian envelopes and postcards often have four square boxes printed in orange at the bottom right for the postcode. These are used when addressing mail by hand, use of the Australian postcode system commenced in 1967, implemented by the Postmaster-Generals Department, now called Australia Post. It replaced earlier postal sorting systems, such as Melbournes letter and number codes, if addressing a letter from outside Australia, the postcode is recorded before Australia. They are often linked with one area, due to post code rationalization, But are now sometimes they can be quite complex, especially in country areas. The south-western Victoria 3221 postcode of the Geelong Mail Centre also includes twenty places around Geelong with very few people and this means that mail for these places is not fully sorted until it gets to Geelong. Some postcodes cover large populations, while other postcodes have much smaller populations, Australian postcodes range from 0200 for the Australian National University to 9944 for Cannonvale, Queensland. Some towns and suburbs have two postcodes — one for deliveries and one for post office boxes. g. The Royal Brisbane and Womens Hospital has the postcode 4029, the Australian National University had the postcode 0200, more postcode ranges were made available for LVRs in the 1990s. Australia Post has been progressively discontinuing the LVR programme since 2006, Australian National Universitys postcode 0200 was the last LVR to be closed in September 2014. For example, postcode 2620 covers both a locality in NSW as well as a locality in the ACT, and postcode 0872 covers a number of localities across WA, SA, NT and QLD. Jervis Bay Territory, once an exclave of the ACT but now a territory, is geographically located on the coast of NSW. It is just south of the towns of Vincentia and Huskisson, Mail to the Jervis Bay Territory is still addressed to the ACT. The numbers used to show the state on each radio callsign in Australia are the number as the first number for postcodes in that state, e. g. 2xx in New South Wales, 3xx in Victoria. Radio callsigns pre-date postcodes in Australia by more than forty years, australias external territories are also included in Australia Posts postcode system. Capital city postcodes were the lowest postcodes in their state or territory range, before new ranges for LVRs, however, postcodes with the same second number are not always next to each other. As an example, postcodes in the range 2200–2299 are split between the suburbs of Sydney and the Central Coast of New South Wales
4.
Time in Australia
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Australia uses three main time zones, Australian Western Standard Time, Australian Central Standard Time, and Australian Eastern Standard Time. Time is regulated by the state governments, some of which observe daylight saving time. Australias external territories observe different time zones, Standard time was introduced in the 1890s when all of the Dominions adopted it. Before the switch to standard time zones, each city or town was free to determine its local time. Daylight saving time is used in South Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and it is not currently used in Western Australia, Queensland or the Northern Territory. The standardization of time in Australia began in 1892, when surveyors from the six Dominions in Australia met in Melbourne for the Intercolonial Conference of Surveyors, the delegates accepted the recommendation of the 1884 International Meridian Conference to adopt Greenwich Mean Time as the basis for standard time. The Dominions enacted time zone legislation, which took effect in February 1895. The clocks were set ahead of GMT by eight hours in Western Australia, by nine hours in South Australia, and by 10 hours in Queensland, New South Wales, the three time zones became known as Eastern Standard Time, Central Standard Time, and Western Standard Time. Broken Hill in the far west of New South Wales also adopted Central Standard Time due to it being connected by rail to Adelaide but not Sydney at the time. In May 1899, South Australia advanced Central Standard Time by thirty minutes, in doing so, South Australia also adopted a time meridian located outside its boundaries – another departure from international convention. Attempts to correct these oddities in 1986 and 1994 were rejected, when the Northern Territory was separated from South Australia and placed under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government, that Territory kept Central Standard Time. Likewise, when the ACT was broken off from New South Wales, Australia has kept a version of the UTC atomic time scale since the 1990s, but Greenwich Mean Time remained the formal basis for the standard times of all of the states through 2005. All states have adopted the UTC standard, starting on 1 September 2005, such instruments may be valid for only the current year, and so this section generally only refers to the legislation. In New South Wales and Western Australia, the starting and ending dates, however, during World War I and World War II all states and territories used daylight saving time. In 1968 Tasmania became the first state in peacetime to use DST, followed in 1971 by New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, Western Australia and the Northern Territory did not adopt it. Queensland and Western Australia have occasionally used DST during the past 40 years during trial periods. The main DST zones are the following, Central Daylight Saving Time – UTC+10,30, in South Australia Eastern Daylight Saving Time – UTC+11, in New South Wales, the ACT, Victoria, and Tasmania. During the usual periods of DST, the three time zones in Australia become five zones
5.
Daylight saving time
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Daylight saving time is the practice of advancing clocks during summer months by one hour so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer, while sacrificing normal sunrise times. Typically, regions that use Daylight Savings Time adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring, American inventor and politician Benjamin Franklin proposed a form of daylight time in 1784. New Zealander George Hudson proposed the idea of saving in 1895. The German Empire and Austria-Hungary organized the first nationwide implementation, starting on April 30,1916, many countries have used it at various times since then, particularly since the energy crisis of the 1970s. The practice has both advocates and critics, DST clock shifts sometimes complicate timekeeping and can disrupt travel, billing, record keeping, medical devices, heavy equipment, and sleep patterns. Computer software often adjusts clocks automatically, but policy changes by various jurisdictions of DST dates, industrialized societies generally follow a clock-based schedule for daily activities that do not change throughout the course of the year. The time of day that individuals begin and end work or school, North and south of the tropics daylight lasts longer in summer and shorter in winter, with the effect becoming greater as one moves away from the tropics. However, they will have one hour of daylight at the start of each day. Supporters have also argued that DST decreases energy consumption by reducing the need for lighting and heating, DST is also of little use for locations near the equator, because these regions see only a small variation in daylight in the course of the year. After ancient times, equal-length civil hours eventually supplanted unequal, so civil time no longer varies by season, unequal hours are still used in a few traditional settings, such as some monasteries of Mount Athos and all Jewish ceremonies. This 1784 satire proposed taxing window shutters, rationing candles, and waking the public by ringing church bells, despite common misconception, Franklin did not actually propose DST, 18th-century Europe did not even keep precise schedules. However, this changed as rail transport and communication networks came to require a standardization of time unknown in Franklins day. Modern DST was first proposed by the New Zealand entomologist George Hudson, whose shift work job gave him time to collect insects. An avid golfer, he also disliked cutting short his round at dusk and his solution was to advance the clock during the summer months, a proposal he published two years later. The proposal was taken up by the Liberal Member of Parliament Robert Pearce, a select committee was set up to examine the issue, but Pearces bill did not become law, and several other bills failed in the following years. Willett lobbied for the proposal in the UK until his death in 1915, william Sword Frost, mayor of Orillia, Ontario, introduced daylight saving time in the municipality during his tenure from 1911 to 1912. Starting on April 30,1916, the German Empire and its World War I ally Austria-Hungary were the first to use DST as a way to conserve coal during wartime, Britain, most of its allies, and many European neutrals soon followed suit. Russia and a few other countries waited until the year
6.
Melbourne
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Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in Australia and Oceania. The name Melbourne refers to an urban agglomeration spanning 9,900 km2, the metropolis is located on the large natural bay of Port Phillip and expands into the hinterlands towards the Dandenong and Macedon mountain ranges, Mornington Peninsula and Yarra Valley. It has a population of 4,641,636 as of 2016, and its inhabitants are called Melburnians. Founded by free settlers from the British Crown colony of Van Diemens Land on 30 August 1835, in what was then the colony of New South Wales, it was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837. It was named Melbourne by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Richard Bourke, in honour of the British Prime Minister of the day, William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne. It was officially declared a city by Queen Victoria, to whom Lord Melbourne was close, in 1847, during the Victorian gold rush of the 1850s, it was transformed into one of the worlds largest and wealthiest cities. After the federation of Australia in 1901, it served as the interim seat of government until 1927. It is a financial centre in the Asia-Pacific region. It is recognised as a UNESCO City of Literature and a centre for street art, music. It was the host city of the 1956 Summer Olympics and the 2006 Commonwealth Games, the main passenger airport serving the metropolis and the state is Melbourne Airport, the second busiest in Australia. The Port of Melbourne is Australias busiest seaport for containerised and general cargo, Melbourne has an extensive transport network. The main metropolitan train terminus is Flinders Street Station, and the regional train. Melbourne is also home to Australias most extensive network and has the worlds largest urban tram network. Before the arrival of settlers, humans had occupied the area for an estimated 31,000 to 40,000 years. At the time of European settlement, it was inhabited by under 2000 hunter-gatherers from three indigenous tribes, the Wurundjeri, Boonwurrung and Wathaurong. The area was an important meeting place for the clans of the Kulin nation alliance and it would be 30 years before another settlement was attempted. Batman selected a site on the bank of the Yarra River. Batman then returned to Launceston in Tasmania, in early August 1835 a different group of settlers, including John Pascoe Fawkner, left Launceston on the ship Enterprize
7.
