1.
Somali aristocratic and court titles
–
This is a list of Somali aristocratic and court titles that were historically used by the Somali peoples various sultanates, kingdoms and empires. Below is a list of the court titles historically retained by the Somali monarchies and aristocracies. Suldaan, From the Arabic for Sultan or English Chief, very common title for rulers in the pre-colonial and colonial periods, used throughout the Somali territories. The title was employed by the leaders of the influential Ajuran Sultanate. Ughaz, Authentic Somali term for Sultan, the Gadabuursi in particular is the only clan with a longstanding tradition of Sultan. The Gadabursi gave their sultan the title of Ughaz, however, in practice, it is the primus inter pares or King of Kings. The title is derived from one of the Afro-Asiatic Somali language terms for belt. According to Kobishchanow, Boqor is also related to the style Paqar, various Somali honorifics and designations have Boqor as their root. The latter include Boqortooyo, signifying monarchy, kingdom or empire, Boqornimo, meaning royalty, nobility or dignitaries, Historically, the title was mainly used by rulers in the northeastern Puntland region of Somalia. The most prominent Boqor in recent times was Osman Mahamuud, who governed the Majeerteen Sultanate during its 19th-century heyday, also used among the Gadabuursi as the law of the King and the 100 men. Gerad/Garad, Often employed interchangeably with Suldaan to denote a Sultan, etymologically signifies wisdom, mind or understanding. According to Basset, the title corresponds with the honorific Al-Jaraad, Gerad was historically employed throughout northern Somalia. Notable Gerads include Gerad Dhidhin, the founder of the Warsangali Sultanate, and Gerad Lado, imam, Denotes the Head of State. Style was used especially by rulers in the Sultanate of Adal, notable Imams include Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, also known as Ahmed Gurey or Gran, who led a military campaign during the Middle Ages known as the Conquest of Abyssinia. Emir, Used by leaders in the Adal Sultanate, also employed by commanders in the Ajuran Sultanates armed forces and navy. Prominent Emirs include Nur ibn Mujahid, the Emir of Harar who built the wall around the city. Honorific set aside for the son of the King or Sultan. Notable Princes include Ali Yusuf Kenadid, the son and heir of Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid of the Sultanate of Hobyo, ina Boqor, Alternate court style for the Prince
2.
Las Khorey
–
Las Khorey is an ancient coastal city in the northern Sanaag region of Somaliland. Situated in the Las Khorey District, it is notable as the capital of the Warsangali Sultanate. The Las Khorey settlement is several centuries old, between the town and El Ayo lies Karinhegane, the site of numerous cave paintings of real and mythical animals. Each painting has an inscription below it, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old, around 25 miles from Las Khorey is found Gelweita, another key rock art site. Karinheganes rock art is in the same distinctive Ethiopian-Arabian style as the Laas Gaal cave paintings, beginning in the early Middle Ages, Las Khorey served as the capital of the Warsangali Sultanate s ruling dynasty, including the influential Sultan Mohamoud Ali Shire. Sultan Shire administered his Sultanate from a large palace in the city. He also maintained a fortress, which, though now mostly in ruins, northern Somalia in general is home to numerous such archaeological sites, with similar edifices found at Haylan, Qa’ableh, Qomboul and El Ayo. However, many of old structures have yet to be properly explored. In July 2007, Las Khorey became part of the briefly-extant Maakhir autonomous region of Somalia, the polity was later officially incorporated into Puntland state in January 2009. Las Khorey is a city that is booming and experiencing a period of growth as new small factories are being created and opened. However, this appears to be reversing, as many people have begun working in the citys new factories. The city is surrounded by a mountain range referred to locally as Cal Madow. This is in addition to the overall unique natural habitat. Las Khorey has a seaport, the Port of Las Khorey. Horn Relief, an organization founded by Somali environmentalist Fatima Jibrell, the initiative was later taken up by Faisal Hawar, CEO of the Maakhir Resource Company. In 2012, he brokered an agreement with a Greek investment firm for the development of the commercial Las Khorey Port, a team of engineers was subsequently enlisted by the Puntland authorities to assess the ongoing renovations taking place at the seaport. According to the Minister of Ports, Saeed Mohamed Ragge, the Puntland government intends to launch more such development projects in Las Khorey, the nearest airport to Las Khorey is the Bender Qassim International Airport in Bosaso. Las Khorey has a population of around 8,400 inhabitants, the broader Las Khorey District has a total population of 34,724 residents
3.
Somali language
–
Somali /səˈmɑːli, soʊ-/ is an Afroasiatic language belonging to the Cushitic branch. It is spoken as a mother tongue by Somalis in Greater Somalia, Somali is an official language of Somalia, a national language in Djibouti, and a working language in the Somali Region of Ethiopia. It is used as a language by a few neighboring ethnic minority groups. Somali is classified within the Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family, specifically, as Lowland East Cushitic along with Afar, Somali is the best-documented Cushitic language, with academic studies of the language dating back to the late 19th century. Somali is spoken by Somalis in Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Yemen and Kenya and it is also spoken as an adoptive language by a few ethnic minority groups and individuals in these areas. Somali is the second most widely spoken Cushitic language after Oromo, as of 2006, there were approximately 16.6 million speakers of Somali, of which around 8.3 million resided in Somalia. The language is spoken by an estimated 95% of the countrys inhabitants, constitutionally, Somali and Arabic are the two official languages of Somalia. Somali has been a national language since January 1973, when the Supreme Revolutionary Council declared it the Somali Democratic Republics primary language of administration and education. Somali was thereafter established as the language of academic instruction in forms 1 through 4. It later expanded to include all 12 forms in 1979, in 1972, the SRC adopted a Latin orthography as the official national alphabet over several other writing scripts that were then in use. Concurrently, the Italian-language daily newspaper Stella dOttobre was nationalized, renamed to Xiddigta Oktoobar, the state-run Radio Mogadishu has also broadcast in Somali since 1943. Somali is recognized as a working language in the Somali Region of Ethiopia. Although it is not a language of Djibouti, it constitutes a major national language there. Somali is used in television and radio broadcasts, with the government-operated Radio Djibouti transmitting programs in the language from 1943 onwards and it is officially mandated with preserving the Somali language. As of 2013, Somali is also one of the languages available on Google Translate. Somali linguistic varieties are divided into three main groups, Northern, Benadir and Maay. Northern Somali forms the basis for Standard Somali and it is spoken by more than 60% of the entire Somali population, with its speech area stretching from northern Somalia to parts of the eastern and southwestern sections of the country. This widespread modern distribution is a result of a series of southward population movements over the past ten centuries from the Gulf of Aden littoral
4.
