1.
Warwick
–
Warwick is the county town of Warwickshire, England. The town lies upon the River Avon,11 miles south of Coventry and just west of Leamington Spa, at the 2011 United Kingdom census, it had a population of 31,345. There was human activity at Warwick as early as the Neolithic period and it was a Saxon burh in the 9th century, Warwick Castle was established in 1068 as part of the Norman conquest of England. Warwick School claims to be the oldest boys school in the country, the earldom of Warwick was created in 1088 and the earls controlled the town in the medieval period and built town walls, of which Eastgate and Westgate survive. The castle developed into a fortress and then a country house and is today a popular tourist attraction. The Great Fire of Warwick in 1694 destroyed much of the medieval town, though Warwick did not become industrialised in the 19th century, it has experienced growth since 1801 when the population was 5,592. Racing Club Warwick F. C. founded in 1919, is based in the town, the town is administered by Warwick District Council and Warwickshire County Council has its headquarters in Warwick. Human activity on the site of the dates back to the Neolithic. From the 6th century onwards, Warwick has been continuously inhabited and it was one of ten burhs built to defend the kingdom of Mercia against the Danes. Warwick was chosen as the site for one of these fortifications because of its proximity to the important transport routes of the Fosse Way, in the early 10th century a new shire was founded with Warwick as its administrative centre, giving the settlement new importance. The name Warwick means dwellings by the weir, in 1050 the Danes invaded Mercia and burned down much of Warwick including the nunnery. William the Conqueror founded Warwick Castle in 1068 on his way to Yorkshire to deal with rebellion in the north, building a castle within a pre-existing settlement could require demolishing properties on the site, and in the case of Warwick four houses were pulled down. The castle was within the larger Anglo-Saxon burh and a new wall was created close to the rampart of the burh. In the medieval period Warwick remained under the control of various Earls of Warwick, mostly of the Beauchamp family, today the only remains of the town walls are the east and west gatehouses. The eastern gatehouse is now a home, but formerly served as part of the Kings High School. Warwick was not incorporated as a borough until 1545, the towns Priory was founded in 1142 on the site of the current Priory Park. During the English Civil War the town and castle were garrisoned for Parliament, the garrison, under Sir Edward Peyto, withstood a two-week siege by the Royalists. Later musters from 1644 to 1646 record a garrison of up to 350 men under the command of Colonel William Purefoy, the middle of the 17th century also saw the founding of Castle Hill Baptist Church, one of the oldest Baptist churches in the world
Warwick
–
A view over Warwick
Warwick
–
Lord Leycester hospital by the west gate, Warwick
Warwick
–
The Eastgate, Warwick
Warwick
–
Collegiate Church of St Mary, Warwick
2.
River Avon, Warwickshire
–
The River Avon or Avon /ˈeɪvən/ is a river in central England. Flowing generally southwestwards, it is a major tributary of the River Severn. It is also known as the Warwickshire Avon or Shakespeares Avon, beginning in Northamptonshire, the river flows through or adjoining the counties of Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire and Gloucestershire, near the Cotswold Hills area. Notable towns it flows through include Rugby, Stratford-upon-Avon, Evesham, Pershore and Tewkesbury and it has traditionally been divided since 1719 into the Lower Avon, below Evesham, and the Upper Avon, from Evesham to above Stratford-upon-Avon. Improvements to aid navigation began in 1635, and a series of locks and weirs made it possible to reach Stratford, the Upper Avon was tortuous and prone to flooding, and was abandoned as a means of navigation in 1877. The Lower Avon struggled on, and never closed, although it was only navigable below Pershore by 1945. Restoration of the river as a navigable waterway began in 1950. The upper river was a daunting task, as most of the locks. Work began in 1965 on the construction of nine new locks and 17 miles of river, using volunteer labour. The Avon connects with the Stratford-upon-Avon Canal in the centre of Stratford, plans to extend the navigable river to provide a link with the Grand Union Canal at either Warwick or Leamington Spa have met with some opposition. Avon derives from the British language abona, river, which survives as a number of other English and Scottish river names. The source of the Avon is from a spring near the village of Naseby in Northamptonshire, for the first few miles of its length between Welford and the Dow Bridge on Watling Street, it forms the border between Northamptonshire and Leicestershire. On this section, it has been dammed to create Stanford Reservoir, the river has a total length of 85 miles and a catchment size of 1,032 square miles. The Avons tributaries include the Rivers Leam, Stour, Sowe, Dene, Arrow, Swift, Isbourne and Swilgate as well as many minor streams, a long distance footpath has been created which follows the river from its source to the River Severn at Tewkesbury. The route is marketed as Shakespeares Avon Way, and is 88 miles long and it uses existing footpaths and tracks to stay as close to the river as is reasonably possible. Before the last Ice Age about 50,000 years ago, during the Wolstonian glacial period, ice advanced into the Midlands from the north, east and west blocking the flow of the Avon to its former confluence with the Trent. The waters were thus trapped, on the north, east and west by the glacier, and by the Cotswolds to the south, resulting in the formation of a glacial lake. At its maximum, it is considered that this glacial lake covered the whole of Warwickshire and was over 200 feet deep
River Avon, Warwickshire
–
The River Avon by the
Royal Shakespeare
Theatre in
Stratford-upon-Avon,
Warwickshire
River Avon, Warwickshire
–
River Avon taken from the garden of the Fleet Inn,
Twyning, Gloucestershire.
River Avon, Warwickshire
–
River Avon in Stratford-upon-Avon on a sunny day
River Avon, Warwickshire
–
One of the two lock gates between the River Avon and the Stratford-on-Avon canal
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
4.
Merlin Entertainments
–
Merlin Entertainments is a British-based company headquartered in Poole, Dorset, which operates 127 attractions,19 hotels and 7 holiday villages in 24 countries. Apax sold the company to another investor, Hermes Private Equity. When the Legoland theme parks came up for sale, Varney wanted to buy it but Hermes did not want to invest more capital, Blackstone negotiated to buy control of Legoland for about £250 million, then merged it with Merlin. As part of the deal, KIRKBI AS, the investment arm of LEGO owners, under The Blackstone Group in 2006, Merlin went on to buy Gardaland, an Italian theme park. Early in 2007 Merlin also purchased The Tussauds Group, owner of the Madame Tussauds celebrity wax attractions, after the Tussauds acquisition, Dubai International Capital held 20% of Merlin Entertainment. Although the attraction sites are owned by Leslau, the attractions themselves are to be operated by Merlin, chessington World of Adventures was not included in the deal due to being the most profitable. On 15 January 2010, Merlin Entertainments bought a defunct Winter Haven, Florida-based theme park, Cypress Gardens, and reopened it as Legoland Florida theme park. The sale would include Sydney Aquarium, Sydney Wildlife World, Oceanworld Manly, Sydney Tower, on 3 March 2011, the deal was finalised. Merlin had planned to go public in early 2010, but market turbulence postponed those plans, instead, Blackstone sold 20% of the company to the private equity firm CVC Capital Partners, reducing Blackstones holding to 34%. CVC acquired another 8% from the Dubai investment fund which is no longer involved with the company, KIRKBI, a Danish family trust that owns LEGO, also increased its stake, emerging as the largest shareholder, with 36%. CVC paid a price that valued Merlin at £2.25 billion – more than six times what Merlin, Blackstones investment was by that point worth more than three and a half times what it had paid. On 8 November 2013 Merlin floated 30% of the company on the London Stock Exchange valuing the private equity-backed company at almost £3. 4bn, in October 2013 mental health campaigners accused Merlins Thorpe Park attraction of putting profit before the welfare of those with mental illness. Its Halloween attractions included mazes which draw on classic horror film content including one called The Asylum, the attraction was contrasted unfavourably in some media, Twitter and by mental health campaigners who believed The Asylum perpetrated stigmatising and damaging images of mental illness. Thorpe Park issued a statement indicating the subject would be reviewed, on 2 June 2015 two carriages on The Smiler ride at The Alton Towers Resort collided. One of the cars was empty, and the car contained 16 people. Merlin issued a statement that the incident was under investigation, on 19 March 2016, The Smiler reopened to the public after 9 months. The investigation found that the crash was, according to Merlin Entertainments, in February 2016, Merlin purchased a 15% shareholding in Big Bus Tours
Merlin Entertainments
–
Merlin Entertainments Group PLC
5.
