1.
Darius III of Persia
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Darius III, originally named Artashata and called Codomannus by the Greeks, was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia from 336 BC to 330 BC. Artashata adopted Darius as a dynastic name and his empire was unstable, with large portions governed by jealous and unreliable satraps and inhabited by disaffected and rebellious subjects. With the Persian Empire now effectively under Alexanders control, Alexander then decided to pursue Darius, before Alexander reached him, however, Darius was killed by the satrap Bessus, who was also his cousin. Artashata was the son of Arsames, son of Ostanes, and Sisygambis and he had distinguished himself in a combat of champions in a war against the Cadusii and was serving at the time as a royal courier. However, prior to being appointed as a courier, he had served as a satrap of Armenia. He may have been promoted from his satrapy to the service after the ascension of Arses. In 336 BC, he took the throne at the age of 43 after the death of Artaxerxes III, however, a cuneiform tablet suggests that Artaxerxes died from natural causes. Artashata took the regnal name Darius III, and quickly demonstrated his independence from his possible assassin benefactor, Bagoas then tried to poison Darius as well, when he learned that even Darius couldnt be controlled, but Darius was warned and forced Bagoas to drink the poison himself. Compared to his ancestors and his heirs who had since perished, Darius had a distinct lack of experience ruling an empire. Darius was a ruler of entirely average stamp, without the striking talents and he sent an advance force into Asia Minor under the command of his generals Parmenion and Attalus to liberate the Greeks living under Persian control. In the spring of 334 BC, Philips heir, Alexander and this invasion, which marked the beginning of the Wars of Alexander the Great, was followed almost immediately by the victory of Alexander over the Persians at Battle of the Granicus. In the previous invasion of Asia Minor by the Spartan king Agesilaus, Darius attempted to employ the same strategy, with the Spartans rebelling against the Macedonians, but the Spartans were defeated at Megalopolis. Darius did not actually take the field against Alexander’s army until a year and his forces outnumbered Alexanders soldiers by at least a 2 to 1 ratio, but Darius was still outflanked, defeated, and forced to flee. On the way, he left behind his chariot, his bow, at the Battle of Issus, Darius III even caught Alexander by surprise and failed to defeat Alexanders forces. Darius fled so far so fast that Alexander was able to capture Darius’s headquarters, Darius petitioned to Alexander through letters several times to get his family back, but Alexander refused to do so unless Darius would acknowledge him as the new emperor of Persia. Circumstances were more in Darius’s favor at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, despite all these beneficial factors, he still fled the battle before any victor had been decided and deserted his experienced commanders as well as one of the largest armies ever assembled. Many Persian soldiers lost their lives that day, so many in fact that after the battle the casualties of the enemy ensured that Darius would never raise a imperial army. Darius then fled to Ecbatana and attempted to raise an army, while Alexander took possession of Babylon, Susa
Darius III of Persia
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Detail of Darius III from the
Alexander Mosaic.
Darius III of Persia
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Darius III portrayed (in the middle) in battle against Alexander in a Greek depiction; Possible illustration of either Battle of Issus or Battle of Gaugamela
Darius III of Persia
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Darius’s flight at the
Battle of Gaugamela (18th-century ivory relief)
Darius III of Persia
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Persian Miniature painting, showing Darius III dying with Alexander and his soldiers watching
2.
Alexander Mosaic
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The Alexander Mosaic, dating from circa 100 BC, is a Roman floor mosaic originally from the House of the Faun in Pompeii. It depicts a battle between the armies of Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia and measures 2.72 by 5.13 metres, the original is preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. The mosaic is believed to be a copy of an early 3rd-century BC Hellenistic painting, the mosaic illustrates a battle in which Alexander faced and attempted to capture or kill Darius. Alexander defeated him at the Battle of Issus and two years later at the Battle of Gaugamela, the work is traditionally believed to show the Battle of Issus. Since the mosaic emulates the appearance of a painting so accurately, the mosaic is held to be a copy either of a painting by Aristides of Thebes, or of a lost late 4th-century BC fresco by the painter Philoxenus of Eretria. The latter is mentioned by Pliny the Elder as a commission for the Macedonian king Cassander, despite being damaged, the two main figures are easy to recognize. The portrait of Alexander is one of his most famous, Alexanders breastplate depicts Medusa, the famous Gorgon, and his wavy hair is typical of royal portraiture as established in Greek art of the fourth century BC. He is portrayed sweeping into battle at the left, on his famous horse, Bucephalus, Darius is shown in a chariot. He seems to be commanding his frightened charioteer to flee the battle, while stretching out his hand either as a mute gesture to Alexander. He has an expression on his face. The charioteer is whipping the horses as he tries to escape, the Persian soldiers behind him have expressions of determination and consternation. Dariuss brother Oxyathres is also portrayed, sacrificing himself to save the King, radical foreshortening – as in the central horse, seen from behind – and the use of shading to convey a sense of mass and volume enhance the naturalistic effect of the scene. Repeated diagonal spears, clashing metal, and the crowding of men, at the same time, action is arrested by dramatic details such as the fallen horse and the Persian soldier in the foreground who watches his own death throes reflected in a shield. The mosaic is made of one and a half million tiny colored tiles called tesserae. The color scale of Roman mosaics are extremely rich in gradation, the process of gathering materials for mosaics was a complex undertaking since the color scale was based solely off of the pieces of marble that could be found in nature. The mosaic is a detailed work for a private residence and was likely commissioned by a wealthy person or family. The fact that this scene was made to be viewed in the house of a Roman civilian reveals that Alexander the Great was more than just an image to the Romans. Because Roman leaders followed after Alexanders image, Roman civilians also aspired to emulate the power he represented, since the mosaic was arranged on the floor where the patron would receive his guests, it was the first decorative object a visitor would see upon entering the home
Alexander Mosaic
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The Alexander Mosaic
Alexander Mosaic
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Detail showing Alexander
Alexander Mosaic
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1893 Reconstruction of the mosaic depiction.
Alexander Mosaic
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Modern reconstruction of the Alexander Mosaic.
3.
Pompeii
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Pompeii was an ancient Roman town-city near modern Naples, in the Campania region of Italy, in the territory of the comune of Pompei. Pompeii, along with Herculaneum and many villas in the area, was mostly destroyed and buried under 4 to 6 m of volcanic ash. Researchers believe that the town was founded in the seventh or sixth century BC by the Osci or Oscans. It came under the domination of Rome in the 4th century BC, by the time of its destruction,160 years later, its population was estimated at 11,000 people, and the city had a complex water system, an amphitheatre, gymnasium, and a port. The eruption destroyed the city, killing its inhabitants and burying it under tons of ash, the site was lost for about 1,500 years until its initial rediscovery in 1599 and broader rediscovery almost 150 years later by Spanish engineer Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre in 1748. The objects that lay beneath the city have been preserved for centuries because of the lack of air and these artefacts provide an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city during the Pax Romana. During the excavation, plaster was used to fill in the voids in the ash layers that once held human bodies and this allowed archaeologists to see the exact position the person was in when he or she died. Pompeii has been a tourist destination for over 250 years, today it has UNESCO World Heritage Site status and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Italy, with approximately 2.5 million visitors every year. Pompeii in Latin is a second declension plural, the ruins of Pompeii are located near the modern suburban town of Pompei. It stands on a formed by a lava flow to the north of the mouth of the Sarno River. Today it is some distance inland, but in ancient times was nearer to the coast, Pompeii is about 8 km away from Mount Vesuvius. It covered a total of 64 to 67 hectares and was home to approximately 11,000 to 11,500 people on the basis of household counts and it was a major city in the region of Campania. Three sheets of sediment have been found on top of the lava that lies below the city and, mixed in with the sediment, archaeologists have found bits of bone, pottery shards. Carbon dating has placed the oldest of these layers from the 8th–6th centuries BC, the other two strata are separated either by well-developed soil layers or Roman pavement, and were laid in the 4th century BC and 2nd century BC. It is theorized that the layers of the sediment were created by large landslides. The town was founded around the 7th-6th century BC by the Osci or Oscans and it had already been used as a safe port by Greek and Phoenician sailors. According to Strabo, Pompeii was also captured by the Etruscans, and in recent excavations have shown the presence of Etruscan inscriptions. Pompeii was captured for the first time by the Greek colony of Cumae, allied with Syracuse, in the 5th century BC, the Samnites conquered it, the new rulers imposed their architecture and enlarged the town
Pompeii
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View into a street of Pompeii
Pompeii
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The Temple of Jupiter with
Vesuvius in the distance
Pompeii
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Pompeii, Italy. Pompeii - Forum and Vesuvius. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection
Pompeii
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Illustrated reconstruction, from a
CyArk /
University of Ferrara research partnership, of how the
Temple of Apollo may have looked before Mt. Vesuvius erupted
4.
Naples
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Naples is the capital of the Italian region Campania and the third-largest municipality in Italy, after Rome and Milan. In 2015, around 975,260 people lived within the administrative limits. The Metropolitan City of Naples had a population of 3,115,320, Naples is the 9th-most populous urban area in the European Union with a population of between 3 million and 3.7 million. About 4.4 million people live in the Naples metropolitan area, Naples is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Bronze Age Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, a larger colony – initially known as Parthenope, Παρθενόπη – developed on the Island of Megaride around the ninth century BC, at the end of the Greek Dark Ages. Naples remained influential after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, thereafter, in union with Sicily, it became the capital of the Two Sicilies until the unification of Italy in 1861. Naples was the most-bombed Italian city during World War II, much of the citys 20th-century periphery was constructed under Benito Mussolinis fascist government, and during reconstruction efforts after World War II. The city has experienced significant economic growth in recent decades, and unemployment levels in the city, however, Naples still suffers from political and economic corruption, and unemployment levels remain high. Naples has the fourth-largest urban economy in Italy, after Milan, Rome and it is the worlds 103rd-richest city by purchasing power, with an estimated 2011 GDP of US$83.6 billion. The port of Naples is one of the most important in Europe, numerous major Italian companies, such as MSC Cruises Italy S. p. A, are headquartered in Naples. The city also hosts NATOs Allied Joint Force Command Naples, the SRM Institution for Economic Research, Naples is a full member of the Eurocities network of European cities. The city was selected to become the headquarters of the European institution ACP/UE and was named a City of Literature by UNESCOs Creative Cities Network, the Villa Rosebery, one of the three official residences of the President of Italy, is located in the citys Posillipo district. Naples historic city centre is the largest in Europe, covering 1,700 hectares and enclosing 27 centuries of history, Naples has long been a major cultural centre with a global sphere of influence, particularly during the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras. In the immediate vicinity of Naples are numerous culturally and historically significant sites, including the Palace of Caserta, culinarily, Naples is synonymous with pizza, which originated in the city. Neapolitan music has furthermore been highly influential, credited with the invention of the romantic guitar, according to CNN, the metro stop Toledo is the most beautiful in Europe and it won also the LEAF Award 2013 as Public building of the year. Naples is the Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, Naples sports scene is dominated by football and Serie A club S. S. C. Napoli, two-time Italian champions and winner of European trophies, who play at the San Paolo Stadium in the south-west of the city, the Phlegraean Fields around Naples has been inhabited since the Neolithic period. The earliest Greek settlements were established in the Naples area in the second millennium BC, sailors from the Greek island of Rhodes established a small commercial port called Parthenope on the island of Megaride in the ninth century BC
Naples
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Naples Napoli
Naples
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Ancient map of the Bay of Naples area from Vatican Museum
Naples
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A scene featuring the
siren Parthenope, the mythological founder of Naples.
Naples
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The
Gothic Battle of Mons Lactarius on
Vesuvius, painted by
Alexander Zick.
5.
Naples National Archaeological Museum
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The Naples National Archaeological Museum is a museum in Naples, southern Italy, at the northwest corner of the original Greek wall of the city of Neapolis. The museum contains a collection of Roman artifacts from Pompeii, Stabiae. The collection includes works of the highest quality produced in Greek, Roman and it is the most important Italian archaeological museum and is considered one of the most important in the world. Charles of Bourbon founded the museum in the 1750s, the building he used for it had been erected as a cavalry barracks and during its time as the seat of the University of Naples was extended, in the late 18th century. The museum hosts extensive collections of Greek and Roman antiquities and their core is from the Farnese Collection, which includes a collection of engraved gems and the Farnese Marbles. Among the notable works found in the museum are the Herculaneum papyri, carbonized by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, many of these works, especially the larger ones, have been moved to the Museo di Capodimonte for display in recent years. The Farnese Hercules, which fixed the image of Hercules in the European imagination, a major collection of ancient Roman bronzes from the Villa of the Papyri is housed at the museum. These include the Seated Hermes, a sprawling Drunken Satyr, a bust of Thespis, another variously identified as Seneca or Hesiod, the museums Mosaic Collection includes a number of important mosaics recovered from the ruins of Pompeii and the other Vesuvian cities. This includes the Alexander Mosaic, dating from circa 100 BC and it depicts a battle between the armies of Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia. Another mosaic found is that of the gladiatorial fighter depicted in a found from the Villa of the Figured Capitals in Pompeii. With 2,500 objects, the museum has one of the largest collection of Egyptian artifacts in Italy after the Turin, Florence and Bologna ones. It is made up primarily of works from two collections, assembled by Cardinal Stefano Borgia in the second half of the 18th century. In its new layout the collection provides both an important record of Egyptian civilization from the Old Kingdom up to the Ptolemaic-Roman era, access was limited to only persons of mature age and known morals. The rooms were also called Cabinets of matters reserved or obscene or pornographic, the highlight of the censorship occurred in 1851 when even nude Venus statues were locked up, and the entrance walled up in the hope that the collection would vanish from memory. In September 1860, when the forces of Garibaldi occupied Naples, since the Royal Butler was no longer available, they broke into the collection. Limiting viewership and censorship have always been part of the history of the collection, censorship was restored during the era of the Kingdom of Italy, and peaked during the Fascist period, when visitors to the rooms needed the permission of the Minister of National Education in Rome. Censorship persisted in the period up to 1967, abating only after 1971 when the Ministry was given the new rules to regulate requests for visits. Completely rebuilt a few years ago with all of the new criteria, visitors under the age of 14 can tour the exhibit only with an adult
Naples National Archaeological Museum
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Naples National Archaeological Museum
Naples National Archaeological Museum
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Naples Museum, 1895. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection
Naples National Archaeological Museum
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Venus Kallipygos
Naples National Archaeological Museum
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The
Alexander Mosaic
6.