Arabic
–
Arabic is a Central Semitic language that was first spoken in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is also the language of 1.7 billion Muslims. It is one of six languages of the United Nations. The modern written language is derived from the language of the Quran and it is widely taught in schools and universities, and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, government, and the media. The two formal varieties are grouped together as Literary Arabic, which is the language of 26 states. Modern Standard Arabic largely follows the standards of Quranic Arabic. Much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the post-Quranic era, Arabic has influenced many languages around the globe throughout its history. During the Middle Ages, Literary Arabic was a vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics. As a result, many European languages have borrowed many words from it. Many words of Arabic origin are found in ancient languages like Latin. Balkan languages, including Greek, have acquired a significant number of Arabic words through contact with Ottoman Turkish. Arabic has also borrowed words from languages including Greek and Persian in medieval times. Arabic is a Central Semitic language, closely related to the Northwest Semitic languages, the Ancient South Arabian languages, the Semitic languages changed a great deal between Proto-Semitic and the establishment of the Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include, The conversion of the suffix-conjugated stative formation into a past tense, the conversion of the prefix-conjugated preterite-tense formation into a present tense. The elimination of other prefix-conjugated mood/aspect forms in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefix-conjugation forms, the development of an internal passive. These features are evidence of descent from a hypothetical ancestor. In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside of the Ancient South Arabian family were spoken and it is also believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages were also spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hijaz, Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages, in Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested
5.
Islam
–
Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
6.
Absolute monarchy
–
Absolute monarchy, or despotic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which one ruler has supreme authority that is not restricted by any written laws, legislature, or customs. These are often, but not always, hereditary monarchies, in contrast, in constitutional monarchies, the head of states authority derives from and is legally bounded or restricted by a constitution or legislature. Some monarchies have weak or symbolic legislatures and other bodies that the monarch can alter or dissolve at will. Countries where a monarch still maintains absolute power are Brunei, Qatar, Oman, Saudi Arabia, the individual emirates composing the United Arab Emirates, Swaziland, in Ancient Egypt, the Pharaoh wielded absolute power over the country and was considered a living god by his people. In ancient Mesopotamia, many rulers of Assyria, Babylonia and Sumer were absolute monarchs as well, in ancient and medieval India, rulers of the Maurya, Satahavana, Gupta and Chalukya Empires, as well as other major and minor empires, were considered absolute monarchs. In the Khmer Empire, the kings were called Devaraja and Chakravartin, in Kingdom of Siam, the kings were esestablished Somburanaya-sittiraj. Throughout Chinese history, many emperors and one empress wielded absolute power through the Mandate of Heaven, in pre-Columbian America, the Inca Empire was ruled by a Sapa Inca, who was considered the son of Inti, the sun god and absolute ruler over the people and nation. Throughout much of European history, the right of kings was the theological justification for absolute monarchy. Many European monarchs, such as those of Russia, claimed supreme autocratic power by right. James VI of Scotland and his son Charles I of Scotland and England tried to import this principle, there is a considerable variety of opinion by historians on the extent of absolutism among European monarchs. Some, such as Perry Anderson, argue that quite a few monarchs achieved levels of absolutist control over their states, a widely held story about Louis XIV of France is that he proclaimed Létat, cest moi. What Louis did say was, The interests of the state come first, when one gives these priority, one labors for ones own good. These advantages to the state redounds to ones glory, although often criticized for his extravagances, such as the Palace of Versailles, he reigned over France for a long period, and some historians consider him a successful absolute monarch. More recently, revisionist historians have questioned whether Louis reign should be considered absolute, the King of France concentrated in his person legislative, executive, and judicial powers. He was the judicial authority. He could condemn men to death without the right of appeal and it was both his duty to punish offenses and stop them from being committed. From his judicial authority followed his power both to make laws and to annul them and this law consequently authorized the king to abolish all other centers of power. Most important was the abolition of the Council of the Realm and his actions largely originated the militaristic streak of the Hohenzollern
7.