Colac, Victoria
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Colac is the largest city in and administrative centre of the Colac Otway Shire. At June 2015, Colac had a population of 11,817, a commercial centre for a major agricultural district, it was named after nearby Lake Colac and was proclaimed a city in 1960. For thousands of clans of the Gulidjan people occupied the region of Colac. The area was first settled by Europeans in 1837 by Hugh Murray, the Post Office opened on 1 July 1848 as Lake Colac and was renamed Colac in 1854. Colac Botanic Gardens in Queen Street located on the shores of Lake Colac, were established in 1868, in 1854 town founder Hugh Murray employed a couple of shepherds named Thomas Brookhouse and Patrick Geary. Brookhouse who was looking for missing sheep disappeared without a trace, Patrick Geary and his wife soon left the district. Fifteen years later a boy out rabbiting found the remains of Thomas Brookhouse under a pile of rocks near Lake Corangamite. Brookhouse had his head smashed in and it took Police two years to track Patrick Geary and charge him with Brookhouses murder. A friend of Geary told the court that Geary had killed Brookhouse with an axe to stop him from informing Murray of Gearys sheep stealing activities, Geary was hanged in Melbourne in 1871. and Cooks famous reiteration that If the old country is at war, so are we. Fisher became Prime Minister for the time on 5 September. Australias largest permanent salt lake and Victorias largest natural lake, Lake Corangamite, is nearby, the main form of transport in Colac is the automobile. The Princes Highway runs through the city and forms its main street, the highway runs west toward Camperdown and east to Geelong and beyond to Melbourne. The Colac-Ballarat Road runs north connecting Colac to Ballarat via Cressy, the railway through the town was opened in 1877, and extended from 1883 as part of the line to the south west of the state. The Irrewarra-Cressy line towards Ballarat also ran from Colac between 1889 and 1953 and the Alvie line opened in 1923 and closed in 1954. A narrow gauge line also originated from the town, the branch line to Beech Forest opened in 1902 and was extended to Crowes in 1911. The route of the railway has been developed as the Old Beechy Rail Trail. The local railway station is served by V/Line passenger services on the Warrnambool line, the train stops at Camperdown and Terang. Colac was the home of the annual Cliff Young Australian 6-day race, the event occurred for over 20 years until 2006 and is a running/walking event
8.
Hamilton, Victoria
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Hamilton is a city in western Victoria, Australia, at the intersection of the Glenelg Highway and the Henty Highway. The Hamilton Highway connects it to Geelong, Hamilton is in the federal Division of Wannon, and is in the Southern Grampians local government area. Hamilton used to claim to be the Wool Capital of the World and these days, the town uses the Greater Hamilton, one place, many possibilities tagline, recognising the good schools, highly skilled workforce and rich natural beauty of the region. People who lived in these areas tended to be settled rather than nomadic, the region is fertile and well-watered, leading to an abundance of wildlife, and no need to travel far for food. On 12 September 1836, the explorer, Major Thomas Mitchell was the first European to travel through the area where Hamilton later developed and his reports of the fertility and abundance of ‘Australia Felix’ encouraged pastoralists to move to the area and establish large sheep runs. By 1839 there were a number of settlers in the including the Wedge family whose property ‘The Grange was located within the present town site. Conflict between the pastoralists and the population soon arose. The local people resisted encroachment on their tribal lands. They stole and killed sheep for food and out of retaliation for the use of their hunting territory as grazing land. A number of Aborigines in the Western district were murdered in this period in the resulting conflicts, when Governor La Trobe visited The Grange in 1841 he noted the extent of interracial violence and appointed Acheson French as police magistrate to the area. Another result of the conflict was the establishment of an Aboriginal reserve and this further angered the pastoralists who regarded the reserve and its administration as hostile to their interests. This, along with the effects of dislocation, European diseases, the proximity of The Grange to other properties and to important tracks between Portland and New South Wales led to the gradual emergence of a small town. This included an inn, blacksmith, a store and some shanties and businesses nearby. The site was a social centre for surrounding pastoral properties. A Post Office opened on 1 July 1844, the desire for a school prompted a town survey that commenced in 1849. The township of Hamilton was formally declared in 1851, the town was named in the following way as quoted by the book, Dundas Shire Centenary 1863-1963, page 58. Quote, In 1840, owing to difficulties in controlling public houses on, or not on the imaginary boundary line. He completed the survey as far as Serviceton by the spring of 1847, and was then appointed District Surveyor and in 1850, laid out a township for the Grange and it was then the prerogative of the surveyor to christen his lay-out
9.
Portland, Victoria
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Portland /ˈpɔːrtlənd/ is a city in Victoria, Australia, and is the oldest European settlement in the state. It is also the urban centre in the Shire of Glenelg and is located on Portland Bay. The bay was named in 1800 by the British navigator James Grant, I also distinguished the Bay by the name of Portland Bay, in honour of His Grace the Duke of Portland, wrote Grant. The bay, the deep sea port between Adelaide and Melbourne, offers a sheltered anchorage against the often wild weather of Bass Strait. Whaling captain William Dutton is known to have been resident in the Portland Bay area when the Henty clan arrived and is said to have provided seed potatoes for the Henty garden, after a voyage of 34 days, the Thistle arrived at Portland Bay on 19 November 1834. Edward Henty was only 24 years old and, early in December, using a plough he had made himself, the next voyage of the Thistle brought his brother Francis with additional stock and supplies, and in a short time houses were erected and fences put up. In his diary entry for 3 December 1834, Henty wrote Arrived at 6p. m, in the 5 December entry Henty wrote On descending the hill we saw a native. He immediately ran on seeing us and he was busily employed pulling the gums from the wattle trees. There in Portland the Hentys were discovered by the explorer Thomas Mitchell in 1836, the squatter settlement was illegal since, at that time, the British Colonial Office policy was to contain colonial settlements in Australia within geographic limits. It had been considering how to deal with the prior occupation. The Hentys also farmed in areas known as Australia Felix, around Casterton, by 1838, land auctions had been authorised from Sydney and Charles Tyers surveyed the Portland township in 1839. It was government policy to encourage squatters to take possession of land they chose. A Post Office was opened on 4 December 1841, the third to open in the Port Phillip District after Melbourne, around 1842 a Presbyterian church and school were founded by the Rev. Alexander Laurie, who later ran the Portland Herald. His widow and two sons founded The Border Watch in nearby Mount Gambier, the Gunditjmara are the traditional owners of the south west, taking in what is now Portland. They were present when the early commercial sealers like William Dutton arrived and it has been argued whether Dutton was first, but he was considered to be somewhat itinerant by the establishment of the era and not the discoverer of this deepwater bay and fertile hinterland. Henty sowed the first Victorian wheat crop on cliff top land, while the Hentys landed ashore in Portland on 19 November 1834. Melbourne was founded in 1835 by John Batman, Gunditjmara still reside in and around the district, they are renowned in scientific circles for their early aquaculture development at nearby Lake Condah. Physical remains such as the weirs and fish traps are to be found in Lake Condah, the Gunditjmara were a settled group, living in small circular stone huts
10.
Local government in Victoria
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Local government in the Australian state of Victoria describes the 79 municipal districts often referred to as local government areas. They are constituted as cities, shires, rural cities and, in one case, in addition to the LGAs, there are also 10 coastal islands and ski resorts which are unincorporated areas and administered either by the state or management boards. At present, the councils not controlled by administrators have a total of 611 councillors, after the elections in October 2016, this number will increase due to changes in electoral structure and administrators leaving some councils. Up till 1994 there had been 210 LGAs, when Jeff Kennett, the councils of Benalla and Mansfield split subsequent to this to arrive at the current number. Both bodies continued after the creation of Victoria as a separate colony, Road districts were established pursuant to legislation passed in 1853. From 1862 many road districts became shires pursuant to the District Councils Bill 1862, to become a shire, the road district had to be over 100 square miles in size and have annual rate revenue of over £1000. There were 96 road districts or shires created by 1865, promotion to town or city status was dependent on the gross revenue of the council. Such promotion was not automatic, but it was granted often, the clauses have been amended many times by parliament, but since 2006 the Constitution Act has required a referendum to further alter them. Five shires became rural cities but were dissolved with the 1994 restructure, in 1992 there were 65 cities in Victoria, more than there were in England at the time despite a significantly lower population. In 1994, the Jeff Kennett government restructured local government in Victoria and his reforms dissolved 210 councils and sacked 1600 elected councillors, and created 78 new councils through amalgamations. In suburban Melbourne 53 municipalities were reduced to 26, the new local government areas were headed by commissioners appointed by the State Government, democratically elected councils did not return until 1996. The current total of 79 LGAs arose when the Shire of Delatite was split in 2002 into the Rural City of Benalla and the Shire of Mansfield. A new City of Sunbury was proposed to be created from part of the City of Hume after the 2016 council elections, all local government areas are governed in a similar fashion, with an elected council, one of whom is the mayor. The City of Melbourne and the City of Greater Geelong have a elected mayor. The average area of a district within the Melbourne metropolitan area is 285 square kilometres. In practice, this is understood as referring to the distribution between urban centres and rural areas. The term borough, used of the Borough of Queenscliffe, is not defined by the act but has retained for the single borough which survived the reforms of the 1990s. Under the repealed Local Government Act 1958, boroughs, towns and cities were defined on the basis of area, population, in practice, boroughs were and are small towns
11.