Thrace
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It comprises southeastern Bulgaria, northeastern Greece, and the European part of Turkey. In antiquity, it was referred to as Europe, prior to the extension of the term to describe the whole continent. The name Thrace comes from the Thracians, an ancient Indo-European people inhabiting Southeastern Europe, the word itself was established by the Greeks for referring to the Thracian tribes, from Ancient Greek Thrake, descending from Thrāix. The name of the continent Europe first referred to Thrace proper, the region obviously took the name of the principal river there, Hebros, probably from the Indo-European arg white river, according to an alternative theory, Hebros means goat in Thracian. In Turkey, it is referred to as Rumeli, Land of the Romans. The name appears to derive from an ancient heroine and sorceress Thrace, who was the daughter of Oceanus and Parthenope, the historical boundaries of Thrace have varied. In one ancient Greek source, the very Earth is divided into Asia, Libya, Europa and this largely coincided with the Thracian Odrysian kingdom, whose borders varied over time. After the Macedonian conquest, this regions former border with Macedonia was shifted from the Struma River to the Mesta River and this usage lasted until the Roman conquest. Henceforth, Thrace referred only to the tract of land covering the same extent of space as the modern geographical region. The medieval Byzantine theme of Thrace contained only what today is Eastern Thrace, the largest cities of Thrace are, İstanbul, Plovdiv, Burgas, Stara Zagora, Haskovo, Yambol, Komotini, Alexandroupoli, Xanthi, Edirne, Çorlu and Tekirdağ. Most of the Bulgarian and Greek population are Christians, while most of the Turkish inhabitants of Thrace are Muslims, Ancient Greek mythology provides them with a mythical ancestor, named Thrax, son of the war-god Ares, who was said to reside in Thrace. The Thracians appear in Homers Iliad as Trojan allies, led by Acamas, later in the Iliad, Rhesus, another Thracian king, makes an appearance. Cisseus, father-in-law to the Trojan elder Antenor, is given as a Thracian king. Homeric Thrace was vaguely defined, and stretched from the River Axios in the west to the Hellespont, Greek mythology is replete with Thracian kings, including Diomedes, Tereus, Lycurgus, Phineus, Tegyrius, Eumolpus, Polymnestor, Poltys, and Oeagrus. In addition to the tribe that Homer calls Thracians, ancient Thrace was home to other tribes, such as the Edones, Bisaltae, Cicones. Thrace is also mentioned in Ovids Metamorphoses in the episode of Philomela, Procne, Tereus, the King of Thrace, lusts after his sister-in-law, Philomela. He kidnaps her, holds her captive, rapes her, Philomela manages to get free, however. She and her sister, Procne, plot to get revenge, by killing Itys, at the end of the myth, all three turn into birds – Procne, a swallow, Philomela, a nightingale, and Tereus, a hoopoe
Thrace
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The physical-geographical boundaries of Thrace: the Balkan Mountains, the Rhodope Mountains and the Bosporus. The Rhodope mountain range is highlighted.
Thrace
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The modern boundaries of Thrace in
Bulgaria,
Greece and
Turkey
Thrace
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The Roman province of Thrace
Thrace
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Map of Ancient Thrace made by
Abraham Ortelius in 1585, stating both the names Thrace and Europe
7.
Greece
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Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, historically also known as Hellas, is a country in southeastern Europe, with a population of approximately 11 million as of 2015. Athens is the capital and largest city, followed by Thessaloniki. Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, situated on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the northeast. Greece consists of nine regions, Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands, Thrace, Crete. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, the Cretan Sea and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km in length, featuring a vast number of islands, eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, with Mount Olympus being the highest peak at 2,918 metres. From the eighth century BC, the Greeks were organised into various independent city-states, known as polis, which spanned the entire Mediterranean region and the Black Sea. Greece was annexed by Rome in the second century BC, becoming a part of the Roman Empire and its successor. The Greek Orthodox Church also shaped modern Greek identity and transmitted Greek traditions to the wider Orthodox World, falling under Ottoman dominion in the mid-15th century, the modern nation state of Greece emerged in 1830 following a war of independence. Greeces rich historical legacy is reflected by its 18 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, among the most in Europe, Greece is a democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, a high quality of life, and a very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the member to join the European Communities and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. Greeces unique cultural heritage, large industry, prominent shipping sector. It is the largest economy in the Balkans, where it is an important regional investor, the names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the southern Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, all three stages of the stone age are represented in Greece, for example in the Franchthi Cave. Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC, are the oldest in Europe by several centuries and these civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Mycenaeans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC and this ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 7th or 8th centuries BC. With the end of the Dark Ages, there emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, in 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the worlds first democratic system of government in Athens
Greece
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Fresco displaying the Minoan ritual of "bull leaping", found in
Knossos,
Crete.
Greece
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Flag
Greece
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The
Lion Gate,
Mycenae
Greece
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The
Parthenon on the
Acropolis of Athens is one of the best known symbols of
classical Greece.
8.
Asia Minor
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Anatolia, in geography known as Asia Minor, Asian Turkey, Anatolian peninsula, or Anatolian plateau, is the westernmost protrusion of Asia, which makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the European mainland. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Black Sea to the Armenian Highlands, thus, traditionally Anatolia is the territory that comprises approximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. The Turkification of Anatolia began under the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century, however, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today, including Kurdish, Assyrian, Armenian, Arabic, Laz, Georgian, and Greek. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of Merriam-Websters Geographical Dictionary, under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia. To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria, the first name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula was Ἀσία, presumably after the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. As the name of Asia came to be extended to areas east of the Mediterranean. The name Anatolia derives from the Greek ἀνατολή meaning “the East” or more literally “sunrise”, the precise reference of this term has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor. In the Byzantine Empire, the Anatolic Theme was a theme covering the western, the modern Turkish form of Anatolia is Anadolu, which again derives from the Greek name Aνατολή. The Russian male name Anatoly and the French Anatole share the same linguistic origin, in English the name of Turkey for ancient Anatolia first appeared c. It is derived from the Medieval Latin Turchia, which was used by the Europeans to define the Seljuk controlled parts of Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert. Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic, neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family, although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the oldest branch of Indo-European, have spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BC. The earliest historical records of Anatolia stem from the southeast of the region and are from the Mesopotamian-based Akkadian Empire during the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BC, scholars generally believe the earliest indigenous populations of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians. The region was famous for exporting raw materials, and areas of Hattian-, one of the numerous cuneiform records dated circa 20th century BC, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, originating from Nesa, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BC, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the most widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites adopted the cuneiform script, invented in Mesopotamia
Asia Minor
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The traditional definition of Anatolia within modern Turkey
Asia Minor
–
The location of
Turkey (within the rectangle) in reference to the
European continent. Anatolia roughly corresponds to the
Asian part of Turkey, except the eastern parts historically known as the
Armenian Highlands
Asia Minor
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1907 map of Asia Minor, showing the local ancient kingdoms
Asia Minor
–
Mural of
aurochs, a
deer, and humans in
Çatalhöyük, which is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date. It was registered as a
UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2012.
9.
Syria
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Syrias capital and largest city is Damascus. Religious groups include Sunnis, Christians, Alawites, Druze, Mandeans, Shiites, Salafis, Sunni Arabs make up the largest religious group in Syria. Its capital Damascus and largest city Aleppo are among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, in the Islamic era, Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. The post-independence period was tumultuous, and a number of military coups. In 1958, Syria entered a union with Egypt called the United Arab Republic. Syria was under Emergency Law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending most constitutional protections for citizens, Bashar al-Assad has been president since 2000 and was preceded by his father Hafez al-Assad, who was in office from 1970 to 2000. Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favours the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, in the past, others believed that it was derived from Siryon, the name that the Sidonians gave to Mount Hermon. However, the discovery of the inscription in 2000 seems to support the theory that the term Syria derives from Assyria. The area designated by the word has changed over time, since approximately 10,000 BC, Syria was one of centers of Neolithic culture where agriculture and cattle breeding appeared for the first time in the world. The following Neolithic period is represented by houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used vessels made of stone, gyps, finds of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidences of early trade relations. Cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic, archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only those of Mesopotamia. The earliest recorded indigenous civilisation in the region was the Kingdom of Ebla near present-day Idlib, gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Eblas contact with Egypt. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is an agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called Abarsal c.2300 BC. The Northwest Semitic language of the Amorites is the earliest attested of the Canaanite languages, Mari reemerged during this period, and saw renewed prosperity until conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon. Ugarit also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern Latakia, Ugaritic was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages, and developed the Ugaritic alphabet. The Ugarites kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC, Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi of Babylon. Yamhad imposed its authority over Alalakh, Qatna, the Hurrians states, the army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as Dēr on the border of Elam
Syria
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Female figurine, 5000 BC.
Ancient Orient Museum.
Syria
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Flag
Syria
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God head, the kingdom of
Yamhad (c. 1600 BC)
Syria
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Ebla royal palace c. 2400 BC
10.
Babylonia
–
Babylonia was an ancient Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in central-southern Mesopotamia. A small Amorite-ruled state emerged in 1894 BC, which contained at this time the city of Babylon. Babylon greatly expanded during the reign of Hammurabi in the first half of the 18th century BC, during the reign of Hammurabi and afterwards, Babylonia was called Māt Akkadī the country of Akkad in the Akkadian language. It was often involved in rivalry with its older fellow Akkadian-speaking state of Assyria in northern Mesopotamia and it retained the Sumerian language for religious use, but by the time Babylon was founded, this was no longer a spoken language, having been wholly subsumed by Akkadian. The earliest mention of the city of Babylon can be found in a tablet from the reign of Sargon of Akkad. During the 3rd millennium BC, a cultural symbiosis occurred between Sumerian and Akkadian-speakers, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian and vice versa is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a scale, to syntactic, morphological. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the millennium as a sprachbund. Traditionally, the religious center of all Mesopotamia was the city of Nippur. The empire eventually disintegrated due to decline, climate change and civil war. Sumer rose up again with the Third Dynasty of Ur in the late 22nd century BC and they also seem to have gained ascendancy over most of the territory of the Akkadian kings of Assyria in northern Mesopotamia for a time. The states of the south were unable to stem the Amorite advance, King Ilu-shuma of the Old Assyrian Empire in a known inscription describes his exploits to the south as follows, The freedom of the Akkadians and their children I established. I established their freedom from the border of the marshes and Ur and Nippur, Awal, past scholars originally extrapolated from this text that it means he defeated the invading Amorites to the south, but there is no explicit record of that. More recently, the text has been taken to mean that Asshur supplied the south with copper from Anatolia and these policies were continued by his successors Erishum I and Ikunum. During the first centuries of what is called the Amorite period and his reign was concerned with establishing statehood amongst a sea of other minor city states and kingdoms in the region. However Sumuabum appears never to have bothered to give himself the title of King of Babylon, suggesting that Babylon itself was only a minor town or city. He was followed by Sumu-la-El, Sabium, Apil-Sin, each of whom ruled in the same manner as Sumuabum. Sin-Muballit was the first of these Amorite rulers to be regarded officially as a king of Babylon, the Elamites occupied huge swathes of southern Mesopotamia, and the early Amorite rulers were largely held in vassalage to Elam
Babylonia
–
The extent of the Babylonian Empire at the start and end of Hammurabi's reign
Babylonia
–
Old Babylonian
Cylinder Seal,
hematite, The king makes an animal offering to
Shamash. This seal was probably made in a workshop at
Sippar.
Babylonia
–
Geography
11.
Persia
–
Iran, also known as Persia, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, is a sovereign state in Western Asia. Comprising a land area of 1,648,195 km2, it is the second-largest country in the Middle East, with 82.8 million inhabitants, Iran is the worlds 17th-most-populous country. It is the country with both a Caspian Sea and an Indian Ocean coastline. The countrys central location in Eurasia and Western Asia, and its proximity to the Strait of Hormuz, Tehran is the countrys capital and largest city, as well as its leading economic and cultural center. Iran is the site of to one of the worlds oldest civilizations, the area was first unified by the Iranian Medes in 625 BC, who became the dominant cultural and political power in the region. The empire collapsed in 330 BC following the conquests of Alexander the Great, under the Sassanid Dynasty, Iran again became one of the leading powers in the world for the next four centuries. Beginning in 633 AD, Arabs conquered Iran and largely displaced the indigenous faiths of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism by Islam, Iran became a major contributor to the Islamic Golden Age that followed, producing many influential scientists, scholars, artists, and thinkers. During the 18th century, Iran reached its greatest territorial extent since the Sassanid Empire, through the late 18th and 19th centuries, a series of conflicts with Russia led to significant territorial losses and the erosion of sovereignty. Popular unrest culminated in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1906, which established a monarchy and the countrys first legislative body. Following a coup instigated by the U. K. Growing dissent against foreign influence and political repression led to the 1979 Revolution, Irans rich cultural legacy is reflected in part by its 21 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the third-largest number in Asia and 11th-largest in the world. Iran is a member of the UN, ECO, NAM, OIC. Its political system is based on the 1979 Constitution which combines elements of a democracy with a theocracy governed by Islamic jurists under the concept of a Supreme Leadership. A multicultural country comprising numerous ethnic and linguistic groups, most inhabitants are Shia Muslims, the largest ethnic groups in Iran are the Persians, Azeris, Kurds and Lurs. Historically, Iran has been referred to as Persia by the West, due mainly to the writings of Greek historians who called Iran Persis, meaning land of the Persians. As the most extensive interactions the Ancient Greeks had with any outsider was with the Persians, however, Persis was originally referred to a region settled by Persians in the west shore of Lake Urmia, in the 9th century BC. The settlement was then shifted to the end of the Zagros Mountains. In 1935, Reza Shah requested the international community to refer to the country by its native name, opposition to the name change led to the reversal of the decision, and Professor Ehsan Yarshater, editor of Encyclopædia Iranica, propagated a move to use Persia and Iran interchangeably
Persia
–
Cave painting in Doushe cave,
Lorestan, Iran,
8th millennium BC
Persia
–
Flag
Persia
–
A depiction of the united
Medes and
Persians in
Apadana,
Persepolis
Persia
–
Ruins of the
Gate of All Nations,
Persepolis
12.
Bactria
–
Bactria or Bactriana was the name of a historical region in Central Asia. Bactria was located between the Hindu Kush mountain range and the Amu Darya river, covering the region that straddles modern-day Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. The English name Bactria is derived from the Ancient Greek, Βακτριανή, analogous names include the Pashto and Persian, باختر, translit. Bākhtar, Uzbek, Балх, Tajik, Бохтар, Chinese, 大夏, pinyin, Dàxià and this region played a major role in Central Asian history. At certain times the political limits of Bactria stretched far beyond the frame of the Bactrian plain. The Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex is the modern designation for a Bronze Age culture of Central Asia. 2200–1700 BC, located in present-day eastern Turkmenistan, northern Afghanistan, southern Uzbekistan and western Tajikistan, centred on the upper Amu Darya and its sites were discovered and named by the Soviet archaeologist Viktor Sarianidi. The early Greek historian Ctesias, c.400 BC, alleged that the legendary Assyrian king Ninus had defeated a Bactrian king named Oxyartes in ca.2140 BC, or some 1000 years before the Trojan War. Since the decipherment of cuneiform in the 19th century, however, according to some writers, Bactria was the homeland of Indo-Iranian tribes who moved south-west into Iran and into north-western India around 2500–2000 BC. Later, it became the province of the Persian Empire in Central Asia. It was in these regions, where the soil of the mountainous country is surrounded by the Turanian desert. After Darius III had been defeated by Alexander the Great, the satrap of Bactria, Bessus attempted to organise a resistance but was captured by other warlords. He was then tortured and killed, however, in the south, beyond the Oxus, he met strong resistance. After two years of war and an insurgency campaign, Alexander managed to establish little control over Bactria. After Alexanders death, Diodorus Siculus tells us that Philip received dominion over Bactria, at the Treaty of Triparadisus, both Diodorus Siculus and Arrian agree that the satrap Stasanor gained control over Bactria. Eventually, Alexanders empire was divided up among the generals in Alexanders army, Bactria became a part of the Seleucid Empire, named after its founder, Seleucus I. The Macedonians, especially Seleucus I and his son Antiochus I, established the Seleucid Empire, the Greek language became dominant for some time there. The paradox that Greek presence was more prominent in Bactria than in areas far closer to Greece can possibly be explained by past deportations of Greeks to Bactria
Bactria
–
Ancient cities of Bactria
Bactria
–
Goddesses, Bactria, Afghanistan, 2000–1800 BC.