Mohamoud Ali Shire
–
Mohamoud Ali Shire was a Somali ruler. He was the 26th Sulṭān of the Warsangali Sultanate, reigning from 1897 to 1960, also known as the Gerad, the Sultan was the sole regent and governor of the sultanate. He also enjoyed many other titles, including Sovereign of the House of North East of Somaliland Sultanate, however, early rulers of the sultanate never referred to themselves as Sultan. The Sultan title was later established by Mohamoud Ali Shire in 1897. The dynasty, for its part, is most often referred to as the Gerad or the House of North East Somaliland Sultanate, in 1896, a power struggle developed between Mohamoud Ali Shire and his father, the powerful Gerad Ali Shire who then ruled the Warsangali Sultanate. Before then, internal conflict amongst the Warsangali sub-clans had surfaced and had had an effect on Sultan Mohamoud Ali Shire, the disarray caused by the young Mohamoud amongst the Warsangali was finally settled by the proposal that Shire fils should become Sultan, while his father could remain Gerad. Thus, Mohamoud Ali Shire assumed the title of the 20th Sultan of the Warsangali Sultanate, the Warsangali Sultanate was an imperial power centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the territory, the sultanate was founded in northern Somalia by a group of Somalis from the Warsangali branch of the Darod clan, and was ruled by the descendants of the Gerad Dhidhin. The product of a tradition of regal decorum, Sultan Shire administered his Sultanate from a large two-storey palace in Las Khorey. He also maintained a fortress, which, though now mostly in ruins, under the Sultans general command was a council of elders, which he intermittently summoned, as well as a personal corps of guards equipped with rifles. Martially, Sultan Shire presided over a cavalry, with subsidiary commanders that were likewise under his immediate charge. Very well endowed in terms of wealth, he also kept a stable of well over a hundred thoroughbred Arabian horses. Sultan Shire additionally maintained close ties with his contemporaries on the Arabian Peninsula, alongside missives Shire would trade with authorities in Britain, these letters were preserved in private files. Despite being Hassans brother-in-law, the two rulers could not see eye-to-eye on a number of political, religious and social matters, Sultan Shire steadfastly defended his sultanate from being incorporated into Hassans Dervish movement, and fought a number of battles to preserve its autonomy. A notable incident took place in 1908, when British airplanes bombarded Jidali, Badhan and this led to the dispersal of Hassans Dervishes into many areas, and it took a long period for the Sayyid to recoup his strength. However, despite the rift between them, Sultan Shire and his army within the British Somaliland protectorates claimed areas of Sanaag were severely disturbed by the sudden ebb in Dervish activities. To demonstrate his concern, Sultan Shire ordered his army to fire on a British ship that was about to land at the port of Las Khorey. The Dervishes thus resumed their movements, which rendered the British nervous, after a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britains new policy of aerial bombardment
8.
British Somaliland
–
British Somaliland was a British protectorate in present-day northwestern Somalia. For much of its existence, the territory was bordered by Italian Somaliland, French Somaliland, from 1940 to 1941, it was occupied by the Italians and was part of Italian East Africa. On 1 July 1960, the British Somaliland protectorate united as scheduled with the Trust Territory of Somaliland to form the Somali Republic. The government of Somaliland, a sovereign state that is internationally recognised as an autonomous region of Somalia. The British garrisoned the protectorate from Aden and administered it from their British India colony until 1898, British Somaliland was then administered by the Foreign Office until 1905 and afterwards by the Colonial Office. Generally, the British did not have much interest in the resource-barren region, the stated purposes of the establishment of the protectorate were to secure a supply market, check the traffic in slaves, and to exclude the interference of foreign powers. Hence, the nickname of Adens butchers shop. Colonial administration during this period did not extend administrative infrastructure beyond the coast, beginning in 1899, the British were forced to expend considerable human and military capital to contain a decades-long resistance movement mounted by the Dervish State. The polity was led by Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, a Somali religious leader referred to colloquially by the British as the Mad Mullah, repeated military expeditions were unsuccessfully launched against Hassan and his Dervishes before World War I. On 9 August 1913, the Somaliland Camel Constabulary suffered a defeat at the Battle of Dul Madoba at the hands of the Dervishes. Hassan had already evaded several attempts to capture him, at Dul Madoba, his forces killed or wounded 57 members of the 110-man Constabulary unit, including the British commander, Colonel Richard Corfield. In 1914, the British created the Somaliland Camel Corps to assist in maintaining order in British Somaliland, in 1920, the British launched their fifth and final expedition against Hassan and his followers. Employing the then-new technology of military aircraft, the British finally managed to quell Hassans twenty-year-long struggle, the aerial attack on the Dervish capital, Taleh, killed many members of Hassans family who had been lured there by the British for an official visit. Hassan and his Dervish supporters fled into the Ogaden, where Hassan died in 1921, the Somaliland Camel Corps, also referred to as the Somali Camel Corps, was a unit of the British Army based in British Somaliland. It lasted from the early 20th century until 1944, the troopers of the Somaliland Camel Corps had a distinctive dress. It was based on the standard British Army khaki drill, but included a knitted woollen pullover, shorts were worn with woollen socks on puttees and chaplis, boots or bare feet. Equipment consisted of a leather ammunition bandolier and a leather waist belt, the officers wore pith helmets and khaki drill uniforms. Other ranks wore a kullah with puggree which ended in a tail which hung down the back
9.
Somalia
–
Somalia, officially the Federal Republic of Somalia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, Somalia has the longest coastline on Africas mainland, and its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands. Climatically, hot conditions prevail year-round, with monsoon winds. Somalia has an population of around 12.3 million. Around 85% of its residents are ethnic Somalis, who have inhabited the northern part of the country. Ethnic minorities are largely concentrated in the southern regions, the official languages of Somalia are Somali and Arabic, both of which belong to the Afroasiatic family. Most people in the country are Muslim, with the majority being Sunni, in antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial centre. It is among the most probable locations of the fabled ancient Land of Punt, during the Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the Ajuran Empire, the Adal Sultanate, the Warsangali Sultanate, and the Geledi Sultanate. The toponym Somalia was coined by the Italian explorer Luigi Robecchi Bricchetti, Italian occupation lasted until 1941, yielding to British military administration. British Somaliland would remain a protectorate, while Italian Somaliland in 1949 became a United Nations Trusteeship under Italian administration, in 1960, the two regions united to form the independent Somali Republic under a civilian government. The Supreme Revolutionary Council seized power in 1969 and established the Somali Democratic Republic, led by Mohamed Siad Barre, this government later collapsed in 1991 as the Somali Civil War broke out. Various armed factions began competing for influence in the power vacuum, during this period, due to the absence of a central government, Somalia was a failed state, and residents returned to customary and religious law in most regions. A few autonomous regions, including the Somaliland and Puntland administrations emerged in the north, the early 2000s saw the creation of fledgling interim federal administrations. The Transitional National Government was established in 2000, followed by the formation of the Transitional Federal Government in 2004, in 2006, the TFG, assisted by Ethiopian troops, assumed control of most of the nations southern conflict zones from the newly formed Islamic Courts Union. The ICU subsequently splintered into more radical groups such as Al-Shabaab, by mid-2012, the insurgents had lost most of the territory that they had seized. In 2011–2012, a political process providing benchmarks for the establishment of permanent democratic institutions was launched, within this administrative framework a new provisional constitution was passed in August 2012, which reformed Somalia as a federation. Somalia has maintained an informal economy, mainly based on livestock, remittances from Somalis working abroad, Somalia has been inhabited since at least the Paleolithic. During the Stone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here, the oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BCE
10.