City of Warrnambool
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The City of Warrnambool is a local government area in the Barwon South West region of Victoria, Australia, located in the south-western part of the state. It covers an area of 120.7 square kilometres and and it is entirely surrounded by the Shire of Moyne and the Southern Ocean. The City is named after the urban settlement located in the centre of the LGA, that is Warrnambool. Warrnambool was first incorporated as a municipality on 7 December 1855 and it became a borough on 1 October 1863, and a town on 2 February 1883. It was proclaimed as a city on 8 April 1918, in 1993, the new Kennett Liberal government announced a program of local government reform, in which many of Victorias 210 councils were to be amalgamated. The southwest region containing 23 councils was the first to be reviewed, warrnambools strength in tertiary education and manufacturing was taken into account. By June, it was clear that Warrnambool would be the municipality in the region to be spared. On 23 September 1994, the council was dismissed and replaced with a Government-appointed commissioner and it first held elections for a new council in March 1996. The council is composed of seven councillors elected to represent an unsubdivided municipality, the new council then had, until 2004, seven wards and seven councillors, with one councillor per ward elected to represent each ward. It also provides services at its administrative centre in Warrnambool. The City of Warrnambool is dominated by the Warrnambool urban area, which represents 35.0 square kilometres, or 29. 0%, of the Citys area and at the 2006 census had a population of 28,150
12.
Electoral district of South-West Coast
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The Electoral district of South-West Coast is an electorate of the Victorian Legislative Assembly. It was created prior to the 2002 election in order to replace the abolished seats of Portland, the seat is dominated by the town of Warrnambool, but also includes Portland, Port Fairy, Koroit, Heywood and Macarthur. South-West Coast is located in ancestrally Liberal territory, and was thus a natural choice for Portlands former member, Denis Napthine and he barely held onto his seat in the Labor landslide of that year, seeing his margin reduced to only 0.7 percent. However, it has reverted to its previous form as a safe Liberal seat, Napthine subsequently served as Premier of Victoria from 2013 to 2014. Following his governments election loss to Labor in November 2014, Napthine resigned from parliament on 3 September 2015, roma Britnell retained the seat for the Liberals at the ensuing by-election on 31 October. South-West Coast state by-election,2015 Electorate profile, South-West Coast, Victorian Electoral Commission
13.
Division of Wannon
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The Division of Wannon is an Australian Electoral Division in the state of Victoria. It is located in the south-west of the state, and encompasses most of the Western District of the state and it adjoins the South Australian border in the west, and the Bass Strait coast in the south. The division encompasses the towns of Warrnambool, Portland, Ararat, Hamilton, the Grampians and the Port Campbell National Parks are in the division. Maryborough and Avoca became part of Wannon at the 2013 federal election due to a redistribution that took place on 24 December 2010, the division was proclaimed in 1900, and was one of the original 75 divisions to be contested at the first Federal election. The division was named after the Wannon River, for the first half-century after Federation, it regularly traded hands between the Australian Labor Party and the conservative parties. However, a 1955 redistribution removed most of the seats Labor-friendly territory, the seats most notable member was former Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser, to date the last prime minister from a country seat. His successor, David Hawker, was Speaker of the Australian House of Representatives during the last term of the Howard Government, Hawker retired in 2010 and was succeeded by current member Dan Tehan. Division of Wannon - Australian Electoral Commission
14.
Princes Highway
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The Princes Highway is a major road in Australia, extending from Sydney to Port Augusta via the coast through the states of New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. The highway follows the coastline for most of its length, and thus quite an indirect. Because of the nature and lower traffic volumes over much of its length. Sections of the Princes Highway have different route allocations, the gazetted route of the Princes Highway differs from the route of State Route 60. The gazetted route was designated State Route 60 for its length, the section of the Princes Highway between West Helensburgh and Bulli Tops the original coastal route between Sydney and Wollongong, first used in 1843. From Bulli Tops this route continued south along todays Mount Ousley Road as far south as Mount Keira Road and this route replaced the inland route from Sydney via Liverpool, Campbelltown, Appin to Bulli Tops. The Princes Highway as a named route came into being when pre-existing roads were renamed ‘Princes Highway’ after the visit to Australia in 1920 of the Prince of Wales. The original submissions in January 1920 were in order for the Prince to have the opportunity during his visit to make the trip from Melbourne to Sydney overland along the route, different routes were considered, including the inland route via Yass. This idea never came to fruition, due partly to the amount of time. The Prince did, however, give his permission for the naming, the highway had opening ceremonies in both New South Wales and Victoria during 1920. The first section of road from Melbourne was opened on 10 August in Warragul, the road from Sydney was opened on 19 October in Bulli, by the NSW Minister for Local Government, Thomas Mutch. The approval was given by the Victorian executive to extend the highway west from Melbourne through Geelong, Camperdown, Warrnambool, the roads were renamed by the South Australian government from Adelaide east to the South Australian border in February 1922. By 1928, the route went through Mount Barker and Wistow to Lanhorne Creek, by 1935, the Princes Highway passed through Nairne and Kanmantoo, Murray Bridge and Tailem Bend. This road was superseded by the South Eastern Freeway, Swanport Bridge, in 1942, as part of wartime defence measures, a road was built from Mount Keira Road to Fairy Meadow. This route forms part of Mount Ousley Road, city Road in fact forms the first section of the highway, and becomes King Street, Newtown, also part of the Princes Highway. Where King Street ends at Sydney Park Road, the Princes Highway continues in its own right, the only major engineering structures along its route are the twin Tom Uglys Bridge across Georges River. The northbound bridge is of steel construction, opened in 1929, whilst the southbound bridge is of prestressed concrete girders. It runs through Sydneys southern suburbs, via Kogarah, Sutherland, South of Waterfall the highway is paralleled by the 55-kilometre Princes Motorway to the top of Bulli Pass outside the city of Wollongong, which carries the majority of traffic
15.
Great Ocean Road
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The Great Ocean Road is an Australian National Heritage listed 243 kilometres stretch of road along the south-eastern coast of Australia between the Victorian cities of Torquay and Allansford. Built by returned soldiers between 1919 and 1932 and dedicated to soldiers killed during World War I, the road is the worlds largest war memorial. The Great Ocean Road starts at Torquay and travels 244 kilometres westward to finish at Allansford near Warrnambool, the road is two lane, and is covered by a speed limit changing between 50 kilometres per hour and 100 kilometres per hour. The road traverses rainforests, as well as beaches and cliffs composed of limestone and sandstone, at the stretch of the Great Ocean Road nearer to Geelong, the road meanders along the coast, with tall, almost-vertical cliffs on the other side of it. Road signs put up along the road warn motorists of possible rockfalls, the city of Geelong, close to Torquay, experiences great benefit from Australian and international visitors to the road, with Geelong Otway Tourism affirming it as an invaluable asset. However, according to a survey performed by the Surf Coast Shire, a 45 kilometre section of the Great Ocean Road, between Lorne and Apollo Bay, is the location of the annual Great Ocean Road Marathon. First run in 2005, the current marathon record of two hours,27 minutes and 42 seconds was set in 2011 by James Kipkelwon of Kenya who also won the event in 2012. By the time of World War I, the rugged south-west coast of Victoria was accessible only by sea or rough bush track. Besides being dedicated as a memorial, it was envisaged that the road would connect isolated settlements on the coast. In 1918, the Great Ocean Road Trust was formed as a private company, the company managed to secure £81,000 in capital from private subscription and borrowing, with Hitchcock himself contributing £3000. Money would be repaid by charging drivers a toll until the debt was cleared, construction on the road began on 19 September 1919, built by approximately 3,000 returned servicemen as a war memorial for fellow servicemen who had been killed in World War I. An advance survey team progressed through dense wilderness at approximately 3 kilometres a month, anecdotal evidence from ABC archives in 1982 suggested workers would rest detonators on their knees during travel, as it was the softest ride for them. The soldiers were paid 10 shillings and sixpence for eight hours per day and they used tents for accommodation throughout, and made use of a communal dining marquee and kitchen, food costing up to 10 shillings a week. Despite the difficulty involved in constructing the road, the workers had access to a piano, gramophone, games, newspapers and magazines at the camps. Additionally, in 1924, the steamboat Casino became stranded near Cape Patton after hitting a reef, the workers obtained the cargo, resulting in an unscheduled two-week-long drinking break. On 18 March 1922 the section from Eastern View to Lorne was officially opened with celebrations, however it was then closed from 10 May 1922 for further work, opening again on 21 December along with tolls to recoup construction costs. The charge, payable at Eastern View, was two shillings for motor cars, and 10 shillings for wagons with more than two horses, in November 1932, the section from Lorne to Apollo Bay was finished, bringing the road to completion. At the time, newspaper The Age commented – In the face of almost insurmountable odds, a memorial was constructed in Hitchcocks name on the road at Mount Defiance, near Lorne, and he is still affectionately considered the Father of the Road
16.
