1.
Digital watermarking
–
A digital watermark is a kind of marker covertly embedded in a noise-tolerant signal such as an audio, video or image data. It is typically used to identify ownership of the copyright of such signal, watermarking is the process of hiding digital information in a carrier signal, the hidden information should, but does not need to, contain a relation to the carrier signal. Digital watermarks may be used to verify the authenticity or integrity of the signal or to show the identity of its owners. It is prominently used for tracing copyright infringements and for banknote authentication, like traditional physical watermarks, digital watermarks are often only perceptible under certain conditions, i. e. after using some algorithm. If a digital watermark distorts the signal in a way that it becomes easily perceivable. Traditional watermarks may be applied to media, whereas in digital watermarking. A signal may carry several different watermarks at the same time, unlike metadata that is added to the carrier signal, a digital watermark does not change the size of the carrier signal. The needed properties of a digital watermark depend on the use case in which it is applied, for marking media files with copyright information, a digital watermark has to be rather robust against modifications that can be applied to the carrier signal. Instead, if integrity has to be ensured, a fragile watermark would be applied, both steganography and digital watermarking employ steganographic techniques to embed data covertly in noisy signals. But whereas steganography aims for imperceptibility to human senses, digital watermarking tries to control the robustness as top priority, since a digital copy of data is the same as the original, digital watermarking is a passive protection tool. It just marks data, but does not degrade it or control access to the data, one application of digital watermarking is source tracking. A watermark is embedded into a signal at each point of distribution. If a copy of the work is later, then the watermark may be retrieved from the copy. This technique reportedly has been used to detect the source of illegally copied movies, the term Digital Watermark was coined by Andrew Tirkel and Charles Osborne in December 1992. The first successful embedding and extraction of a spread spectrum watermark was demonstrated in 1993 by Andrew Tirkel, Charles Osborne. Watermarks are identification marks produced during the making process. The first watermarks appeared in Italy during the 13th century, and they were used as a means to identify the papermaker or the trade guild that manufactured the paper. The marks often were created by a wire sewn onto the paper mold, watermarks continue to be used today as manufacturers marks and to prevent forgery
Digital watermarking
–
Example of a watermark overlay on an image; the logo of
Wikipedia can be seen on the center to represent the owner of it.
2.
20 euro note
–
The twenty euro note is the third-lowest value euro banknote and has been used since the introduction of the euro in 2002. The note is used in the 23 countries which have it as their sole currency and it is the third-smallest note, measuring 133 x 72 mm with a blue colour scheme. The twenty euro banknotes depict bridges and arches/doorways in Gothic architecture, the twenty euro note contains several complex security features such as watermarks, invisible ink, holograms and microprinting that document its authenticity. In October 2011, there were approximately 2,755,346,800 twenty euro banknotes in circulation around the eurozone, the full design of the Europa series 20 euro banknote was revealed on 24 February 2015 and launched on 25 November 2015. The euro was founded on 1 January 1999, when it became the currency of over 300 million people in Europe, for the first three years of its existence it was an invisible currency, only used in accountancy. Euro cash was not introduced until 1 January 2002, when it replaced the national banknotes and coins of the countries in eurozone 12, such as the Belgian franc and the Greek drachma. Slovenia joined the Eurozone in 2007, Cyprus and Malta in 2008, Slovakia in 2009, Estonia in 2011, Latvia in 2014, and Lithuania in 2015. The changeover period during which the former currencies notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, going from 1 January 2002 until 28 February 2002. The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from state to member state. The earliest date was in Germany, where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001, even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from ten years to forever. Notes issued after March 2012 bear the signature of the president of the European Central Bank. Until now there has only one complete series of euro notes, however a new series. The European Central Bank will, in due time, announce when banknotes from the first series lose legal tender status, since the European Central Bank plans to redesign the notes every seven or eight years after each issue, a second series of banknotes is already in preparation. New production and anti-counterfeiting techniques will be employed on the new notes, however, they would still be recognisable as a new series. The twenty euro note is the third smallest euro note at 133 millimetres ×72 millimetres with a colour scheme. All bank notes depict bridges and arches/doorways in a different historical European style, although Robert Kalinas original designs were intended to show real monuments, for political reasons the bridge and art are merely hypothetical examples of the architectural era. The ECB released a game on 5 February 2015 to discover some of the new security features embedded in the new €20 note, the most significant new anti-counterfeit measure is a transparent window, containing a hologram which shows a portrait of Europa and the number 20. The Europa series design of the 20 euro note was revealed on 24 February 2015
20 euro note
–
Twenty euro
20 euro note
20 euro note
–
The Europa series 20 € obverse side.
20 euro note
–
The Europa series 20 € reverse side.
3.
Paper
–
Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a material with many uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning. The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production, the oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BC in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century AD Han court eunuch, with paper as an effective substitute for silk in many applications, China could export silk in greater quantity, contributing to a Golden Age. Because of papers introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, in the 19th century, industrial manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres, before the industrialisation of the paper production the most common fibre source was recycled fibres from used textiles, called rags. The rags were from hemp, linen and cotton, a process for removing printing inks from recycled paper was invented by German jurist Justus Claproth in 1774. Today this method is called deinking and it was not until the introduction of wood pulp in 1843 that paper production was not dependent on recycled materials from ragpickers. The word paper is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πάπυρος, although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have changed by maceration. To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres and this is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose, this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers–not to be confused with paper, this is because they do not contain lignin. The pulp can also be bleached to produce paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres, chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton. There are three main chemical pulping processes, the process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. Most pulping operations using the process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents, soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content. There are two major mechanical pulps, thermomechanical pulp and groundwood pulp, in the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres
Paper
–
Different types of paper:
carton,
tissue paper
Paper
–
Hemp wrapping paper, China, circa 100 BC.
Paper
–
The microscopic structure of paper:
Micrograph of paper
autofluorescing under
ultraviolet illumination. The individual fibres in this sample are around 10
µm in diameter.
Paper
–
Card and paper stock for
crafts use comes in a wide variety of textures and colors.
4.
Postage stamp
–
Postage stamp may also refer to a formatting artifact in the display of film or video, Windowbox. A postage stamp is a piece of paper that is purchased and displayed on an item of mail as evidence of payment of postage. Typically, stamps are printed on special paper, show a national designation and a denomination on the front. They are sometimes a source of net profit to the issuing agency, stamps are usually rectangular, but triangles or other shapes are occasionally used. The stamp is affixed to an envelope or other postal cover the customer wishes to send, the item is then processed by the postal system, where a postmark, sometimes known as a cancellation mark, is usually applied in overlapping manner to stamp and cover. This procedure marks the stamp as used to prevent its reuse, in modern usage, postmarks generally indicate the date and point of origin of the mailing. The mailed item is delivered to the address the customer has applied to the envelope or parcel. Postage stamps have facilitated the delivery of mail since the 1840s, before then, ink and hand-stamps, usually made from wood or cork, were often used to frank the mail and confirm the payment of postage. The first adhesive postage stamp, commonly referred to as the Penny Black, was issued in the United Kingdom in 1840, there are varying accounts of the inventor or inventors of the stamp. The postage stamp resolved this issue in a simple and elegant manner, concurrently with the first stamps, the UK offered wrappers for mail. S. Postal service for priority or express mailing, the postage stamp afforded convenience for both the mailer and postal officials, more effectively recovered costs for the postal service, and ultimately resulted in a better, faster postal system. With the conveniences stamps offered, their use resulted in greatly increased mailings during the 19th and 20th centuries, as postage stamps with their engraved imagery began to appear on a widespread basis, historians and collectors began to take notice. The study of stamps and their use is referred to as philately. Stamp collecting can be both a hobby and a form of study and reference, as government-issued postage stamps. The postage for the item was prepaid by the use of a hand-stamp to frank the mailed item. Though this stamp was applied to a letter instead of a piece of paper it is considered by many historians as the worlds first postage stamp. Rowland Hill The Englishman Sir Rowland Hill began interest in postal reform in 1835, in 1836, a Member of Parliament, Robert Wallace, provided Hill with numerous books and documents, which Hill described as a half hundred weight of material. Hill commenced a study of these documents, leading him to the 1837 publication of a pamphlet entitled Post Office Reform its Importance
Postage stamp
–
The main components of a stamp: 1.