Somalis
–
Somalis are an ethnic group inhabiting the Horn of Africa. The overwhelming majority of Somalis speak the Somali language, which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic family, ethnic Somalis number around 16-20 million and are principally concentrated in Somalia, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti. Expatriate Somalis are also found in parts of the Middle East, North America, Oceania, Samaale, the oldest common ancestor of several Somali clans, is generally regarded as the source of the ethnonym Somali. The name Somali is, in turn, held to be derived from the words soo and maal, another plausible etymology proposes that the term Somali is derived from the Arabic for wealthy, again referring to Somali riches in livestock. The first clear reference of the sobriquet Somali, however. Simur was also an ancient Harari alias for the Somali people, Ancient rock paintings, which date back 5000 years, have been found in the northern part of Somalia, these depict early life in the territory. In other places, such as the northern Dhambalin region, a depiction of a man on a horse is postulated as being one of the earliest known examples of a mounted huntsman. Inscriptions have been found many of the rock paintings. During the Stone age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here with their industries and factories. The oldest evidence of burial customs in the Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to 4th millennium BC. The stone implements from the Jalelo site in northern Somalia are said to be the most important link in evidence of the universality in palaeolithic times between the East and the West. In antiquity, the ancestors of the Somali people were an important link in the Horn of Africa connecting the regions commerce with the rest of the ancient world. According to most scholars, the ancient Land of Punt and its inhabitants formed part of the ethnogenesis of the Somali people, the ancient Puntites were a nation of people that had close relations with Pharaonic Egypt during the times of Pharaoh Sahure and Queen Hatshepsut. The pyramidal structures, temples and ancient houses of dressed stone littered around Somalia are said to date from this period, the city of Mogadishu came to be known as the City of Islam, and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries. The Sultanate of Ifat, led by the Walashma dynasty with its capital at Zeila, ruled parts of what is now eastern Ethiopia, Djibouti. The historian al-Umari records that Ifat was situated near the Red Sea coast and its army numbered 15,000 horsemen and 20,000 foot soldiers. Al-Umari also credits Ifat with seven cities, Belqulzar, Kuljura, Shimi, Shewa, Adal, Jamme. The Harla, an early Hamitic group of tall stature who inhabited parts of Somalia, Tchertcher and other areas in the Horn and these masons are believed to have been ancestral to the Somalis
11.
Sultanate
–
Sultan is a noble title with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning strength, authority, rulership, derived from the verbal noun سلطة sulṭah, the dynasty and lands ruled by a sultan are referred to as a sultanate. A feminine form of sultan, used by Westerners, is Sultana or Sultanah, but Turkish and Ottoman Turkish also uses sultan for imperial lady, because Turkish grammar uses the same words for women and men. However, this styling misconstrues the roles of wives of sultans, in a similar usage, the wife of a German field marshal might be styled Frau Feldmarschall. The female leaders in Muslim history are known as sultanas. Special case in Brunei, the Queen Consort is known as Raja Isteri with suffix Pengiran Anak if the queen consort is a royal princess. Among those modern hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law and these are generally secondary titles, either lofty poetry or with a message, e. g. g. Sultan ul-Mujahidin as champion of jihad, ghaznavid Sultanate Sultans of Great Seljuk Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Sultans of the Ottoman Empire, the Osmanli Elisu Sultanate and a few others. A Sultan ranked below a Khan and this usage underlines the Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative. Western tradition knows the Ottoman ruler as sultan, but Ottomans themselves used padişah or hünkar to refer to their ruler, the emperors formal title consisted of sultan together with khan. In formal address, the children were also entitled sultan, with imperial princes carrying the title before their given name. Example, Şehzade Sultan Mehmed and Mihrimah Sultan, son and daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent, henceforth, the mother of the reigning sultan was the only person of non imperial blood to carry the title sultan. In Kazakh Khanate a Sultan was a lord from the ruling dynasty elected by clans, the best of sultans was elected as khan by people at Kurultai. See ru, Казахские султаны In a number of states under Mongol or Turkic rule. These administrations were often decimal, using originally princely titles such as khan, malik, in the Persian empire, the rank of sultan was roughly equivalent to that of a modern-day captain in the West, socially in the fifth-rank class, styled Ali Jah
12.
United Kingdom
–
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
13.