Castle
–
A castle is a type of fortified structure built in Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages by European nobility. Scholars debate the scope of the castle, but usually consider it to be the private fortified residence of a lord or noble. Usage of the term has varied over time and has applied to structures as diverse as hill forts. Over the approximately 900 years that castles were built, they took on a great many forms with different features, although some, such as curtain walls. A European innovation, castles originated in the 9th and 10th centuries, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire resulted in its territory being divided among individual lords and princes. Although their military origins are often emphasised in castle studies, the structures served as centres of administration. Many castles were built from earth and timber, but had their defences replaced later by stone. Early castles often exploited natural defences, lacking features such as towers and arrowslits, in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, a scientific approach to castle defence emerged. This led to the proliferation of towers, with an emphasis on flanking fire, many new castles were polygonal or relied on concentric defence – several stages of defence within each other that could all function at the same time to maximise the castles firepower. These changes in defence have been attributed to a mixture of castle technology from the Crusades, such as concentric fortification, not all the elements of castle architecture were military in nature, so that devices such as moats evolved from their original purpose of defence into symbols of power. Some grand castles had long winding approaches intended to impress and dominate their landscape, while castles continued to be built well into the 16th century, new techniques to deal with improved cannon fire made them uncomfortable and undesirable places to live. As a result, true castles went into decline and were replaced by artillery forts with no role in civil administration, and country houses that were indefensible. From the 18th century onwards, there was a renewed interest in castles with the construction of castles, part of a romantic revival of Gothic architecture. The word castle is derived from the Latin word castellum, which is a diminutive of the word castrum, meaning fortified place. The Old English castel, Old French castel or chastel, French château, Spanish castillo, Italian castello, the word castle was introduced into English shortly before the Norman Conquest to denote this type of building, which was then new to England. In its simplest terms, the definition of a castle accepted amongst academics is a fortified residence. Feudalism was the link between a lord and his vassal where, in return for service and the expectation of loyalty. Castles served a range of purposes, the most important of which were military, administrative, as well as defensive structures, castles were also offensive tools which could be used as a base of operations in enemy territory
Castle
–
The
Alcázar of Segovia in Spain overlooking the city
Castle
–
Bodiam Castle in
East Sussex, England, surrounded by a water-filled
moat
Castle
–
The
Norman "White Tower", the
keep of the
Tower of London, exemplifies all uses of a castle including city defence, a residence, and a place of refuge in times of crisis.
Castle
–
Windsor Castle in England was founded as a fortification during the
Norman Conquest and today is one of the principal official residences of Queen
Elizabeth II.
6.
William I of England
–
William I, usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. A descendant of Rollo, he was Duke of Normandy from 1035 onward, after a long struggle to establish his power, by 1060 his hold on Normandy was secure, and he launched the Norman conquest of England six years later. The rest of his life was marked by struggles to consolidate his hold over England and his continental lands, William was the son of the unmarried Robert I, Duke of Normandy, by Roberts mistress Herleva. His illegitimate status and his youth caused some difficulties for him after he succeeded his father, during his childhood and adolescence, members of the Norman aristocracy battled each other, both for control of the child duke and for their own ends. In 1047 William was able to quash a rebellion and begin to establish his authority over the duchy and his marriage in the 1050s to Matilda of Flanders provided him with a powerful ally in the neighbouring county of Flanders. By the time of his marriage, William was able to arrange the appointments of his supporters as bishops and his consolidation of power allowed him to expand his horizons, and by 1062 William was able to secure control of the neighbouring county of Maine. In the 1050s and early 1060s William became a contender for the throne of England, then held by the childless Edward the Confessor, his first cousin once removed. There were other claimants, including the powerful English earl Harold Godwinson. William argued that Edward had previously promised the throne to him, William built a large fleet and invaded England in September 1066, decisively defeating and killing Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066. After further military efforts William was crowned king on Christmas Day 1066 and he made arrangements for the governance of England in early 1067 before returning to Normandy. Several unsuccessful rebellions followed, but by 1075 Williams hold on England was mostly secure, Williams final years were marked by difficulties in his continental domains, troubles with his eldest son, and threatened invasions of England by the Danes. In 1086 William ordered the compilation of the Domesday Book, a listing all the landholders in England along with their holdings. William died in September 1087 while leading a campaign in northern France and his reign in England was marked by the construction of castles, the settling of a new Norman nobility on the land, and change in the composition of the English clergy. He did not try to integrate his various domains into one empire, Williams lands were divided after his death, Normandy went to his eldest son, Robert Curthose, and his second surviving son, William Rufus, received England. Norsemen first began raiding in what became Normandy in the late 8th century, permanent Scandinavian settlement occurred before 911, when Rollo, one of the Viking leaders, and King Charles the Simple of France reached an agreement surrendering the county of Rouen to Rollo. The lands around Rouen became the core of the duchy of Normandy. Normandy may have used as a base when Scandinavian attacks on England were renewed at the end of the 10th century. In an effort to improve matters, King Æthelred the Unready took Emma of Normandy, sister of Duke Richard II, as his second wife in 1002
William I of England
–
William as depicted in the
Bayeux Tapestry during the
Battle of Hastings, lifting his helm to show that he is still alive
William I of England
–
Château de Falaise in
Falaise,
Lower Normandy, France; William was born in an earlier building here.
William I of England
–
Column at the site of the
Battle of Val-ès-Dunes
William I of England
–
Image from the
Bayeux Tapestry showing William with his half-brothers. William is in the centre, Odo is on the left with empty hands, and Robert is on the right with a sword in his hand.
7.
Warwickshire
–
Warwickshire is a landlocked county in the West Midlands of England. The county town is Warwick, although the largest town is Nuneaton, the county is famous for being the birthplace of William Shakespeare. Commonly used abbreviations for the county are Warks or Warwicks, the county is divided into five districts of North Warwickshire, Nuneaton and Bedworth, Rugby, Warwick and Stratford-on-Avon. The current county boundaries were set in 1974 by the Local Government Act 1972, the historic county boundaries also included Coventry and Solihull, as well as much of Birmingham. The northern tip of the county is only 3 miles from the Derbyshire border, an average-sized English county covering an area of almost 2,000 km2, it runs some 60 miles north to south. Equivalently it extends as far north as Shrewsbury in Shropshire and as far south as Banbury in north Oxfordshire, the majority of Warwickshires population live in the north and centre of the county. The market towns of northern and eastern Warwickshire were industrialised in the 19th century, and include Atherstone, Bedworth, Nuneaton, of these, Atherstone has retained most of its original character. Major industries included coal mining, textiles, engineering and cement production, of the northern and eastern towns, only Nuneaton and Rugby are well-known outside of Warwickshire. The south of the county is rural and sparsely populated. The only town in the south of Warwickshire is Shipston-on-Stour, the highest point in the county, at 261 m, is Ebrington Hill, again on the border with Gloucestershire, grid reference SP187426 at the countys southwest extremity. There are no cities in Warwickshire since both Coventry and Birmingham were incorporated into the West Midlands county in 1974 and are now metropolitan authorities in themselves, the largest towns in Warwickshire in 2011 were, Nuneaton, Rugby, Leamington Spa, Bedworth, Warwick, Stratford and Kenilworth. Much of western Warwickshire, including that area now forming part of Coventry, Solihull, thus the names of a number of places in the central-western part of Warwickshire end with the phrase -in-Arden, such as Henley-in-Arden, Hampton-in-Arden and Tanworth-in-Arden. The remaining area, not part of the forest, was called the Felden – from fielden, areas historically part of Warwickshire include Coventry, Solihull, Sutton Coldfield, Erdington, and some of Birmingham including Aston and Edgbaston. These became part of the county of West Midlands following local government re-organisation in 1974. Some organisations, such as Warwickshire County Cricket Club, which is based in Edgbaston, in Birmingham, Coventry is effectively in the centre of the Warwickshire area, and still has strong ties with the county. Coventry and Warwickshire are sometimes treated as an area and share a single Chamber of Commerce. Coventry has been a part of Warwickshire for only some of its history, in 1451 Coventry was separated from Warwickshire and made a county corporate in its own right, called the County of the City of Coventry. In 1842 the county of Coventry was abolished and Coventry was remerged with Warwickshire, in recent times, there have been calls to formally re-introduce Coventry into Warwickshire, although nothing has yet come of this
Warwickshire
–
Stratford-upon-Avon
Warwickshire
–
Flag of Warwickshire
Warwickshire
–
Kenilworth Castle
Warwickshire
–
The WCML at Rugby
8.
Motte-and-bailey
–
The Normans introduced the design into England and Wales following their invasion in 1066. Motte-and-bailey castles were adopted in Scotland, Ireland, the Low Countries, by the end of the 13th century, the design was largely superseded by alternative forms of fortification, but the earthworks remain a prominent feature in many countries. The term motte and bailey is a modern one, and is not medieval in origin. The word bailey comes from the Norman-French baille, or basse-cour, in medieval sources, the Latin term castellum was used to describe the bailey complex within these castles. One contemporary account of these comes from Jean de Colmieu around 1130. De Colmieu described how the nobles would build a mound of earth as high as they can and dig a ditch about it as wide and deep as possible. The space on top of the mound is enclosed by a palisade of very strong hewn logs, inside the enclosure is a citadel, or keep, which commands the whole circuit of the defences. Mottes were made out of earth and flattened on top, some were also built over older artificial structures, such as Bronze Age barrows. The size of mottes varied considerably, with these mounds being 3 metres to 30 metres in height and this minimum height of 3 metres for mottes is usually intended to exclude smaller mounds which often had non-military purposes. In England and Wales, only 7% of mottes were taller than 10 metres high, a motte was protected by a ditch around it, which would typically have also been a source of the earth and soil for constructing the mound itself. A keep and a wall would usually be built on top of the motte. Smaller mottes could only support simple towers with room for a few soldiers, wooden structures on mottes could be protected by skins and hides to prevent them being easily set alight during a siege. The bailey was a courtyard overlooked by the motte and surrounded by a wooden fence called a palisade. The bailey was often kidney-shaped to fit against a circular motte, the bailey would contain a wide number of buildings, including a hall, kitchens, a chapel, barracks, stores, stables, forges or workshops, and was the centre of the castles economic activity. The bailey was linked to the motte either by a bridge stretching between the two, or, more popularly in England, by steps cut into the motte. Typically the ditch of the motte and the bailey joined, forming a figure of eight around the castle, wherever possible, nearby streams and rivers would be dammed or diverted, creating water-filled moats, artificial lakes and other forms of water defences. In practice, there was a number of variations to this common design. A castle could have more than one bailey, at Warkworth Castle an inner, some baileys had two mottes, such as those at Lincoln
Motte-and-bailey
–
A reconstruction of the English city of
York in the 15th century, showing the motte and bailey fortifications of
Old Baile (left) and
York Castle (right)
Motte-and-bailey
–
Plan of
Topcliffe Castle in England, an archetypal motte-and-bailey design
Motte-and-bailey
–
The motte and bailey defences of
Launceston Castle in England
Motte-and-bailey
–
Windsor Castle, built with a motte (centre) and two baileys (left and right)
9.