Bactria
–
Kafirnigan from Tajikistan (traditional Bactrian male clothing).
Bactria
–
Kafirnigan from Tajikistan (traditional Bactrian female clothing).
13.
Sogdia
–
Sogdiana was also a province of the Achaemenid Empire, eighteenth in the list on the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great. In the Avesta, Sogdiana is listed as the second best land that the supreme deity Ahura Mazda had created and it comes second, after Airyanem Vaejah, homeland of the Aryans, in the Zoroastrian book of Vendidad, indicating the importance of this region from ancient times. Sogdiana was conquered by the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great in 328 BC and later formed part of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, the Sogdian states, although never politically united, were centred on the main city of Samarkand. Sogdiana lay north of Bactria, east of Khwarezm, and southeast of Kangju between the Oxus and the Jaxartes, embracing the valley of the Zeravshan. Sogdian territory corresponds to the provinces of Samarkand and Bokhara in modern Uzbekistan as well as the Sughd province of modern Tajikistan. During the High Middle Ages, Sogdian cities included sites stretching towards Issyk Kul such as that at the site of Suyab. Sogdian, an Eastern Iranian language, is no longer a spoken language and it was widely spoken in Central Asia as a lingua franca and even served as one of the Turkic Khaganates court languages for writing documents. Sogdians also lived in Imperial China and rose to prominence in the military. Sogdian merchants and diplomats traveled as far west as the Byzantine Empire and they played an important part as middlemen in the trade route of the Silk Road. The Sogdian conversion to Islam was virtually complete by the end of the Samanid Empire in 999, coinciding with the decline of the Sogdian language, as it was largely supplanted by Persian. The restored Scythian name is *Skuda, which among the Pontic or Royal Scythians became *Skula, according to Szemerényi, Sogdiana was named from the Skuda form. This large-scale migration included Eastern Iranian speaking peoples such as the Sogdians, Achaemenid ruler Cyrus the Great conquered Sogdiana while campaigning in Central Asia in 546–539 BC, a fact mentioned by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus in his Histories. Darius I introduced the Aramaic writing system and coin currency to Central Asia, in addition to incorporating Sogdians into his army as regular soldiers. A contingent of Sogdian soldiers fought in the army of Xerxes I during his ultimately failed invasion of Greece in 480 BC. A Persian inscription from Susa claims that the palace there was adorned with lapis lazuli, given the absence of any named satraps for Sogdiana in historical records, modern scholarship has concluded that Sogdiana was governed from the satrapy of nearby Bactria. The satraps were often relatives of the ruling Persian kings, especially sons who were not designated as the heir apparent, Sogdiana likely remained under Persian control until roughly 400 BC, during the reign of Artaxerxes II. Rebellious states of the Persian Empire took advantage of the weak Artaxerxes II, persias massive loss of Central Asian territory is widely attributed to the rulers lack of control. However, unlike Egypt, which was recaptured by the Persian Empire
Sogdia
–
Sogdians, depicted on a Chinese Sogdian sarcophagus of the
Northern Qi era.
Sogdia
–
Sogdiana, c. 300 BC.
Sogdia
–
Gold coin of
Diodotus c. 250 BC.
Sogdia
–
Barbaric copy of a coin of
Euthydemus I, from the region of Sogdiana. The legend on the reverse is in
Aramaic script.
14.
Achaemenid Empire
–
The Achaemenid Empire, also called the Persian Empire, was an empire based in Western Asia, founded by Cyrus the Great. The empires successes inspired similar systems in later empires and it is noted in Western history as the antagonist of the Greek city-states during the Greco-Persian Wars and for the emancipation of the Jewish exiles in Babylon. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, was built in a Hellenistic style in the empire as well. By the 7th century BC, the Persians had settled in the portion of the Iranian Plateau in the region of Persis. From this region, Cyrus the Great advanced to defeat the Medes, Lydia, Alexander, an avid admirer of Cyrus the Great, conquered the empire in its entirety by 330 BC. Upon his death, most of the former territory came under the rule of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire. The Persian population of the central plateau reclaimed power by the second century BC under the Parthian Empire, the historical mark of the Achaemenid Empire went far beyond its territorial and military influences and included cultural, social, technological and religious influences as well. Many Athenians adopted Achaemenid customs in their lives in a reciprocal cultural exchange. The impact of Cyruss edict is mentioned in Judeo-Christian texts, the empire also set the tone for the politics, heritage and history of modern Iran. Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details Due to the duration of their reigns, Smerdis, Xerxes II. The Persian nation contains a number of tribes as listed here, the Pasargadae, Maraphii, and Maspii, upon which all the other tribes are dependent. Of these, the Pasargadae are the most distinguished, they contain the clan of the Achaemenids from which spring the Perseid kings. Other tribes are the Panthialaei, Derusiaei, Germanii, all of which are attached to the soil, the Achaemenid Empire was created by nomadic Persians. The Achaemenid Empire was not the first Iranian empire, as by 6th century BC another group of ancient Iranian peoples had established the short lived Median Empire. The Iranian peoples had arrived in the region of what is today Iran c.1000 BC and had for a number of centuries fallen under the domination of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, based in northern Mesopotamia. However, the Medes and Persians, Cimmerians, Persians and Chaldeans played a role in the overthrow of the Assyrian empire. The term Achaemenid means of the family of the Achaemenis/Achaemenes, despite the derivation of the name, Achaemenes was himself a minor seventh-century ruler of the Anshan in southwestern Iran, and a vassal of Assyria. At some point in 550 BC, Cyrus rose in rebellion against the Medes, eventually conquering the Medes and creating the first Persian empire
Achaemenid Empire
–
Standard of Cyrus the Great
Achaemenid Empire
–
Relief of
Cyrus the Great.
Achaemenid Empire
–
Mausoleum at Halicarnassus one of the
Seven wonders of the ancient world was built by Persian satrap of
Caria,
Mausolus (Scale model.)
15.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
–
Flag
India
–
The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
–
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
16.
Hellenization
–
In modern times, Hellenization has been associated with the adoption of modern Greek culture and the ethnic and cultural homogenization of Greece. Other tribes that underwent varying degrees of Hellenization included Thracians, Dardanians, Paeonians and Illyrians south of the Jireček Line, Hellenization during the Hellenistic period, however, had its limitations. For example, areas of southern Syria that were affected by Greek culture mostly entailed Seleucid urban centers where Greek was commonly spoken, the countryside, on the other hand, was largely unaffected since most of its inhabitants spoke Syriac and continued to maintain their native traditions. Moreover, Hellenization did not necessarily involve assimilation of ethnic groups since Hellenistic Greeks in regions such as Asia Minor were conscious of their ancestral lineages. Hellenization can also refer to the medieval Byzantine Empire and Constantines founding of Constantinople, moreover, it can refer to the primacy of Greek culture and the Greek language after the reign of Emperor Heraclius in the 7th century AD. Hellenization during the period of Ottoman imperial rule entailed the higher status which Greek culture, in 1909, a commission appointed by the Greek government reported that one third of the villages of Greece should have their names changed, often because of their non-Greek origin. In other instances, names were changed from a name of Greek origin to the ancient Greek toponym. Some village names were formed from a Greek root word with a foreign suffix, the majority of the name changes took place in areas populated by ethnic Greeks, where a strata of foreign, or divergent, toponyms had accumulated over the centuries. However, in parts of northern Greece the population was not Greek-speaking. The process of the change of toponyms in modern Greece has been described as a process of Hellenization and this led to the diminution of the community of Corfiot Italians, resident in Corfu since the Middle Ages, by the 1940s there were only four hundred Corfiot Italians left. The twentieth century witnessed a debate over the extent of Hellenization in the Levant. Rudolf Bultmann thus argued that Christianity arose almost completely within those Hellenistic confines, in his Introduction to the 1964 book Meditations, the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth discussed the profound influence of Stoic philosophy on Christianity. In particular, Again in the doctrine of the Trinity, the conception of Father, Word
Hellenization
–
Map of the Macedonian Empire, circa 323 BC
Hellenization
–
A map showing the Greek territories and colonies during the
Archaic period.
17.
Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
–
Macedonia or Macedon was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece, and later the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece. The kingdom was founded and at first ruled by the royal Argead dynasty, the reign of Philip II saw the rise of Macedonia, during which the kingdom rose to control the entire Greek world. With a reformed army containing phalanxes wielding the sarissa pike, Philip II defeated the old powers of Athens and Thebes in the decisive Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC, Sparta was kept isolated and was occupied a century later by Antigonus III Doson. Alexander then led a roughly decade-long campaign of conquest against the Achaemenid Empire, in the ensuing wars of Alexander the Great, he overthrew the Achaemenid Empire and conquered a territory that stretched as far as the Indus River. For a brief period, his Macedonian empire was the most powerful in the world – the definitive Hellenistic state, Greek arts and literature flourished in the new conquered lands and advances in philosophy, engineering, and science were spread throughout much of the ancient world. Of particular importance were the contributions of Aristotle, who had been imported as tutor to Alexander, important cities such as Pella, Pydna, and Amphipolis were involved in power struggles for control of the territory. New cities were founded, such as Thessalonica by the usurper Cassander, Macedonias decline began with the Macedonian Wars and the rise of Rome as the leading Mediterranean power. At the end of the Second Macedonian War in 168 BC, a short-lived revival of the monarchy during the Third Macedonian War in 150–148 BC ended with the establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia. The name Macedonia comes from the ethnonym Μακεδόνες, which itself is derived from the ancient Greek adjective μακεδνός, meaning tall and it also shares the same root as the noun μάκρος, meaning length in both ancient and modern Greek. The name is believed to have meant either highlanders, the tall ones. Robert S. P. Beekes supports that both terms are of Pre-Greek substrate origin and cannot be explained in terms of Indo-European morphology. Contradictory legends state that either Perdiccas I of Macedon or Caranus of Macedon were the founders of the Argead dynasty, the kingdom of Macedonia was situated along the Haliacmon and Axius rivers in Lower Macedonia, north of Mount Olympus. Historian Malcolm Errington posits the theory one of the earliest Argead kings must have established Aigai as their capital in the mid-7th century BC. Prior to the 4th century BC, the kingdom covered a region corresponding to the western. Achaemenid Persian hegemony over Macedonia was briefly interrupted by the Ionian Revolt, although Macedonia enjoyed a large degree of autonomy and was never made a satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire, it was expected to provide troops for the Achaemenid army. Following the Greek victory at Salamis in 480 BC, Alexander I was employed as an Achaemenid diplomat to strike a treaty and alliance with Athens. Soon afterwards the Achaemenid forces were forced to withdraw from mainland Europe, although initially a Persian vassal, Alexander I of Macedon fostered friendly diplomatic relations with his former Greek enemies, the Athenian and Spartan-led coalition of Greek city-states. Two separate wars were fought against Athens between 433 and 431 BC, spurred by an Athenian alliance with a brother and cousin of Perdiccas II who had rebelled against him
Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
–
The entrance to one of the royal tombs at Vergina, a UNESCO World Heritage site.
Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
–
The Kingdom of Macedonia in 336 BC.
Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
–
Philip II, king of Macedon
Macedonia (ancient kingdom)
–
The expansion of ancient Macedon up to the death of Philip II (r. 359–336 BC).
18.
League of Corinth
–
The name League of Corinth was invented by modern historians due to the first council of the League being in Corinth. It was the first time in history that most of the Greek states managed to become part of a political entity. The League was governed by the Hegemon, the Synedrion and the Dikastai, decrees of the league were issued in Corinth, Athens, Delphi, Olympia and Pydna. The League maintained an army levied from member states in proportion to their size, while Philip established garrisons in Corinth, Thebes. The decision for the Destruction of Thebes as transgressor of the oath was taken by the council of the League of Corinth by a large majority. The League is mentioned by Arrian, after the Battle of Granicus, alexander sent 300 panoplies to the temple of Pallas Athena in Athens, with the following inscription. During 331 BC after the Battle of Megalopolis, Sparta was forced to join the League of Corinth, during the Asiatic campaign, Antipater was appointed deputy hegemon of the League. The League was dissolved after the Lamian War, during 302 BC King Antigonus of Macedon and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes tried to revive the federation against Cassander. Antigonus III Doson also revived the League against Sparta during 224 BC
League of Corinth
–
Kingdom of Macedon immediately after Philip's II death. The Corinthian League is shown in yellow.
19.
Polis
–
Polis, plural poleis literally means city in Greek. It can also mean a body of citizens, in modern historiography, polis is normally used to indicate the ancient Greek city-states, like Classical Athens and its contemporaries, and thus is often translated as city-state. The term city-state, which originated in English, does not fully translate the Greek term. The poleis were not like other primordial ancient city-states like Tyre or Sidon, which were ruled by a king or a small oligarchy, the term polis, which in archaic Greece meant city, changed with the development of the governance center in the city to signify state. Finally, with the emergence of a notion of citizenship among landowners, the ancient Greeks did not always refer to Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and other poleis as such, they often spoke instead of the Athenians, Lacedaemonians, Thebans and so on. The body of citizens came to be the most important meaning of the polis in ancient Greece. The Greek term that meant the totality of urban buildings. Plato analyzes the polis in The Republic, whose Greek title, Πολιτεία, the best form of government of the polis for Plato is the one that leads to the common good. The philosopher king is the best ruler because, as a philosopher, in Platos analogy of the ship of state, the philosopher king steers the polis, as if it were a ship, in the best direction. Books II–IV of The Republic are concerned with Plato addressing the makeup of an ideal polis, in The Republic, Socrates is concerned with the two underlying principles of any society, mutual needs and differences in aptitude. Starting from these two principles, Socrates deals with the structure of an ideal polis. According to Plato, there are five main classes of any polis, producers, merchants, sailors/shipowners, retail traders. Along with the two principles and five classes, there are four virtues. The four virtues of a just city include, wisdom, courage, moderation, with all of these principles, classes, and virtues, it was believed that a just city would exist. Publication of state functions, laws, decrees, and major fiscal accounts were published, synoecism, conurbation, Absorption of nearby villages and countryside, and the incorporation of their tribes into the substructure of the polis. Many of a polis citizens lived in the suburbs or countryside, most cities were composed of several tribes or phylai, which were in turn composed of phratries, and finally génea. They had the right to vote, be elected into office, and bear arms, metics could not vote, be elected to office, bear arms, or serve in war. They otherwise had full personal and property rights, albeit subject to taxation, slaves, chattel in full possession of their owner, and with no privileges other than those that their owner would grant at will
Polis
–
Acropolis of Athens, a noted polis of classical Greece.
Polis
–
Theatre of ancient
Syracuse, a classical polis.
20.