Image 2.
Perforations 3.
Denomination 4. Country name
Postage stamp
–
Rowland Hill
Postage stamp
–
The
Penny Black, the world’s first postage stamp.
Postage stamp
–
Rows of perforations in a sheet of postage stamps.
5.
Currency
–
A currency in the most specific use of the word refers to money in any form when in actual use or circulation as a medium of exchange, especially circulating banknotes and coins. A more general definition is that a currency is a system of money in common use, under this definition, US dollars, British pounds, Australian dollars, and European euros are examples of currency. These various currencies are recognized stores of value and are traded between nations in exchange markets, which determine the relative values of the different currencies. Currencies in this sense are defined by governments, and each type has limited boundaries of acceptance, other definitions of the term currency are discussed in their respective synonymous articles banknote, coin, and money. The latter definition, pertaining to the systems of nations, is the topic of this article. Currencies can be classified into two systems, fiat money and commodity money, depending on what guarantees the value. Some currencies are legal tender in certain jurisdictions, which means they cannot be refused as payment for debt. Others are simply traded for their economic value, digital currency has arisen with the popularity of computers and the Internet. Currency evolved from two basic innovations, both of which had occurred by 2000 BC, originally money was a form of receipt, representing grain stored in temple granaries in Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia, then Ancient Egypt. In this first stage of currency, metals were used as symbols to represent value stored in the form of commodities and this formed the basis of trade in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military and it is not known what was used as a currency for these exchanges, but it is thought that ox-hide shaped ingots of copper, produced in Cyprus, may have functioned as a currency. It is thought that the increase in piracy and raiding associated with the Bronze Age collapse, possibly produced by the Peoples of the Sea, brought the trading system of oxhide ingots to an end. In Africa, many forms of value store have been used, including beads, ingots, ivory, various forms of weapons, livestock, the manilla currency, the manilla rings of West Africa were one of the currencies used from the 15th century onwards to sell slaves. African currency is still notable for its variety, and in many various forms of barter still apply. These factors led to the metal itself being the store of value, first silver, now we have copper coins and other non-precious metals as coins. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins and this was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they created a new unit of account. Most major economies using coinage had several tiers of coins, using a mix of copper, silver, gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities, they were more often used as measures of account than physical coins
Currency
–
Cowry shells being used as money by an Arab trader.
Currency
–
Song dynasty Jiaozi, the world's earliest paper money.
6.
Counterfeit
–
To counterfeit means to imitate something. Counterfeit products are fakes or unauthorised replicas of the real product, counterfeit products are often produced with the intent to take advantage of the superior value of the imitated product. Counterfeit products tend to have company logos and brands, have a reputation for being lower quality. This has resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people, due to automobile and aviation accidents, poisoning, the counterfeiting of money is usually attacked aggressively by governments worldwide. Paper money is the most popular product counterfeited, counterfeit money is currency that is produced without the legal sanction of the state or government and in deliberate violation of that countrys laws. The United States Secret Service, mostly known for its guarding-of-officials task, was organized primarily to combat the counterfeiting of American money. Forgery is the process of making or adapting documents with the intention to deceive and it is a form of fraud, and is often a key technique in the execution of identity theft. Uttering and publishing is a term in United States law for the forgery of documents, such as a trucking companys time. Questioned document examination is a process for investigating many aspects of various documents. Security printing is a printing industry specialty, focused on creating legal documents which are difficult to forge, the spread of counterfeit goods has become global in recent years and the range of goods subject to infringement has increased significantly. Apparel and accessories accounted for over 50 percent of the goods seized by U. S Customs. A report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development indicates that up to US$200 Billion of international trade could have been in counterfeit and illegally copied goods in 2005. In November 2009, the OECD updated these estimates, concluding that the share of counterfeit and that represents an increase to US$250 billion worldwide. In a detailed breakdown of the counterfeit goods industry, the total loss faced by countries around the world is $600 billion, when calculating counterfeit products, current estimates place the global losses at $400 billion. Some see the rise in counterfeiting of goods as being related to globalisation and these new managers of production have little or no loyalty to the original corporation. They see that profits are being made by the brand for doing little and see the possibilities of removing the middle men. Certain consumer goods, especially expensive or desirable brands or those that are easy to reproduce cheaply, have become frequent. The counterfeiters either attempt to deceive the consumer into thinking they are purchasing a legitimate item, or convince the consumer that they could deceive others with the imitation
Counterfeit
–
Counterfeit products at a
flea market.
Counterfeit
–
Bulk bag of counterfeit
Viagra
Counterfeit
–
A
Sharpie marker, next to a "Shoupie" marker.
Counterfeit
–
Counterfeit
LG brand and products, such as television, monitor, air conditioner, etc.
7.
Questioned document examination
–
Questioned document examination is a term for a forensic science discipline pertaining to documents that are potentially disputed in a court of law. Its primary purpose is to provide evidence about a suspicious or questionable document using scientific processes, evidence might include alterations, the chain of possession, damage to the document, forgery, origin, authenticity, or other questions that come up when a document is challenged in court. Many QD examinations involve a comparison of the document, or components of the document. The most common type of examination involves handwriting wherein the examiner tries to address concerns about potential authorship. A document examiner is often asked to determine if a questioned item originated from the source as the known item. Likewise a forensic document examiner is not to be confused with a graphologist, many FDEs receive extensive training in all of the aspects of the discipline. As a result, they are competent to address a variety of questions about document evidence. However, this broad specialization approach has not been universally adopted, in some locales, a clear distinction is made between the terms forensic document examiner and a forensic handwriting expert/examiner. In such cases, the term refers to examiners who focus on non-handwriting examination types while the latter refers to those trained exclusively to do handwriting examinations. Even in places where the general meaning is common, such as North America or Australia. As the terminology varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, it is important to clarify the meaning of the used by any individual professing to be a forensic document examiner. A forensic document examiner is intimately linked to the system as a forensic scientist. Forensic science is the application of science to address issues under consideration in the legal system, FDEs examine items that form part of a case that may or may not come before a court of law. Common criminal charges involved in a document examination case fall into the white-collar crime category and these include identity theft, forgery, counterfeiting, fraud, or uttering a forged document. Questioned documents are important in other contexts simply because documents are used in so many contexts. For example, a person may commit murder and forge a suicide note and this is an example where a document is produced directly as a fundamental part of a crime. More often a questioned document is simply the by-product of normal business or personal activities. The American Society for Testing and Materials, International publishes standards for many methods, E30.02 was the ASTM subcomittee for Questioned Documents
Questioned document examination
–
Forensic science
8.