Hundred Years War
–
Each side drew many allies into the war. It was one of the most notable conflicts of the Middle Ages, the war marked both the height of chivalry and its subsequent decline, and the development of strong national identities in both countries. After the Norman Conquest, the kings of England were vassals of the kings of France for their possessions in France, the French kings had endeavored, over the centuries, to reduce these possessions, to the effect that only Gascony was left to the English. Through his mother, Isabella of France, Edward III of England was the grandson of Philip IV of France and nephew of Charles IV of France, in 1316, a principle was established denying women succession to the French throne. When Charles IV died in 1328, Isabella, unable to claim the French throne for herself, the French rejected the claim, maintaining that Isabella could not transmit a right that she did not possess. Several overwhelming English victories in the war—especially at Crecy, Poitiers, however, the greater resources of the French monarchy precluded a complete conquest. Historians commonly divide the war into three separated by truces, the Edwardian Era War, the Caroline War, and the Lancastrian War. Later historians adopted the term Hundred Years War as a historiography periodization to encompass all of these events, the war owes its historical significance to multiple factors. By its end, feudal armies had been replaced by professional troops. Although primarily a conflict, the war gave impetus to ideas of French. The wider introduction of weapons and tactics supplanted the feudal armies where heavy cavalry had dominated, the war precipitated the creation of the first standing armies in Western Europe since the time of the Western Roman Empire and thus helping to change their role in warfare. With respect to the belligerents, in France, civil wars, deadly epidemics, famines, English political forces over time came to oppose the costly venture. The dissatisfaction of English nobles, resulting from the loss of their continental landholdings, the root causes of the conflict can be found in the demographic, economic and political crises of 14th century Europe. The outbreak of war was motivated by a rise in tension between the Kings of France and England about Guyenne, Flanders and Scotland. The dynastic question, which due to an interruption of the direct male line of the Capetians, was the official pretext. The question of succession to the French throne was raised after the death of Louis X in 1316. Louis X left only a daughter, and his posthumous son John I lived only a few days, Philip, Count of Poitiers, brother of Louis X, asserted that women were ineligible to succeed to the French throne. Through his political sagacity he won over his adversaries and succeeded to the French throne as Philip V of France, by the same law that he procured, his daughters were denied the succession, which passed to his younger brother, Charles IV, in 1322
Hundred Years War
–
Clockwise, from top left:
John of Bohemia at the
Battle of Crécy, English and Franco-Castilian fleets at the
Battle of La Rochelle,
Henry V and the English army at the
Battle of Agincourt,
Joan of Arc rallies French forces at the
Siege of Orléans
Hundred Years War
–
Homage of
Edward I of England (kneeling) to
Philip IV of France (seated), 1286. As
Duke of Aquitaine, Edward was also a vassal to the French King.
Hundred Years War
–
Battle of Sluys from a
manuscript of
Froissart's Chronicles, Bruge, c.1470
Hundred Years War
–
Battle of Crécy, 1346
10.
Stronghold
–
Fortifications are military constructions or buildings designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and also used to solidify rule in a region during peace time. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs, the term is derived from the Latin fortis and facere. From very early history to modern times, walls have been a necessity for cities to survive in a changing world of invasion. Some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were the first small cities to be fortified, in ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, such as the ancient site of Mycenae. A Greek Phrourion was a collection of buildings used as a military garrison. These construction mainly served the purpose of a tower, to guard certain roads, passes. Though smaller than a fortress, they acted as a border guard rather than a real strongpoint to watch. The art of setting out a camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called castramentation since the time of the Roman legions. Fortification is usually divided into two branches, permanent fortification and field fortification, there is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the fort or fortress in that they are a residence of a monarch or noble. Roman forts and hill forts were the antecedents of castles in Europe. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of towns built around castles. Medieval-style fortifications were made obsolete by the arrival of cannons in the 14th century. Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb, Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes. The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification, steel-and-concrete fortifications were common during the 19th and early 20th centuries. However the advances in warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations. Demilitarized zones along borders are arguably another type of fortification, although a passive kind, many military installations are known as forts, although they are not always fortified. Larger forts may be called fortresses, smaller ones were known as fortalices
Stronghold
–
Krak des Chevaliers is one of the best-preserved Crusader
castles.
Stronghold
–
Bourtange star fort, restored to 1750 situation,
Groningen (province),
Netherlands.
Stronghold
–
The well preserved
Bulgarian medieval fort
Baba Vida.
Stronghold
–
Fortifications on the Iraq-Iran Border, viewed from the
ISS, 2014
11.
Fulke Greville, 1st Baron Brooke
–
Greville was granted Warwick Castle in 1604, making numerous improvements. Fulke Greville, born 3 October 1554, at Beauchamp Court, near Alcester, Warwickshire, was the son of Sir Fulke Greville and Anne Neville. He was educated at Shrewsbury School before enrolling at Jesus College, Cambridge in 1568, there, Greville became a great favourite with the Queen, who valued his sober character and administrative skills. In 1581, he was elected in a by-election as Member of Parliament for Southampton, Queen Elizabeth made him secretary to the principality of Wales in 1583. However he was put out of more than once for leaving the country against her wishes. Philip Sidney, who took part in the campaign, was killed on 17 October 1586, Greville memorialized his beloved friend in his Life of the Renowned Sir Philip Sidney. Greville participated in the Battle of Coutras in 1587, about 1591 Greville served further for a short time in Normandy under King Henry III of Navarre in the French Wars of Religion. This was his last experience of war, Greville represented Warwickshire in parliament in 1592-1593,1597,1601 and 1621. In 1598 he was made Treasurer of the Navy, and he retained the office through the years of the reign of James I. Greville was granted Warwick Castle—situated on a bend of the River Avon in Warwickshire—by King James I in 1604, dilapidated when he took possession of the castle, he spent £20,000 to restore it to former glory. In 1614 he became chancellor and under-treasurer of the exchequer, and throughout the reign he was a supporter of James I. In 1618 he became commissioner of the treasury, and in 1621 he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Brooke, in 1628 Greville was stabbed inside Warwick Castle by Ralph Heywood, a servant who believed that he had been cheated in his masters will. Heywood then turned the knife on himself, Greville has numerous streets named after him in the Hatton Garden area of Holborn, London. Greville is best known by his biography of Sidney, the title of which expresses the scope of the work. He includes some autobiographical matter in what amounts to a treatise on government, Grevilles poetry consists of closet tragedies, sonnets, and poems on political and moral subjects. His style is grave and sententious, Poetry and Drama of Fulke Greville, edited by Geoffrey Bullough, was published in 1938. The Prose Works of Fulke Greville, edited by John Gouws, were published in 1986, the Selected Poems of Fulke Greville edited by Thom Gunn, with an afterword by Bradin Cormack, was published in 2009 The Tragedy of Mustapha. The Remains of Sir Fvlk Grevill Lord Brooke, Being Poems of Monarchy and Religion, Never Before Printed --comprises A Treatise of Monarchy and A Treatise of Religion
Fulke Greville, 1st Baron Brooke
–
Portrait by
Edmund Lodge
Fulke Greville, 1st Baron Brooke
–
Warwick Castle on River Avon in October 2004.
12.