Indigenous Australians
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Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of Australia, descended from groups that existed in Australia and surrounding islands prior to European colonisation. In present-day Australia these groups are divided into local communities. At the time of initial European settlement, over 250 languages were spoken, it is estimated that 120 to 145 of these remain in use. Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English, a population collapse following European settlement, and a smallpox epidemic spreading three years after the arrival of Europeans may have caused a massive and early depopulation. Since 1995, the Australian Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag have been among the flags of Australia. The word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century, to mean, first or earliest known and it comes from the Latin word aborigines, derived from ab and origo. The word was used in Australia to describe its indigenous peoples as early as 1789 and it soon became capitalised and employed as the common name to refer to all Indigenous Australians. Strictly speaking, Aborigine is the noun and Aboriginal the adjectival form, however, use of either Aborigine or Aboriginal to refer to individuals has acquired negative connotations in some sectors of the community, and it is generally regarded as insensitive and even offensive. The more acceptable and correct expression is Aboriginal Australians or Aboriginal people, the term Indigenous Australians, which also includes Torres Strait Islander peoples, has found increasing acceptance, particularly since the 1980s. The broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many groups that often identify under names from local Indigenous languages. Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt off Arnhem Land, Palawah in Tasmania and these larger groups may be further subdivided, for example, Anangu recognises localised subdivisions such as Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara, Ngaanyatjarra, Luritja and Antikirinya. It is estimated that prior to the arrival of British settlers, the Torres Strait Islanders possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are related to the Papuan peoples of New Guinea, accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation Aboriginal Australians. This has been another factor in the promotion of the inclusive term Indigenous Australians. Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify themselves fully as Torres Strait Islanders, a further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify themselves as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage. The Torres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands which were annexed by Queensland in 1879, eddie Mabo was from Mer or Murray Island in the Torres Strait, which the famous Mabo decision of 1992 involved. The term blacks has been used to refer to Indigenous Australians since European settlement, while originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general and refers to people of any skin pigmentation. In the 1970s, many Aboriginal activists, such as Gary Foley, proudly embraced the term black, the book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community including Robert Jabanungga reflecting on contemporary Aboriginal culture
17.
Volcanic cone
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Volcanic cones are among the simplest volcanic landforms. They are built by ejecta from a vent, piling up around the vent in the shape of a cone with a central crater. Volcanic cones are of different types, depending upon the nature, types of volcanic cones include stratocones, spatter cones, tuff cones, and cinder cones. Stratocones are large cone-shaped volcanoes made up of lava flows, explosively erupted pyroclastic rocks, unlike shield volcanoes, they are characterized by a steep profile and periodic, often alternating, explosive eruptions and effusive eruptions. Some have collapsed craters called calderas, the central core of a stratocone is commonly dominated by a central core of intrusive rocks that range from around 500 meters to over several kilometers in diameter. This central core is surrounded by generations of lava flows, many of which are brecciated. The typical stratocone is an andesitic to dacitic volcano that is associated with subduction zones and they are also known as either stratified volcano, composite cone, bedded volcano, cone of mixed type or Vesuvian-type volcano. A spatter cone is a low, steep-sided hill or mound that consists of welded lava fragments, called spatter, typically, spatter cones are about 3–5 meters high. In case of a fissure, lava fountaining will create broad embankments of spatter, called spatter ramparts. Spatter cones are circular and cone shaped, while spatter ramparts are linear wall-like features. Spatter cones and spatter ramparts are typically formed by lava fountaining associated with mafic, highly fluid lavas, as blobs of molten lava, spatter, are erupted into the air by a lava fountain, they can lack the time needed to cool completely before hitting the ground. Consequently, the spatter are not fully solid, like taffy, as they land, as a result, the spatter builds up a cone that is composed of spatter either agglutinated or welded to each other. They are characterized by rims that have a maximum relief of 100–800 meters above the crater floor. They typically have a rim to rim diameter of 300–5,000 meters, a tuff cone consists typically of thick-bedded pyroclastic flow and surge deposits created by eruption-fed density currents and bomb-scoria beds derived from fallout from its eruption column. The tuffs composing a tuff cone have commonly been altered, palagonitized, by either its interaction with groundwater or when it was deposited warm and wet. The pyroclastic deposits of tuff cones differ from the deposits of spatter cones by their lack or paucity of lava spatter, smaller grain-size. Typically, but not always, tuff cones lack associated lava flows and they are characterized by rims that have a low, broad topograhic profiles and gentle topographic slopes that are 25 degrees or less. The maximum thickness of the pyroclastic debris comprising the rim of a tuff ring is generally thin
18.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
19.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
20.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
21.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
22.
HMS Lady Nelson (1798)
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His Majestys Armed Survey Vessel Lady Nelson was commissioned in 1799 to survey the coast of Australia. At the time parts of the Australian coast were unmapped. It was against this background that Lady Nelson was chosen to survey, Lady Nelson left Portsmouth on 18 March 1800 and arrived at Sydney on 16 December 1800 after having been the first vessel to reach the east coast of Australia via Bass Strait. Prior to that all vessels had sailed around the southern tip of Tasmania to reach their destination. Lady Nelsons survey work commenced shortly after her arrival at Sydney, at the end of the 1790s the New South Wales Colonial Government had no vessels capable of reaching the outside world. Supply was found to be unseaworthy in 1797, and was subsequently condemned, reliance was temporarily repaired to enable her to sail back to England, whither she departed in March 1800. The only other vessel under the control of the government was Francis. The situation was relieved when Buffalo arrived in May 1799. In 1799 the Admiraltys Commissioners of Transport, ordered a cutter of 60 tons, to be built for their own use in the River Thames and it was based on an armed cutter, the Trial, built in Plymouth in 1789 to a design developed by Captain John Schanck. It was unusual in that it was fitted with three sliding keels, or centre-boards, that could be raised or lowered individually. Philip Gidley King, who was in England in 1799, was aware of the lack of vessels in New South Wales, the cost to the government was said to be £890. Schanck agreed with change and the Commissioners of Transport were directed to rig the vessel as a brig. The ability to raise the keels was a feature for a survey vessel required to work in shallow waters. Lady Nelsons draught was 12 feet when she left England, fully provisioned for her voyage and this would draught would halve to six feet when the keels were raised. The keels were of timber construction with no added ballast, Lady Nelson was built by John Dudman in the dockyard, known as Deadmans Dock, at Grove Street, Deptford. Lady Nelsons first commander was Lieutenant James Grant, the commission of whom came into effect on 19 October 1799, Philip Gidley King departed for New South Wales in Speedy on 26 Nov 1799 with a despatch recalling the incumbent Governor, John Hunter, who returned to England. King then took over as Governor and subsequently played a key part in the affairs of Lady Nelson after she arrived, Lady Nelson was loaded with sufficient provisions for nine months and enough water for six months, at an allowance of one gallon for each man per day. She was not equipped with a chronometer, Lady Nelson reached Gravesend on 16 January, anchored in the Downs on 20 January 1800
23.
Matthew Flinders
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Captain Matthew Flinders RN was an English navigator and cartographer, who was the leader of the first circumnavigation of Australia and identified it as a continent. Flinders made three voyages to the ocean between 1791 and 1810. In the second voyage, George Bass and Flinders confirmed that Van Diemens Land was an island, in the third voyage, Flinders circumnavigated the mainland of what was to be called Australia, accompanied by Aboriginal man Bungaree. Heading back to England in 1803, Flinders vessel needed urgent repairs at Isle de France, although Britain and France were at war, Flinders thought the scientific nature of his work would ensure safe passage, but a suspicious governor kept him under arrest for more than six years. Flinders health had suffered, however, and although he reached home in 1810, he did not live to see the publication of his widely praised book and atlas, A Voyage to Terra Australis. Flinders was born in Donington, Lincolnshire, England, the son of Matthew Flinders, a surgeon, and his wife Susannah, née Ward. In his own words, he was induced to go to sea against the wishes of my friends from reading Robinson Crusoe, initially serving on HMS Alert, he transferred to HMS Scipio, and in July 1790 was made midshipman on HMS Bellerophon under Captain Pasley. By Pasleys recommendation, he joined Captain Blighs expedition on HMS Providence and this was also Blighs second Breadfruit Voyage following on from the ill-fated voyage of the Bounty. The passage between the Australian mainland and Tasmania enabled savings of several days on the journey from England, in honour of this discovery, the largest island in Bass Strait would later be named Flinders Island. The town of Flinders near the mouth of Western Port also commemorates Bass discovery of that bay, Flinders never entered Western Port, and passed Cape Schanck only on 3 May 1802. Flinders once more sailed the Norfolk, this time north on 17 July 1799 and he touched down at Pumicestone Passage, Redcliffe and Coochiemudlo Island and also rowed ashore at Clontarf. During this visit he named Redcliffe after the Red Cliffs, in March 1800, Flinders rejoined the Reliance and set sail for England. Banks used his influence with Earl Spencer to convince the Admiralty of the importance of an expedition to chart the coastline of New Holland. As a result, in January 1801, Flinders was given command of the Investigator, a 334-ton sloop, the Investigator set sail for New Holland on 18 July 1801. Attached to the expedition was the botanist Robert Brown, botanical artist Ferdinand Bauer, due to the scientific nature of the expedition, Flinders was issued with a French passport, despite England and France then being at war. On 17 April 1801, Flinders married his longtime friend Ann Chappelle and had hoped to bring her with him to Port Jackson, however the Admiralty had strict rules against wives accompanying captains. This is well documented in correspondence between Flinders and his benefactor, Sir Joseph Banks in May 1801. I have but time to tell you that the news of your marriage, the Lords of the Admiralty have heard also that Mrs. Flinders is on board the Investigator, and that you have some thought of carrying her to sea with you
24.