Getae
–
The Getae /ˈdʒiːtiː/ or /ˈɡiːtiː/ or Gets are several Thracian tribes that once inhabited the regions to either side of the Lower Danube, in what is today northern Bulgaria and southern Romania. Several scholars, especially in the Romanian historiography, posit the identity between the Getae and their neighbours, the Dacians. The ancient geographer also wrote that the Dacians and Getae spoke the language, after stating the same about Getae. Pliny the Elder, in his Naturalis Historia, ca, though various races have occupied the adjacent shores, at one spot the Getae, by the Romans called Daci. Justin, the 3rd century AD Latin historian, wrote in his Epitome of Pompeius Trogus that Dacians are spoken of as descendents of the Getae, Daci quoque suboles Getarum sunt. He also shows the Dacians to live on both sides of the Lower Danube, the south of the river, in Moesia. Two of the tribes found among them are those formerly called the Triballi, and the Dardani. There is a dispute among scholars about the relations between the Getae and Dacians, and this also covers the interpretation of ancient sources. Some historians such as Ronald Arthur Crossland state that even Ancient Greeks used the two designations interchangeable or with some confusion, thus, it is generally considered that the two groups were related to a certain degree, while the exact relation is a matter of controversy. Strabo, as well as ancient sources, led some modern historians to consider that, if the Thracian ethnic group should be divided. The linguist Ivan Duridanov also identified a Dacian linguistic area in Dacia, Scythia Minor, Lower Moesia, Romanian scholars generally went further with the identification, historian Constantin C. Giurescu claiming the two were identical, the archaeologist Mircea Babeş spoke of a veritable ethno-cultural unity between the Getae and the Dacians. According to Glanville Price, the account of the Greek geographer Strabo shows that the Getae and the Dacians were one and this same belief is stated by some British historians such as David Sandler Berkowitz and Philip Matyszak. Some scholars consider the Getae and Dacians to be the people at different stages of their history. Ronald Arthur Crossland suggested the two designations may refer to two groups of a homogeneous people that had come to historical prominence at two distinct periods of time. He also compared the probable linguistic situation with the relation between modern Norwegian and Danish languages, paul Lachlan MacKendrick considered the two as branches of the same tribe, speaking two dialects of a common language. The Romanian historian of ideas and historiographer Lucian Boia stated, At a certain point, Lucian Boia took a sceptical position, arguing the ancient writers distinguished among the two people, treating them as two distinct groups of the Thracian ethnos. Boia contended that it would be naive to assume Strabo knew the Thracian dialects so well, the latter claim is contested, some studies attesting Strabos reliability and sources
Getae
–
Onomastic range of the
Dacian, Getae, and Moesian towns with the
dava or deva ending, covering Dacia, Moesia, Thrace, and
Dalmatia, and showcasing linguistic continuity
Getae
–
The area of land most often historically associated with the Getae people, shown in red dots at the mouth of the Danube River
Getae
–
Eastern Europe in 200 BC showing the Getae tribes north of the Danube river.
Getae
–
The
Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari,
Bulgaria.
21.
Alexander the Great
–
Alexander III of Macedon, commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip II to the throne at the age of twenty and he was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of historys most successful military commanders. During his youth, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until the age of 16, after Philips assassination in 336 BC, he succeeded his father to the throne and inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. Alexander was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his fathers Panhellenic project to lead the Greeks in the conquest of Persia, in 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire and began a series of campaigns that lasted ten years. Following the conquest of Anatolia, Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of battles, most notably the battles of Issus. He subsequently overthrew Persian King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety, at that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River. He sought to reach the ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea and invaded India in 326 BC and he eventually turned back at the demand of his homesick troops. Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, the city that he planned to establish as his capital, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in the establishment of several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexanders surviving generals, Alexanders legacy includes the cultural diffusion which his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism. He founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt, Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mold of Achilles, and he features prominently in the history and mythic traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. He became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves, and he is often ranked among the most influential people in human history. He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip II, and his wife, Olympias. Although Philip had seven or eight wives, Olympias was his wife for some time. Several legends surround Alexanders birth and childhood, sometime after the wedding, Philip is said to have seen himself, in a dream, securing his wifes womb with a seal engraved with a lions image. Plutarch offered a variety of interpretations of dreams, that Olympias was pregnant before her marriage, indicated by the sealing of her womb. On the day Alexander was born, Philip was preparing a siege on the city of Potidea on the peninsula of Chalcidice. That same day, Philip received news that his general Parmenion had defeated the combined Illyrian and Paeonian armies, and it was also said that on this day, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, burnt down. This led Hegesias of Magnesia to say that it had burnt down because Artemis was away, such legends may have emerged when Alexander was king, and possibly at his own instigation, to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception
Alexander the Great
–
"Alexander fighting king
Darius III of Persia ",
Alexander Mosaic,
Naples National Archaeological Museum.
Alexander the Great
–
Bust of a young Alexander the Great from the Hellenistic era,
British Museum
Alexander the Great
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Aristotle tutoring Alexander, by
Jean Leon Gerome Ferris
Alexander the Great
–
Philip II of Macedon, Alexander's father.
22.
Parmenion
–
Parmenion was a Macedonian general in the service of Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great, who was assassinated after his son Philotas was convicted on a charge of treason. Parmenion was a nobleman and father of Philotas, Parmenion rose to become Philips chief military lieutenant and Alexanders Strategos. During the reign of Philip II, Parmenion achieved a victory over the Illyrians in 356 BC. Ten years later, Parmenion destroyed the southern Thessalian town of Halos and he was one of the Macedonian delegates appointed to conclude peace with Athens in 346 BC, and was sent with an army to oversee Macedonian influence in Euboea in 342 BC. The Greek cities on the western coast of Anatolia revolted until the news arrived that Philip had been murdered and had succeeded by his young son Alexander. The Macedonians were demoralized by Philips death and were defeated near Magnesia by the Persians under the command of the mercenary Memnon of Rhodes. Although Alexander was recognized as king in Macedonia in October 336 BC his accession was opposed by Attalus, in response, Parmenion put the general to death even though Parmenion was related to Attalus. However, Parmenion recognised that this was an act if Alexanders succession was to be smooth. As a consequence, Alexander was in Parmenions debt particularly given that Parmenion was his most experienced general, as a result, a number of Parmenions relatives were placed by Alexander in key positions in the Macedonian army. Parmenions friend Amyntas and his brother Asander were placed in key positions, Parmenions oldest son Philotas was made commander of the Companion cavalry, a unit of 1800 horsemen that was Macedonias most effective weapon in its battles. Parmenion became Alexanders second in command, the position he had held under Philip. In 334 BC, Alexander joined Parmenion in Anatolia with reinforcements, during the great battles that followed, Parmenion commanded the left wing while Alexander himself commanded the right wing. Meanwhile, the Persian satraps of Cilicia, Lydia, Hellespontine Phrygia and other territories had assembled at Zelea, the two armies met near the river Granicus. Most ancient sources agree that Parmenion advised Alexander not to attack, Parmenion is said to have acted as a foil to his commanders innovative strategies, by expertly formulating the orthodox strategy. For instance, according to Arrians Anabasis of Alexander, at the Battle of Granicus, Parmenion suggested delay before the attack, as the army had already marched all day. Alexander attacked across the river regardless of this counsel and gained a victory nevertheless, however and it is suggested that the Greeks were initially repulsed, and then stole a march on the Persians and crossed the river at night. This brought the Persian cavalry onto the field first against the Greeks the next morning, setting up a defeat in detail, after the battle, Parmenion captured the Persian stronghold Dascylium, the capital of Hellespontine Phrygia. Later, he seized Magnesia and Tralleis, Asander was given responsibility for governing Lydia
Parmenion
–
Image of unknown Greek
strategos, as was Parmenio
23.
Ptolemy I Soter
–
Ptolemy I Soter I, also known as Ptolemy Lagides, was a Macedonian Greek general under Alexander the Great, one of the three Diadochi who succeeded to his empire. Ptolemy became ruler of Egypt and founded a dynasty which ruled it for the three centuries, turning Egypt into a Hellenistic kingdom and Alexandria into a center of Greek culture. He assimilated some aspects of Egyptian culture, however, assuming the title pharaoh in 305/4 BC. The use of the title of pharaoh was often situational, pharaoh was used for an Egyptian audience, like all Macedonian nobles, Ptolemy I Soter claimed descent from Heracles, the mythical founder of the Argead dynasty that ruled Macedon. Ptolemy was one of Alexanders most trusted generals, and was among the seven somatophylakes attached to his person and he was a few years older than Alexander and had been his intimate friend since childhood. He was succeeded by his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus, Ptolemy served with Alexander from his first campaigns, and played a principal part in the later campaigns in Afghanistan and India. Ptolemy had his first independent command during the campaign against the rebel Bessus whom Ptolemy captured and handed over to Alexander for execution. During Alexanders campaign in the Indian subcontinent Ptolemy was in command of the guard at the siege of Aornos. When Alexander died in 323 BC, Ptolemy is said to have instigated the resettlement of the made at Babylon. Ptolemy quickly moved, without authorization, to subjugate Cyrenaica, by custom, kings in Macedonia asserted their right to the throne by burying their predecessor. Ptolemy then openly joined the coalition against Perdiccas, Perdiccas appears to have suspected Ptolemy of aiming for the throne himself, and may have decided that Ptolemy was his most dangerous rival. Ptolemy executed Cleomenes for spying on behalf of Perdiccas — this removed the check on his authority. In 321 BC, Perdiccas attempted to invade Egypt only to fall at the hands of his own men, Ptolemys decision to defend the Nile against Perdiccass attempt to force it ended in fiasco for Perdiccas, with the loss of 2000 men. This failure was a blow to Perdiccas reputation, and he was murdered in his tent by two of his subordinates. Ptolemy immediately crossed the Nile, to provide supplies to what had the day before been an enemy army, Ptolemy was offered the regency in place of Perdiccas, but he declined. Ptolemy was consistent in his policy of securing a power base and his first occupation of Syria was in 318, and he established at the same time a protectorate over the petty kings of Cyprus. When Antigonus One-Eye, master of Asia in 315, showed dangerous ambitions, Ptolemy joined the coalition against him, in Cyprus, he fought the partisans of Antigonus, and re-conquered the island. A revolt in Cyrene was crushed the same year, in 312, Ptolemy and Seleucus, the fugitive satrap of Babylonia, both invaded Syria, and defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, the son of Antigonus, in the Battle of Gaza
Ptolemy I Soter
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Bust of Ptolemy I in the
Louvre Museum
Ptolemy I Soter
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Ptolemy as Pharaoh of Egypt, British Museum,
London.
Ptolemy I Soter
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The taking of Jerusalem by Ptolemy Soter ca. 320 BC, by
Jean Fouquet.
Ptolemy I Soter
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A rare coin of Ptolemy I, a reminder of his successful campaigns with Alexander in India. Obv: Ptolemy in profile at the beginning of his reign. Rev: Alexander triumphantly riding a chariot drawn by elephants.
24.
Hephaestion
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Hephaestion, son of Amyntor, was a Macedonian nobleman and a general in the army of Alexander the Great. By far the dearest of all the friends, he had been brought up with Alexander. This friendship lasted throughout their lives, and was compared, by others as well as themselves, to that of Achilles and Patroclus. Besides being a soldier, engineer and diplomat he corresponded with the philosophers Aristotle and Xenocrates and actively supported Alexander in his attempts to integrate the Greeks, Alexander formally made him his second-in-command when he appointed him Chiliarch of the empire. Alexander also made him part of the family when he gave him as his bride Drypetis, sister to his own second wife Stateira. When he died suddenly at Ecbatana around age thirty-two, Alexander was overwhelmed with grief and he petitioned the oracle at Siwa to grant Hephaestion divine status and thus Hephaestion was honoured as a Divine Hero. Hephaestion was cremated in Babylon in the presence of the entire army, at the time of his own death a mere eight months later, Alexander was still planning lasting monuments to Hephaestions memory. Hephaestion’s exact age is not known, Many scholars cite Hephaestion’s age as being similar to Alexander’s so it is fair to assume that he was born about 356 BC. He is said to have become a page in 343 BC, as a member of the court, he may have met Alexander around this time. The only surviving anecdote from Hephaestion’s youth comes courtesy of the Alexander Romance. One day when Alexander was 15 years old sailing with Hephaestion, his friend, he easily reached Pisa and he went off to stroll with Hephaestion. ”That Alexander’s exact age is given provides another clue to Hephaestion’s upbringing because at fifteen Alexander and his companions were at Mieza studying under Aristotle. Hephaestion has never been named among those who attended the lectures at Mieza, more telling is Hephaestion’s name being found in a catalogue of Aristotle’s correspondences. The letters themselves no longer exist, but for them to have found their way into an official catalogue and it implies that Hephaestion received a good education and shows that Aristotle was impressed enough by his pupil to send letters throughout Alexanders expanding empire to converse with him. A few years after the lectures at Mieza, Hephaestion’s presence was absent when several of Alexander’s close friends were exiled as a result of the Pixodarus affair. Among those exiled by Philip II after Alexander’s failed attempt to himself as groom to the Carian princess were Ptolemy, Nearchus, Harpalus, Erigyius. The reason for Hephaestion’s absence from this list could be due to the fact all of the exiled men were older friends of Alexander. Hephaestion was a contemporary of Alexander and it is likely that his influence might have seen as less of a threat than these more mature companions. Whatever Hephaestion’s opinion had been on the affair, like many of Alexander’s other childhood companions he was not exiled in its aftermath
Hephaestion
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Hephaestion marble head, as of September 2015 housed in the
Getty Museum
Hephaestion
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The Battle of Issus by
Albrecht Altdorfer, 1529
Hephaestion
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A painting by
Charles Le Brun depicting Alexander and Hephaestion (in red cloak), facing
Porus, during the
Battle of the Hydaspes.
Hephaestion
–
Alexander, left, and Hephaestion, right. The Getty Villa Museum.
25.
Craterus
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Craterus or Krateros was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great and one of the Diadochi. He was the son of a Macedonian nobleman named Alexander from Orestis, Craterus commanded the phalanx and all infantry on the left wing in Battle of Issus. In Hyrcania he was sent on a mission against the Tapurians, at the Battle of the Hydaspes River he commanded the rearguard, which stayed on the western bank, his men crossed the river only during the final stages of the battle. At the festivities in Susa, Craterus married princess Amastris, daughter of Oxyathres, Craterus and Polyperchon were appointed to lead 11,500 veteran soldiers back to Macedonia. Craterus was in Cilicia, where he was building the fleet, in 322 BC Craterus aided Antipater in the Lamian War against Athens. He sailed with his Cilician navy to Greece and led troops at the Battle of Crannon in 322 BC, when Antigonus rose in rebellion against Perdiccas and Eumenes, Craterus joined him, alongside Antipater and Ptolemy. He was killed in battle against Eumenes in Asia Minor when his horse fell over him, somewhere near the Hellespont. Named with the phonetically accurate spelling of Krateros, Craterus is one of the characters in the historical novel Roxana Romance by A. J. Also named as Krateros, Craterus is a character in the two Alexander novels by Mary Renault, The Persian Boy and Fire From Heaven
Craterus
–
Alexander and Craterus in a lion hunt, mosaic in
Pella
26.