Imperialism
–
Imperialism is an action that involves a country extending its power by the acquisition of territories. It may also include the exploitation of these territories, an action that is linked to colonialism, colonialism is generally regarded as an expression of imperialism. However, both are examples of imperialism, the word imperialism originated from the Latin word imperium, which means supreme power. It first became common in Great Britain, during the 1870s and was used with a negative connotation, the term was and is mainly applied to Western political and economic dominance, especially in Asia and Africa, in the 19th and 20th centuries. Its precise meaning continues to be debated by scholars, some writers, such as Edward Said, use the term more broadly to describe any system of domination and subordination organised with an imperial center and a periphery. This definition encompasses both nominal empires and neocolonialism, the word empire comes from the Latin word imperium, for which the closest modern English equivalent would perhaps be sovereignty, or simply rule. The greatest distinction of an empire is through the amount of land that a nation has conquered and expanded, Political power grew from conquering land, however cultural and economic aspects flourished through sea and trade routes. A distinction about empires is that although political empires were built mostly by expansion overland, economic, some of the main aspects of trade that went overseas consisted of animals and plant products. European empires in Asia and Africa have come to be seen as the forms of imperialism. European expansion caused the world to be divided by how developed, the two main regions are the core and the periphery. The core consists of areas of income and profit, the periphery is on the opposing side of the spectrum consisting of areas of low income. These critical theories of Geo-politics have led to increased discussion of the meaning and this idea from Lenin stresses how important new political world order has become in our modern era. Geopolitics now focuses on states becoming major players in the market, some states today are viewed as empires due to their political. The term imperialism is often conflated with colonialism, however scholars have argued that each have their own distinct definition. Imperialism and colonialism have been used in order to describe ones superiority, domination, colonialism in modern usage also tends to imply a degree of geographic separation between the colony and the imperial power. Thus it can be said that imperialism includes some form of colonialism, colonialism is seen to be the architect deciding how to start dominating areas and then imperialism can be seen as creating the idea behind conquest cooperating with colonialism. Colonialism is when the imperial nation begins a conquest over an area, colonialisms core meaning is the exploitation of the valuable assets and supplies of the nation that was conquered and the conquering nation then gaining the benefits from the spoils of the war. The meaning of imperialism is to create an empire, by conquering the states lands
14.
Tax
–
A tax is a financial charge or other levy imposed upon a taxpayer by a state or the functional equivalent of a state to fund various public expenditures. A failure to pay, or evasion of or resistance to taxation, is punishable by law. Taxes consist of direct or indirect taxes and may be paid in money or as its labour equivalent, the legal definition and the economic definition of taxes differ in that economists do not regard many transfers to governments as taxes. For example, some transfers to the sector are comparable to prices. Examples include tuition at public universities and fees for utilities provided by local governments, governments also obtain resources by creating money and coins, through voluntary gifts, by imposing penalties, by borrowing, and by confiscating wealth. In modern taxation systems, governments levy taxes in money, but in-kind and corvée taxation are characteristic of traditional or pre-capitalist states, the method of taxation and the government expenditure of taxes raised is often highly debated in politics and economics. Tax collection is performed by a government agency such as the Canada Revenue Agency, when taxes are not fully paid, the state may impose civil penalties or criminal penalties on the non-paying entity or individual. The levying of taxes aims to raise revenue to fund governing and/or to alter prices in order to affect demand, States and their functional equivalents throughout history have used money provided by taxation to carry out many functions. A governments ability to raise taxes is called its fiscal capacity, when expenditures exceed tax revenue, a government accumulates debt. A portion of taxes may be used to service past debts, governments also use taxes to fund welfare and public services. These services can include education systems, pensions for the elderly, unemployment benefits, energy, water and waste management systems are also common public utilities. A tax effectively changes relative prices of products and they have therefore sought to identify the kind of tax system that would minimize this distortion. Governments use different kinds of taxes and vary the tax rates, historically, taxes on the poor supported the nobility, modern social-security systems aim to support the poor, the disabled, or the retired by taxes on those who are still working. A states tax system often reflects its communal values and the values of those in current political power. To create a system of taxation, a state must make choices regarding the distribution of the tax burden—who will pay taxes and how much they will pay—and how the taxes collected will be spent. In democratic nations where the public elects those in charge of establishing or administering the tax system, in countries where the public does not have a significant amount of influence over the system of taxation, that system may reflect more closely the values of those in power. All large businesses incur administrative costs in the process of delivering revenue collected from customers to the suppliers of the goods or services being purchased. Taxation is no different, the resource collected from the public through taxation is always greater than the amount which can be used by the government, the difference is called the compliance cost and includes the labour cost and other expenses incurred in complying with tax laws and rules
15.
Muslim
–
A Muslim is someone who follows or practices Islam, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion. Muslims consider the Quran, their book, to be the verbatim word of God as revealed to the Islamic prophet. They also follow the teachings and practices of Muhammad as recorded in traditional accounts, Muslim is an Arabic word meaning one who submits. Most Muslims will accept anyone who has publicly pronounced Shahadah as a Muslim, the shahadah states, There is no god but the God and Muhammad is the last messenger of the God. The testimony authorized by God in the Quran that can found in Surah 3,18 states, There is no god except God, which in Arabic, is the exact testimony which God Himself utters, as well as the angels and those who possess knowledge utter. The word muslim is the active participle of the verb of which islām is a verbal noun, based on the triliteral S-L-M to be whole. A female adherent is a muslima, the plural form in Arabic is muslimūn or muslimīn, and its feminine equivalent is muslimāt. The Arabic form muslimun is the stem IV participle of the triliteral S-L-M, the ordinary word in English is Muslim. It is sometimes transliterated as Moslem, which is an older spelling, the word Mosalman is a common equivalent for Muslim used in Central Asia. Until at least the mid-1960s, many English-language writers used the term Mohammedans or Mahometans, although such terms were not necessarily intended to be pejorative, Muslims argue that the terms are offensive because they allegedly imply that Muslims worship Muhammad rather than God. Other obsolete terms include Muslimite and Muslimist, musulmán/Mosalmán is a synonym for Muslim and is modified from Arabic. In English it was sometimes spelled Mussulman and has become archaic in usage, the Muslim philosopher Ibn Arabi said, A Muslim is a person who has dedicated his worship exclusively to God. Islam means making ones religion and faith Gods alone. The Quran states that men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values. Thus, in Surah 3,52 of the Quran, Jesus disciples tell him, We believe in God, and you be our witness that we are Muslims. In Muslim belief, before the Quran, God had given the Tawrat to Moses, the Zabur to David and the Injil to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets. The most populous Muslim-majority country is Indonesia, home to 12. 7% of the worlds Muslims, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Egypt. About 20% of the worlds Muslims lives in the Middle East and North Africa, Sizable minorities are found in India, China, Russia, Ethiopia. The country with the highest proportion of self-described Muslims as a proportion of its population is Morocco
16.