James I
–
James VI and I was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until his death. The kingdoms of Scotland and England were individual sovereign states, with their own parliaments, judiciary, and laws, though both were ruled by James in personal union. James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, James succeeded to the Scottish throne at the age of thirteen months, after his mother Mary was compelled to abdicate in his favour. Four different regents governed during his minority, which ended officially in 1578, in 1603, he succeeded the last Tudor monarch of England and Ireland, Elizabeth I, who died without issue. He continued to reign in all three kingdoms for 22 years, a period known after him as the Jacobean era, until his death in 1625 at the age of 58. After the Union of the Crowns, he based himself in England from 1603, only returning to Scotland once in 1617 and he was a major advocate of a single parliament for England and Scotland. In his reign, the Plantation of Ulster and British colonization of the Americas began, at 57 years and 246 days, Jamess reign in Scotland was longer than those of any of his predecessors. He achieved most of his aims in Scotland but faced difficulties in England, including the Gunpowder Plot in 1605. James himself was a scholar, the author of works such as Daemonologie, The True Law of Free Monarchies. He sponsored the translation of the Bible that would later be named after him, Sir Anthony Weldon claimed that James had been termed the wisest fool in Christendom, an epithet associated with his character ever since. Since the latter half of the 20th century, historians have tended to revise Jamess reputation and treat him as a serious, James was the only son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Both Mary and Darnley were great-grandchildren of Henry VII of England through Margaret Tudor, Marys rule over Scotland was insecure, and she and her husband, being Roman Catholics, faced a rebellion by Protestant noblemen. James was born on 19 June 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, and as the eldest son and heir apparent of the monarch automatically became Duke of Rothesay and Prince and he was baptised Charles James or James Charles on 17 December 1566 in a Catholic ceremony held at Stirling Castle. His godparents were Charles IX of France, Elizabeth I of England, Mary refused to let the Archbishop of St Andrews, whom she referred to as a pocky priest, spit in the childs mouth, as was then the custom. The subsequent entertainment, devised by Frenchman Bastian Pagez, featured men dressed as satyrs and sporting tails, Jamess father, Darnley, was murdered on 10 February 1567 at Kirk o Field, Edinburgh, perhaps in revenge for Rizzios death. James inherited his fathers titles of Duke of Albany and Earl of Ross, Mary was already unpopular, and her marriage on 15 May 1567 to James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was widely suspected of murdering Darnley, heightened widespread bad feeling towards her. In June 1567, Protestant rebels arrested Mary and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle and she was forced to abdicate on 24 July 1567 in favour of the infant James and to appoint her illegitimate half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as regent. The care of James was entrusted to the Earl and Countess of Mar, to be conserved, nursed, and upbrought in the security of Stirling Castle
James I
–
Portrait by
Daniel Mytens, 1621
James I
–
Portrait of James as a boy, after
Arnold Bronckorst, 1574
James I
–
James (right) depicted beside his mother
Mary (left). In reality, they were separated when he was still a baby.
James I
–
James in 1586, age 20
13.
Earl of Warwick
–
Earl of Warwick is a title that has been created four times in English history and is one of the most prestigious titles in the peerages of the United Kingdom. The first creation came in 1088, and was held by the Beaumont, the 14th Earl was created Duke of Warwick in 1445, a title which became extinct on his early death the following year. The best-known Earl of this creation was the 16th Earl, Richard Neville and this creation became extinct on the death of the 17th Earl in 1499. The title was revived in 1547 for the powerful statesman John Dudley, 1st Viscount Lisle, the earldom was passed on during his lifetime to his eldest son, John, but both father and son were attainted in 1554. The title was recreated or restored in 1561 in favour of Ambrose, however, Ambrose was childless and the earldom became extinct on his death in 1590. It was created for a time in 1618 for Robert Rich, 3rd Baron Rich. From 1673 the Earls also held the title Earl of Holland, all the titles became extinct on the death of the 8th Earl in 1759. The earldom was revived the same year in favour of Francis Greville, the Greville family were in possession of Warwick Castle and the title and castle were thereby re-united for the first time in over a century. The 1759 creation is extant and currently held by Guy Greville, however, Warwick Castle was sold by the family in 1978, and they currently live in Australia. The medieval earldom created in 1088 was held to be inheritable through a line of descent. It was traditionally associated with possession of Warwick Castle, the heraldic device of the Earls of Warwick, the bear and ragged staff, is believed to derive from two legendary Earls, Arthal and Morvidus. Arthal is to bear, while Morvidus was to have slain a giant with a young ash tree torn up by the roots. The first Earl of Warwick was Henry de Beaumont, younger son of Roger de Beaumont, Count of Meulan and brother to Robert de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Leicester. The family name of Beaumont was Latinised to de Bello Monte, Henry changed his name to de Newburgh, after the Castle de Neubourg, his home in Normandy. Henry became constable of Warwick castle in 1068 and Earl in 1088 as reward for his support for the king during the Rebellion of 1088, the title passed through several generations of the Beaumont family until Thomas, the 6th earl, died in 1242 without a male heir. The earldom then went to his sister Margaret and her husbands, when he died also without a male heir the title passed to his daughter Isabel and her husband William Beauchamp and thence her son William, who became 9th earl. During this period the earldom and the Beauchamps were elevated to the highest levels until Henry and this precedence was disputed however and with Henrys death in 1445, also without male heir, the dukedom was extinguished. After Richard Nevilles death the title was created for his son-in-law, George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, husband of Nevilles eldest daughter Isabella Neville, on 25 March 1472
Earl of Warwick
–
Warwick Castle, traditionally the seat of the Earls of Warwick, on the
River Avon.
14.
Ordnance Survey
–
Ordnance Survey is a non-ministerial government department which acts as the national mapping agency for Great Britain and is one of the worlds largest producers of maps. Since 1 April 2015 it has operated as Ordnance Survey Ltd, the Ordnance Survey Board remain accountable to the Secretary of State for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. It is also a member of the Public Data Group, the agencys name indicates its original military purpose, mapping Scotland in the wake of the Jacobite rebellion in 1745. There was also a general and nationwide need in light of the potential threat of invasion during the Napoleonic Wars. Ordnance Survey mapping is usually classified as either large-scale or small-scale, the Surveys large-scale mapping comprises maps at six inches to the mile or more and was available as sheets until the 1980s, when it was digitised. Small-scale mapping comprises maps at less than six inches to the mile, such as the one inch to the mile leisure maps. These are still available in sheet form. Ordnance Survey maps remain in copyright for fifty years after their publication, some of the Copyright Libraries hold complete or near-complete collections of pre-digital OS mapping. The origins of the Ordnance Survey lie in the aftermath of the last Jacobite rising which was defeated by forces loyal to the government at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. In 1747, Lieutenant-colonel David Watson proposed the compilation of a map of the Highlands to facilitate the subjugation of clans, in response, King George II charged Watson with making a military survey of the Highlands under the command of the Duke of Cumberland. Among Watsons assistants were William Roy, Paul Sandby and John Manson, the survey was produced at a scale of 1 inch to 1000 yards and included the Duke of Cumberlands Map now held in the British Library. This work was the point of the Principal Triangulation of Great Britain. Roys technical skills and leadership set the standard for which Ordnance Survey became known. Work was begun in earnest in 1790 under Roys supervision, when the Board of Ordnance began a military survey starting with the south coast of England. A set of stamps, featuring maps of the Kentish village of Hamstreet, was issued in 1991 to mark the bicentenary. In 1801, the first one-inch-to-the-mile map was published, detailing the county of Kent, during the next twenty years, roughly a third of England and Wales was mapped at the same scale under the direction of William Mudge, as other military matters took precedence. It took until 1823 to re-establish a relationship with the French survey made by Roy in 1787, by 1810, one inch to the mile maps of most of the south of England were completed, but were withdrawn from sale between 1811 and 1816 because of security fears. It was gruelling work, major Thomas Colby, later the longest serving director general of Ordnance Survey, in 1824, Colby and most of his staff moved to Ireland to work on a six-inches-to-the-mile valuation survey
Ordnance Survey
–
Grid square TF from the
Ordnance Survey National Grid, shown at a scale of 1:250,000. The map shows
the Wash and the
North Sea, as well as places within the counties of
Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire and
Norfolk.
Ordnance Survey
–
Part of an Ordnance Survey map, at the scale of one inch to the mile, from a New Popular Edition map published in 1946.
Ordnance Survey
–
The
original draftsman's drawings for the area around
St. Columb Major in
Cornwall, made in 1810.
Ordnance Survey
–
The
old site of Ordnance Survey, London Road,
Southampton City Centre, in 2005.
15.
Sandstone
–
Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized minerals or rock grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz or feldspar because these are the most common minerals in the Earths crust, like sand, sandstone may be any color, but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, grey, pink, white, and black. Since sandstone beds often form highly visible cliffs and other topographic features, quartz-bearing sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure, usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. They are formed from cemented grains that may either be fragments of a rock or be mono-minerallic crystals. The cements binding these grains together are typically calcite, clays, grain sizes in sands are defined within the range of 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. The formation of sandstone involves two principal stages, first, a layer or layers of sand accumulates as the result of sedimentation, either from water or from air. Typically, sedimentation occurs by the settling out from suspension. The most common cementing materials are silica and calcium carbonate, which are derived either from dissolution or from alteration of the sand after it was buried. Colours will usually be tan or yellow, a predominant additional colourant in the southwestern United States is iron oxide, which imparts reddish tints ranging from pink to dark red, with additional manganese imparting a purplish hue. Red sandstones are seen in the Southwest and West of Britain, as well as central Europe. The regularity of the latter favours use as a source for masonry, either as a building material or as a facing stone. These physical properties allow the grains to survive multiple recycling events. Quartz grains evolve from rock, which are felsic in origin. Feldspathic framework grains are commonly the second most abundant mineral in sandstones, Feldspar can be divided into two smaller subdivisions, alkali feldspars and plagioclase feldspars. The different types of feldspar can be distinguished under a petrographic microscope, below is a description of the different types of feldspar. Alkali feldspar is a group of minerals in which the composition of the mineral can range from KAlSi3O8 to NaAlSi3O8. Plagioclase feldspar is a group of solid solution minerals that range in composition from NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8. Lithic framework grains are pieces of ancient source rock that have yet to weather away to individual mineral grains, accessory minerals are all other mineral grains in a sandstone, commonly these minerals make up just a small percentage of the grains in a sandstone
Sandstone
–
Cut slab of sandstone showing
Liesegang banding
Sandstone
–
Devonian Sandstone at Suur Taevaskoda,
Põlva County,
Estonia
Sandstone
–
Alcove in the
Navajo Sandstone
Sandstone
–
Sandstone Rock-cut tombs (
Kokhim) in
Petra,
Jordan
16.