Cleitus the Black
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Cleitus the Black was an officer of the Macedonian army led by Alexander the Great. He saved Alexanders life at the Battle of the Granicus in 334 B. C. and was killed by him in a drunken quarrel several years later, Cleitus was son of Dropides and brother of Alexanders nurse, Lanike. In 328 BC Artabazus resigned his satrapy of Bactria, and Alexander gave it to Cleitus, on the eve of the day on which he was to set out to take possessions of his government, Alexander organized a banquet in the satrapial palace at Maracanda. At this banquet an angry dispute arose, the particulars of which are disputed by various authors, most of the members were rather drunk, and Alexander announced a reorganization of commands. Specifically, Cleitus was given orders to take 16,000 of the defeated Greek mercenaries who fought for the Persian King north to fight the steppe nomads in Central Asia. Cleitus knew that he would no longer be near the king, furious at the thought of commanding what he saw as second-rate soldiers, fighting nomads in the middle of nowhere, he spoke his mind. Alexander called for his guards, but they did not want to intervene in a quarrel between friends. Alexander threw an apple at Cleitus head and called for a dagger or spear, the Hypaspists had conveniently left the vicinity of Alexander. Alexander then called for his trumpeter to summon the army, the alarm was not sounded, nevertheless, Cleitus managed to return to the room to utter more grievances against Alexander. But sources agree that at this point Alexander got hold of a javelin, in all of the four major texts we possess, it is shown that Alexander grieved for the death of Cleitus. Alexander may have not wanted to kill Cleitus. However, Cleitus was a member of the generation of Philip II, the motives of Cleitus in this quarrel have been interpreted in various ways. Cleitus may have been angered at Alexanders increasing adoption of Persian customs, after the death of King Darius III Alexander was legally King of the Persian Empire. Alexander was now employing eunuchs such as Bagoas and was tolerant of such Persian customs as proskynesis, Cleitus, as Clito, appears as a character in Handels opera Alessandro. The American poet John Berryman recounts the tale of Kleitos in his dream song. The death of Cleitus at Alexanders hand is depicted in a scene of the film Alexander, the scene was intended to be the turning point in the campaign, when the Macedonian generals began to insist that Alexander return home. The film, however, erroneously depicts the death of Cleitus as taking place in India as the groups events as being Persian or After Persia. Cleituss death is depicted in Mary Buttss 1931 novel The Macedonian
Cleitus the Black
–
Alexander kills Cleitus, painting by
André Castaigne 1898–1899
27.
Perdiccas
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Perdiccas became a general in Alexander the Greats army and participated in Alexanders campaign against Persia. Following Alexanders death, he rose to supreme commander of the imperial army and regent for Alexanders half brother and intellectually disabled successor. In response to this formidable coalition and a provocation from another general, Ptolemy, Perdiccas invaded Egypt, according to Arrian, Perdiccas was a son of the Macedonian nobleman, Orontes, a descendant of the independent princes of the Macedonian province of Orestis. While his actual date of birth is unknown, he would seem to have been of an age to Alexander. As the commander of a battalion of the Macedonian phalanx, heavy infantry, Perdiccas distinguished himself during the conquest of Thebes, subsequently, he held an important command in the Indian campaigns of Alexander. In 324 BC, at the nuptials celebrated at Susa, Perdiccas married the daughter of the satrap of Media, when Hephaestion unexpectedly died the same year, Perdiccas was appointed his successor as commander of the Companion cavalry and chiliarch. As Alexander lay dying on 11 June 323 BC, he gave his ring to Perdiccas, following the death of Alexander the Great, his generals met to discuss what should be their next steps. Perdiccas proposed that a final decision wait until Alexanders wife Roxana, if the child was a boy, then Perdiccas proposed that the child would be chosen as the new king. This meant that Perdiccas would be the regent and effectively the ruler of Alexanders empire until the boy was old enough to rule on his own, despite misgivings amongst the other generals, most accepted Perdiccas proposal. However, the commander, Meleager, disagreed with Perdiccas plans. Meleager argued in favour of Alexanders half brother, Arridaeus, who he considered to be first in line of succession, the infantry supported this proposal with Meleagars troops willing to fight in favour of Arridaeus. Through the Partition of Babylon a compromise was reached under which Perdiccas was to serve as Regent of the Empire, Arridaeus and the unborn child of Alexanders wife Roxana were recognized as joint kings. While the general Craterus was officially declared Guardian of the Royal Family, Perdiccas effectively held this position, Perdiccas soon showed himself intolerant of any rivals, and, acting in the name of the two kings, sought to hold the empire together under his own hand. Alexander the Greats second wife, Stateira, was murdered, Perdiccas had Meleager arrested and murdered. Perdiccas authority as regent and his control over the family were immediately challenged. Perdiccas appointed Leonnatus, one of Alexanders bodyguards or somatophylakes, as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia on the western coast of Asia Minor. However, instead of assuming that position, Leonnatus sailed to Macedonia when Alexanders sister, Cleopatra, widow of King Alexander I of Epirus, upon learning of this, in spring 322 BC Perdiccas marched the imperial army towards Asia Minor to reassert his dominance as regent. Perdiccas ordered Leonnatus to appear before him to trial for disobedience
Perdiccas
–
Deathbed of Alexander, illustration in Codex 51 (Alexander Romance) of the Hellenic Institute. The figure in the center is Perdiccas, receiving the ring from the speechless Alexander.
28.
Lysimachus
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Lysimachus was a Macedonian officer and diadochus of Alexander the Great, who became a basileus in 306 BC, ruling Thrace, Asia Minor and Macedon. Lysimachus was born in 361 BC, to a family of Thessalian Greek stock and his father was a nobleman of high rank who was an intimate friend of Philip II of Macedon, who shared in Philip II’s councils and became a favourite in the Argead court. He was probably appointed Somatophylax during the reign of Philip II, during Alexanders Persian campaigns, in 328 BC he was one of his immediate bodyguards. In 324 BC, in Susa, he was crowned in recognition for his actions in India, after Alexander’s death in 323 BC, he was appointed to the government of Thrace as strategos although he faced some difficulties from the Thracian Dynasty Seuthes. However, he managed to consolidate his power in the east of his territories, in 309 BC, he founded Lysimachia in a commanding situation on the neck connecting the Chersonese with the mainland which formed a bulwark against the Odrysians. In 306/305 BC, Lysimachus followed the example of Antigonus I and assumed the royal title, which he held until his death at Corupedium in 281 BC. In 302 BC, when the alliance between Cassander, Ptolemy I and Seleucus I was made, Lysimachus, reinforced by troops from Cassander, entered Asia Minor. On the approach of Antigonus I he retired into winter quarters near Heraclea, marrying its widowed queen Amastris, Seleucus I joined him in 301 BC, and at the Battle of Ipsus Antigonus I was defeated and slain. Antigonus dominions were divided among the victors, Lysimachus share was Lydia, Ionia, Phrygia and the north coast of Asia Minor. Feeling that Seleucus I was becoming dangerously powerful, Lysimachus now allied himself with Ptolemy I, Amastris, who had divorced herself from him, returned to Heraclea. Demetrius I subsequently threatened Thrace, but had to due to a sudden uprising in Boeotia. In 287 BC, Lysimachus and Pyrrhus in turn invaded Macedonia, Lysimachus left Pyrrhus in possession of Macedonia with the title of king for around seven months before Lysimachus invaded. For a short while the two ruled jointly but in 285 BC Lysimachus expelled Pyrrhus, seizing complete control for himself, domestic troubles embittered the last years of Lysimachus’ life. Amastris had been murdered by her two sons, Lysimachus treacherously put them to death, on his return, Arsinoe II asked the gift of Heraclea, and he granted her request, though he had promised to free the city. This atrocious deed by Lysimachus aroused great indignation, many of the cities of Asia Minor revolted, and his most trusted friends deserted him. The widow of Agathocles and their children fled to Seleucus I, in 281 BC, Lysimachus crossed the Hellespont into Lydia and at the decisive Battle of Corupedium was killed. After some days his body was found on the field, protected birds of prey by his faithful dog. Lysimachus body was given over to another son Alexander, by whom it was interred at Lysimachia, Lysimachus was married three times and his wives were, First marriage, Nicaea a Greek noblewoman and daughter of the powerful Regent Antipater
Lysimachus
–
Marble bust of Lysimachus. Naples,
Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli (Archaeological Museum),
Italy
Lysimachus
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Obverse of coin of Lysimachus: The horned Alexander appears as the king's divine patron.
Lysimachus
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Tetradrachm of Lysimachus. The
Greek inscription reads: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΛΥΣΙΜΑΧΟΥ "[coin] of King Lysimachus".
29.
Antigonus I Monophthalmus
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Antigonus I Monophthalmus, son of Philip from Elimeia, was a Macedonian nobleman, general, and satrap under Alexander the Great. During his early life he served under Philip II, and he was a figure in the Wars of the Diadochi after Alexanders death, declaring himself king in 306 BC. Antigonus was appointed governor of Greater Phrygia in 333 BC and he was primarily responsible for defending Alexanders lines of supply and communication during the latters extended campaign against the Achaemenid Persian Empire. As part of the division of the provinces after Alexanders death in 323 BC, Antigonus also received Pamphylia and Lycia from Perdiccas, regent of the empire, at the Partition of Babylon. He incurred the enmity of Perdiccas, the regent, by refusing to assist Eumenes to obtain possession of the allotted to him. Leonnatus had left with his army for Greece, leaving Antigonus alone to deal with Cappadocia, Perdiccas seems to have viewed this as a direct affront to his authority and went up with the royal army himself to conquer the area. Eumenes was defeated and forced to retire to the fortress of Nora in Cappadocia, when Antipater died in 319 BC, he gave the regentship to Polyperchon, excluding Cassander, his son. Antigonus and the other refused to recognize Polyperchon, since it would undermine their own ambitions. He entered into negotiations with Eumenes, but Eumenes had already been swayed by Polyperchon, effecting his escape from Nora, he raised an army and built a fleet in Cilicia and Phoenicia, and soon after formed a coalition with the satraps of the eastern provinces. Antigonus fought against Eumenes in two battles at Paraitacene in 317 BC and Gabiene in 316 BC. After some deliberation, Antigonus had Eumenes executed, as a result, Antigonus now was in possession of the empires Asian territories, his authority stretching from the eastern satrapies to Syria and Asia Minor in the west. He seized the treasures at Susa and entered Babylon, the governor of the city, Seleucus, fled to Ptolemy and entered into a league with him, Lysimachus and Cassander against Antigonus. In 314 BC Antigonus invaded Phoenicia, under Ptolemys control, and his son Demetrius was defeated at the Battle of Gaza by Ptolemy in 312 BC, and after the battle, Seleucus made his way back to Babylonia. Seleucus returned to Babylon in order to build up a base of his own, the Babylonian War began between Antigonus and Seleucus, where Seleucus defeated both Demetrius and Antigonus, and secured Babylonia. After the war had been carried on with varying success from 315 to 311, peace was concluded, by which the government of Asia Minor and Syria was provisionally secured to Antigonus. This agreement was violated on the pretext that garrisons had been placed in some of the free Greek cities by Antigonus. Demetrius Poliorcetes, the son of Antigonus, wrested part of Greece from Cassander, after defeating Ptolemy at the naval Battle of Salamis in 306 BC, Demetrius conquered Cyprus. Following the victory Antigonus assumed the title king and bestowed the same upon his son, the other dynasts, Cassander, Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Seleucus, soon followed
Antigonus I Monophthalmus
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Coin of Antigonus I Monophthalmus, the
Greek inscription reads " ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΑΝΤΙΓΟΝΟΥ " meaning [coin] of king Antigonus
30.
Nearchus
–
Nearchus was one of the officers, a navarch, in the army of Alexander the Great. He is known for his voyage from the Indus river to the Persian Gulf following the Indian campaign of Alexander the Great. An account of his voyage is given in Arrians Indica, written in the 2nd century AD. A native of Lato in Crete and son of Androtimus, his family settled at Amphipolis in Macedonia at some point during Philip II’s reign, at which point Nearchus was probably a young boy. Nearchus, along with Ptolemy, Erigyius and Laomedon, and Harpalus, was one of Alexander’s ‘mentors’ – and it is not known where the exiles went, but they were recalled only after Philip’s death, on Alexander’s accession. After their recall, these men were held in the highest honour, Nearchus was appointed as satrap of Lycia and Pamphylia in 334/3 BC, one of the earliest of Alexanders satrapal appointments. In 328 BC he was relieved of his post and rejoined Alexander in Bactria, after the siege of Aornus Nearchus was sent at the head of a reconnaissance mission – especially to find out about elephants. In 326 BC, Nearchus was made admiral of the fleet that Alexander had built at the Hydaspes, during the voyage some of the ships were damaged, and Nearchus was instructed to remain behind to oversee repairs, before continuing down the river. This perhaps indicates some knowledge of shipbuilding, but he could hardly have been the only one qualified, however, he remained in command of the fleet for the voyage from the Indus to the Persian Gulf, which he recorded in detail. Again, although he was the admiral, in command of the fleet, during the voyage, Nearchus was reputedly the first Greek commander to visit Bahrain, which was called Tylos by the Greeks. His visit marked the start of Bahrains inclusion within the Hellenic world, after many adventures, Nearchus arrived in Carmania, meeting up with Alexander after the latter’s crossing of the Gedrosian desert. Alexander sent him off to complete his voyage – he went as far as the Euphrates before turning back to rejoin Alexander at Susa, Nearchus married the daughter of Barsine and Mentor, and received a crown as recognition of his exertions. He then took the fleet up to Babylon, where he gave Alexander the Chaldeans’ warning not to enter the city. Nearchus had a place in Alexander’s final plans, as he was to be the admiral of the Arabian invasion fleet, in the initial arguments over the rule of the empire Nearchus supported Heracles, Alexander’s son by Barsine – the king’s mistress was now his mother-in-law. Once order broke down he joined Antigonus’ camp and his last mention is as an adviser to Demetrius in 313/2 BC, what happened after that is not known, although he probably retired to write his history. Ancient authorities, Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri, vi,4,19,20,25, Plutarch, Life of Alexander,10,68,75, Strabo, xv. pp.721,725, Diodorus Siculus, xvii. Arrian, The Indica translated by E. Iliff Robson, pothos. org, Nearchus by Marcus Pailing Livius, Nearchus by Jona Lendering The Trierarchs of Nearchus by livius. org Nearchus the Cretan and the Foundation of Cretopolis
Nearchus
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Map showing voyages of Nearchus and the campaigns of Alexander until shortly after acquiring the Persian Empire – from A History of the Ancient World, George Willis Botsford Ph.D., The MacMillan Company, 1913
31.