Digital watermark
–
A digital watermark is a kind of marker covertly embedded in a noise-tolerant signal such as an audio, video or image data. It is typically used to identify ownership of the copyright of such signal, watermarking is the process of hiding digital information in a carrier signal, the hidden information should, but does not need to, contain a relation to the carrier signal. Digital watermarks may be used to verify the authenticity or integrity of the signal or to show the identity of its owners. It is prominently used for tracing copyright infringements and for banknote authentication, like traditional physical watermarks, digital watermarks are often only perceptible under certain conditions, i. e. after using some algorithm. If a digital watermark distorts the signal in a way that it becomes easily perceivable. Traditional watermarks may be applied to media, whereas in digital watermarking. A signal may carry several different watermarks at the same time, unlike metadata that is added to the carrier signal, a digital watermark does not change the size of the carrier signal. The needed properties of a digital watermark depend on the use case in which it is applied, for marking media files with copyright information, a digital watermark has to be rather robust against modifications that can be applied to the carrier signal. Instead, if integrity has to be ensured, a fragile watermark would be applied, both steganography and digital watermarking employ steganographic techniques to embed data covertly in noisy signals. But whereas steganography aims for imperceptibility to human senses, digital watermarking tries to control the robustness as top priority, since a digital copy of data is the same as the original, digital watermarking is a passive protection tool. It just marks data, but does not degrade it or control access to the data, one application of digital watermarking is source tracking. A watermark is embedded into a signal at each point of distribution. If a copy of the work is later, then the watermark may be retrieved from the copy. This technique reportedly has been used to detect the source of illegally copied movies, the term Digital Watermark was coined by Andrew Tirkel and Charles Osborne in December 1992. The first successful embedding and extraction of a spread spectrum watermark was demonstrated in 1993 by Andrew Tirkel, Charles Osborne. Watermarks are identification marks produced during the making process. The first watermarks appeared in Italy during the 13th century, and they were used as a means to identify the papermaker or the trade guild that manufactured the paper. The marks often were created by a wire sewn onto the paper mold, watermarks continue to be used today as manufacturers marks and to prevent forgery
Digital watermark
–
Example of a watermark overlay on an image; the logo of
Wikipedia can be seen on the center to represent the owner of it.
9.
Music
–
Music is an art form and cultural activity whose medium is sound organized in time. The common elements of music are pitch, rhythm, dynamics, different styles or types of music may emphasize, de-emphasize or omit some of these elements. The word derives from Greek μουσική, Ancient Greek and Indian philosophers defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies and vertically as harmonies. Common sayings such as the harmony of the spheres and it is music to my ears point to the notion that music is often ordered and pleasant to listen to. However, 20th-century composer John Cage thought that any sound can be music, saying, for example, There is no noise, the creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. There are many types of music, including music, traditional music, art music, music written for religious ceremonies. For example, it can be hard to draw the line between some early 1980s hard rock and heavy metal, within the arts, music may be classified as a performing art, a fine art or as an auditory art. People may make music as a hobby, like a teen playing cello in a youth orchestra, the word derives from Greek μουσική. According to the Online Etymological Dictionary, the music is derived from mid-13c. Musike, from Old French musique and directly from Latin musica the art of music and this is derived from the. Greek mousike of the Muses, from fem. of mousikos pertaining to the Muses, from Mousa Muse. In classical Greece, any art in which the Muses presided, Music is composed and performed for many purposes, ranging from aesthetic pleasure, religious or ceremonial purposes, or as an entertainment product for the marketplace. With the advent of recording, records of popular songs. Some music lovers create mix tapes of their songs, which serve as a self-portrait. An environment consisting solely of what is most ardently loved, amateur musicians can compose or perform music for their own pleasure, and derive their income elsewhere. Professional musicians sometimes work as freelancers or session musicians, seeking contracts and engagements in a variety of settings, There are often many links between amateur and professional musicians. Beginning amateur musicians take lessons with professional musicians, in community settings, advanced amateur musicians perform with professional musicians in a variety of ensembles such as community concert bands and community orchestras. However, there are many cases where a live performance in front of an audience is also recorded and distributed. Live concert recordings are popular in classical music and in popular music forms such as rock, where illegally taped live concerts are prized by music lovers
Music
–
A painting on an Ancient Greek vase depicts a music lesson (c. 510 BC).
Music
–
Jean-Gabriel Ferlan performing at a 2008 concert at the collège-lycée Saint-François Xavier
Music
–
The composer
Michel Richard Delalande, pen in hand.
Music
–
Funk places most of its emphasis on rhythm and
groove, with entire songs based around a
vamp on a single chord. Pictured are the influential funk musicians
George Clinton and
Parliament Funkadelic in 2006.
10.
Video
–
Video is an electronic medium for the recording, copying, playback, broadcasting, and display of moving visual media. Video systems vary greatly in the resolution of the display and refresh rate, video can be carried on a variety of media, including radio broadcast, tapes, DVDs, computer files etc. Video was originally exclusively a live technology, charles Ginsburg led an Ampex research team developing one of the first practical video tape recorder. In 1951 the first video tape recorder captured live images from television cameras by converting the electrical impulses. Video recorders were sold for $50,000 in 1956, however, prices gradually dropped over the years, in 1971, Sony began selling videocassette recorder decks and tapes into the consumer market. The use of techniques in video created digital video, which allowed higher quality and, eventually. After the invention of the DVD in 1997 and Blu-ray Disc in 2006, sales of videotape, the advent of digital broadcasting and the subsequent digital television transition is in the process of relegating analog video to the status of a legacy technology in most parts of the world. PAL standards and SECAM specify 25 frame/s, while NTSC standards specify 29.97 frames, film is shot at the slower frame rate of 24 frames per second, which slightly complicates the process of transferring a cinematic motion picture to video. The minimum frame rate to achieve a comfortable illusion of an image is about sixteen frames per second. Video can be interlaced or progressive, analog display devices reproduce each frame in the same way, effectively doubling the frame rate as far as perceptible overall flicker is concerned. NTSC, PAL and SECAM are interlaced formats, abbreviated video resolution specifications often include an i to indicate interlacing. For example, PAL video format is specified as 576i50, where 576 indicates the total number of horizontal scan lines, i indicates interlacing. In progressive scan systems, each refresh period updates all scan lines in each frame in sequence, when displaying a natively progressive broadcast or recorded signal, the result is optimum spatial resolution of both the stationary and moving parts of the image. Deinterlacing cannot, however, produce video quality that is equivalent to true progressive scan source material, aspect ratio describes the dimensions of video screens and video picture elements. All popular video formats are rectilinear, and so can be described by a ratio between width and height, the screen aspect ratio of a traditional television screen is 4,3, or about 1.33,1. High definition televisions use a ratio of 16,9. The aspect ratio of a full 35 mm film frame with soundtrack is 1.375,1. Therefore, a 720 by 480 pixel NTSC DV image displayes with the 4,3 aspect ratio if the pixels are thin, the popularity of viewing video on mobile phones has led to the growth of vertical video
Video
–
Example of U-V color plane, Y value=0.5
11.