HMS Investigator (1801)
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In 1802, under the command of Matthew Flinders, she was the first ship to circumnavigate Australia. The Navy sold her in 1810 and she returned to service under the name Xenophon. She was probably broken up c.1872, fram was built in Sunderland as a collier. She operated off the north-east coast of England before the Royal Navy purchased her in 1798, pitcher, of Northfield refitted her between 27 April and 24 May 1798. She then went to Deptford Dockyard on 6 August, the Navy armed her with 22 carronades to serve as an escort vessel, and renamed her HMS Xenophon. Commander George Sayer commissioned Xenophon as a ship for the North Sea. In 1799 he brought the Irish rebel James Napper Tandy and some of his associates as state prisoners from Hamburg to England, around February 1800 Sayer removed to HMS Inspector. At the urging of the naturalist Sir Joseph Banks, the Admiralty decided to launch an expedition to map the Australian coastline, as well as study the plant. Attached to the expedition was the botanist Robert Brown, the botanical artist Ferdinand Bauer, on the other hand, she was in relatively poor condition, and could therefore be spared from service in the war against France. The Navy had Xenophon fitted as a ship at Sheerness between November 1800 and March 1801, and renamed her Investigator. The refitting included making additional cabins for scientists and space on the deck for plant specimens, the armament was reduced to 2 long guns and 8 carronades, providing additional storage space. On 19 January 1801, the Navy appointed Lieutenant Flinders commander of the Investigator, the expedition put into King George Sound for a month before beginning a running survey of the Great Australian Bight, which stretched 2300 kilometres to Spencer Gulf. Flinders named the headland Cape Catastrophe, proceeding into the gulf, Flinders surveyed Port Lincoln. Working eastwards Investigator next charted Kangaroo Island, Yorke Peninsula and St Vincent Gulf, sailing eastward through Bass Strait, Investigator visited King Island and Port Phillip before arriving at Port Jackson on 9 May 1802. Investigator spent the ten weeks preparing and took aboard 12 new men. On 22 July Investigator left Port Jackson, sailing north in company with the brig Lady Nelson, Investigator hugged the east coast, passed through the Great Barrier Reef and transited Torres Strait. The ships carpenter reported that she would not last more than six months, Flinders sailed to the Dutch settlement in Timor hoping to find a replacement, but was unsuccessful. This meant abandoning his desire for a survey on the north
25.
Nicolas Baudin
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Nicolas Thomas Baudin was a French explorer, cartographer, naturalist and hydrographer. Born a commoner in Saint-Martin-de-Ré on the Île de Ré, Baudin joined the merchant navy at the age of 15 and he then joined the French navy and served in the Caribbean as an officier bleu during the American War of Independence of 1775-1783. In 1785 Baudin was captain of Caroline, taking Acadian settlers from Nantes to La Nouvelle Orléans, josephine called at the Cape and took Boos on board. Baudin had been reason to hope that he would be given command of the ships of this expedition. Later in 1788 Baudin sailed on a voyage from Trieste to Canton in Jardiniere. From there, he sent Jardiniere under her captain on a fur-trading venture to the north-west coast of America. Baudin made his way to Mauritius, where he purchased a replacement ship, Jardiniere II, Baudin embarked on the Spanish Royal Philippines Company ship, Placeres, which sailed from Port Louis for Cadiz in August 1790. Because of the condition of the ship, Placeres had to put in at the island of Trinidad in the West Indies. On its return voyage from Canton, the expedition would call at the Cape of Good Hope to pick up Scholl. A ship, called Jardiniere, was acquired and the botanists Franz Bredemeyer, after delays caused by the outbreak of war between France and Austria, Jardiniere departed from the Spanish port of Málaga on 1 October 1792. From Bombay the expedition proceeded to the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and the east coast of Africa, the expedition came to an abrupt end in June 1794 when Jardiniere went aground in a storm while attempting to enter Table Bay at the Cape of Good Hope. Baudin survived the wreck and made his way to the United States and he managed to send Jardinieres cargo of natural history specimens to the island of Trinidad. Belle Angélique cleared Le Havre on 30 September 1796 for the Canary Islands, the expedition sailed from the Canaries in a replacement vessel, Fanny, and reached Trinidad in April 1797. The British, who had just captured the island from the Spanish in February 1797, Baudin took Fanny to St. Thomas and St. Croix, and then to Puerto Rico, specimens being collected in all three islands. At St Croix, Fanny was replaced by a newly purchased ship, the expedition would also have the aim of promoting the economic and commercial interests of France in the regions to be visited. The expedition would require two well-equipped ships, which would carry a team of astronomers, naturalists and scientific draughtsmen over whom Baudin as commander would have absolute authority. After considering this extensive proposal, the French government decided to proceed with an expedition confined to a survey of western and southern New Holland, in October 1800 Baudin was selected to lead what has become known as the Baudin expedition to map the coast of Australia. He had two ships, Géographe and Naturaliste captained by Hamelin, and a suite of nine zoologists and botanists and he reached Australia in May 1801, and would explore and map the western coast and a part of the little-known southern coast of the continent
26.
Whaler
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A whaler or whaling ship is a specialized ship, designed for whaling, the catching and/or processing of whales. The former includes the whale catcher – a steam or diesel-driven vessel with a gun mounted at its bow. The latter includes such vessels as the sail or steam-driven whaleship of the 16th to early 20th century, there have also been vessels which combined the two activities, such as the bottlenose whalers of the late 19th and early 20th century, and catcher/factory ships of the modern era. Whaleships had two or more whaleboats, open rowing boats used in the capture of whales, whaleboats brought the captured whales to the whaleships to be flensed or cut up. Here the blubber was rendered into oil using two or three set in a brick furnace called the tryworks. At first, whale catchers either brought the whales they killed to a station or factory ship anchored in a sheltered bay or inlet. Later, with the development of the slipway at the ships stern, the World War II Flower-class corvettes were based on the design of the whale catcher Southern Pride. The crews of whaling vessels fought small skirmishes for the control of the Spitsbergen whale fishery between 1613 and 1638. In the late 18th and early 19th century the owners of whalerships frequently armed their vessels with cannons to enable the vessels to protect themselves against pirates, and in wartime, privateers. At the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793, British privateers captured several French whaleships, among them Necker and Deux Amis, dutch privateers captured Port de Paix and Penn. At the time, many French whaleships transferred to the American flag, some whaleships also carried letters of marque that authorized them to take enemy vessels should the opportunity arise. In July 1793 the British armed whaleship Liverpool, of 20 guns, however, Chardons crew succeeded in retaking their vessel. In 1793, an armed British whaleship captured the French whaleship Hébé in Walvis Bay, during the War of 1812, the U. S. Navy captured two whaleships, Essex Junior and Seringapatam, and used them as warships. During World War II, the Norwegian and later British Royal Navies hired a number of whalers for use in a variety of such as minesweeping, search and rescue. Ten Allied vessels categorized as whalers were lost in the war, history of whaling Moby-Dick Whaleboat Whaling Demerliac, Alain La Marine De Louis XVI, Nomenclature Des Navires Français De 1774 À1792. ISBN 2-906381-23-3 Jason Southern Actor Hvalur 9 RE399
27.
Victorian gold rush
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The Victorian gold rush was a period in the history of Victoria, Australia approximately between 1851 and the late 1860s. For a number of years the output from Victoria was greater than in any other country in the world with the exception of the more extensive fields of California. Victorias greatest yield for one year was in 1856, when 3,053,744 troy ounces of gold were won from the diggings, from 1851 to 1896 the Victorian Mines Department reported that a total of 61,034,682 oz of gold was mined in Victoria. Gold was first discovered in Australia on 15 February 1823, by assistant surveyor James McBrien, at Fish River, the find was considered unimportant at the time, and was not pursued for policy reasons. Gold discoveries in Beechworth, Ballarat and Bendigo sparked gold rushes similar to the California Gold Rush, at its peak some two tonnes of gold per week flowed into the Treasury Building in Melbourne. The gold exported to Britain in the 1850s paid all her foreign debts, Melbourne was a major boomtown during the gold rush. The city became the centre of the colony with rail networks radiating to the regional towns, politically, Victorias goldminers introduced male franchise and secret ballots, based on Chartist principles. As gold dwindled, pressures for reform, protectionism and political reform grew. A Land Convention in Melbourne during 1857 demanded land reform, Melbourne became one of the great cities of the British Empire and the world. Following the huge gold rushes were the Chinese in 1854, in short, the gold rush was a revolutionary event and reshaped Victoria, its society and politics. There were rumours abroad about the presence of gold in Australia, however the Colonial Secretary, Edward Deas Thomson, saw a great future for the country when Edward Hargraves proved his theory that Australia was a vast storehouse of gold. Hargraves had been in the California gold rush and knew gold country, the news spread like wildfire, and soon the race was on from coast to gold fields. Flocks were left untended, drovers deserted their teams, merchants and lawyers rushed from their desks and entire ships crews, captains included, marched off to seek their fortunes. In March 1850, Mr. W. Campbell of Strath Loddon found on the station of Mr. Donald Cameron and this was concealed at the time but on 10 January 1851, Campbell disclosed it. Others had found indications of gold, dr. George H. Bruhn, a German physician, whose services as an analyst were in great demand, had been shown specimens of gold from what afterwards became the Clunes diggings. A party formed by Mr. Louis John Michel, consisting of himself, Mr. William Haberlin, James Furnival, James Melville, James Headon, and B. The third discovery was by Mr. Thomas Hiscock, a resident at Buninyong, clarke, and by the discovery of Brentanis nugget in the Pyrenees district two years before, he had kept a constant lookout for gold in his neighbourhood. Dr. George H. Bruhn, a German physician, in the month of January,1851, dr. Bruhn forwarded specimens, which were received by the Gold Discovery Committee on 30 June 1851
28.