Cassander
–
Cassander, was king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon from 305 BC until 297 BC, and de facto ruler of much of Greece from 317 BC until his death. Eldest son of Antipater and a contemporary of Alexander the Great, in his youth, Cassander was taught by the philosopher Aristotle at the Lyceum in Macedonia. He was educated alongside Alexander the Great in a group that included Hephaestion, Ptolemy and his family were distant collateral relatives to the Argead dynasty. Whatever the truth of this suggestion, Cassander stood out amongst the Diadochi in his hostility to Alexanders memory, cassanders decision to restore Thebes, which had been destroyed under Alexander, was perceived at the time to be a snub to the deceased King. It was later said that he could not pass a statue of Alexander without feeling faint. Cassander has been perceived to be ambitious and unscrupulous, and even members of his own family were estranged from him, Cassander rejected his father’s decision, and immediately went to seek the support of Antigonus, Ptolemy and Lysimachus as his allies. Waging war on Polyperchon, Cassander destroyed his fleet, put Athens under the control of Demetrius of Phaleron, after Olympias’ successful move against Philip III later in the year, Cassander besieged her in Pydna. When the city two years later, Olympias was killed, and Cassander had Alexander IV and Roxanne confined at Amphipolis. Cassander associated himself with the Argead dynasty by marrying Alexander’s half-sister, Thessalonica, by 309 BC, Polyperchon began to claim that Heracles was the true heir to the Macedonian inheritance, at which point Cassander bribed him to have the boy killed. After this, Cassander’s position in Greece and Macedonia was reasonably secure, and he proclaimed himself king in 305 BC. After the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC, in which Antigonus was killed, he was undisputed in his control of Macedonia, however, he had time to savour the fact. When Alexander was ousted as joint king by his brother, Demetrius I took up Alexanders appeal for aid and ousted Antipater II, killed Alexander V, the remaining Antipatrids, such as Antipater Etesias, were unable to re-establish the Antipatrids on the throne. Of more lasting significance was Cassander’s refoundation of Therma into Thessalonica, Cassander also founded Cassandreia upon the ruins of Potidaea. In the Oliver Stone film Alexander, he is portrayed by Jonathan Rhys Meyers, diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca chapters xviii, xix, xx Green, Peter, Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age, Weidenfeld & Nicolson,2007. ISBN9780297852940 Plutarch, Parallel Lives, Demetrius,18,31, Phocion,31 Franca Landucci Gattinoni, vita e opere di Cassandro di Macedonia. ISBN 3-515-08381-2 A genealogical tree of Cassander
Cassander
–
stater of Cassander. The reverse depicts a lion and an inscription in Ancient Greek reading "ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΚΑΣΣΑΝΔΡΟΥ", King Cassander.
32.
Seleucus I Nicator
–
Seleucus I Nicator /səˈljuːkəs naɪˈkeɪtər/ was one of the Diadochi. However, after the outbreak of the Wars of the Diadochi in 322, Perdiccas was betrayed and assassinated in a conspiracy by Seleucus, Peithon and Antigenes in Pelusium sometime in either 321 or 320 BC. At the Partition of Triparadisus in 321 BC, Seleucus was appointed Satrap of Babylon under the new regent Antipater, but almost immediately, the wars between the Diadochi resumed and Antigonus forced Seleucus to flee Babylon. Seleucus was only able to return to Babylon in 312 BC with the support of Ptolemy, from 312 BC, Seleucus ruthlessly expanded his dominions and eventually conquered the Persian and Median lands. Seleucus ruled not only Babylonia, but the entire eastern part of Alexanders empire. Seleucus victories against Antigonus and Lysimachus left the Seleucid dynasty virtually unopposed in Asia, however, Seleucus also hoped to take control of Lysimachus European territories, primarily Thrace and Macedon itself. But upon arriving in Thrace in 281 BC, Seleucus was assassinated by Ptolemy Ceraunus, the assassination of Seleucus destroyed Seleucid prospects in Thrace and Macedon, and paved the way for Ptolemy Ceraunus to absorb much of Lysimachus former power in Macedon. Seleucus was succeeded by his son Antiochus I as ruler of the Seleucid empire, Seleucus was the son of Antiochus. It is possible that Antiochus was a member of an upper Macedonian noble family, Seleucus mother was supposedly called Laodice, but nothing else is known of her. Later, Seleucus named a number of cities after his parents, Seleucus was born in Europos, located in the northern part of Macedonia. Just a year before his birth, the Paeonians invaded the region, Philip defeated the invaders and only a few years later utterly subdued them under Macedonian rule. Seleucus year of birth is unclear, justin claims he was 77 years old during the battle of Corupedium, which would place his year of birth at 358 BC. Appianus tells us Seleucus was 73 years old during the battle, eusebius of Caesarea, however, mentions the age of 75, and thus the year 356 BC, making Seleucus the same age as Alexander the Great. This is most likely propaganda on Seleucus part to him seem comparable to Alexander. As a teenager, Seleucus was chosen to serve as the kings page and it was customary for all male offspring of noble families to first serve in this position and later as officers in the kings army. A number of legends, similar to those told of Alexander the Great, were told of Seleucus and it was said Antiochus told his son before he left to battle the Persians with Alexander that his real father was actually the god Apollo. The god had left a ring with a picture of an anchor as a gift to Laodice, Seleucus had a birthmark shaped like an anchor. It was told that Seleucus sons and grandsons also had similar birthmarks, the story is similar to the one told about Alexander
Seleucus I Nicator
–
A Roman copy of a Greek statue of Seleucus I found in
Herculaneum. Now located at the
Naples National Archaeological Museum.
Seleucus I Nicator
–
Seleucus led the Royal Hypaspistai during Alexander's Persian campaign.
Seleucus I Nicator
–
Ptolemy, an officer under Alexander the Great, was nominated as the satrap of Egypt. Ptolemy made Egypt independent and proclaimed himself King and
Pharaoh.
Seleucus I Nicator
–
Damaged Roman copy of a bust of Seleucus I,
Louvre
33.
Darius III
–
Darius III, originally named Artashata and called Codomannus by the Greeks, was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia from 336 BC to 330 BC. Artashata adopted Darius as a dynastic name and his empire was unstable, with large portions governed by jealous and unreliable satraps and inhabited by disaffected and rebellious subjects. With the Persian Empire now effectively under Alexanders control, Alexander then decided to pursue Darius, before Alexander reached him, however, Darius was killed by the satrap Bessus, who was also his cousin. Artashata was the son of Arsames, son of Ostanes, and Sisygambis and he had distinguished himself in a combat of champions in a war against the Cadusii and was serving at the time as a royal courier. However, prior to being appointed as a courier, he had served as a satrap of Armenia. He may have been promoted from his satrapy to the service after the ascension of Arses. In 336 BC, he took the throne at the age of 43 after the death of Artaxerxes III, however, a cuneiform tablet suggests that Artaxerxes died from natural causes. Artashata took the regnal name Darius III, and quickly demonstrated his independence from his possible assassin benefactor, Bagoas then tried to poison Darius as well, when he learned that even Darius couldnt be controlled, but Darius was warned and forced Bagoas to drink the poison himself. Compared to his ancestors and his heirs who had since perished, Darius had a distinct lack of experience ruling an empire. Darius was a ruler of entirely average stamp, without the striking talents and he sent an advance force into Asia Minor under the command of his generals Parmenion and Attalus to liberate the Greeks living under Persian control. In the spring of 334 BC, Philips heir, Alexander and this invasion, which marked the beginning of the Wars of Alexander the Great, was followed almost immediately by the victory of Alexander over the Persians at Battle of the Granicus. In the previous invasion of Asia Minor by the Spartan king Agesilaus, Darius attempted to employ the same strategy, with the Spartans rebelling against the Macedonians, but the Spartans were defeated at Megalopolis. Darius did not actually take the field against Alexander’s army until a year and his forces outnumbered Alexanders soldiers by at least a 2 to 1 ratio, but Darius was still outflanked, defeated, and forced to flee. On the way, he left behind his chariot, his bow, at the Battle of Issus, Darius III even caught Alexander by surprise and failed to defeat Alexanders forces. Darius fled so far so fast that Alexander was able to capture Darius’s headquarters, Darius petitioned to Alexander through letters several times to get his family back, but Alexander refused to do so unless Darius would acknowledge him as the new emperor of Persia. Circumstances were more in Darius’s favor at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC, despite all these beneficial factors, he still fled the battle before any victor had been decided and deserted his experienced commanders as well as one of the largest armies ever assembled. Many Persian soldiers lost their lives that day, so many in fact that after the battle the casualties of the enemy ensured that Darius would never raise a imperial army. Darius then fled to Ecbatana and attempted to raise an army, while Alexander took possession of Babylon, Susa
Darius III
–
Detail of Darius III from the
Alexander Mosaic.
Darius III
–
Darius III portrayed (in the middle) in battle against Alexander in a Greek depiction; Possible illustration of either Battle of Issus or Battle of Gaugamela
Darius III
–
Darius’s flight at the
Battle of Gaugamela (18th-century ivory relief)
Darius III
–
Persian Miniature painting, showing Darius III dying with Alexander and his soldiers watching
34.
Bessus
–
For the Christian saint, see Saint Bessus. Bessus, also known as Artaxerxes V, was a prominent Persian Satrap of Bactria in Persia, according to classical sources, he killed his predecessor and relative, Darius III, after the Persian army had been defeated by Alexander the Great. He was executed by Alexander in 329 BC, the envelopment ordered by Darius failed and the Persians lost the battle after hours of fierce fighting. Bessus survived the battle and remained with his king, whose routed army eluded Alexanders forces, the next year Darius attempted to flee to Bactria in the east. Bessus, conspiring with fellow satraps, deposed Darius and put him in golden chains and it is not clear whether Bessus was motivated primarily by personal ambition or by disillusionment with Darius as a leader. He may have intended to surrender the deposed king to the Macedonians, according to sources, the panicked conspirators stabbed Darius and left him dying in a cart to be found by a Macedonian soldier. The Babylonian Chronicle known as BCHP1 indicates this happened in July 330 BC, the site has been identified near modern Ahuan. Bessus immediately proclaimed himself King of Kings of Persia and adopted the throne name Artaxerxes and his self-proclaimed ascension was logical, since the Satrap of Bactria, known as Mathišta, was the Persian noble next in the line of succession to the Persian throne. Bessus returned to Bactria and tried to organize resistance among the eastern satrapies, Alexander was forced to move his force to suppress the uprising in 329 BC, entering Bactria by way of the Hindu Kush which had been left undefended. After burning the crops Bessus fled east, crossing the river Oxus, however his own Bactrian mounted levies deserted en masse, rather than abandon their homeland. Bessus was seized by several of his chieftains who handed him over to the pursuing Macedonians in an isolated village, Alexander questioned Bessus as to why he had betrayed Darius and continued to lead resistance to the Macedonians. Bessus claimed that he had only one of several nobles who had jointly agreed on the need to dethrone their irresolute king. Unsatisfied by his responses Alexander ordered the prisoner to be whipped and taken to Balkh and then to Hamadan for trial, a fellow conspirator against Darius, Satibaranes Satrap of Aria, had already surrendered to Alexander and had been pardoned. However, unlike Bessus, Satibaranes had not aspired to the Persian throne, ancient reports contradict each other about the nature of Bessuss execution. BCHP1 Livius. org, Bessus / Artaxerxes V
Bessus
–
The Punishment of Bessus,
Andre Castaigne
35.
King Porus
–
Porus or Poros, was a king of the Pauravas whose territory in Ancient Punjab spanned the region between the Hydaspes and Acesines rivers in what is now the Punjab. Porus fought against Alexander the Great in the Battle of the Hydaspes, thought to be fought at the site of modern-day Mong, after Alexanders death in 323 BC, Porus was assassinated by one of Alexanders generals named Eudemus sometime between 321 and 315 BC. Porus or Poros, was a king of the Pauravas whose territory spanned the region between the Hydaspes and Acesines rivers in what is now Punjab, Porus fought with Alexander the Great in the Battle of the Hydaspes. After Alexanders death in 323 BC, Porus was assassinated by one of Alexanders generals named Eudemus sometime between 321 and 315 BC, the only information available on Porus is from Greek sources. Historians however have reasoned that based on his name and the location of his domain, the historian, Ishwari Prasad, noted that Porus might have been a Yaduvanshi Shoorsaini. This Herakles of Megasthenes and Arrian has been identified by scholars as Krishna and by others as his elder brother Baladeva. The Battle of the Hydaspes was fought in 326 BC by Alexander the Great against King Porus of the Paurava kingdom on the banks of the river Hydaspes, the battle resulted in a Macedonian victory. After Alexanders death in 323 BC, Porus was assassinated by one of Alexanders generals, Eudemus, History of Porus, Patiala, Dr. Buddha Parkash. Alexander de Grote - De ondergang van het Perzische rijk, Amsterdam, ISBN 90-253-3144-0 Holt, Frank L. Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions, California, University of California Press,2003, 217pgs. ISBN 0-520-24483-4 History of India, Dr. Ishwari Prashad King Porus - A Legend of Old, glorifying poem, describes a legendary victory of Porus over Alexander. Media related to Porus at Wikimedia Commons Porus at Livius, by Jona Lendering Chisholm, Hugh, ed. King Porus
King Porus
–
Surrender of Porus to Alexander, 1865 engraving by
Alonzo Chappel
King Porus
–
Porus's elephant cavalry as depicted in the 16th century German work,
Cosmographia
King Porus
–
Alexander accepts the surrender of Porus
36.
Siege of Pelium
–
The Siege of Pelium was undertaken by Alexander the Great against the Illyrian tribes of what is modern-day Albania. Taking this place allowed Alexander to march his army to southern Greece quickly, as this area had been far from the Greek theatre of operations, Phillip had been satisfied with the level of subjection he had reduced them to. Alexander was immediately concerned about the news of revolt, as the settlement of Pelium itself occupied one of the most important passes between Illyria and Macedonia. As a result of this, Alexander would have to make a march around a mountain range to the south. In addition to this, without access to this pass, Alexander could be cut off from Greece, which had freshly revolted. The loss of this pass, and the resultant long march would give the Greek city states to the south ample time to prepare for Alexanders arrival while he was reducing the Illyrians. An ally of Alexander offered aid to him by protecting his flank from Illyrian tribes while he marched towards Pelium. Langarus, of the Agrianians, made frequent incursions into the country of the Autariatae, having successfully made this march, Alexander arrived to find Cleitus the Dardanian in control of Pelium and awaiting the arrival of King Glaukias with reinforcements. When Alexander arrived, Cleitus reportedly sacrificed three boys, three girls, and three black rams before meeting the Macedonians. Alexander arrived with 15,000 soldiers and determined to attack Pelium at once, as he hoped to take the place out of hand before King Glaukias could arrive, the first thing Alexander did upon arriving was set up the Macedonian camp. The Macedonians found that not only was Pelium itself held, which commanded the plateau, upon completing the camp, Alexander resolved to attack the troops of Cleitus that were surrounding the heights. This he did with some effect, and as a result of assault the Illyrians retreated within the walls of Pelium. Alexander then attempted to take the town by assault, but failing in this and this however, was interrupted by the arrival of Glaukias and his reinforcements the next day, which compelled Alexander to retreat from the heights that Alexander had captured the day before. Having been forced back into the plain itself by King Glaukias and he was outnumbered by the Illyrians, who were free to gather supplies. Not only that, but Alexander was anxious to take Pelium quickly before Thebes, therefore, not only did Alexander have pressing issues elsewhere, but the Illyrian forces were bent on the annihilation of Alexanders forces, and could afford to wait. Being short of supplies, Alexander sent Philotas, one of his lieutenants, King Glaukias witnessed this force leaving, and pursued and attacked the foragers. However, Alexander was with difficulty able to fend off the attackers and extricate his hypaspists, Agrianians. Seeking to seize his line of retreat before putting his shoulder to the siege and this defile was small, and only four men could march through it abreast
Siege of Pelium
–
Siege of Pelium
37.