Bosaso
–
Bosaso is a city in Somalia, and the most populous city in the state of Puntland. Bosaso, according to a made in 2005, had a population of around 164,906 residents. First settled in the 14th century, it is among the oldest cities in Somalia and it currently serves as the nations main seaport. Bosaso was previously known as Bandar Qasim, a derived from A Somali trader of the same name. It is believed that Qasims favourite camel was called Boosaas, from which derived the current name of the town, the town was thus first called Bandar Qassim after its founder, then later dubbed Bosaso after its founders trusted camel. Local tradition recounts that the massive embankment marks the grave of a community matriarch and it is the largest such structure in the wider Horn region. The town would eventually be administered through the official Bari region in the post-independence period, in recent years, it has served as a refueling station for maritime transport between the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf ports, and has also become an important commercial point of entry. Bosaso is situated in northeastern Somalia, on the Gulf of Aden coast, nearby settlements include to the east Rehiss, to the northeast Mareroo, to the west Baalade Valley, to the southwest Baalade valley, and to the southeast Dureera. The largest cities in the country most proximate to Bosaso are Erigavo, Burao, shimbiris, the highest peak in Somalia, is located some 220 km to the southwest in the Cal Madow mountain range. Bosaso is among the seven cities and towns earmarked for the reforestation initiative, Bosaso has a hot desert climate. It has an annual relative humidity of around 60%. The average daily mean temperature year-round is 30 °C, with an annual high of 35 °C. Average low temperatures are coolest during the months of December to February. The weather slowly heats up in the spring, as the April rainy season begins, average high temperatures later peak during the summer months of June to August, when they consistently exceed 40 °C. Come September, cooler weather starts to set in again, rainfall reaches a high over this period, with an average precipitation of 7 mm in November. Total rainfall year-round is around 19 mm. Bosasos total population is estimated at about 164,906 residents in 2005, an additional 50,000 registered internally displaced people primarily from conflict-stricken parts of southern Somalia have also sought refuge in camps on the outskirts of the city. Furthermore, Bosaso is a port for boats carrying emigrants from within the country as well as adjacent territories across the Gulf of Aden to settle in the Persian Gulf states. Bosaso also has a significant number of Meheri Arabs, known as Arab Salah, Bosaso city affairs are managed by the Bosaso Municipality
17.
Mohammed Abdullah Hassan
–
Hajji Hafiz Sayyīd Muhammad Abd Allāh al-Hasan was a Somali religious and patriotic leader. Referred to as the Mad Mullah by the British, he established the Dervish State in Somalia that fought the 20 year Somaliland Campaign against British, Hassan was born in 1856 in the valley of SaMadeeq. Some say he was born in Kirrit in northern Somalia, at the time, this part of Somalia was a protectorate of the United Kingdom. Between 1884 and 1960, the area was known as British Somaliland, Hassan was the eldest son of Sheikh Abdille, who hailed from the Ogaden sub-clan of the Darod major clan. His mother, Timiro Sade, also a Somali, belonged to the Dhulbahante clan, Hassans grandfather, Hasan Nur, in turn, left his home and moved closer to the Dhulbahante stronghold in north-eastern Somalia. There, he founded several centres and devoted himself to the worship of Allah. Following in the footsteps of Hasan Nur, Hassans father Abdille also led a religious life, Abdille married several Dhulbahante women by whom he had about 30 children, of which Hassan was the eldest. Hassans mother, Timiro Sade, came from the Ali Geri sublineage of the Dhulbahante clan, Hassan thus grew up among the Dhulbahante pastoralists, who were good herdsmen and warriors and who tended and used camels as well as horses. Young Hassans hero was his grandfather, Sade Magan, who was a great warrior chief. In addition to being a good horseman, by the age of eleven, Hassan had learned the entire Quran by heart, in 1875, Hassans grandfather died, which came as a shock. That same year, he worked as a Quranic teacher for two years, Hassan received education from as many as seventy-two Somali and Arab religious teachers. In 1891, upon returning home, he married an Ogadeni woman, three years later, along with two uncles and eleven other companions some of whom were his maternal kin, Hassan went to Mecca to perform the Hajj. The party stayed there for a year and a half and came under the influence of the newly-developing Saalihiya order under the leadership of the great Sudanese mystic. Hassan received initiation and very rigorous training under Salih. From this experience, Hassan emerged a changed man — spiritually transformed, shaken and over-awed, in 1895, Hassan returned to Berbera. The British considered Berbera merely Adens butchers shop, since they were interested in getting regular supplies of meat from Somalia through this port for their British India outpost of Aden. The British withdrew from this area of their territory in Somalia, in Berbera, Hassan could not succeed in spreading the teaching of the Saalihiya order due to the hostility of the local Qadiriyyah inhabitants. They did not like him criticising their eating khat, gorging on the fat of sheeps tail, in 1897, he left Berbera to be with his Dulbahante kinsmen
18.