Port Fairy
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Port Fairy /pɔːt ˈfɛəri/ is a coastal town in south-western Victoria, Australia. It lies on the Princes Highway in the Shire of Moyne,28 kilometres west of Warrnambool and 290 kilometres west of Melbourne, in the early 19th century whalers and seal hunters used the coast in this region. The bay was named by the crew of the whaler The Fairy in 1828, john Griffiths established a whaling station in 1835 and a store was opened in 1839. In 1843, James Atkinson, a Sydney solicitor, purchased land in the town by special survey and he drained the swamps, subdivided and leased the land, and built a harbour on the Moyne River. He named the town Belfast after his hometown in Ireland, the post office opened on 1 July 1843 Agriculture developed in the region, and Belfast became an important transport hub. By 1857 the town had a population of 2,190, in the mid-to-late 19th century, Belfast was one of Australias largest ports, catering to the whaling industry. In 1887 the town was renamed Port Fairy as a result of an Act of Parliament, a railway was extended to the town in 1890, but closed in 1977. It has been converted into the Port Fairy to Warrnambool Rail Trail, at the 2011 census, Port Fairy had a population of 2,835. Its main industries are tourism and fishing, and it is the port for one of Victorias largest fishing fleets. A pharmaceutical factory owned by GlaxoSmithKline is located on the outskirts of the town, Port Fairy is home to two Primary school education facilities, The Port Fairy Consolidated School and St. Patricks Parish Primary School. Port Fairy was voted as one of the worlds most livable cities with a population under 20,000 after winning the 2012 International LivCom award, Port Fairy has a rich history and 50 buildings are protected by the National Trust of Australia. Griffiths Island nearby holds a breeding colony of the short-tailed shearwater or Australian muttonbird, the Port Fairy Folk Festival is held during the Labour Day long weekend in March each year. The festival has run continuously since 1977, in 2016, Port Fairy will celebrate the 40th edition of the Folk Festival from 11 to 14 March. Over the 40 festivals there have been around 3,500 acts including over 500 international acts, some of the most popular acts, include that of Rick E Vengeance. Rick E Vengeance first appeared as a performer in 1977, every year, thousands flock to the Sheebeen bar to see Rick perform a range of classic sing-a-long tunes on the Sunday night of the Folk Festival. Also accompanying his act, a small entertaining karaoke section takes place, the other major celebration in the town is the Moyneyana festival, held over summer from Christmas Eve to 26 January. Port Fairy also has a highly rated 18-hole links golf course, the town has an Australian rules football team, the Port Fairy Seagulls, which plays in the Hampden Football League. Denis Napthine, Premier of Victoria 2013–2014 T
29.
Oceanic climate
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Oceanic climates are defined as having a monthly mean temperature below 22 °C in the warmest month, and above 0 °C in the coldest month. It typically lacks a dry season, as precipitation is evenly dispersed throughout the year. Oceanic climates generally have cool summers and mild to cool winters, Oceanic climates are most dominant in Europe, where they spread much farther inland than in other continents. Oceanic climates can have much storm activity as they are located in the belt of the stormy westerlies, many oceanic climates have frequent cloudy or overcast conditions due to the near constant storms and lows tracking over or near them. Precipitation is both adequate and reliable throughout the year in oceanic climates, extended months of rain and cloudy conditions are common in oceanic climates. Seattle is an example of this, between October and May, Seattle experiences high rainfall and is mostly or partly cloudy six out of every seven days. In most areas with a climate, precipitation comes in the form of rain for the majority of the year. However, some areas with this climate see some snowfall annually during winter, outside of Australia and parts of New Zealand, most areas with an oceanic climate experience at least one snowstorm per year. In the poleward locations of the climate zone, snowfall is more frequent. Overall temperature characteristics of the oceanic climates feature cool temperatures and infrequent extremes of temperature, summers are cool, with the warmest month having a mean temperature below 22 °C. Poleward of the latter is a zone of the subpolar oceanic climate, with long and cold winters and cool. Examples of this climate include parts of coastal Iceland in the Northern Hemisphere and extreme southern Chile, Oceanic climates are not necessarily always found in coastal locations on the aforementioned parallels, however, in most cases oceanic climates parallel higher middle latitude oceans. The polar jet stream, which moves in a west to east direction across the middle latitudes, advancing low pressure systems, storms, in coastal areas of the higher middle latitudes, the prevailing onshore flow creates the basic structure of most oceanic climates. Oceanic climates are a product and reflection of the adjacent to them. In summer, high pressure pushes the prevailing westerlies north of many oceanic climates. As a result of the Gulf Stream, west-coast areas located in high latitudes like Ireland, the UK, Oceanic climates in Europe occur mostly in Northwest Europe, from Ireland and Great Britain eastward to central Europe. Most of France, Germany, Norway, the north coast of Spain, examples of oceanic climates are found in London, Bergen, Dublin, Berlin, Bilbao, Donostia-San Sebastian, Biarritz, Bayonne, Zürich, Copenhagen and Paris. With decreasing distance to the Mediterranean Sea, the climate of Northwest Europe gradually changes to the subtropical dry-summer or Mediterranean climate of southern Europe
30.
Temperate climate
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In geography, temperate or tepid latitudes of Earth lie between the tropics and the polar regions. The temperatures in these regions are relatively moderate, rather than extremely hot or cold. The north temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Arctic Circle, the south temperate zone extends from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Antarctic Circle. In some climate classifications, the zone is often divided into several smaller climate zones. These include Humid subtropical climate, Mediterranean climate, oceanic, subtropical climates are located between 23. 5° and 35. 0° north or south latitude on the eastern or leeward sides of landmasses. This climate has long, generally hot, summers and short, mild winters and these climates may occur in southern Asia, the southeastern United States, parts of eastern Australia, and in eastern coastal South America. Mediterranean climates, occur between 30° and 42° north and south latitude, on the sides of landmasses. This climate has hot summers and short mild winters, however, seasonal rainfall is the opposite of that of the subtropical humid type. These climates occur near the rimlands of the Mediterranean Sea, in western Australia, in California, the oceanic climates occur in the higher middle latitudes, between 45° and 60° north and south latitude. They are created by the flow from the cool high latitude oceans to their west. This causes the climate to have cool summers and cool winters, annual rainfall is spread throughout the entire year. Regions with this climate include Western Europe, northwestern North America, the Continental climates occur in middle latitudes, between 35° or 40° to 55°. These climates are normally inland or on sides of landmasses. They feature warm to hot summers and cold winters, with a large temperature variation. Regions with this climate include northern temperate Asia, the northern United States, southern Canada, the vast majority of the worlds human population resides in temperate zones, especially in the northern hemisphere, due to its greater mass of land. The richest temperate flora in the world is found in southern Africa, geographical zone Habitat Köppen climate classification Middle latitudes Polar circle Subtropics
31.
Early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave
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The early 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave was a heat wave that commenced in late January and led to record-breaking prolonged high temperatures in the region. The heat wave is considered one of the, if not the, during the heat wave, fifty separate locations set various records for consecutive, highest daytime and overnight temperatures. The highest temperature recorded during the wave was 48.8 °C in Hopetoun, Victoria. Both cities broke records for the most consecutive days over 40 °C, while Mildura, the heat began in South Australia on 25 January but became more widespread over southeast Australia by 27 January. A weak cool change moved over the coastal areas bringing some relief on 30 January, including Melbourne. Ten months after this heat wave, a second struck the region in November 2009. The heat wave was caused by a high pressure system that settled over the Tasman Sea. Coupled by a tropical low and a monsoon trough over Northern Australia. The CSIRO stated that warm lower tropospheric anticyclone is the key synoptic weather system responsible for the heat-waves. During the heat wave, several records were broken, Tasmania recorded its temperature,42.2 °C in Scamander. 0.8 °C hotter than previous record, temperatures recorded in other parts of the city and other towns throughout South Australia were even higher. 8th -42.7 °C On 31 January 2009 Wagga Wagga broke the all-time January record for the most days above 40.0 °C with six days recorded. The January record set in 1979 was equalled for number of days above 35.0 °C or more which is 19 days, on 8 February 2009 the record for the consecutive days over 37.8 °C was to be broken with thirteen consecutive days recorded. Wagga Wagga also recorded fourteen consecutive days of over 35.0 °C, 31st –38.2 °C After a slow start to the 2008–09 Australian bushfire season, the high temperatures and wind precipitated several bushfires across Victoria and South Australia. The conditions were similar to the heat wave experienced in early January 1939. Fires were also started in the Australian Alps by lightning strikes from dry thunderstorms in north-east Victoria and south-east New South Wales. The tail end of the wave also precipitated the Black Saturday bushfires. Several locations around the state recorded their highest temperatures since records began in 1859, during the heat wave, however, many of these regions experienced temperatures over 40 °C for twice as long or more, on average, than is normal for that time of year
32.