Picture
–
COBOL is a compiled English-like computer programming language designed for business use. It is imperative, procedural and, since 2002, object-oriented, COBOL is primarily used in business, finance, and administrative systems for companies and governments. COBOL is still used in legacy applications deployed on mainframe computers, such as large-scale batch. Most programming in COBOL is now purely to maintain existing applications, COBOL was designed in 1959 by CODASYL and was partly based on previous programming language design work by Grace Hopper, commonly referred to as the mother of COBOL. It was created as part of a US Department of Defense effort to create a programming language for data processing. Intended as a stopgap, the Department of Defense promptly forced computer manufacturers to provide it and it was standardized in 1968 and has since been revised four times. Expansions include support for structured and object-oriented programming, the current standard is ISO/IEC1989,2014. COBOL has an English-like syntax, which was designed to be self-documenting, however, it is verbose and uses over 300 reserved words. In contrast with modern, succinct syntax like y = x, COBOL code is split into four divisions containing a rigid hierarchy of sections, paragraphs and sentences. Lacking a large library, the standard specifies 43 statements,87 functions. COBOL has been criticized throughout its life, however, for its verbosity, design process and poor support for structured programming, in the late 1950s, computer users and manufacturers were becoming concerned about the rising cost of programming. A1959 survey had found that in any data processing installation, the programming cost US$800,000 on average, representatives included Grace Hopper, inventor of the English-like data processing language FLOW-MATIC, Jean Sammet and Saul Gorn. The group asked the Department of Defense to sponsor an effort to create a business language. The delegation impressed Charles A. Phillips, director of the Data System Research Staff at the DoD, the DoD operated 225 computers, had a further 175 on order and had spent over $200 million on implementing programs to run on them. Portable programs would save time, reduce costs and ease modernization, Phillips agreed to sponsor the meeting and tasked the delegation with drafting the agenda. On May 28 and 29 of 1959, a meeting was held at the Pentagon to discuss the creation of a programming language for business. It was attended by 41 people and was chaired by Phillips, the Department of Defense was concerned about whether it could run the same data processing programs on different computers. FORTRAN, the mainstream language at the time, lacked the features needed to write such programs
Picture
–
Grace Hopper, the inventor of
FLOW-MATIC, a predecessor to COBOL
Picture
–
The cover of the COBOL 60 report
12.
Computer file
–
A computer file is a computer resource for recording data discretely in a computer storage device. Just as words can be written to paper, so can information be written to a computer file, there are different types of computer files, designed for different purposes. A file may be designed to store a picture, a message, a video. Some types of files can store different several types of information at once, by using computer programs, a person can open, read, change, and close a computer file. Computer files may be reopened, modified, and copied a number of times. Typically, computer files are organised in a system, which keeps track of where the files are. The word file derives from the Latin filum, such a file now exists in a memory tube developed at RCA Laboratories. Electronically it retains figures fed into calculating machines, holds them in storage while it memorizes new ones - speeds intelligent solutions through mazes of mathematics, in 1952, file denoted, inter alia, information stored on punched cards. In early use, the hardware, rather than the contents stored on it, was denominated a file. For example, the IBM350 disk drives were denominated disk files, although the contemporary register file demonstrates the early concept of files, its use has greatly decreased. On most modern operating systems, files are organized into one-dimensional arrays of bytes, for example, the bytes of a plain text file are associated with either ASCII or UTF-8 characters, while the bytes of image, video, and audio files are interpreted otherwise. Most file types also allocate a few bytes for metadata, which allows a file to some basic information about itself. Some file systems can store arbitrary file-specific data outside of the file format, on other file systems this can be done via sidecar files or software-specific databases. All those methods, however, are susceptible to loss of metadata than are container. At any instant in time, a file might have a size, normally expressed as number of bytes, in most modern operating systems the size can be any non-negative whole number of bytes up to a system limit. Many older operating systems kept track only of the number of blocks or tracks occupied by a file on a storage device. In such systems, software employed other methods to track the exact byte count, the general definition of a file does not require that its size have any real meaning, however, unless the data within the file happens to correspond to data within a pool of persistent storage. A special case is a zero byte file, these files can be newly created files that have not yet had any data written to them, or may serve as some kind of flag in the file system, or are accidents
Computer file
–
A
punched card file
Computer file
–
The twin
disk files of an
IBM 305 system
13.
Fabriano
–
Fabriano is a town and comune of Ancona province in the Italian region of the Marche, at 325 metres above sea level. It lies in the Esino valley 44 kilometres upstream and southwest of Jesi and its location on the main highway and rail line from Umbria to the Adriatic make it a mid-sized regional center in the Apennines. Fabriano is the headquarters of the giant appliance maker Indesit, Fabriano, with Bologna, is the only Italian creative city. The town is in the category Folk Arts, Fabriano appears to have been founded in the early Middle Ages by the inhabitants of a small Roman town 5 kilometres south at Attiggio, of which some slight remains and inscriptions are extant. Fabrianos wealth and commitment to the arts in the late medieval period have left it with many monuments. Fabriano Cathedral, dedicated to San Venanzio, from the Baroque restoration are the stucco decoration of the interior and the canvasses by Gregorio Preti, Salvator Rosa, Giovanni Francesco Guerrieri, Giuseppe Puglia and Orazio Gentileschi. To the original Cathedral belong the polygonal apse, the cloister, also important are the frescoes with Stories of the True Cross by the Folignate painter Giovanni di Corraduccio. Nicholas Santa Maria del Piangato St Benedict Oratory of the Gonfalone Palazzo del Podestà built in stone from Vallemontagnana. It has a bridge structure, a memory of the stream which once flowed under it. The central arcade has frescoes from the 13th-14th centuries portraying warriors, sturinalto Fountain, designed by Jacopo di Grondolo, who was inspired by the Fontana Maggiore in Perugia. It was the residence of the Chiavelli family, lords of the city until 1435, in the courtyard is a lapidarium with fragments of buildings of the ancient Roman cities of Attidium, Tuficum and Sentinum. Pinacoteca Civica Bruno Malajoli displayed in the former Hospital - The hospital was first built in 1456, the art collection of the Pinacoteca were moved here in 1994. Loggiato of St. Saint John dal Bastone 12th-century Silvestrine monk, jessica Rizzo, an actress and businesswoman. Fabriano official website Museo della Carta Fabriano Storica - history, art, culture, legend, curiosity Bill Thayers site Made in Fabriano Academy
Fabriano
–
Fabriano
Fabriano
–
Palazzo del Podestà.
14.
Italy
–
Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
Italy
–
The
Colosseum in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD, is considered one of the greatest works of
architecture and
engineering of ancient history.
Italy
–
Flag
Italy
–
The
Iron Crown of Lombardy, for centuries symbol of the
Kings of Italy.
Italy
–
Castel del Monte, built by German Emperor
Frederick II,
UNESCO World Heritage site
15.