Mad Mulla
–
Hajji Hafiz Sayyīd Muhammad Abd Allāh al-Hasan was a Somali religious and patriotic leader. Referred to as the Mad Mullah by the British, he established the Dervish State in Somalia that fought the 20 year Somaliland Campaign against British, Hassan was born in 1856 in the valley of SaMadeeq. Some say he was born in Kirrit in northern Somalia, at the time, this part of Somalia was a protectorate of the United Kingdom. Between 1884 and 1960, the area was known as British Somaliland, Hassan was the eldest son of Sheikh Abdille, who hailed from the Ogaden sub-clan of the Darod major clan. His mother, Timiro Sade, also a Somali, belonged to the Dhulbahante clan, Hassans grandfather, Hasan Nur, in turn, left his home and moved closer to the Dhulbahante stronghold in north-eastern Somalia. There, he founded several centres and devoted himself to the worship of Allah. Following in the footsteps of Hasan Nur, Hassans father Abdille also led a religious life, Abdille married several Dhulbahante women by whom he had about 30 children, of which Hassan was the eldest. Hassans mother, Timiro Sade, came from the Ali Geri sublineage of the Dhulbahante clan, Hassan thus grew up among the Dhulbahante pastoralists, who were good herdsmen and warriors and who tended and used camels as well as horses. Young Hassans hero was his grandfather, Sade Magan, who was a great warrior chief. In addition to being a good horseman, by the age of eleven, Hassan had learned the entire Quran by heart, in 1875, Hassans grandfather died, which came as a shock. That same year, he worked as a Quranic teacher for two years, Hassan received education from as many as seventy-two Somali and Arab religious teachers. In 1891, upon returning home, he married an Ogadeni woman, three years later, along with two uncles and eleven other companions some of whom were his maternal kin, Hassan went to Mecca to perform the Hajj. The party stayed there for a year and a half and came under the influence of the newly-developing Saalihiya order under the leadership of the great Sudanese mystic. Hassan received initiation and very rigorous training under Salih. From this experience, Hassan emerged a changed man — spiritually transformed, shaken and over-awed, in 1895, Hassan returned to Berbera. The British considered Berbera merely Adens butchers shop, since they were interested in getting regular supplies of meat from Somalia through this port for their British India outpost of Aden. The British withdrew from this area of their territory in Somalia, in Berbera, Hassan could not succeed in spreading the teaching of the Saalihiya order due to the hostility of the local Qadiriyyah inhabitants. They did not like him criticising their eating khat, gorging on the fat of sheeps tail, in 1897, he left Berbera to be with his Dulbahante kinsmen
19.
Habr Awal
–
The subclans of the Habar Awal dominate the commercially strategic regions of Berbera, Wajaale, and the national capital of Somaliland, Hargeisa. As of the late 1980s, the Sacad Muuse, Habar Awal, in the Isaaq clan-family, component clans are divided into two uterine divisions, as shown in the genealogy. Indeed most of the largest clans of the clan-family are in fact uterine alliances and this is illustrated in the following structure. A summarized clan family tree of Habar Awal subclans is presented below Sheikh Isaaq Bin Ahmed Al Hashimi 1. Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal, first Prime Minister of the Somali Republic,1960, 1967-1969, former President of Somaliland Mohamed Hasan Abdullahi, Mohamed Omar Arte, former Deputy Prime Minister of Somalia. Mohamed Abdullahi Omaar, former Foreign Minister of Somalia Mo Farah, British 4 time Olympic gold medalist, Mohamed Hasan Abdullahi, former Chief of Staff of Somaliland Armed Forces Nuh Ismail Tani, current Chief of Staff of Somaliland Armed Forces Rageh Omaar, Somali-British journalist and writer. Brought Somalia into the Arab League in 1974 during his term Foreign Minister of Somalia from 1969-1977, former president of UN Security Council, teacher and poet
20.
Isaaq
–
The Isaaq are one of the main clans of the Somali people. Members principally live in the northwestern Somaliland region of Somalia, the Somali Region of Ethiopia, the populations of five major cities in Somaliland – Hargeisa, Burao, Berbera, Erigavo and Gabiley – are predominantly Isaaq. As of the late 1980s, the Sacad Muuse, Habr Awal and he settled in the coastal town of Maydh in modern-day northeastern Somaliland, where he married into the Magaadle clan, the traditional inhabitants of northeastern Somaliland. A similar tradition exists for the Darod, who are said to have descended from one Sheikh Abdirahman bin Ismail al-Jabarti, another Banu Hashim who came to Somalia around the same time. Besides historical sources, one of the more recent printed biographies of Sheikh Isaaq is the Amjaad of Sheikh Husseen bin Ahmed Darwiish al-Isaaqi as-Soomaali, Sheikh Isaaqs tomb is in Maydh, and is the scene of frequent pilgrimages. Sheikh Darod is buried nearby in the ancient town of Haylaan, Sheikh Isaaqs mawlid is also celebrated every Thursday with a public reading of his manaaqib. These groups were the Habr Awal, the Habr Toljallo, in the Isaaq clan-family, component clans are divided into two uterine divisions, as shown in the genealogy. Indeed most of the largest clans of the clan-family are in fact uterine alliances and this is illustrated in the following structure. Habar Habuusheed Ahmed Muuse Ibrahiim Mahammad 2, habar Magaadle Ayub Awal Arab Ismail There is no clear agreement on the clan and sub-clan structures and many lineages are omitted. The following listing is taken from the World Banks Conflict in Somalia, Drivers and Dynamics from 2005, mo Farah, British 4 time Olympic gold medalist and the most decorated athlete in British athletics history. Mohamed Hasan Abdullahi, former Chief of Staff of Somaliland Armed Forces, mohamed Omar Arte, former Deputy Prime Minister of Somalia. Brought Somalia into the Arab League in 1974 during his term Foreign Minister of Somalia from 1969-1977, former president of UN Security Council, teacher and poet
21.