Precipitation
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In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
33.
Bureau of Meteorology
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The Bureau of Meteorology is an Executive Agency of the Australian Government responsible for providing weather services to Australia and surrounding areas. It was established in 1906 under the Meteorology Act, and brought together the state services that existed before then. The states officially transferred their weather recording responsibilities to the Bureau of Meteorology on 1 January 1908, the Bureau of Meteorology is the main provider of weather forecasts, warnings and observations to the Australian public. The Bureau distributes weather images via radiofax and is responsible for issuing flood alerts in Australia, Regional offices are located in each state and territory capital. Each regional office includes a Regional Forecasting Centre and a Flood Warning Centre, the Adelaide office incorporates the National Tidal Centre, while the Darwin office the Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre and Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre. The Australian Bureau of Meteorology issues Tropical Cyclone Advices and developed the Standard Emergency Warning Signal used for warnings, the Bureau is responsible for tropical cyclone naming for storms in waters surrounding Australia. Three lists of names used to be maintained, one for each of the western, northern and eastern Australian regions, however, as of the start of the 2008–09 Tropical Cyclone Year these lists have been rolled into one main national list of tropical cyclone names. The regional offices are supported by the Bureau National Operations Centre which is located at the head office in Melbourne Docklands. The Bureau maintains a network of field offices across the continent, on neighbouring islands, there is also a network of some 500 paid co-operative observers and approximately 6,000 voluntary rainfall observers. The Director of Meteorology in the Bureau of Meteorology is Andrew Johnson, the Australian Integrated Forecast System affords the main computing infrastructure in the Regional offices. Numerical Weather Prediction is performed using the Unified Model software, in August 2010 the Bureau of Meteorology decommissioned their previous supercomputer, the NEC SX-6, switching to the Oracle Solar Supercomputer
34.
Warrnambool railway line
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This article is about the railway line itself. For the regional rail service see Warrnambool V/Line rail service. The Warrnambool railway line is a railway serving the south west of Victoria, Australia, running from the state capital Melbourne though the cities of Geelong and Warrnambool, the line once terminating at the coastal town of Port Fairy until being truncated to Dennington. This closed section of line has been converted into the 37 km long Port Fairy to Warrnambool Rail Trail, the line continues to see both passenger and freight services today. For 11 years, from 19 September 1993 until 31 August 2004, freight services also run on the line, operated by Pacific National and, for a brief period, El Zorro. El Zorro has resumed services to the Westvic container depot. As of 21 June 2015, the V-Line services no longer stop at Werribee and Newport stations, the Geelong line was originally built by the private Geelong and Melbourne Railway Company and opened on 25 June 1857, the line being sold to the Victorian Railways in 1860. The line was designed by English engineer Edward Snell, and built as a single track, travelers between Melbourne and Geelong continued to prefer the bay steamers across Port Phillip Bay, leading to diminished profits for the company. The railway had the misfortune of an accident on its first run. The companys superintendent - and a friend of Snell’s - was struck when leaning out of the engine as it approached a tunnel. An inquiry cleared the company of any negligence, the line was progressively duplicated from the 1950s to the 1980s. The line was later extended south-west, to Winchelsea in 1876, Colac in 1877, Camperdown in 1883, Terang in 1877 and Warrnambool, Dennington and Port Fairy in 1890. This line is now closed beyond Warrnambool, with the last train leaving Port Fairy on 10 September 1977, hauled by B75, a branch line was built from Koroit to Hamilton, via Penshurst, in 1890. At the same time a connection was opened between Penshurst and Dunkeld. A2 ft 6 in narrow gauge branch was opened from Colac to Beech Forest in 1902, principally to carry timber. In July 2012, the Minister for Public Transport announced that a new crossing loop would be constructed on the line at Warncoort, tenders were called for in August. Broad gauge tracks are shown in red, and standard gauge in blue
35.
Central business district
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A central business district is the commercial and business centre of a city. In larger cities, it is synonymous with the citys financial district. Both the CBD and the city centre or downtown may also coincide with the central activities district, a citys CBD is usually typified by a concentration of retail and office buildings. The CBD usually has a density higher than the surrounding districts of the city. The CBD is often also the city centre or downtown, Mexico City also has a historic city centre, the colonial-era Centro Histórico, along with two CBDs, the mid-late 20th century Paseo de la Reforma - Polanco, and the new Santa Fe. The shape and type of a CBD almost always reflect the citys history. Cities with maximum building height restrictions often have a historic section quite apart from the financial. It has been said that downtowns are therefore distinct from both CBDs and city centres. CBDs usually have very small resident populations, for example, the population of the City of London declined from over 200,000 in the year 1700 to less than 10,000 today. In some instances, however, CBD populations are increasing as younger professional, the Buenos Aires Central Business District, is the main commercial centre of Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina. The actual area was the point of first European settlement and its north-south axis runs from Monserrat in the south to Retiro railway station in the north. Its east-west axis runs from Buenos Aires Ecological Reserve and Puerto Madero, the district is the financial, commercial, and cultural hub of Argentina. Its port is one of the busiest in South America, navigable rivers by way of the Río de la Plata connect the port to northeast Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay. As a result, it serves as the hub for a vast area of the southeastern region of the South American continent. Tax collection related to the port has caused political problems in the past. The Buenos Aires Human Development Index is likewise high by international standards, the term is used to refer to the business and financial area of a state capital city such as the Sydney CBD, Melbourne CBD, Brisbane CBD, Perth CBD and Adelaide CBD. The city centres of some cities, such as Townsville, Bendigo. More recently, in cities the city centre, which may or may not be distinct from the CBD, is increasingly separately identified
36.
Roundabout
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A roundabout is a type of circular intersection or junction in which road traffic flows almost continuously in one direction around a central island. So-called modern roundabouts require entering traffic to give way to traffic already in the circle, variations on the basic concept include integration with tram and/or train lines, two-way flow, higher speeds and many others. Traffic exiting the roundabout comes from one direction, rather than three, simplifying the pedestrians visual environment, Traffic moves slowly enough to allow visual engagement with pedestrians, encouraging deference towards them. Other benefits include reduced driver confusion associated with perpendicular junctions and reduced queuing associated with traffic lights and they allow U-turns within the normal flow of traffic, which often are not possible at other forms of junction. Moreover, since vehicles on average spend less time idling at roundabouts than at signalled intersections, also, when entering vehicles only need to give way, they do not always perform a full stop. As a result, by keeping a part of their momentum, additionally, slow moving traffic in roundabouts makes less noise than traffic that must stop and start, speed up and brake. Modern roundabouts are commonplace throughout the world, half of the worlds roundabouts are in France, although the United Kingdom has more as a proportion of the road than any other country. C. The operating and entry characteristics of these circles differ considerably from modern roundabouts, in 1907 architect John McLaren designed one of the first American roundabouts for both autos and street cars in the Hanchett Residence Park in what is now San Jose, California. The first British circular junction was built in Letchworth Garden City in 1909 and its centre originally was intended partly as a traffic island for pedestrians. It was featured in the film The Worlds End, in the early 20th century, numerous traffic circles were constructed in the United States, particularly in the northeast. Examples include a circle in Atherton, California, widespread use of the modern roundabout began when the UKs Transport Research Laboratory engineers re-engineered circular intersections during the 1960s. Frank Blackmore led the development of the offside priority rule and subsequently invented the mini-roundabout to overcome capacity and safety limitations, the design became mandatory in the United Kingdom for all new roundabouts in November 1966. This give-way requirement has been the law in New York state since the 1920s, in the United States modern roundabouts emerged in the 1990s. Municipalities introducing new roundabouts often are met with some degree of public resistance, surveys show that negative public opinion reverses as drivers gain experience with roundabouts. American confusion at how to enter and especially how to exit a roundabout was the subject of such as featured in the film European Vacation. By 2011, however, some 3,000 roundabouts had been established, a 1998 survey of municipalities found public opinion 68% opposed prior to construction, changing thereafter to 73% in favour. A2007 survey found public support ranging from 22% to 44% prior to construction, the first modern roundabout in the United States was constructed in Summerlin, Nevada in 1990. This roundabout occasioned dismay from residents, and a news program said about it, Even police agree
37.