Battle of Thebes
–
The Battle of Thebes was a battle that took place between Alexander the Great and the Greek city state of Thebes in 335 BC immediately outside of and in the city proper in Boeotia. Thebes had been under Macedonian occupation since the battle of Chaeronea, the Thebans had reluctantly accepted this, as well as their compulsory membership in the League of Corinth, which had been previously imposed by Phillip II of Macedon, Alexanders father. It was as a result of this expedition that King Darius III started to distribute money to the Greek city-states with the hope that they would rise against their new Hegemon. In addition to this, he had sent his most able general Memnon of Rhodes against the Macedonian troops that were stationed in Ionia at this time. In addition to this, news of Alexander had not reached the southern Greek city states for some time and he had been busy with the siege of Pelium and a rumour had reached them that he had died during the course of this siege. Demosthenes - a prominent Athenian politician - produced a man who claimed to have been present at the siege, Alexander had, indeed, been injured during this siege, so it was not a totally implausible claim to make. Upon learning of the death of Alexander, Theban exiles in Athens raced off to their native city in Boeotia. The Cadmaea, the citadel that was situated upon a hill in Thebes, was occupied by a Macedonian garrison, to this effect, they killed two Macedonian officers who had been roaming the city, and declared their independence from Macedonia. When Alexander learned of the revolt of Thebes, he was concerned about the situation. He had only secured the allegiance of the city states at the beginning of his reign because he had a present with which to bring the city states to terms. This time, there was no such army present in southern Greece, as a result, many cities were throwing off the Macedonian yoke. He therefore raced south, hitting Thessaly by the seventh day and he had passed through the pass of Thermopylae without any of the city states knowing about it. Having arrived in Boeotia, many cities immediately deserted the cause of Greek independence, Athens, being led by Demosthenes, an inveterate opponent of Phillip, was incited against Macedonian hegemony and voted to support Thebes. In spite of this support, and Demosthenes having supplied the city with weapons, Athens held back their forces. In addition to this, the Spartans sent troops as far as the Isthmus of Corinth, however, they held back their forces upon learning of the Kings arrival also. Despite this moral defeat, the Theban assembly met and decided upon war with Alexander with great enthusiasm, however, Alexander had an overwhelming number of experienced troops at the gates of the city at this time. He was by no means eager to destroy the city and he approached the city very slowly and initially encamped far from the city, hoping to awaken the city to its dangerous situation. He also issued to it relatively lenient terms, the condition was, Phoenix and Prothytes - men at the center of the insurrection - were to be surrendered to him at once
Battle of Thebes
–
Remains of the
Cadmeia, the citadel of Thebes
38.
Battle of the Granicus
–
The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BC was the first of three major battles fought between Alexander the Great and the Persian Empire. The battle took place on the road from Abydos to Dascylium, after the death of Phillip of Macedon, many of his newly conquered territories desired to take advantage of the perceived weakness of the new young king. These nations included the Illyrians, Thracians, and other Greek poleis, Alexander had to prove the strength of his rule before leaving for his Persian expedition, and crushed several nascent rebellions within Greece and the northern tribes. After extensive planning in Macedonia, Alexander started to prepare for his next major conquest, in the spring of 334 BC, Alexander took 2,600 cavalry and went on a 20-day march from Macedon to Hellespont, to join Parmenion in Asia. Memnon was a high-ranking Greek mercenary that was on the Persian side, Memnon essentially told the Persian army to destroy the food and means of food production in the villages that Alexander would have to pass. This would make it harder for Alexander and his army to survive on their journey before the battle. The satraps did not trust Memnon because of his nationality, the Persians advanced from Zelea to the Granicus River, which would be an obstacle for Alexander and his army. The Persians awaited the arrival of the Macedonians with all their cavalry in the front line, Alexander, after crossing at Hellespont, then marched 100 km back to the north to meet the Persians. According to Alexanders biographer Arrian, Alexanders army met the Persians on the day of May from Abydos. Alexanders second-in-command, Parmenion suggested crossing the river upstream and attacking at dawn the next day and this tactic caught the Persians off guard. The Macedonian line was arrayed with the heavy Phalanxes in the middle, Alexander was with the Companions on the right flank. The Persians expected the assault to come from Alexanders position. The battle started with a cavalry and light infantry feint from the Macedonian left, the cavalry squadron was led by the officer Ptolemy, son of Philip. The Greek cavalry then turned left and started rolling up the Persian cavalry, a hole opened in the recently vacated place in the battle line, and the Macedonian infantry charged through to engage the poor-quality Persian infantry in the rear. The Macedonian phalanx then attacked the Greek mercenaries, with many of their leaders already dead, and their infantry routed, both flanks of the Persian cavalry retreated, seeing the collapse of the center. The infantry routed too, many being cut down as they fled, total casualties for the Greeks were between 300 and 400. The Persians had roughly 1,000 cavalry and 3,000 infantry killed, the Greek mercenaries, under the command of Memnon of Rhodes, who fought for the Persians, were abandoned after the cavalry retreat. They attempted to broker a peace with Alexander but to no avail, as a result, after the battle Alexander ordered the mercenaries to be enslaved
Battle of the Granicus
–
Crossing of the Granicus after
Charles Le Brun (Zoom)
Battle of the Granicus
–
The Battle of the Granicus River
39.
Siege of Halicarnassus
–
The Siege of Halicarnassus was fought between Alexander the Great and the Achaemenid Persian Empire in 334 BC. Alexander, who had no navy, was constantly being threatened by the Persian navy and it continuously attempted to provoke an engagement with Alexander, who would have none of it. Eventually, the Persian fleet sailed to Halicarnassus, in order to establish a new defense, Ada of Caria, the former queen of Halicarnassus, had been driven from her throne by her younger brother Pixodarus of Caria. When Pixodarus died, Darius had appointed Orontobates satrap of Caria, on the approach of Alexander in 334 BC, Ada, who was in possession of the fortress of Alinda, surrendered the fortress to him. Orontobates and Memnon of Rhodes entrenched themselves in Halicarnassus, Alexander had sent spies to meet with dissidents inside the city, who had promised to open the gates and allow Alexander to enter. When his spies arrived, however, the dissidents were nowhere to be found, a small battle resulted, and Alexanders army managed to break through the city walls. Memnon, however, now deployed his catapults, and Alexanders army fell back, Memnon then deployed his infantry, and shortly before Alexander would have received his first defeat, his infantry managed to break through the city walls, surprising the Persian forces. Memnon, realizing the city was lost, set fire to it, a strong wind caused the fire to destroy much of the city. Alexander committed the government of Caria to Ada, and she, in turn, formally adopted Alexander as her son, during her husbands satrapy, Ada had been loved by the people of Caria. By putting Ada, who felt very favorably towards Alexander, on the throne, he ensured that the government of Caria, as well as its people, Alexander the Great, The Hunt for a New Past. Woodstock, NY, New York, The Overlook Press,2004, London, PanMacmillan,2004, New York, Vintage,2005
Siege of Halicarnassus
–
Ruins of the fortications around Halicarnassus, 4th century BC
40.
Battle of Issus
–
The invading Macedonian troops defeated Persia. After the Hellenic League soundly defeated the Persian satraps of Asia Minor at the Battle of the Granicus, Darius took personal command of his army and he gathered reinforcements and led his men in a surprise march behind the Hellenic advance to cut their line of supply. This forced Alexander to countermarch, setting the stage for the battle near the mouth of the Pinarus River, the battle took place south of the ancient town Issus, which is close to the present-day Turkish town of Iskenderun, on either side of a small river called Pinarus. At that location, the distance from the Gulf of Issus to the mountains is only 2.6 km. Speculation on the location of the Pinarus has taken place for over 80 years, older historians believed it to be the Deli Tchai river, but historians N. G. L. Alexander set out into Asia in 334 BC and defeated the local Persian satraps at the Battle of the Granicus and he then proceeded to occupy all of Asia Minor, with the idea of capturing all coastal settlements so as to negate the power of the vastly superior Persian fleet. He captured several important settlements such as Miletus in 334 BC and Halicarnassus, while Alexander was in Tarsus, he heard of Darius massing a great army in Babylon. Alexander kept his army at Tarsus but sent Parmenion ahead to occupy the coast around Issus. In November, Alexander received reports that the great Persian army had advanced into Syria to a town named Sochi, Alexander decided to mass his scattered army and advance south from Issus through the Pass of Jonah. Darius knew that Parmenion held the Pass of Jonah and thus chose a route of advance. The Persians captured Issus without opposition and cut off the hands of all the sick, now Darius found out he had placed his army behind the Hellenic League and had cut their supply lines. He then advanced to the south and got no further than the river Pinarus before his scouts spotted Alexander marching north, Darius had to set up camp on this narrow coastal plain. There is much debate as to the motives of Alexander and Darius preceding Issus, Darius large army could not be supported in the field during winter and his cities in Phoenicia were already in unrest at the arrival of Alexander. Darius was forced to move his army to a small battlefield. Darius instead moved north from Sochi and around the mountains, emerging behind Alexanders position and on his supply, thus Alexander was forced to march to Darius, who had caught him off guard in a large flanking maneuver. This gives the illusion that Darius was the one acting defensively, some ancient sources, who based their accounts on earlier Greek sources, estimated 600,000 Persian soldiers in total, while Diodorus and Justin estimated 400,000, and Curtius Rufus estimated 250,000. Modern historians find Arrians count of 600,000 men highly unlikely and they argue that the logistics of fielding more than 100,000 soldiers in battle was extremely difficult at the time. The size of the Hellenic army may not have exceeded 40,000 men, including their other allies, Alexanders army may have consisted of about 22,000 phalangites and hoplites,13,000 peltasts, and 5,850 cavalry
Battle of Issus
–
Alexander battling Darius at the Battle of Issus (
Naples National Archaeological Museum)
Battle of Issus
–
The battle of Issus by
Jan Brueghel the Elder in
the Louvre.
Battle of Issus
–
The family of Darius in front of Alexander, by
Justus Sustermans and displayed in the
Biblioteca Museu Víctor Balaguer
Battle of Issus
–
Altdorfer 's The Battle of Alexander at Issus.
41.
Siege of Tyre (332 BC)
–
The Siege of Tyre was orchestrated by Alexander the Great in 332 BC during his campaigns against the Persians. Alexander responded to this problem by first blockading and besieging Tyre for seven months and it is said that Alexander was so enraged at the Tyrians defense and the loss of his men that he destroyed half the city. According to Arrian,8,000 Tyrian civilians were massacred after the city fell, Alexander granted pardon to all who had sought sanctuary, including Azemilcus and his family, as well as many nobles. 30,000 residents and foreigners, mainly women and children, were sold into slavery, Tyre, the largest and most important city-state of Phoenicia, was located both on the Mediterranean coast as well as a nearby island with two natural harbors on the landward side. The island lay about a kilometre from the coast in Alexander’s days, its walls reaching 60 m above the sea on the east, landward facing. At the time of the siege, the city held approximately 40,000 people, though the women and children were evacuated to Carthage, the Carthaginians also promised to send a fleet to their mother city’s aid. As Alexander did not have much of a navy, he resolved to take the city, after months of trying to capture Tyre the Persian fleet surrendered about 332 BC. This enabled Alexander to attack from all sides, the defenders refused to allow this and suggested he use the temple in the mainland, saying that they would not let Persians or Macedonians within their new city. As Alexander could not attack the city from the sea, he built a kilometer-long causeway stretching out to the island on a land bridge no more than two meters deep. This causeway allowed his artillery to get in range of the walls, as the work came near the walls, however, the water became much deeper, and the combined attacks from the walls and Tyrian navy made construction nearly impossible. Therefore, Alexander constructed two towers 50 m high and moved them to the end of the causeway, the towers were made of wood, but were covered in rawhide to protect them from fire arrows. Although these towers were possibly the largest of their kind ever made and they used an old horse transport ship, filling it with dried branches, pitch, sulfur, and various other combustibles. They then hung cauldrons of oil from the masts, so that they would fall onto the deck once the masts burned through and they also weighed down the back of the ship so that the front rose above the water. They then lit it on fire and ran it up onto the causeway, the fire spread quickly, engulfing both towers and other siege equipment that had been brought up. The Tyrian ships swarmed the pier, destroying any siege equipment that hadn’t caught fire, after this Alexander was convinced that he would not be able to take Tyre without a navy. This immediately gave him command of a fleet of 80 ships and this coincided also with the arrival of another 120 war galleys sent by the king of Cyprus, who had heard of his victories and wished to join him. With the arrival of another 23 ships from the Greek city states of Ionia, Alexander had 223 galleys under his command, Alexander then sailed on Tyre and quickly blockaded both ports with his superior numbers. He had several of the galleys, and a few barges
Siege of Tyre (332 BC)
–
Tyre view from an airplane, 1934
Siege of Tyre (332 BC)
–
The Siege of Tyre, courtesy of The Department of History, United States Military Academy
Siege of Tyre (332 BC)
–
A naval action during the siege. Drawing by
André Castaigne, 1888-1889.
42.
Siege of Gaza
–
The Siege of Gaza was an incident in the Egyptian campaign of Alexander the Great in 332 BC. During the Siege of Gaza Alexander succeeded in reaching the walls by utilizing the engines he had employed against Tyre, after three unsuccessful assaults, the stronghold was taken by storm. Batis, the commander of the fortress of Gaza, expected to hold Egypt in subjection until the Persian Great King Darius III could raise another army, the fortress was located on an eminence, on the edge of a desert from which the surrounding area could be easily controlled. It controlled the road that went from the Persian province of Syria to Egypt. The city, over 60 feet high, was employed to control the surrounding area. Batis was aware that Alexander was marching down the coast, as he had just been victorious at Tyre and he therefore victualed Gaza for a long siege. It is not unlikely that he was aware of Alexanders scheme of controlling the entire Mediterranean coast before moving into the interior of Persia, upon arriving, Alexander camped near the southern side of the city and deemed the southern walls as the weakest. Near these weak points, Alexander built the mounds that were used to enter the city. It is alleged the mounds were quickly, despite the engineers belief they could not be completed due to the nature of Gazas fortifications. One day during the siege, the Gazans made a sortie against enemy siege equipment constructed on site, Alexanders shoulder was injured in the attempt. According to Arrian, the rest of the mound was completed shortly after, at some undefined period after this, the siege equipment from Tyre arrived, and was put into use also. It was after this that major sections of the wall were broken by the Macedonians, after three attempts to enter the city, the Macedonians finally entered the city. Batis refused to surrender to Alexander, when Gaza was taken, the male population was put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery. According to the Roman historian Quintus Curtius Rufus, Batis was killed by Alexander in imitation of Achilles treatment of the fallen Hector. A rope was forced through Batiss ankles, probably between the bone and the Achilles tendon, and Batis was dragged alive by chariot beneath the walls of the city. As a result of the Siege, Alexander was allowed to proceed south into Egypt securely, without his line of communications being threatened from the North by Batis from Gaza
Siege of Gaza
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Painting of Gaza by
David Roberts
43.