Issa (clan)
–
The Issa or Eesah or Aysa are a Somali clan, and a sub-clan of the Dir. Members primarily reside in Djibouti, Awdal in Somalia, as well as the Shinile Zone located in the Somali Region of Ethiopia and is one of the largest clans of the Dir. Traditionally, they live as nomadic cattle breeders, but they engage in trade and have contacts throughout the region. As a sub-clan of the Dir, the Issa clan traces their ancestry to Irir. According to early Islamic books and Somali tradition, the Issa clan was founded in the 14th or 13th century, the Issa are origins descended of Dir, Irir, son of Samaale eponymous ancestor to Arabian Banu Hashim origins through Aqiil Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib. The Issa were supporters of Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi during his 16th century conquest of Abyssinia, the Issa branch of the Somali represent the largest ethnic group in Djibouti and make up roughly one half of the countrys total population. The Issa clan has produced numerous noble Somali men and women over the centuries, in 1884, the territory was occupied by France and given the name French Somaliland. Mahamoud Harbi was an important spokesman for the independence movement,1977 continued the Issa of Djiboutis independence through, but not the union with Somalia. Under Hassan Gouled Aptidon to Djibouti became the party state of the Peoples Rally for Progress and it was not until 1977 that independence was regained. The Issa in particular, is the clan with a longstanding tradition of sultan. The Issa use the title Ugaas which means sultan and/or king and he has been crowned Zeilan in the northern Somalia. The king does not have a permanent Celestial Court, but he will travel to the clan in Ethiopia, in the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935/36 Issa fought on the Italian side, and benefited in return of weapons, military training and lucrative marketing opportunities for their cattle. In the second half of the 20th Century gave Somalia more weapons to Issa, the Issa primarily live in Ethiopia largely where they reach the Oromia and Afar regions and make a large chunk of the Chartered city of Dire Dawa. They also inhabit Djibouti, were they make up half of the population, also the Issa is the second largest sub-clan within the borders of the Somali region of Ethiopia based on the Ethiopian population census 2008. The immediate neighbor to the Issa to the west are the Afar with whom the Issa used to frequently fight, to the South the Gurgura, Hawiye and Oromo. The Issa traditionally traces its Arabian connexions through its Dir affiliations to Aqeel ibn Abi Talib, however, by 1962 it had become the practice to regard the clan founder as a sheikh or even saint in much the same way as the eponyms of the Darod and Isaaq clans. His actual grave lies between Rugay and Maydh in northeastern Somalia, sheikh Issa tomb most likely pre-date the local arrival of Islam, which would mean their construction took place in the 13th century or earlier. There is no agreement on the clan and sub-clan structures
22.
Warsangali
–
The Warsangali, is a Somali clan, part of the Harti confederation of Darod sub-clans. In the Somali language, it means bringer of good news, the Warsangali also have the oldest Sultanate amongst the Somali clans who inhabit the area comprising the former British Somaliland, which is present day Somaliland. An article titled Seychellois rekindle ties with Sultan of Somaliland which was featured in one of the newspapers of the Republic of Seychelles captures a glimpse of Warsangeli history and it writes, the Warsengeli Sultanate has been in existence for the last six hundred years. The clans territory was recognized in the Arabian Peninsula, where it was referred to as Makhar or Makhir Coast. In 1848, C. J. Cruttenden reported that Warsangeli and Majeerteen territories were the most commercially valuable in the Nugaal Valley, the Cal Madow chain of mouintains, which is inside the clans territory, extends to the cities of Bosaso and Ceerigaabo in an east-west direction. Captain S. B. C. J. Cruttenden, writing of the Dubeiss, to call a man a thief is a deadly insult, to be washed out by blood alone. Pity is that the Somali tribes of the Edoor have not the same prejudice in favour of honesty, in contrast to Miles account, Cruttenden characterized them as powerful and warlike. As the Warsangali have one of the oldest Sultanates in Somalia, members of the clan have long preserved their lineage, the latter is summarized version in the clan tree to the right. The United Kingdoms Home Office publication, Somalia Assessment 2001
23.
Zeila
–
Zeila, also known as Zaila, is a port city in the northwestern Salal region of Somaliland. The town evolved into an early Islamic center with the arrival of Muslims shortly after the hijra, the city subsequently came under British protection in the 18th century. This campaign is known as the Conquest of Abyssinia. Zeila is situated in the Awdal region in northwest Somalia, located on the Gulf of Aden coast near the Djibouti border, the town sits on a sandy spit surrounded by the sea. It is known for its reef, mangroves and offshore islands. Landward, the terrain is unbroken desert for fifty miles. Berbera lies 170 miles southeast of Zeila, while the city of Harar in Ethiopia is 200 miles to the west, the travelogue mentions the Barbaroi trading frankincense, among various other commodities, through their port cities such as Avalites. Competent seamen, the Periplus author also indicates that they sailed throughout the Red Sea, the document describes the Barbarois system of governance as decentralized, and essentially consisting of a collection of autonomous city-states. It also suggests that the Berbers who live in the place are very unruly, Islam was introduced to the area early on from the Arabian peninsula, shortly after the hijra. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard. He also mentioned that the Adal kingdom had its capital in the city, according to I. M. Adals history from this founding period forth would be characterized by a succession of battles with neighbouring Abyssinia. By 1330, the Moroccan historian and traveler Ibn Batutta would describe the city as dominated by Muslims from the Zaidi Shiite denomination, shiia influence can still be seen in various areas, as in the southern Somalia veneration of Fatimah, the Prophet Muhammads daughter. Zeilas importance as a port is further confirmed by Al-Idrisi and Ibn Said, who describe it as a town of considerable size. This action provoked the Abyssinian Emperor into raising an army and capturing the Sultans capital, through extensive trade with Abyssinia and Arabia, Adal attained its height of prosperity during the 14th century. It sold incense, myrrh, slaves, gold, silver and camels, Zeila had by then started to grow into a huge multicultural metropolis, with Persian Gulf Arab, Somali, Afar, Amhara, and even Persian inhabitants. The city was instrumental in bringing Islam to the Oromo. In 1332, the Zeila-based King of Adal was slain in a campaign aimed at halting the Abyssinian Emperor Amda Seyons march toward the city. When the last Sultan of Ifat, Saad ad-Din II, was killed by Dawit I of Ethiopia in Zeila in 1410, his children escaped to Yemen
Somalia