Lilium
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Lilium is a genus of herbaceous flowering plants growing from bulbs, all with large prominent flowers. Lilies are a group of flowering plants which are important in culture and literature in much of the world, most species are native to the temperate northern hemisphere, though their range extends into the northern subtropics. Many other plants have lily in their name but are not related to true lilies. Lilies are tall perennials ranging in height from 2–6 ft and they form naked or tunicless scaly underground bulbs which are their overwintering organs. In some North American species the base of the bulb develops into rhizomes, most bulbs are deeply buried, but a few species form bulbs near the soil surface. With these, the bulb grows naturally at some depth in the soil and these roots are in addition to the basal roots that develop at the base of the bulb. The flowers are large, often fragrant, and come in a range of colours including whites, yellows, oranges, pinks, reds, markings include spots and brush strokes. The plants are late spring- or summer-flowering, flowers are borne in racemes or umbels at the tip of the stem, with six tepals spreading or reflexed, to give flowers varying from funnel shape to a Turks cap. The tepals are free from other, and bear a nectary at the base of each flower. The ovary is superior, borne above the point of attachment of the anthers, the fruit is a three-celled capsule. They exhibit varying and sometimes complex patterns, many adapted to cool temperate climates. Naturally most cool temperate species are deciduous and dormant in winter in their native environment, the basic chromosome number is twelve. 2007, the taxonomy of Chinese species follows the Flora of China and these genera include Cardiocrinum, Notholirion, Nomocharis and Fritillaria. The botanic name Lilium is the Latin form and is a Linnaean name, the Latin name is derived from the Greek λείριον, leírion, generally assumed to refer to true, white lilies as exemplified by the Madonna lily. The word was borrowed from Coptic hleri, from standard hreri, from Demotic hrry, meillet maintains that both the Egyptian and the Greek word are possible loans from an extinct, substratum language of the Eastern Mediterranean. The Greeks also used the word κρῖνον, krīnon, albeit for non-white lilies, all English translations of the Bible render the Hebrew shūshan, shōshan, shōshannā as lily, but the lily among the thorns of Song of Solomon, for instance, may be the honeysuckle. For a list of species described as lilies, see Lily. The range of lilies in the Old World extends across much of Europe, across most of Asia to Japan, south to India, and east to Indochina, in the New World they extend from southern Canada through much of the United States
38.
Duck
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Duck is the common name for a large number of species in the waterfowl family Anatidae, which also includes swans and geese. The ducks are divided among several subfamilies in the family Anatidae, they do not represent a group but a form taxon, since swans. Ducks are mostly birds, mostly smaller than the swans and geese. Ducks are sometimes confused with several types of unrelated water birds with similar forms, such as loons or divers, grebes, gallinules and this word replaced Old English ened/ænid duck, possibly to avoid confusion with other Old English words, like ende end with similar forms. Other Germanic languages still have similar words for duck, for example, Dutch eend duck, the word ened/ænid was inherited from Proto-Indo-European, compare, Latin anas duck, Lithuanian ántis duck, Ancient Greek nēssa/nētta duck, and Sanskrit ātí water bird, among others. A duckling is a duck in downy plumage or baby duck. A male duck is called a drake and the female is called a duck, the overall body plan of ducks is elongated and broad, and the ducks are also relatively long-necked, albeit not as long-necked as the geese and swans. The body shape of diving ducks varies somewhat from this in being more rounded, the bill is usually broad and contains serrated lamellae, which are particularly well defined in the filter-feeding species. In the case of some fishing species the bill is long, the scaled legs are strong and well developed, and generally set far back on the body, more so in the highly aquatic species. The wings are strong and are generally short and pointed. Three species of duck are almost flightless, however. Many species of duck are temporarily flightless while moulting, they seek out protected habitat with good food supplies during this period, the drakes of northern species often have extravagant plumage, but that is moulted in summer to give a more female-like appearance, the eclipse plumage. The plumage of birds generally resembles that of the female. Over the course of evolution, female ducks have evolved to have a corkscrew shaped vagina to prevent rape, Ducks exploit a variety of food sources such as grasses, aquatic plants, fish, insects, small amphibians, worms, and small molluscs. Dabbling ducks feed on the surface of water or on land, along the edge of the beak there is a comb-like structure called a pecten. This strains the water squirting from the side of the beak, the pecten is also used to preen feathers and to hold slippery food items. Diving ducks and sea ducks forage deep underwater, to be able to submerge more easily, the diving ducks are heavier than dabbling ducks, and therefore have more difficulty taking off to fly. A few specialized species such as the mergansers are adapted to catch, to avoid injury when digging into sediment it has no cere, but the nostrils come out through hard horn
39.
Rotunda (architecture)
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A rotunda is any building with a circular ground plan, and sometimes covered by a dome. It can also refer to a room within a building. The Pantheon in Rome is a famous rotunda, a Band Rotunda is a circular bandstand, usually with a dome. The rotunda has historical and architectural value because it was widespread in medieval Central Europe, a great number of parochial churches were built in this form in the 9th to 11th centuries BCE in Central Europe. This type of circular shaped parochial building can be found in great number in Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, Croatia, Austria, Bavaria, Dalmatia, Germany, and it was thought of as a structure descending from the Roman Pantheon. However, it can be found mainly not on former Roman territories, generally its size was 6–9 meters inner diameter and the apsis was directed toward the east. Sometimes 3 or 4 apsides were glued to the central circle, several types of rotundas are found in the Carpathian Basin, within the former boundaries of Medieval Hungary. The role and form developed from gradual enlargements of ancient small village churches, many of them still stand today, e. g. in Nagytótlak, Kallósd and Kissikátor in Hungary or in Bíňa and Šivetice in Slovakia. In many places the ancient foundations have been excavated and conserved, the village church of Sárospatak is complete with a simple circular nave and an eastern apse. The church of Alagimajor at Dunakeszi was enlarged toward the apse in the 14th century, in many cases the rotunda was used as the apse of the villages new and larger church. Such semi-circle apses are preserved all over the Carpathian Basin, rotundas of six apses, a most interesting form, are found at Karcsa, Kiszombor in Hungary, at Horjany in Ukraine and several places in Armenia. There is a connection between Central European and Caucasian rotundas of the 9th to 11th centuries BCE. Several Armenian built rotunda churches have sixfold arched central apsis, i. e. at Aragatz, Bagaran, Bagnayr, Botshor, at the same time eightfold arched central buildings are also frequently occurring in Armenia, Ani, Irind, Varzhahan. It was a suggestion that there was not only western European, temple of Heaven construction completed on 1420 during Yongle Emperor who also constructed Forbidden City of China. Fujian Tulou is a traditional rural dwellings of the Hakka in Fujian region of China and they are built between the 12th and the 20th centuries. The Baptistery at the Piazza dei Miracoli, Pisa, Italy, the Church of the Rotonda in Thessaloniki, built as the Tomb of Galerius in 306 AD. The St George Rotunda in Sofia, Bulgaria, a 4th-century Early Christian church, St. George Cathedral Church at Zvartnots, Armenia. St. Martins Rotunda in Vyšehrad Castle, Prague, Czech Republic, the Rotunda of St Marija Assunta in Mosta, Malta
40.
Landscape architecture
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Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor public areas, landmarks, and structures to achieve environmental, social-behavioral, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the investigation of existing social, ecological, and soil conditions and processes in the landscape. A practitioner in the profession of architecture is called a landscape architect. The most valuable contribution can be made at the first stage of a project to generate ideas with technical understanding and creative flair for the design, organization, and use of spaces. The landscape architect can conceive the concept and prepare the master plan, from which detailed design drawings. They can also review proposals to authorize and supervise contracts for the construction work, other skills include preparing design impact assessments, conducting environmental assessments and audits, and serving as an expert witness at inquiries on land use issues. e. They often work in forestry, nature conservation and agriculture, Landscape scientists have specialist skills such as soil science, hydrology, geomorphology or botany that they relate to the practical problems of landscape work. Their projects can range from surveys to the ecological assessment of broad areas for planning or management purposes. They may also report on the impact of development or the importance of species in a given area. Landscape planners are concerned with planning for the location, scenic, ecological and recreational aspects of urban. Some may also apply an additional specialism such as landscape archaeology or law to the process of landscape planning, green roof designers design extensive and intensive roof gardens for storm water management, evapo-transpirative cooling, sustainable architecture, aesthetics, and habitat creation. An example is the work by André Le Nôtre at Vaux-le-Vicomte for King Louis XIV of France at the Palace of Versailles. The first person to write of making a landscape was Joseph Addison in 1712, the term landscape architecture was invented by Gilbert Laing Meason in 1828, and John Claudius Loudon was instrumental in the adoption of the term landscape architecture by the modern profession. He took up the term from Meason and gave it publicity in his Encyclopedias and in his 1840 book on the Landscape Gardening, the practice of landscape architecture spread from the Old to the New World. IFLA was founded at Cambridge, England, in 1948 with Sir Geoffrey Jellicoe as its first president, representing 15 countries from Europe, later, in 1978, IFLAs Headquarters were established in Versailles. Through the 19th century, urban planning became a focal point, the combination of the tradition of landscape gardening and the emerging field of urban planning offered Landscape Architecture an opportunity to serve these needs. In the second half of the century, Frederick Law Olmsted completed a series of parks which continue to have an influence on the practices of Landscape Architecture today. Among these were Central Park in New York City, Prospect Park in Brooklyn, New York, jens Jensen designed sophisticated and naturalistic urban and regional parks for Chicago, Illinois, and private estates for the Ford family including Fair Lane and Gaukler Point
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