Window screen
–
A window screen is designed to cover the opening of a window. It is usually a mesh made of wire, fiberglass, or other synthetic fiber. It serves to keep leaves, debris, insects, birds, most houses in Australia, the United States and Canada and other parts of the world have screens on the window to prevent entry of flying insects such as mosquitoes, flies and wasps. Wove wire for window screens were referenced in the American Farmer in 1823, advertisement for wire window screens appeared in Boyds Blue Book in 1836. Two wire window screens were exhibited at Quincy Hall in Boston in 1839, in 1861 Gilberr, Bennett and Company was manufacturing wire mesh sieves for food processing. An employee realized that the wire cloth could be painted gray and sold as window screens, by 1874, E. T. Barnum Company of Detroit, Michigan advertised screens that were sold by the square foot. By the 1950s, parasitic diseases were largely eradicated in the United States in part due to the use of window screens. Today most houses in Australia, the United States and Canada have screens on all operable windows, the excess screen is then trimmed close to the spline with a sharp utility knife. Common spline sizes range from 3.6 mm to 4.8 mm, the spline is often manufactured with parallel ridges running along the length of the spline to provide a better grip and compliance when it is pressed into the channel. A spline roller — a special tool that consists of a wheel on a handle — is used to press the spline into the frame. The wheel edge is concave, to help it hold the spline, some spline rollers are double-ended and have both convex and concave rollers, the convex roller can be used to seat the spline deeper into the channel without risk of cutting the screen. Driving the spline into the channel tends to tension the screen on the frame, window screens primarily maintain the view and airflow of windows while protecting against insects from flying or crawling inside the house. They are not generally intended for preventing young kids from falling out of windows, stopping home intruders and this effect has been used to collect water from fog. Screen painting is a folk art consisting of paintings on window screens and it is also possible to print images directly onto fiberglass screen cloth using specially designed inkjet printers. The most common used for the mesh of window screens are aluminum. Aluminum is generally available in aluminum or in an applied black or charcoal color. Fiberglass is available in light gray as well as charcoal colors, fiberglass is less expensive, and has the advantage of not denting when hit or pushed, but it is somewhat more opaque than aluminum. For this reason, dark aluminum allows a view of windows from the exterior
Window screen
–
This article needs additional citations for
verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010)
Window screen
–
A pierced window screen brings light into the
mandapa at Manikesvara Temple in Lakkundi,
Lakkundi
Window screen
–
A window with an insect screen
Window screen
–
Sailors assigned to the dock landing ship
USS Tortuga (LSD 46) replace a protective window screen at Kalalake Elementary School during a community service project
16.
Wood pulp
–
Pulp is a lignocellulosic fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating cellulose fibres from wood, fiber crops or waste paper. The wood fiber sources required for pulping are 45% sawmill residue, 21% logs and chips, many kinds of paper are made from wood with nothing else mixed into them. This includes newspaper, magazines and even toilet paper, Pulp is one of the most abundant raw materials worldwide. Using wood to make paper is a recent innovation. The ancient Egyptians were the first to make paper from reeds, papermaking using cotton and linen fibers spread to Europe in the 13th century, and the increasing use of fabric brought more rag paper, which was a factor in the development of printing. By the 1800s, fibre crops such as flax, which provided linen fibres, were still the material source. Chemical processes quickly followed, first with J. Roths use of acid to treat wood, then by Benjamin Tilghmans U. S. patent on the use of calcium bisulfite, Ca2. Almost a decade later, the first commercial sulfite pulp mill was built and it used magnesium as the counter ion and was based on work by Carl Daniel Ekman. By 1900, sulfite pulping had become the dominant means of producing wood pulp, the competing chemical pulping process, the sulfate, or kraft, process, was developed by Carl F. Dahl in 1879, the first kraft mill started, in Sweden, in 1890. The invention of the boiler, by G. H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s, allowed kraft mills to recycle almost all of their pulping chemicals, global production of wood pulp in 2006 was 175 million tons. In the previous year,63 million tons of market pulp was sold, with Canada being the largest source at 21 percent of the total, chemical pulp made up 93 percent of market pulp. The timber resources used to make wood pulp are referred to as pulpwood, wood pulp comes from softwood trees such as spruce, pine, fir, larch and hemlock, and hardwoods such as eucalyptus, aspen and birch. A pulp mill is a facility that converts wood chips or other plant fibre source into a thick fiberboard which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods, the finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements. Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three components, cellulose fibers, lignin and hemicelluloses. The aim of pulping is to break down the structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts. The various mechanical pulping methods, such as groundwood and refiner mechanical pulping, much of the lignin remains adhering to the fibres
Wood pulp
–
Structure of fibres of pulp
Wood pulp
–
Pulp at a paper mill near Pensacola, 1947
Wood pulp
–
Fibres in wood pulp
Wood pulp
–
International Paper Company. Pulp mill that makes
fluff pulp for use in
absorbent products with the
kraft process.
17.
Fibre
–
Fiber or fibre is a natural or synthetic substance that is significantly longer than it is wide. Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials, the strongest engineering materials often incorporate fibers, for example carbon fiber and ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene. Natural fibers develop or occur in the shape, and include those produced by plants, animals. Plant fibers are employed in the manufacture of paper and textile, wood fiber, distinguished from vegetable fiber, is from tree sources. Forms include groundwood, lacebark, thermomechanical pulp, and bleached or unbleached kraft or sulfite pulps, animal fibers consist largely of particular proteins. Instances are silkworm silk, spider silk, sinew, catgut, wool, sea silk and hair such as wool, mohair and angora, fur such as sheepskin, rabbit, mink, fox, beaver. Mineral fibers include the asbestos group, asbestos is the only naturally occurring long mineral fiber. Six minerals have been classified as asbestos including chrysotile of the serpentine class, short, fiber-like minerals include wollastonite and palygorskite. Instances are collagen family of proteins, tendon, muscle proteins like actin, cell proteins like microtubules and many others, spider silk, sinew, man-made or chemical fibers are fibers whose chemical composition, structure, and properties are significantly modified during the manufacturing process. Man-made fibers consist of regenerated fibers and synthetic fibers, the earliest semi-synthetic fiber is the cellulose regenerated fiber, rayon. Most semi-synthetic fibers are cellulose regenerated fibers, cellulose fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, regenerated from natural cellulose. The cellulose comes from sources, rayon from tree wood fiber, Modal from beech trees, bamboo fiber from bamboo, seacell from seaweed. In the production of fibers, the cellulose is reduced to a fairly pure form as a viscous mass. Therefore, the process leaves few characteristics distinctive of the natural source material in the finished products. Some examples are, rayon bamboo fiber Lyocell, a brand of rayon Modal, historically, cellulose diacetate and -triacetate were classified under the term rayon, but are now considered distinct materials. Synthetic come entirely from materials such as petrochemicals, unlike those man-made fibers derived from such natural substances as cellulose or protein. Metallic fibers can be drawn from ductile metals such as copper, gold or silver and extruded or deposited from more brittle ones, such as nickel, carbon fibers are often based on oxydized and via pyrolysis carbonized polymers like PAN, but the end product is almost pure carbon. Silicon carbide fibers, where the polymers are not hydrocarbons but polymers
Fibre
–
A bundle of
optical fibers
Fibre
–
Fundamentals
18.