Cliff
–
In geography and geology, a cliff is a vertical, or nearly vertical, rock exposure. Cliffs are formed as erosion landforms by the processes of weathering, Cliffs are common on coasts, in mountainous areas, escarpments and along rivers. Cliffs are usually formed by rock that is resistant to weathering, sedimentary rocks most likely to form cliffs include sandstone, limestone, chalk, and dolomite. Igneous rocks such as granite and basalt also often form cliffs, an escarpment is a type of cliff, formed by the movement of a geologic fault or a landslide. Most cliffs have some form of slope at their base. In arid areas or under high cliffs, they are generally exposed jumbles of fallen rock, in areas of higher moisture, a soil slope may obscure the talus. Many cliffs also feature tributary waterfalls or rock shelters, sometimes a cliff peters out at the end of a ridge, with tea tables or other types of rock columns remaining. Coastal erosion may lead to the formation of sea cliffs along a receding coastline, the Ordnance Survey distinguishes between cliffs and outcrops. Cliff is a Romance loanword that has its origins in the Latin forms clivus / clevus. Given that a cliff need not be vertical, there can be ambiguity about whether a given slope is a cliff or not. For example, given a vertical rock wall above a very steep slope. Listings of cliffs are thus inherently uncertain, some of the largest cliffs on Earth are found underwater. For example, an 8,000 m drop over a 4,250 m span can be found at a ridge sitting inside the Kermadec Trench. One candidate for highest cliff in the world is Nanga Parbats Rupal Face, according to other sources, the highest cliff in the world, about 1,340 m high, is the east face of Great Trango in the Karakoram mountains of northern Pakistan. The location of the worlds highest sea cliffs depends also on the definition of cliff that is used, guinness World Records states it is Kalaupapa, Hawaii, at 1,010 m high. Another contender is the face of Mitre Peak, which drops 1,683 m to Milford Sound. These are subject to a less stringent definition, as the slope of these cliffs at Kaulapapa is about 1.7, corresponding to an angle of 60 degrees. A more vertical drop into the sea can be found at Maujit Qaqarssuasia which is situated in the Torssukátak fjord area at the tip of South Greenland
Cliff
–
The
Trango Towers in
Pakistan. Their vertical faces are the world's tallest cliffs. Trango Tower center; Trango Monk center left; Trango II far left; Great Trango right.
Cliff
–
Europe's highest cliff,
Troll wall in
Norway. A famous
BASE location for jumpers from around the world.
Cliff
–
The far southwestern aspect of
Nanga Parbat 's Rupal face, highest cliff (rock wall/mountain face) in the world. The steepest part of the face lies 2km to the northeast.
Cliff
–
The
Cliffs of Moher in
Ireland
17.
History of Coventry
–
This article is about the history of Coventry, a city in the West Midlands, England. Coventry grew to one of the most important cities in England during the Middle Ages due to its booming cloth. The devastating Blitz in 1940 destroyed much of the city centre, the motor industry slumped during the 1970s and 80s, and Coventry saw high unemployment. It is likely that the first settlement here grew around a Saxon nunnery which had been founded c, nothing is known of Cofa, but a tree planted by, or named after him may have marked the centre or the boundary of the settlement. An alternative favoured by some is Coventre – derived from the words Coven and tre, Leofric, Earl of Mercia and his wife Lady Godiva rebuilt on the remains of the nunnery to found a Benedictine monastery in 1043 dedicated to St. Mary for an abbot and 24 monks. Leofric had been appointed Earl by Canute and was one of the three most powerful men in the country, while Godiva was already a woman of high status before marriage and owned much land. Edward the Confessor, who had been crowned king by this time, favoured pious acts of nature and granted a charter confirming Leofric. According to the story, Godiva took pity on the people of Coventry. She appealed again and again to her husband, who refused to remit the tolls. At last, weary of her entreaties, he said he would grant her request if she would strip naked and ride through the streets of the town. Godiva took him at his word and, after issuing a proclamation that all persons should keep within doors and shut their windows, she rode through the town, in the end, Godivas husband keeps his word and abolishes the onerous taxes. However, known facts do not corroborate the legend, bishop Robert de Limesey transferred his see to Coventry c. 1095, and in 1102 papal authorisation for this move also turned the monastery of St. Mary into a priory, the subsequent rebuilding and expansion of St. Marys was completed about 125 years later. When the monastery was founded, Leofric gave the half of his estates in Coventry to the monks to support them. This was known as the Priors-half, and the other was called the Earls-half which would pass to the Earls of Chester. However, disputes arose between the tenants and those previously of the Earl, and the Prior never gained complete control over Coventry. Coventry Castle was originally built towards the end of the 11th century by Ranulph le Meschin, 1st Earl of Chester, but was razed to the ground in the 12th century. It was rebuilt around 1137 to 1140 by Ranulph de Gernon, 2nd Earl of Chester, Michaels for those living in the Earls-half
History of Coventry
–
Two of Coventry's three spires; Holy Trinity Church on the left, and the spire of the old ruined cathedral (St. Michael's) on the right
History of Coventry
–
This artwork is laid out in the excavated remains in Priory Gardens and is said to depict Coffa's Tree from which Coventry may have derived its name.
History of Coventry
–
Lady Godiva by
John Collier, c. 1897
History of Coventry
–
Swanswell Gate with one of the few surviving sections of Coventry's city walls
18.
Henry I of England
–
Henry I, also known as Henry Beauclerc, was King of England from 1100 to his death. Henry was the son of William the Conqueror and was educated in Latin. On Williams death in 1087, Henrys elder brothers Robert Curthose and William Rufus inherited Normandy and England, respectively, Henry purchased the County of Cotentin in western Normandy from Robert, but William and Robert deposed him in 1091. Henry gradually rebuilt his power base in the Cotentin and allied himself with William against Robert, Henry was present when William died in a hunting accident in 1100, and he seized the English throne, promising at his coronation to correct many of Williams less popular policies. Henry married Matilda of Scotland but continued to have a number of mistresses. Robert, who invaded in 1101, disputed Henrys control of England, the peace was short-lived, and Henry invaded the Duchy of Normandy in 1105 and 1106, finally defeating Robert at the Battle of Tinchebray. Henry kept Robert imprisoned for the rest of his life, following Henrys victory at the Battle of Brémule, a favourable peace settlement was agreed with Louis in 1120. Considered by contemporaries to be a harsh but effective ruler, Henry skilfully manipulated the barons in England, Normandy was also governed through a growing system of justices and an exchequer. Many of the officials who ran Henrys system were new men of obscure backgrounds rather than families of high status. Henry encouraged ecclesiastical reform, but became embroiled in a dispute in 1101 with Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury. He supported the Cluniac order and played a role in the selection of the senior clergy in England. Henrys only legitimate son and heir, William Adelin, drowned in the White Ship disaster of 1120, Henry took a second wife, Adeliza, in the hope of having another son, but their marriage was childless. In response to this, Henry declared his daughter, Matilda, his heir, the relationship between Henry and the couple became strained, and fighting broke out along the border with Anjou. Henry died on 1 December 1135 after a week of illness, despite his plans for Matilda, the King was succeeded by his nephew, Stephen of Blois, resulting in a period of civil war known as the Anarchy. Henry was probably born in England in 1068, in either the summer or the last weeks of the year, possibly in the town of Selby in Yorkshire. His father was William the Conqueror, who had originally been the Duke of Normandy and then, following the invasion of 1066, became the King of England, the invasion had created an Anglo-Norman elite, many with estates spread across both sides of the English Channel. These Anglo-Norman barons typically had close links to the kingdom of France, Henrys mother, Matilda of Flanders, was the granddaughter of Robert II of France, and she probably named Henry after her uncle, King Henry I of France. Henry was the youngest of William and Matildas four sons, physically he resembled his older brothers Robert Curthose, Richard and William Rufus, being, as historian David Carpenter describes, short, stocky and barrel-chested, with black hair
Henry I of England
–
Miniature from
Matthew Paris 's Historia Anglorum
Henry I of England
–
13th-century depiction of Henry
Henry I of England
–
Mont St Michel, site of the 1091 siege
Henry I of England
–
Henry's first wife,
Matilda of Scotland
19.