Battle of Gaugamela
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The Battle of Gaugamela, also called the Battle of Arbela, was the decisive battle of Alexander the Greats invasion of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. In 331 BC Alexanders army of the Hellenic League met the Persian army of Darius III near Gaugamela, even though heavily outnumbered, Alexander emerged victorious due to his armys superior tactics and his deft employment of light infantry. It was a victory for the Hellenic League and led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire. In November 333 BC Darius III had lost the Battle of Issus, resulting in the capture of his wife, his mother, Darius had retreated to Babylon, where he regrouped the remaining army from the previous battle. The victory at Issus had given Alexander control of southern Asia Minor, following a victory at the Siege of Tyre, which lasted from January to July, Alexander controlled the Levant. After his victory at Gaza Persian troop counts were low and the Persian satrap of Egypt, Mazaces, Darius tried to dissuade Alexander from further attacks on his empire by diplomacy. Ancient historians provide different accounts of his negotiations with Alexander, which can be separated into three negotiation attempts, Justin, Arrian and Curtius Rufus write that Darius sent a letter to Alexander after the Battle of Issus. It demanded that he withdraw from Asia and release his prisoners, according to Curtius and Justin he offered a ransom for his prisoners, but Arrian does not mention a ransom. Curtius describes the tone of the letter as offensive, a second negotiation attempt took place after the capture of Tyre. Darius offered Alexander a marriage with his daughter Stateira II and all the territory west of the Halys River, Justin is less specific, not mentioning a specific daughter and speaking of a portion of Darius kingdom. Diodorus Siculus likewise mentions the offer of all territory west of the Halys River, a treaty of friendship, Diodorus is the only ancient historian who mentions that Alexander concealed this letter and presented his friends with a forged one favorable to his own interests. Darius started to prepare for another battle after the failure of the second negotiation attempt, even so, he made a third and final effort to negotiate after Alexanders departure from Egypt. Darius third offer was more generous. In the account of Diodorus, Alexander deliberated this offer with his friends, Parmenion was the only one who spoke up, saying, If I were Alexander, I should accept what was offered and make a treaty. Alexander reportedly replied, So should I, if I were Parmenion, Alexander again refused the offer of Darius, insisting that there could be only one king of Asia. He called on Darius to surrender to him or to him in battle to decide who was to be the sole king of Asia. The descriptions given by historians of the third negotiation attempt are similar to the account of Diodorus. Diodorus, Curtius and Arrian write that an embassy was sent instead of a letter, Plutarch and Arrian mention the ransom offered for the prisoners was 10,000 talents, but Diodorus, Curtius and Justin give a figure of 30,000
Battle of Gaugamela
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Darius flees (18th-century ivory relief)
Battle of Gaugamela
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Battle of Gaugamela, Flemish tapestry, first half of 18th century
44.
Battle of Uxian Defile
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The Battle of Uxian Defile was fought by Alexander the Great against the Uxian tribe of the Persian Empire. The battle raged on the range between the key Persian cities of Susa and Persepolis. Persepolis was the ancient capital of the Persian Empire and held a symbolic value among the native Persian population and they believed that if this city were to fall into enemy hands, then, in effect, the whole Persian Empire would fall into the hands of the enemy. Alexander had recently defeated Darius III Codomannus at the Battle of Gaugamela on the side of the Tigris river, the result of which had been a disaster for Darius. Darius had prematurely fled the battle, and his army had dispersed, thus Alexander had been unable to achieve his goal of capturing Darius during the course of the battle. Instead, Alexander chased Darius and, as a result, captured the important cities of the Persian Empire along the way, immediately after the battle, Alexander feared that the Persians would organize the defense of Babylon, which had thick walls. This citys walls covered a vast area, which included huge farm lands, however, instead of finding the city closed to him, he found that it was open to him. The Persian satrap Mazaeus decided to capitalize on Alexanders famed generosity and it was as a result of this that Mazaeus was appointed satrap of this city and surrounding region, a lucrative post. It was Alexanders practice to, as much as possible, leave the old governors in their positions - a practice he had learned from Cyrus the Great, Alexander rested his troops in Babylon for some days, and paid them amply with the treasures that were found there. In addition, he decided to set it up as a secondary base, from here Alexander set out for Susa, the winter capital of the Persian Empire. It took him twenty days to reach this place, from there was 50,000 gold talents received. It was as a result of this that Alexander was able to send Antipater, from Susa, Alexander marched towards the mountain defile. Normally, the tribes in the Persian Empire would pay tribute to the Great King, as a result, whenever Persian armies wanted to use the pass for logistical purposes, they were required to pay a fee. The Uxians had sent Alexander an embassy to the effect that they expected him to pay the tribute the Persians were required to. Alexander agreed, saying that on a day he would follow the main road. The Uxians had expected him to travel by the road to pay the tribute before they let him pass. After having done so, by a series of forced marches, he took the defile from the existing Uxians, who retreated to Craterus position. Meanwhile, after having attacked the village and taken the village, at this point the battle was over, the Uxians were entirely surrounded by the Macedonians, who put them to the sword
Battle of Uxian Defile
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Uxian Defile
45.
Battle of the Persian Gate
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In the winter of 330 BC, Ariobarzanes led a last stand of the outnumbered Persian forces at the Persian Gates near Persepolis, holding the Macedonian army for a month. Alexander eventually found a path to the rear of the Persians from the prisoners of war or a local shepherd. The Persian Empire suffered a series of defeats against the Macedonian forces at Issus and Gaugamela, a Royal Road connected Susa with the more eastern capitals of Persepolis and Pasargadae in Persis, and was the natural venue for Alexanders continued campaign. Meanwhile, King Darius III was building a new army at Ecbatana, Ariobarzanes was charged with preventing the Macedonian advance into Persis, and to this effect he relied heavily on the terrain Alexander needed to pass through. There were only a few routes through the Zagros Mountains. After the conquest of Susa, Alexander split the Macedonian army into two parts, Alexanders general, Parmenion, took one half along the Royal Road, and Alexander himself took the route towards Persis. Passing into Persis required traversing the Persian Gates, a mountain pass that lent itself easily to ambush. During his advance, Alexander subdued the Uxians, a local hill-tribe which had demanded the tribute from him they used to receive from the Persian kings for safe passage. As he passed into the Persian Gates he met no resistance. Believing that he would not encounter any enemy forces during his march, Alexander neglected to send scouts ahead of his vanguard. The valley preceding the Persian Gate, called the Tange Meyran, is very wide. Ariobarzanes occupied a position near the village of Cheshmeh Chenar. The road curves to the southeast and narrows considerably at that point, according to historian Arrian, Ariobarzanes had a force of 40,000 infantry and 700 cavalry who faced a Macedonian force of over 10,000. Encyclopædia Iranica suggests a number of defenders of just 700 men, the Persian Gate was only a couple of meters wide at the point of ambush. Once the Macedonian army had advanced sufficiently into the narrow pass, from the southern slope, Persian archers launched their projectiles. Alexanders army initially suffered heavy casualties, losing entire platoons at a time, the Macedonians attempted to withdraw, but the terrain and their still-advancing rear guard made an orderly retreat impossible. Alexander was forced to leave his dead behind to save the rest of his army—a great mark of disgrace to the Greeks and Macedonians who valued highly the recovery, Ariobarzanes had some reason to believe that success here could change the course of the war. Ariobarzanes held the pass for a month, but Alexander succeeded in encircling the Persians in an attack with Philotas
Battle of the Persian Gate
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One of the monuments for Ariobarzanes, in
Yasuj,
Iran
Battle of the Persian Gate
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Battle of the Persian Gate
46.
Siege of Cyropolis
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Cyropolis was the largest of seven towns in the region that Alexander the Great targeted for conquest in 329 BC. His goal was the conquest of Sogdiana, Alexander first sent Craterus to Cyropolis, the largest of the towns holding Sogdiana against Alexanders forces. Craterus instructions were to take up a close to the town, surround it with a ditch and stockade. The idea was to keep the focused on their own defenses. Starting from Gazza, Alexander went on to conquer the surrounding towns. Five of the seven towns were taken in two days, many of the inhabitants were killed. Alexander then arrived at Cyropolis, which was the best fortified of the towns and had the largest population and it also had reputedly the best fighters of the region. Alexander battered Cyropolis defenses with the siege engines, while the bombardment went on, Alexander ordered certain of his troops to sneak through a dried-up water course that went under the towns wall. Alexander also joined on this mission and once inside his troops opened the gate to admit his attacking force. Once the natives saw that the town was taken, they fell violently upon the attackers, Alexander received a violent blow from a stone that landed upon his head and neck. Craterus was wounded by an arrow, but the defenders were driven off, Arrian puts the defenders force at about 15,000 fighting men and claims that 8,000 of them were killed in the first phase of the operation. The rest apparently sought refuge inside the central fortress. Accounts of how the battle went down differ among authors, Arrian cites Ptolemy as saying Cyropolis surrendered from the start, and Arrian also states that according to Aristobulus the place was stormed and everyone was massacred
Siege of Cyropolis
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Siege of Cyropolis
47.
Battle of Jaxartes
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The Battle of Jaxartes was a battle fought in 329 BC by Alexander the Great and his Macedonian army against the Scythians at the Syr Darya River, the modern name for the River Jaxartes. Today the site of the battle straddles the borders of Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan, just southwest of the ancient city of Tashkent, crossing the Hellespont in 334 BCE Alexander was set on himself as the new monarch of the Achaemenid Empire. During the latter two battles Alexander had been determined to capture Darius, however, Darius had been able to secure his escape in each of these battles. Had Alexander been able to secure his capture, Darius would have been useful in securing the submission of the majority of the empire. Many of the Achaemenid provinces beyond Mesopotamia were fruitful and well populated - in both comparative terms and absolutely, the climate of Bactria and Sogdiana was materially different from today. After Gaugamela, the Macedonians were obliged to leave the battlefield where they had been victorious almost immediately, the pestilence that the corpses would have wrought on his army could have destroyed it. Alexander marched on Babylon to secure his communications and his intention was to make this the administrative capital of his empire. This is the first recorded incident of such a thing occurring, the Scythians were thus forced from the banks by the powerful catapult and siege bows. For the Macedonians, it was now easy to cross the Jaxartes, in all likelihood the Scythians would normally have withdrawn at this point. However Alexander wanted to neutralise the threat to his borders from the nomad armies once, therefore, as a second part of his strategy he ordered a battalion of mounted spearmen to advance and provoke an attack from the horse-lords. The nomads did not recognize this sacrifice for what it was, in their society, in which blood feuds were common, no commander would have sacrificed troops to obtain a better position for the main force. The families of those who had been killed would immediately start a vendetta, Alexander, on the other hand, could send his mounted spearmen on this dangerous mission because his men were well trained and understood that they were not really left alone. Alexander’s vanguard was surrounded and attacked by the Scythian mounted archers. Once they were engaged, their position was fixed and they were vulnerable to an approach by the Macedonian infantry, the nomads now found themselves caught between the Macedonian mounted spearmen and the rest of Alexander’s army. The Scythians tried to escape to the wings of the Macedonian lines and this was the end for the Scythian army - about 1200 Scythians were surrounded and killed, including their commander Satraces. Over 150 prisoners were taken and 1800 horses were captured, as far as the Macedonians and Greeks knew, no commander had ever been able to pin down and destroy a nomad army besides Alexanders father, Philip II. Philip had defeated the Scythian king Atheas in 340 BC and this was a boost for morale, and a psychological blow for the nomads north of the Jaxartes. Alexander’s main aim, however, had never been to subdue the nomads, he wanted to go to the south, where a far more serious crisis demanded his attention
Battle of Jaxartes
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Battle of Jaxartes
48.
Sogdian Rock
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Oxyartes of Bactria had sent his wife and daughters, one of whom was Roxana, to take refuge in the fortress, as it was thought to be impregnable, and was provisioned for a long siege. When Alexander asked the defenders to surrender, they refused, telling him that he would need men with wings to capture it, Alexander asked for volunteers, whom he would reward if they could climb the cliffs under the fortress. There were some 300 men who from previous sieges had gained experience in rock-climbing, using tent pegs and strong flaxen lines, they climbed the cliff face at night, losing about 30 of their number during the ascent. The defenders had thought that the Rock was impregnable, and with one bold stroke Alexander showed them how wrong they were, the enemys quick surrender validated Alexanders insightful use of psychological warfare. Alexander fell in love with Roxana on sight, the Macedonians claimed that Roxana was the loveliest woman they had seen in Asia, with the one exception of Darius wife. From there Alexander went to Bactra, sending Craterus with a division of the army to finish the pacification of Parsetakene. Alexander remained at Bactra, preparing for his expedition across the Hindu-Kush into India and it was while in Bactra that he married Roxana. The story of the siege as described here is told in many histories, however P. J. Rhodes points out that this version produces a very empty 328 and a very full early 327, so we should probably prefer the alternative tradition. In this second tradition instead of the Sogdian Rock and the Rock of Chorienes the same stratagems are used against the Rock of Arimazes, no Easy Task, Fighting in Afghanistan, Dundurn Press Ltd, p.40, ISBN9781459701649 Rhodes, P. J
Sogdian Rock
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Siege of the Sogdian Rock
49.
Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
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The Indian campaign of Alexander the Great began in 326 BC. After conquering the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, the Macedonian king Alexander launched a campaign into India. The Battle of the Jhelum river against a regional Indian King, Porus is considered by historians, Peter Connolly being one of them. The rationale for this campaign is said to be Alexanders desire to conquer the entire known world. While considering the conquests of Carthage and Rome, Alexander died in Babylon on June 10 or 11,323 BC, in 321 BC, two years after Alexanders death, Chandragupta Maurya of Magadha, founded the Maurya Empire in India. After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana to cement his relations with his new Central Asian satrapies, Alexander invited all the Chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara, to come to him and submit to his authority. Ambhi, ruler of Taxila, whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Jhelum, complied. At the end of the spring of 327 BC, Alexander started on his Indian expedition leaving Amyntas behind with 3,500 horse and 10,000 foot soldiers to hold the land of the Bactrians. The leaders of some peoples, particularly known in Hellenic sources as the Aspasioi and Assakenoi. These peoples are now believed to be sections of the Kambojas, after dealing with the Aspasioi and Assakenoi, Alexander crossed the Indus to engage a ruler known to the Greeks as Πῶρος Pôros, whose name suggested that he was a member of the Paurava dynasty. The battle of the Hydaspes river, against forces led by Porus, was not only Alexanders last battle, writes one modern historian, They were brave people and it was hard work for Alexander to take their strongholds, of which Massaga and Aornus need special mention. A fierce contest ensued with the Aspasioi in which Alexander himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, the Assakenoi faced Alexander with an army of 30,000 cavalry,38,000 infantry and 30 elephants. They had fought bravely and offered resistance to the invader in many of their strongholds like cities of Ora, Bazira. The fort of Massaga could only be reduced after several days of fighting in which Alexander himself was wounded seriously in the ankle. When the Chieftain of Massaga fell in the battle, the command of the army went to his old mother Cleophis who also stood determined to defend her motherland to the last extremity. The example of Cleophis assuming the command of the military also brought the entire women of the locality into the fighting. Alexander could only reduce Massaga by resorting to political strategem and actions of betrayal, according to Curtius, Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles. A similar slaughter followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenoi
Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
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Campaigns and landmarks of Alexander's invasion of Southern Asia
Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
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"Victory coin" of Alexander the Great, minted in
Babylon c.322 BCE, following his campaigns in the subcontinent. Obv: Alexander being crowned by
Nike. Rev: Alexander attacking king
Porus on his elephant. Silver.
British Museum.
Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
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The Aornos is located to the north of
Taxila,
Pakistan.
Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
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A painting by
Charles Le Brun depicting Alexander and Porus (Puru) during the
Battle of the Hydaspes
.jpg)
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