Page (paper)
–
A page is one side of a leaf of paperparchment, or other material on which text or illustrations can be printed to convey meaning. It can be used as a measurement of documenting or recording quantity, oxford dictionary describes a page as one or both sides of a sheet of paper in a book, magazine, newspaper, or other collection of bound sheets. In an abstract sense, a page is a surface on which information can be recorded, another word of an abstract sense, paige means a young person. In a book, the side of a leaf one reads first is called the page. In a spread, one reads the verso page first and then reads the recto page of the next leaf, in English-language books, the recto page is on the right and the verso page is on the left. By modern convention, these start with a recto page. English-language books are read left to right and the reader flips the pages from right to left. In languages read from right to left, the first page is typically a recto page on the left, to help maintain the desired consistency, the typical page may employ a grid system. In a modern book, a page may contain a header, pages may or may not be numbered, but most pages are. The first printed books had no title pages. The pages appearing before the text of a book are collectively called the front matter and those appearing after the main text. In English-language typography, the size of a page is traditionally measured in a called the pica. Compound Words, Page Through, to something, to flip through something quickly. Page-turner, A book that is exciting to read, idiomatic expressions Front page news, important news or information. On the same page, to be in agreement with someone, take a page out of someones book, to copy or mimic the behavior of someone. Turn the page, to move on from an event, to stop thinking about something or to move forward. In library science, the number of pages in a book forms part of its description, coded in subfield $300a in MARC21. This description consists of the number of pages, followed by the abbreviation p. for page, the number of pages is written in the same style as the numbering in each section. In word processors and spreadsheets, the process of dividing a document into actual pages of paper is called pagination, printing a large page on multiple small pages of paper is sometimes called tiling
Page (paper)
–
Pages in a
book
19.
Light
–
Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The word usually refers to light, which is visible to the human eye and is responsible for the sense of sight. Visible light is defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres, or 4.00 × 10−7 to 7.00 × 10−7 m. This wavelength means a range of roughly 430–750 terahertz. The main source of light on Earth is the Sun, sunlight provides the energy that green plants use to create sugars mostly in the form of starches, which release energy into the living things that digest them. This process of photosynthesis provides virtually all the used by living things. Historically, another important source of light for humans has been fire, with the development of electric lights and power systems, electric lighting has effectively replaced firelight. Some species of animals generate their own light, a process called bioluminescence, for example, fireflies use light to locate mates, and vampire squids use it to hide themselves from prey. Visible light, as all types of electromagnetic radiation, is experimentally found to always move at this speed in a vacuum. In physics, the term sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength. In this sense, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves and radio waves are also light, like all types of light, visible light is emitted and absorbed in tiny packets called photons and exhibits properties of both waves and particles. This property is referred to as the wave–particle duality, the study of light, known as optics, is an important research area in modern physics. Generally, EM radiation, or EMR, is classified by wavelength into radio, microwave, infrared, the behavior of EMR depends on its wavelength. Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths, when EMR interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on the amount of energy per quantum it carries. There exist animals that are sensitive to various types of infrared, infrared sensing in snakes depends on a kind of natural thermal imaging, in which tiny packets of cellular water are raised in temperature by the infrared radiation. EMR in this range causes molecular vibration and heating effects, which is how these animals detect it, above the range of visible light, ultraviolet light becomes invisible to humans, mostly because it is absorbed by the cornea below 360 nanometers and the internal lens below 400. Furthermore, the rods and cones located in the retina of the eye cannot detect the very short ultraviolet wavelengths and are in fact damaged by ultraviolet. Many animals with eyes that do not require lenses are able to detect ultraviolet, by quantum photon-absorption mechanisms, various sources define visible light as narrowly as 420 to 680 to as broadly as 380 to 800 nm
Light
–
An example of refraction of light. The straw appears bent, because of refraction of light as it enters liquid from air.
Light
–
A triangular prism dispersing a beam of white light. The longer wavelengths (red) and the shorter wavelengths (blue) get separated.
Light
–
A
cloud illuminated by
sunlight
Light
–
A
city illuminated by
artificial lighting
20.
Image
–
Images may be two-dimensional, such as a photograph or screen display, or three-dimensional, such as a statue or hologram. They may be captured by optical devices – such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc. and natural objects and phenomena, such as the human eye or water. The word image is used in the broader sense of any two-dimensional figure such as a map, a graph. A volatile image is one that only for a short period of time. This may be a reflection of an object by a mirror, a fixed image, also called a hard copy, is one that has been recorded on a material object, such as paper or textile by photography or any other digital process. A mental image exists in a mind, as something one remembers or imagines. The subject of an image need not be real, it may be a concept, such as a graph, function. For example, Sigmund Freud claimed to have dreamed purely in aural-images of dialogs, a still image is a single static image, as distinguished from a kinetic image. This phrase is used in photography, visual media and the industry to emphasize that one is not talking about movies. A film still is a taken on the set of a movie or television program during production. In literature, imagery is a picture which appeals to the senses. It can both be figurative and literal, a moving image is typically a movie or video, including digital video. It could also be an animated display such as a zoetrope, library of Congress – Format Descriptions for Still Images Image Processing – Online Open Research Group Legal Issues Regarding Images Image Copyright Case
Image
–
A man creating an image of himself, in the form of a painting
Image
–
An
SAR radar image acquired by the SIR-C/X-SAR radar on board the
Space Shuttle Endeavour shows the
Teide volcano. The city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is visible as the purple and white area on the lower right edge of the island. Lava flows at the summit crater appear in shades of green and brown, while vegetation zones appear as areas of purple, green and yellow on the volcano's flanks.
21.
Postage stamp paper
–
Postage stamp paper is the foundation or substrate of the postage stamp to which the ink for the stamps design is applied to one side and the adhesive is applied to the other. Stamp catalogs like Scotts Standard Postage Stamp Catalog often document the paper the stamp is printed on to describe a stamps classification, the same stamp design can appear on several kinds of paper. Certain paper types may require the services of an expert as the only way of knowing the true identity of the stamps paper. All paper is endowed with certain characteristics by its maker, depending on the purpose of the paper, the craftsman will choose specific materials and apply certain manufacturing processes to achieve the design objectives. Characteristics such as composition, weight, color, size, watermark, surface finish, opacity, hardness, from a philatelic interest, it is the second phase, the forming of the paper that yields the most interesting characteristics. In the first phase of papermaking the characteristics such as its composition, color, Paper has as its chief component, a mat of cellulose fibers. Cellulose is the structure of plant cells and can be separated from the plant for use in paper. Cellulose has several characteristics that make it desirable for paper, the foremost being its strength when formed into a mat or web, when cellulose fibers come in contact with each other in water, a bond is formed. When water is removed from the fibers, the bond between the fibers strengthens. Pulp, the collection of fibers, may be bleached. Since most paper is printed or written upon, fillers are added to the pulp to fill the pores of the paper and sizing is added to make the fibers water resistant. Unsized paper is blotting paper, making it unsuitable for printing, fillers and sizing are added to the pulp to absorb the ink quickly, unlike pure cellulose. Fillers can be made from animal products, starches from rice or wheat, resins or gums, or minerals such as calcium carbonate. Mineral fillers are the most common as they are effective as a filler. When all of these ingredients are assembled, they are suspended in water, the paper is formed in the second stage of papermaking. With handmade paper, the furnish is stored in a vat, the mould determines the dimensions of the finished sheet and its weight, which ultimately establishes the paper’s thickness. The mould is usually a mesh that acts as a strainer such that the furnish is separated out of the water. The water drains off, leaving layers upon layers of fibers or a web of paper on the mould, the texture of the paper is determined by the nature of the mould
Postage stamp paper
–
Contents
Postage stamp paper
–
Pulp dyed orange to match
Princeton University 's school colors for the 1956
Nassau Hall 200th anniversary
Postage stamp paper
–
Multiple watermark when viewed from the back of the stamp.
Postage stamp paper
–
Normal and Single watermark as seen from the back of the stamp.