Kenilworth Castle
–
Kenilworth Castle is located in the town of the same name in Warwickshire, England. Kenilworth has also played an important historical role, Kenilworth was also the scene of the removal of Edward II from the English throne, the French insult to Henry V in 1414, and the Earl of Leicesters lavish reception of Elizabeth I in 1575. The castle was built several centuries. Founded in the 1120s around a powerful Norman great tower, the castle was enlarged by King John at the beginning of the 13th century. Huge water defences were created by damming the streams. John of Gaunt spent lavishly in the late 14th century, turning the castle into a palace fortress designed in the latest perpendicular style. The Earl of Leicester then expanded the castle again, constructing new Tudor buildings. Kenilworth was partly destroyed by Parliamentary forces in 1649 to prevent it being used as a military stronghold, ruined, only two of its buildings remain habitable today. The castle became a tourist destination from the 18th century onwards, English Heritage has managed the castle since 1984. The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and as a Scheduled Monument, the castle is built almost entirely from local new red sandstone. To the south-east of the castle lie the Brays, a corruption of the French word braie. Only earthworks and fragments of masonry remain of what was an extensive 13th-century barbican structure including a stone wall, the area now forms part of the car park for the castle. Beyond the Brays are the ruins of the Gallery Tower, a second gatehouse remodelled in the 15th century, the Gallery Tower originally guarded the 152-metre long, narrow walled-causeway that still runs from the Brays to the main castle. This causeway was called the Tiltyard, as it was used for tilting, or jousting, the Tiltyard causeway acted both as a dam and as part of the barbican defences. To the east of the Tiltyard is an area of marshy ground, originally flooded and called the Lower Pool. The Great Mere is now drained and forms a meadow, but would originally have been a lake covering around 100 acres. The outer bailey of Kenilworth Castle is usually entered through Mortimers Tower, today a modest ruin but originally a Norman stone gatehouse, the north side of the outer bailey wall was almost entirely destroyed during the slighting. The 12th-century great tower occupies the knoll itself and forms the north-east corner of the bailey, ruined during the slighting, the great tower is notable for its huge corner turrets, essentially hugely exaggerated Norman pilaster buttresses
Kenilworth Castle
–
Kenilworth Castle, viewed from the Tiltyard
Kenilworth Castle
–
Wenceslaus Hollar 's 1649 plan of Kenilworth Castle
Kenilworth Castle
–
John of Gaunt's great hall, showing the vertical lines characteristic of the
perpendicular style
Kenilworth Castle
–
The architectural
symmetry of the Strong Tower on the left, the great hall and the Saintlowe Tower on the right, viewed from the left-hand court
20.
Warwick railway station
–
Warwick railway station serves the town of Warwick in Warwickshire, England. The station is served by Chiltern Railways, and also occasionally by London Midland and it was opened in 1852 by the Great Western Railway. There are platform faces on the two tracks serve the station and there is a crossover just north of the station. Warwick is also served by Warwick Parkway railway station on the towns outskirts, Platform one is on the level with the surrounding area whilst platform two is up a flight of steps. The two are connected by a lit underpass, trains from Platform 1 go towards Birmingham/Stratford upon Avon whilst trains from Platform 2 go towards Leamington/London. There is a waiting room by Platform 1 and two outside waiting shelters, one on each platform. There is a Permit-to-Travel machine on the northbound platform, in 2012 a cafe selling drinks and snacks opened on Platform 1. Although car parking is available at the station it is limited, a local taxi company called Castle Cabs shares the main station building with Chiltern Railways. The station is managed by Chiltern Railways, most trains calling here are Chiltern Railways trains between London Marylebone and Birmingham Snow Hill or Leamington Spa & either Stratford-upon-Avon or Birmingham Moor Street. At peak times, these are augmented by a few London Midland services between Leamington Spa and Stourbridge Junction/Kidderminster or Worcester Shrub Hill, Chiltern also run a limited weekday peak through service between Marylebone & Kidderminster that stops here
Warwick railway station
–
Warwick
Warwick railway station
–
Front of the station, taken from the main station approach
Warwick railway station
–
The main station building, taken from Platform 2
Warwick railway station
–
The waiting facilities on Platform 2
21.
M40 motorway
–
The M40 is a motorway connecting London and Birmingham, part of this road forms a section of the unsigned European route E05. It provides a route from Southern England to the West Midlands, to the M1. The motorway is three lanes except for Junction 1A to J3, which is dual four lanes, a short section past J4. In 2011 several of the logos on the signs for these services were incorrect. An Active Traffic Management system operates on the short section northbound from J16 to the M42, the motorway between London and Oxford was constructed in stages between 1967 and 1974. The Beaconsfield bypass to J2 was built in 1971 and the Gerrards Cross Bypass to J1 was completed in 1973, the section northbound from J5 to J8 was completed in 1974. The preferred route was altered to avoid Otmoor after a road protest. The field had been renamed Alices field as a reference to Alice in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll who lived in the area at the time he wrote the book. Construction began at Warwick in October 1987, with work on the section around Banbury starting in February 1988, the section between the M42 and Warwick opened in December 1989, and the remainder in January 1991. It was originally planned that the section of the M42 between the M5 and the M40 would be renumbered as part of the M40, but this change did not take place. By the time of the opening, the original M40 had been widened. The first service opened as Cherwell Valley services in 1994 on the site of temporary toilet areas created when the motorway was constructed. Beginning in 1997, the motorway was widened to four lane between J1A and J3 under a Private Finance Initiative. It was completed by a Carillion-John Laing joint venture in October 1998 – the original plan would included widening between J3 and J4, Oxford services and Warwick Services opened in 1998. In 2009 the Highways Agency extended the Active Traffic Management system onto the northbound carriageway from J16 to the junction with the M42, Beaconsfield services opened in 2009, near the site of the service station proposed at Abbey Barns almost 40 years earlier. In August 2010 work started on J9, upgrading the southbound exit slip road to three lanes, and similar widening on the connecting A34 and A41 junctions and this was the first part of the work at this busy junction. If there is funding, a part will commence, upgrading the northbound entrance. Twelve school children and a teacher died when their minibus crashed into a parked motorway maintenance vehicle just after midnight on 18 November 1993
M40 motorway
–
M40 at Burtley Wood,
Buckinghamshire
M40 motorway
M40 motorway
–
M40 at Warmington,
Warwickshire
M40 motorway
–
The M40 heading westbound towards Junction 3 (High Wycombe)
22.
Birmingham Airport
–
It has a CAA Public Use Aerodrome Licence that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction. Passenger throughput in 2016 was over 11.6 million, making Birmingham the seventh busiest UK airport, the airport offers both domestic flights within the UK, and international flights to destinations in Europe, the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, North America and the Caribbean. Birmingham Airport is a base for BMI Regional, Flybe, Jet2. com, Monarch, Ryanair, Thomas Cook Airlines. Birmingham Airport is 5.5 NM east-south-east of Birmingham city centre and it is connected by the elevated AirRail Link with Birmingham International railway station on the West Coast Main Line. The relatively short north-east – south-west runway is not operational, and has incorporated into the taxiway for aircraft departing the end of runway 33. In 1928, the Birmingham City Council decided that the city required a municipal airport, Plans were submitted in 1933, identifying Elmdon as the site for the airport, delayed by the Great Depression. On 8 July 1939 the Duchess of Kent, Princess Marina of Greece, the airport was owned and operated by Birmingham City Council. Initial services flew to Croydon, Glasgow, Liverpool, Ryde, Shoreham, Manchester and Southampton. During World War II the airport was requisitioned by the Air Ministry and was used by the RAF and the Royal Navy as RAF Elmdon, an Elementary Flying School and a base for the Fleet Air Arm. During this time, the grass strip was replaced by two hard runways, 06/24 at 2,469 feet and 15/33 at 4,170 feet. Avro Lancaster and Stirling bombers manufactured at the Austin Aero Companys shadow factory at Cofton Hackett could not take off from the runways at Longbridge. Instead they were transported by road, minus the wings that would be attached at Elmdon and they were test flown from the aerodrome, and once declared airworthy they were flown to their operational units. On 8 July 1948, the returned to civilian use. During the post-war years, public events, such as air fairs,1961, An additional terminal building to handle international traffic was opened, called The International Building. 1967, The main runway was extended to 7,400 feet to allow jet operations,1984, Opening of the Maglev rail link train between the airport terminal and nearby railway station. 1993, The Government limited public sector borrowing and this meant that the airport could only expand by using private sector finance. 51% of the local council shares were sold to restructure the airport into a private sector company,1995, Closure of the Maglev rail link after 11 years, following a string of breakdowns. 20 October 2003, The Concorde made her final visit to Birmingham Airport on as part of her farewell tour, November 2007, The airport published a master plan for its development up to 2030, called Towards 2030, Planning a Sustainable Future for Air Transport in the Midlands
Birmingham Airport
Birmingham Airport
–
Where Birmingham Airport is now, as it was around 1921. (See for a modern map of Birmingam Airport and around.)
Birmingham Airport
–
The
Maglev rapid transport system, which operated from 1984 to 1995, was the first commercial maglev system in the world
Birmingham Airport
–
The
AirRail Link joins the railway station to the airport, operated by a track and pulley system
23.
Burh
–
A burh or burg was an Old English fortification or fortified settlement. In the 9th century, raids and invasions by Vikings prompted Alfred the Great to develop a network of burhs, some were new constructions, others were situated at the site of Iron Age hillforts or Roman forts and employed materials from the original fortifications. Burhs also had a role as commercial and sometimes administrative centres. Their fortifications were used to protect Englands various royal mints, burh and burg were Old English developments of the Proto-Germanic word reconstructed as *burg-s, cognate with the verb *berg-an. They are cognate with German Burg and Scandinavian borg and, in English, developed variously as borough, burg, byrig was the plural form of burh and burg, forts, fortifications. It was also the case, to the fort or for the fort. This developed into bury and berry, which were used to describe manor houses, large farms, Burhs were originally built as military defences. According to H. R. Loyn, the burh represented only a stage, though an important one, in the evolution of the medieval English borough. The boundaries of ancient burhs can often still be traced to modern urban borough limits, the Mercian Register tells of the building of ten burhs by Æthelflæd, some as important as Tamworth and Stafford, others now unidentifiable. Some were based upon pre-existing Roman structures, some newly built, Æthelstan granted these burhs the right to mint coinage and in the tenth and eleventh centuries the firm rule was that no coin was to be struck outside a burh. A tenth-century document, now known as the Burghal Hidage and so named by Frederic William Maitland in 1897, cites thirty burhs in Wessex, at the time, Mercia was ruled by the West Saxon kings. These burhs were all built to defend the region against Viking raids, only eight of the burhs achieved municipal status in the Middle Ages, Chester, Bridgnorth, Tamworth, Stafford, Hertford, Warwick, Buckingham and Maldon. The largest were at Winchester, Wallingford and Warwick, whilst Wallingford and Wareham are the examples, with substantial ditches. It has been estimated that construction of Wallingfords 9,000 feet of bank would have more than 120,000 man hours. Burh towns also usually had regular street layouts, some of which are still preserved, Burhs are widely thought to have been the origins of urban life in England. In most cases, Alfreds rebuilding of a burh did not cause any change of name, the burhs were made in a variety of different ways, depending on materials available locally, and the size of the settlement or area it was intended to defend. Frequently, a burh was built on the site of pre-existing fortifications, sometimes, the Anglo-Saxons would simply repair old Roman walls in towns such as Winchester, Exeter, York, Burgh Castle, Portchester and Dover. At other times, they would build on the site of old Iron Age forts, such as Dover, utilising the old ditches, however, the Anglo-Saxons did not just use old fortifications
Burh
–
The burh wall at
Wallingford, Oxfordshire.
Burh
–
A map of burhs named in the 10th-century
Burghal Hidage.
24.
Ethelfleda
–
Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, ruled Mercia in the English Midlands from 911 until her death. She was the eldest daughter of Alfred the Great, king of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, Æthelflæd was born around 870 at the height of the Viking invasions of England. Soon afterwards the English-controlled western half of Mercia came under the rule of Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians, Alfred adopted the title King of the Anglo-Saxons, claiming to rule all English people not living in areas under Viking control. In the mid-880s, Alfred sealed the alliance between the surviving English kingdoms by marrying Æthelflæd to Æthelred. Æthelred played a role in fighting off renewed Viking attacks in the 890s, together with Æthelflæds brother. Æthelred and Æthelflæd fortified Worcester, gave generous donations to Mercian churches, Æthelreds health probably declined early in the next decade, after which it is likely that Æthelflæd was mainly responsible for the government of Mercia. Edward had succeeded as King of the Anglo-Saxons in 899, and in 909 he sent a West Saxon and they returned with the remains of the royal Northumbrian saint, Oswald, which were translated to the new Gloucester minster. Æthelred died in 911 and Æthelflæd then ruled Mercia as Lady of the Mercians, the accession of a female ruler in Mercia is described by the historian Ian Walker as one of the most unique events in early medieval history. Alfred had built a network of fortified burhs and in the 910s Edward, among the towns where she built defences were Bridgnorth, Tamworth, Stafford, Warwick, Chirbury and Runcorn. In 917 she sent an army to capture Derby, the first of the Five Boroughs of the Danelaw to fall to the English, in 918 Leicester surrendered without a fight. Æthelflæd was succeeded by her daughter Ælfwynn, but in December Edward took personal control of Mercia, historians disagree whether Mercia was an independent kingdom under Æthelred and Ætheflæd but they agree that Æthelflæd was a great ruler who played an important part in the conquest of the Danelaw. Elizabeth I she became a wonder to later ages, in Nick Highams view, medieval and modern writers have been so captivated by her that Edwards reputation has suffered unfairly in comparison. Mercia was the dominant kingdom in southern England in the eighth century, thereafter the two kingdoms became allies, which was to be an important factor in English resistance to the Vikings. In 865 the Viking Great Heathen Army landed in East Anglia, the East Anglians were forced to buy peace and the following year the Vikings invaded Northumbria, where they appointed a puppet king in 867. They then moved on Mercia, where spent the winter of 867–868. The following year, the Vikings conquered East Anglia, in 874 the Vikings expelled King Burgred and Ceolwulf became the last King of Mercia with their support. In 877 the Vikings partitioned Mercia, taking the regions for themselves. He was described by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as a kings thegn who was a puppet of the Vikings
Ethelfleda
–
Statue in Tamworth of Æthelflæd with her nephew Æthelstan
Ethelfleda
–
Æthelflæd (from The Cartulary and Customs of Abingdon Abbey, ca 1220).
Ethelfleda
–
Kingdom of Mercia 527–918
25.
Alfred the Great
–
Alfred the Great was King of Wessex from 871 to 899. Alfred successfully defended his kingdom against the Viking attempt at conquest and he is one of only two English monarchs to be given the epithet the Great, the other being the Scandinavian Cnut the Great. He was also the first King of the West Saxons to style himself King of the Anglo-Saxons, details of Alfreds life are described in a work by the 10th-century Welsh scholar and bishop Asser. In 2002, Alfred was ranked number 14 in the BBCs poll of the 100 Greatest Britons, Alfred was born in the village of Wanating, now Wantage, historically in Berkshire but now in Oxfordshire. He was the youngest son of King Æthelwulf of Wessex by his first wife, Osburh. In 853, at the age of four, Alfred is reported by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to have sent to Rome, where he was confirmed by Pope Leo IV. Victorian writers later interpreted this as a coronation in preparation for his eventual succession to the throne of Wessex. This is unlikely, his succession could not have foreseen at the time. A letter of Leo IV shows that Alfred was made a consul and it may also be based on Alfreds later having accompanied his father on a pilgrimage to Rome, where he spent some time at the court of Charles the Bald, King of the Franks, around 854–855. On their return from Rome in 856, Æthelwulf was deposed by his son Æthelbald, with civil war looming, the magnates of the realm met in council to hammer out a compromise. Æthelbald would retain the western shires, and Æthelwulf would rule in the east, when King Æthelwulf died in 858, Wessex was ruled by three of Alfreds brothers in succession, Æthelbald, Æthelberht and Æthelred. Bishop Asser tells the story of how as a child Alfred won as a prize a book of Saxon poems, legend also has it that the young Alfred spent time in Ireland seeking healing. Alfred was troubled by health problems throughout his life and it is thought that he may have suffered from Crohns disease. Statues of Alfred in Winchester and Wantage portray him as a great warrior, evidence suggests he was not physically strong, and though not lacking in courage, he was noted more for his intellect than as a warlike character. During the short reigns of the two of his three elder brothers, Æthelbald of Wessex and Æthelberht of Wessex, Alfred is not mentioned. This arrangement may have been sanctioned by Alfreds father, or by the Witan, the arrangement of crowning a successor as royal prince and military commander is well known among other Germanic tribes, such as the Swedes and Franks, to whom the Anglo-Saxons were closely related. In 868, Alfred is recorded as fighting beside Æthelred in an attempt to keep the Great Heathen Army, led by Ivar the Boneless. At the end of 870, the Danes arrived in his homeland, the year which followed has been called Alfreds year of battles
Alfred the Great
–
Statue of Alfred the Great by
Hamo Thornycroft in
Winchester, unveiled during the millenary commemoration of Alfred's death.
Alfred the Great
–
Alfred the Great plots the capture of the Danish fleet.
Alfred the Great
–
Alfred the Great is scolded by his subject, a
neatherd 's wife, for not turning the breads but readily eating them when they are baked in her cottage.
Alfred the Great
–
King Alfred's Tower (1772) on the supposed site of Egbert's Stone, the mustering place before the
Battle of Edington.
26.
Mercia
–
Mercia was one of the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. The name is a Latinisation of the Old English Mierce or Myrce, the kingdom was centred on the valley of the River Trent and its tributaries, in the region now known as the English Midlands. The kingdoms capital was the town of Tamworth, which was the seat of the Mercian Kings from at least around AD584, when King Creoda built a fortress at the town. The reign of King Offa, who is best remembered for his Dyke that designated the boundary between Mercia and the Welsh kingdoms, is known as the Golden Age of Mercia. Mercia was originally a pagan kingdom, but King Peada converted to Christianity around 656, the Diocese of Mercia was founded in 656, with the first bishop, Diuma, based at Repton. After only 13 years at Repton, in 669 the fifth bishop, Saint Chad, moved the bishopric to Lichfield, in 691, the Diocese of Mercia became the Diocese of Lichfield. For a brief period between 787 and 799 the diocese was an archbishopric, although it was dissolved in 803. The current bishop, Michael Ipgrave, is the 99th since the diocese was established, at the end of the 9th century, following the invasions of the Vikings and their Great Heathen Army, much of the former Mercian territory was absorbed into the Danelaw. At its height, the Danelaw included London, all of East Anglia, the final Mercian king, Ceolwulf II, died in 879, the kingdom appears to have thereby lost its political independence. Initially, it was ruled by a lord or ealdorman under the overlordship of Alfred the Great, Mercia is still used as a geographic designation, and the name is used by wide range of organisations, including military units, public, commercial and voluntary bodies. Mercias exact evolution at the start of the Anglo-Saxon era remains more obscure than that of Northumbria, Kent, Mercia developed an effective political structure and adopted Christianity later than the other kingdoms. Archaeological surveys show that Angles settled the north of the River Thames by the 6th century. The name Mercia is Old English for boundary folk, and the interpretation is that the kingdom originated along the frontier between the native Welsh and the Anglo-Saxon invaders. Hunter Blair argued an alternative interpretation, that emerged along the frontier between Northumbria and the inhabitants of the Trent river valley. The earliest person named in any records as a king of Mercia is Creoda, coming to power around 584, he built a fortress at Tamworth which became the seat of Mercias kings. His son Pybba succeeded him in 593, Cearl, a kinsman of Creoda, followed Pybba in 606, in 615, Cearl gave his daughter Cwenburga in marriage to Edwin, king of Deira, whom he had sheltered while he was an exiled prince. The next Mercian king, Penda, ruled from about 626 or 633 until 655, some of what is known about Penda comes from the hostile account of Bede, who disliked him – both as an enemy to Bedes own Northumbria and as a pagan. However, Bede admits that Penda freely allowed Christian missionaries from Lindisfarne into Mercia, and did not restrain them from preaching
Mercia
–
The
Staffordshire Hoard, discovered in a field in
Hammerwich, near
Lichfield in July 2009, is perhaps the most important collection of
Anglo-Saxon objects found in
England
Mercia
–
Flag
Mercia
–
The Lichfield Angel carving
Mercia
–
Arms of
St Albans City Council
27.