22.
Philately
–
Philately is the study of stamps and postal history and other related items. It also refers to the collection, appreciation and research activities on stamps, Philately involves more than just stamp collecting, which does not necessarily involve the study of stamps. It is possible to be a philatelist without owning any stamps, for instance, the stamps being studied may be very rare, or reside only in museums. The word philately is the English version of the French word philatélie, Herpin stated that stamps had been collected and studied for the previous six or seven years and a better name was required for the new hobby than timbromanie, which was disliked. He took the Greek root word φιλ- phil-, meaning an attraction or affinity for something, and ἀτέλεια ateleia, meaning exempt from duties and taxes to form philatelie. The introduction of postage meant that the receipt of letters was now free of charge. The alternative terms timbromania, timbrophily and timbrology gradually fell out of use as philately gained acceptance during the 1860s. Comparison with the records of postal authorities may or may not show that the variations were intentional, which leads to further inquiry as to how the changes could have happened, and why. To make things interesting, thousands of forgeries have been produced over the years, some of them very good. Thematic philately, also known as philately, is the study of what is depicted on the stamps. There are hundreds of subjects, such as birds on stamps. A classic example is the Pony Express, which was the fastest way to send letters across the United States during the few months that it operated, covers that can be proven to have been sent by the Pony Express are highly prized by collectors. Aerophilately is the branch of history that specializes in the study of airmail. Philatelists have observed the development of transport by air from its beginning. Postal stationery includes stamped envelopes, postal cards, letter sheets, aérogrammes and wrappers, cinderella philately is the study of objects that look like stamps, but are not postal stamps. Examples include Easter Seals, Christmas Seals, propaganda labels, Philatelic literature documents the results of philatelic study and includes thousands of books and periodicals. Maximaphily is the study of Maximum Cards, Maximum Cards can be defined as a picture post card with postage stamp on the same theme and a cancellation, with a maximum concordance between all three. Philately uses a number of tools, including stamp tongs to safely handle the stamps, a magnifying glass
Philately
–
The
Penny Red was used in the
UK for many years, and comes in hundreds of variations which are subject to detailed study by philatelists.
Philately
–
Zeppelin mail from
Gibraltar to
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil via Berlin on the Christmas flight (12th South American flight) of 1934. This cover would be of interest to Postal Historians, Aerophilatelists and Thematic collectors.
Philately
–
A large
stamp show (philatelic exhibition) at which collectors and dealers meet.
23.
Laid paper
–
Laid paper is a type of paper having a ribbed texture imparted by the manufacturing process. In the pre-mechanical period of European papermaking, laid paper was the predominant kind of paper produced and its use, however, diminished in the 19th century, when it was largely supplanted by wove paper. Laid paper is commonly used by artists as a support for charcoal drawings. Before the mechanization of papermaking, the pattern was produced by the wire sieve in the rectangular mold used to produce single sheets of paper. In the process, the pattern of the wires in the sieve was imparted to the sheet of paper, modern papermaking techniques use a dandy roll to create the laid pattern during the early stages of manufacture, in the same way as applying a paper watermark. While in the wet state, the stock is drained on a wire mesh to de-water the stock. During this process, a roll with a laid mesh pattern is pressed into the wet stock. As the fiber is displaced, localized areas of higher and lower density are produced in a pattern. The pattern is apparent both as one looks through the sheet and as one views its surface. Applying the laid pattern as a mechanical emboss would not create the pattern seen on looking through the sheet
Laid paper
–
Laid paper from before the era of machine-made paper—leaf from
Linnaeus 's Systema naturae (1758)
Laid paper
–
Visible laid pattern effect in a
picture book illustration by
Randolph Caldecott. Published 1887, digitally restored.
24.
Embossing (paper)
–
Embossing and debossing are the processes of creating either raised or recessed relief images and designs in paper and other materials. An embossed pattern is raised against the background, while a pattern is sunken into the surface of the material. Often used in combination with foil stamping, embossing alters the surface of paper stock or other substrates by providing a three-dimensional or raised effect on selected areas, the procedure requires the use of two dies, one that is raised and one that is recessed. The dies fit into each other so that when the paper is pressed between them, the raised die forces the stock into the die and creates the embossed impression. A thorough understanding the process will enable a successful result. Generally, embossing is the process most often employed to attract attention or convey a high quality textural contrast in relation to the area of the paper stock. Debossing is similar to embossing, but recesses the design rather than raising it, rather than the paper being raised in specific areas, it is indented. The process involves applying pressure to the front side of a substrate, although it is not as common as embossing, it is occasionally used to provide a different effect or appearance that fits a particular theme. Embossing and debossing on digitally printed applications is an off-line process, embossing is basically used to create a distinctive effect. The greatest concern and emphasis on the clients behalf should be placed on the outcome of the embossed effect, pressure, the intensity of the impact on the weight of the stock being embossed. Heat, the ability to maintain a consistent heat level for the best impression, most types of paper can be embossed, and size is not normally a consideration. Embossing without ink, so that the image is raised but not colored, is called blind embossing, embossing used in conjunction with ink, so that the raised area is colored, is called color register embossing. Embossing used in conjunction with foil stamping is called combination stamping or combo stamping, embossing involves a separate stage in the production process, after any varnishing and laminating. It requires a press run, and is priced accordingly. In addition to being used as an element, embossing can be used to improve the performance of paper products like napkins, diapers. The metals most often used for die construction are zinc, magnesium, copper, the material used for a specific application depends upon a number of factors. Blind embossing does not include the use of ink or foil to highlight the embossed area, the change in the dimensional appearance of the material is the only noticeable difference resulting from the embossing. The blind embossing process provides a clean and distinctive or subtle image on paper stock and it is best used to create a subtle impression or low level of attention to the piece, yet provide some slight form of differentiation for the finished work
Embossing (paper)
–
A United States embossed postage stamp, called an indicium, from 1861. Note the raised portions.
Embossing (paper)
–
An embossed postcard, Carnegie Library, Houston, Texas (circa 1900-1924).
Embossing (paper)
–
A debossed map of the
British Isles, from
William Moon 's Light for the Blind, published in 1877.
Embossing (paper)
–
Hand-operated embossing machine
25.
Switzerland
–
Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
Switzerland
–
Founded in 44 BC by
Lucius Munatius Plancus,
Augusta Raurica was the first Roman settlement on the Rhine and is now among the most important archaeological sites in Switzerland.
Switzerland
–
Flag
Switzerland
–
The 1291 Bundesbrief (Federal charter)
Switzerland
–
The Old Swiss Confederacy from 1291 (dark green) to the sixteenth century (light green) and its associates (blue). In the other colors are shown the subject territories.
26.