Fosse Way
–
The Fosse Way was a Roman road in England that linked Exeter in South West England to Lincoln in Lincolnshire, via Ilchester, Bath, Cirencester and Leicester. It joined Akeman Street and Ermin Way at Cirencester, crossed Watling Street at Venonis south of Leicester, the word Fosse is derived from the Latin fossa, meaning ditch. For the first few decades after the Roman invasion of Britain in AD43, the Fosse Way marked the western frontier of Roman rule in Iron Age Britain. It is possible that the road began as a ditch that was later filled in and converted into a road. It is remarkable for its direct route, from Lincoln to Ilchester in Somerset. Many sections of the Fosse Way form parts of roads and lanes. Several place names on the route have the suffix -cester or -chester, the route runs from 50. 73°N3. 48°W /50.73, -3.48 in Exeter to 53. 23°N0. 54°W /53.23, -0.54 in Lincoln. Between Lincoln and Leicester the A46 follows the route of the Fosse Way, the A46 deviates from Fosse Way at East Goscote, to follow the Leicester Western Bypass. The alignment terminates at the Clock Tower, and picks up again at Narborough Road, a 19 miles stretch of the road between Widmerpool & Newark-on-Trent has been upgraded to a Dual-carriageway which was completed in 2012. The new route deviates in several sections off the road line. South of Leicester, apart from a deviation near Narborough where the original course is no longer visible. The modern road ends at a picnic site car park, the junction of Fosse Way with Watling Street, now the A5, is at High Cross. Watling Street is the county boundary between Leicestershire and Warwickshire, the route then follows the A429 through Stretton-on-Fosse, Moreton-in-Marsh, Stow-on-the-Wold, Northleach and Fossebridge, to Cirencester, where it crosses Akeman Street and Ermin Way. South of Cirencester the Fosse Way follows a section of the A433. The Fosse Way crosses the River Thames and under the first South Wales railway Golden Valley Line which was constructed via Gloucester, thereafter it passes through The Shoe and Nettleton Shrub where remains of a posting-station have been found, and arrives at Batheaston. Thereupon it turns due west to follow the river Avon into Bath, between Bath and Shepton Mallet the line of the Fosse Way follows parts of the A367, through Clandown, Radstock, Westfield and Stratton-on-the-Fosse. It runs across country and farm tracks parallel to the A37 north of Shepton Mallet. At Beacon Hill south of Oakhill, it crossed the Roman road along the Mendip ridgeway from Old Sarum to the lead, the Fosse Way passes through the eastern suburbs of Shepton Mallet on a short stretch of the A361 to Cannards Grave, where it picks up the A37
Fosse Way
–
Route of the Fosse Way
Fosse Way
–
Fosse Way from the top of
Brinklow Castle, Warwickshire
Fosse Way
–
Section of the Fosse Way as a byway north of the M4
28.
Norman conquest of England
–
Williams claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo-Saxon King Edward the Confessor, who may have encouraged Williams hopes for the throne. Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother-in-law Harold Godwinson, within days, William landed in southern England. Harold marched south to confront him, leaving a significant portion of his army in the north, Harolds army confronted Williams invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings, Williams force defeated Harold, who was killed in the engagement. Although Williams main rivals were gone, he faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on his throne until after 1072. The lands of the resisting English elite were confiscated, some of the elite fled into exile, to control his new kingdom, William granted lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strongpoints throughout the land. More gradual changes affected the classes and village life, the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of slavery. There was little alteration in the structure of government, as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo-Saxon government. In 911 the Carolingian French ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings under their leader Rollo to settle in Normandy as part of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte. In exchange for the land, the Norsemen under Rollo were expected to provide protection along the coast against further Viking invaders and their settlement proved successful, and the Vikings in the region became known as the Northmen from which Normandy and Normans are derived. The Normans quickly adopted the culture, renouncing paganism and converting to Christianity. They adopted the langue doïl of their new home and added features from their own Norse language, in 1002 King Æthelred the Unready married Emma of Normandy, the sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. Their son Edward the Confessor, who spent many years in exile in Normandy, childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin, Earl of Wessex and his sons, Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandys ambitions for the English throne. When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066, the lack of a clear heir led to a succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England. Edwards immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex, Harold Godwinson, Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers. William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England, in early 1066, Harolds exiled brother, Tostig Godwinson, raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in Flanders, later joined by other ships from Orkney. Threatened by Harolds fleet, Tostig moved north and raided in East Anglia and Lincolnshire, but he was back to his ships by the brothers Edwin, Earl of Mercia. Deserted by most of his followers, he withdrew to Scotland, King Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in early September, leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15,000 men. Haralds army was augmented by the forces of Tostig, who threw his support behind the Norwegian kings bid for the throne
Norman conquest of England
–
13th-century depiction of
Rollo and his descendants
William I of Normandy and
Richard I of Normandy
Norman conquest of England
–
Location of major events during the Norman conquest of England in 1066
Norman conquest of England
–
Landing in England scene from the
Bayeux Tapestry, depicting ships coming in and horses landing
Norman conquest of England
–
Depiction of Harold's death from the
Bayeux Tapestry
29.
Domesday Book
–
Domesday Book is a manuscript record of the Great Survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states, Then, at the midwinter, was the king in Glocester with his council. After this had the king a large meeting, and very deep consultation with his council, about this land, how it was occupied and it was written in Medieval Latin, was highly abbreviated, and included some vernacular native terms without Latin equivalents. The assessors reckoning of a mans holdings and their values, as recorded in Domesday Book, was dispositive, the name Domesday Book came into use in the 12th century. As Richard FitzNeal wrote in the Dialogus de Scaccario, for as the sentence of that strict and terrible last account cannot be evaded by any skilful subterfuge and its sentence cannot be quashed or set aside with impunity. That is why we have called the book the Book of Judgement, because its decisions, like those of the Last Judgement, are unalterable. The manuscript is held at The National Archives at Kew, London, in 2011, the Open Domesday site made the manuscript available online. The book is a primary source for modern historians and historical economists. Domesday Book encompasses two independent works, Little Domesday and Great Domesday, no surveys were made of the City of London, Winchester, or some other towns, probably due to their tax-exempt status. Most of Cumberland and Westmorland are missing, the omission of the other counties and towns is not fully explained, although in particular Cumberland and Westmorland had yet to be fully conquered. Little Domesday – so named because its format is smaller than its companions – is the more detailed survey. It may have represented the first attempt, resulting in a decision to avoid such level of detail in Great Domesday, some of the largest such magnates held several hundred fees, in a few cases in more than one county. For example, the chapter of the Domesday Book Devonshire section concerning Baldwin the Sheriff lists 176 holdings held in-chief by him, as a review of taxes owed, it was highly unpopular. Each countys list opened with the demesne lands. It should be borne in mind that under the system the king was the only true owner of land in England. He was thus the ultimate overlord and even the greatest magnate could do no more than hold land from him as a tenant under one of the contracts of feudal land tenure. In some counties, one or more principal towns formed the subject of a separate section and this principle applies more specially to the larger volume, in the smaller one, the system is more confused, the execution less perfect. Domesday names a total of 13,418 places and these include fragments of custumals, records of the military service due, of markets, mints, and so forth
Domesday Book
–
Domesday Book: an engraving published in 1900. Great Domesday (the larger volume) and Little Domesday (the smaller volume), in their 1869 bindings, lying on their older "
Tudor " bindings.
Domesday Book
–
Great Domesday in its "
Tudor " binding: a wood-engraving of the 1860s
Domesday Book
–
Domesday chest, the German-style iron-bound chest of c.1500 in which Domesday Book was kept in the 17th and 18th centuries
Domesday Book
–
Entries for
Croydon and
Cheam,
Surrey, in the 1783 edition of Domesday Book
listen) WORR-ik) is a medieval castle developed from an original built by William the Conqueror in 1068. Warwick is the county town of Warwickshire, England, situated on a bend of the River Avon. The original wooden motte-and-bailey castle was rebuilt in stone in the 12th century, during the Hundred Years War, the facade opposite the town was refortified, resulting in one of the most recognisable examples of 14th century military architecture. It was used as a stronghold until the early 17th century, when it was granted to Sir Fulke Greville by James I in 1604. Greville converted it to a country house and it was owned by the Greville family, who became Earls of Warwick in 1759, until 1978 when it was bought by the Tussauds Group; in 2007, the Tussauds Group merged with Merlin Entertainments, which is the current owner of Warwick Castle.