Thomas Harry Saunders
–
Thomas Harry Saunders, usually called T. H. Saunders, was a British paper-maker known especially for his watermarks, and also a philanthropist. He was the youngest of the five children of hoop-maker John Saunders and he married Mary Marchant in 1844. He won medals at international exhibitions for his firms light and shade watermarks, at the Irish exhibition of 1853 there was special mention for his specimens of paper ornamented with a water mark, showing gradations of light and shade. The description continued, This kind of paper is intended to prevent frauds in bills of exchange. And the watermarks attracted many banks as customers, and made T. H. Saunders & Co important suppliers of postage stamps and banknotes to many countries in Europe, the British Empire and South America. The technology for this had been invented by William Henry Smith, Saunders built up a business with six paper mills, one of them the renovated Phoenix Mill at Dartford in Kent. As well as secure, watermarked paper they also produced bulk products like newsprint for The Times, with one of his managers he patented improved systems for drying paper and regulating the supply of pulp. He twice met Palmerston, the minister, to discuss the taxation system as it related to paper manufacturing. He was an active nonconformist Christian who gave generously to charity, as a supporter of the Shaftesbury Society which promoted ragged schools, he set up reading and writing classes for children from his mills. He was also a member of the Royal Society of Arts, the paper business continued at various mills along the River Darent after Saunders death in 1870. T. H. Saunders name is still a trademark for drawing and watercolour paper. Oxford Dictionary of National Biography English deaths index Kellys Directory of Kent UK trademarks Watermarks made by T. H. Saunders & Co Shaftesbury Society and ragged schools
Thomas Harry Saunders
–
New Zealand two pence stamp from between 1855 and 1872 shows an S and part of the R from the T.H.Saunders watermark
Thomas Harry Saunders
–
Nova Scotia stamp from 1851 using T.H.Saunders watermarked paper
27.
Allan H. Stevenson
–
Allan Henry Stevenson was an American bibliographer specializing in the study of handmade paper and watermarks who single-handedly created a new field, the bibliographical analysis of paper. Stevenson proved that the book in fact had been printed nearly twenty years later, Stevenson was born on June 20,1903, in Merlin, Ontario, Canada. His family moved to Texas where he attended the Rice Institute in Houston, graduating in 1924, after teaching at Rice, he moved to the University of Chicago where he ultimately obtained his doctorate degree in 1949. He taught English at both schools and he died in Chicago on March 31,1970. The screen would usually have attached a design made of copper or brass wire which would leave an impression or watermark in the sheet of paper. He also observed that, as the screens were used repeatedly to make paper, a stock of paper manufactured by hand thus would contain two closely similar watermarks which define the stock for bibliographic purposes, or as Stevenson said, watermarks like wrens go in pairs. He would later use these observations to date the manufacture of paper used in early printed books. The Morgan Library and many believed the Missale Speciale pre-dated the Gutenberg Bible and was the first European book printed using movable type. The Morgan had purchased the book from the rare book dealer Hans P. Kraus, paying him $58,000 in cash and trading four extremely rare books. Hearing of the Morgans acquisition, Stevenson began an analysis of its watermarks, in 1960, as Stevenson learned that two German bibliographers were reaching the same conclusion, he announced his discovery. In 1962, he published two articles on the Missale Speciale and in 1966 he published his full length study on it, in his Problem of the Missale Speciale, Stevenson analyzed the four then known copies of the missal, along with a fifth shorter version. Stevenson identified several states of these watermarks in the book, reflecting the aging of the watermark as stress was applied to the screen in making the paper. He identified the same watermarks in other books which included their dates of printing or were otherwise firmly datable, in fact, some of those books contained both the identical cross on mounts and identical bulls head watermarks. Through this information, Stevenson precisely dated the printing of the Missale Speciale to the fall of 1473, bibliographers now accept this proof that the missal was printed in 1473 as conclusive. In fact, As a rule a lot of paper seems to have been obtained. Where there is a run of paper with a specific watermark, in contrast, the presence of a single or few sheets with a particular watermark might reflect an older paper used, and not be indicative of the actual printing date of a book. Block books are undated short religious books in both the text and illustrations were printed from a single woodcut block. Written notations of purchase and rubrication dates, however, led some scholars to believe that the books had been printed later, in the mid-1960s, Stevenson began an extensive study of block books
Allan H. Stevenson
–
"Squareface"
Allan H. Stevenson
–
"Wideface"
28.
Overprinting
–
Overprinting refers to the process of printing one colour on top of another in reprographics. This is closely linked to the technique of trapping. Another use of overprinting is to create a rich black by printing black over another dark colour, however the latter method is generally only economically viable for large print runs offering returns to scale. Overprinting also refers to the printing of additional information onto self-adhesive labels, best Before, Use By dates and batch codes are printed in situ onto product packaging as the items are packed. Generally thermal printers, ink jet printers or laser printers are used
Overprinting
–
Knock-out without trapping
29.
Overprint
–
An overprint is an additional layer of text or graphics added to the face of a postage stamp, banknote or postal stationery after it has been printed. Post offices most often use overprints for internal administrative purposes such as accounting, the most well-recognized varieties are commemorative overprints which are produced for their public appeal and command significant interest in the field of philately. The term surcharge in philately describes any type of overprint that alters the price of a stamp, surcharges raise or lower the face value of existing stamps when prices have changed too quickly to produce an appropriate new issue, or simply to use up surplus stocks. Any overprint which restates a stamps value in a new currency is also described as a surcharge. Stamps have occasionally been overprinted multiple times, a famous example of repeated surcharging happened during the German hyperinflation of 1921–1923. Prices rose so fast and dramatically that postage stamps which cost five or ten pfennigs in 1920 were overprinted for sale in the values of thousands, millions, Overprints have often been used as commemoratives, providing a faster and lower-cost alternative to designing and issuing special stamps or postmarks. The United States, which historically has issued relatively few commemorative overprints, did this in 1928 for issues celebrating Molly Pitcher, British stamps heralding the 1966 FIFA World Cup were reissued after Englands victory with the overprint England Winners. In some rare cases, commemorative overprints have been applied to souvenir sheets, when these postal commodities are overprinted, they are always very carefully positioned for aesthetic appeal, usually on the blank outer border of the paper. The opposite occurs as well, in this special function stamps are overprinted to serve as regular stamps. Overprints have been used as security measures to deter misuse and theft, in the nineteenth century, Mexico was plagued by thefts of stamps on their way to remote post offices. To address this, stamps were shipped from Mexico City to the districts where they were overprinted with the district name – they were not valid for postage without the overprint. Nations overprinted stamps for use in their colonies mainly for the reasons as for their domestic use. Due to poor planning, supply problems, faster than anticipated changing postal rates, changes in currency or other reasons they ran out of stamps, some overprints were used to establish the first stage of postal service in a new territorial possession or colony however. If preparations had not been made, the controlling nations regular homeland stamps would be overprinted with a local name, in a similar fashion a nations domestic stamps may be overprinted for use in foreign post offices under that powers control. For example, from 1919-22 the United States overprinted 18 postage stamps at double value and marked for its office in Shanghai, provisional stamps are postage issue made for temporary ad hoc usage to meet demands until regular issues are reintroduced. New states or states in transition have sometimes found it necessary to recirculate stocks of stamps printed by a previous government, during times of war, many nations have issued war tax stamps. Before new stamps could be printed, older stamps were overprinted with surcharges or a simple inscription such as War Tax. In actual combat zones, the replenishment of stamp stocks is generally low on a militarys list of priorities, in contested or occupied areas, captured local stamps are often expediently overprinted by the occupying forces
Overprint
–
An 1897 Chinese
Red Revenue stamp overprinted with small "one dollar" characters was sold for
HK$ 6.9 million in 2013.
Overprint
–
France, 1929: Commemorative overprint for the
Philatelic Exposition in
Le Havre.
Overprint
–
Victoria, 1873: Penny stamp overprinted to new value of halfpenny.
Overprint
–
Guatemala 1881: 1 centavo surcharge on 1/4 real
30.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
