1.
Apple Watch
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Apple Watch is a line of smartwatches developed, designed, and marketed by Apple Inc. It incorporates fitness tracking and health-oriented capabilities with integration with iOS and other Apple products, Apple Watch relies on a wirelessly connected iPhone to perform many of its default functions such as calling and texting. It is compatible with the iPhone 5 or later models running iOS8.2 or later, announced by Apple CEO Tim Cook in September 2014, the device was released in April 2015. The Apple Watch quickly became the best-selling wearable device with the supply of 4.2 million smartwatches in the quarter of the 2015 fiscal year. The goal of the Apple Watch was to enhance the uses of an iPhone by using a watch, kevin Lynch was brought on by Apple to make wearable technology for the wrist. He said, People are carrying their phones with them and looking at the screen so much, People want that level of engagement. But how do we provide it in a way thats a more human. The Apple Watch works by connecting via Bluetooth to the phone, Apples development process was held very much under wraps until a Wired article revealed how some internal design decisions were made. On February 10,2013, both The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal reported that Apple was beginning to develop an iOS-based smartwatch with a curved display. On February 12,2013, Bloomberg reported that Apples smartwatch project was beyond the experimentation phase in its development, further reports in March 2013 indicated that Apple planned to release the device by the end of the year. In July 2013, Financial Times reported that Apple had begun hiring more employees to work on the smartwatch, and that it was targeting a possible retail release in late 2014. In April 2014, Apple CEO Tim Cook told The Wall Street Journal that the company was planning to new product categories that year. In June 2014, Reuters reported that production was expected to begin in July for a release in October, after the reveal video, the auditorium was filled with prolonged applause and a standing ovation as Tim Cook reappeared onstage wearing an Apple Watch. Cook explained that Apple Watch was a precise timepiece, a new way to communicate from your wrist. Pre-orders for the Apple Watch began on April 10,2015, CNET felt that this distribution model was designed to prevent Apple Store locations from having long line-ups due to the high demand. Selected Apple Watch models were available in-store at certain luxury boutiques, on June 4,2015, Apple announced that it did plan to stock Apple Watch models at its retail locations. On August 24,2015, during a call, Best Buy announced that it would begin stocking Apple Watch at its retail stores by the end of September. Both T-Mobile US and Sprint also announced plans to offer Apple Watch through its retail stores, on September 9,2015, in Apples Special Event, Apple launched a new collection of Apple Watch in collaboration with Hermès
2.
Electronics
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Electronics is the science of controlling electrical energy electrically, in which the electrons have a fundamental role. Commonly, electronic devices contain circuitry consisting primarily or exclusively of active semiconductors supplemented with passive elements, the science of electronics is also considered to be a branch of physics and electrical engineering. The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible, until 1950 this field was called radio technology because its principal application was the design and theory of radio transmitters, receivers, and vacuum tubes. Today, most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control and this article focuses on engineering aspects of electronics. Components are generally intended to be connected together, usually by being soldered to a circuit board. Components may be packaged singly, or in more complex groups as integrated circuits, some common electronic components are capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc. Components are often categorized as active or passive, vacuum tubes were among the earliest electronic components. They were almost solely responsible for the revolution of the first half of the Twentieth Century. They took electronics from parlor tricks and gave us radio, television, phonographs, radar, long distance telephony and they played a leading role in the field of microwave and high power transmission as well as television receivers until the middle of the 1980s. Since that time, solid state devices have all but completely taken over, vacuum tubes are still used in some specialist applications such as high power RF amplifiers, cathode ray tubes, specialist audio equipment, guitar amplifiers and some microwave devices. The 608 contained more than 3,000 germanium transistors, thomas J. Watson Jr. ordered all future IBM products to use transistors in their design. From that time on transistors were almost exclusively used for computer logic, circuits and components can be divided into two groups, analog and digital. A particular device may consist of circuitry that has one or the other or a mix of the two types, most analog electronic appliances, such as radio receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a range of voltage or current as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits. The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge, especially because a circuit can be defined as anything from a single component, analog circuits are sometimes called linear circuits although many non-linear effects are used in analog circuits such as mixers, modulators, etc. Good examples of analog circuits include vacuum tube and transistor amplifiers, one rarely finds modern circuits that are entirely analog. These days analog circuitry may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve performance and this type of circuit is usually called mixed signal rather than analog or digital. Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non-linear operation, an example is the comparator which takes in a continuous range of voltage but only outputs one of two levels as in a digital circuit
3.
Clothing
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Clothing is fiber and textile material worn on the body. The wearing of clothing is mostly restricted to human beings and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depends on type, social. Some clothing types can be gender-specific, physically, clothing serves many purposes, it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns, Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a barrier, keeping infectious. Clothing also provides protection from ultraviolet radiation, there is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 170 millennia ago, another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 millennia. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42, the most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other layers are normally removed when entering a warm home. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials, Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational and gender differentiation, and social status. In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, Clothing may also function as a form of adornment and an expression of personal taste or style. Clothing can and has in history been made from a wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to materials, to elaborate and exotic natural. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing, Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, however, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc. offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport, some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances
4.
Smartphone
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A smartphone is a mobile phone with an advanced mobile operating system that combines features of a personal computer operating system with other features useful for mobile or handheld use. Smartphones can access the Internet and can run a variety of third-party software components and they typically have a color display with a graphical user interface that covers more than 76% of the front surface. In 1999, the Japanese firm NTT DoCoMo released the first smartphones to achieve mass adoption within a country, smartphones became widespread in the late 2000s. Most of those produced from 2012 onward have high-speed mobile broadband 4G LTE, motion sensors, in the third quarter of 2012, one billion smartphones were in use worldwide. Global smartphone sales surpassed the sales figures for regular cell phones in early 2013, devices that combined telephony and computing were first conceptualized by Nikola Tesla in 1909 and Theodore Paraskevakos in 1971 and patented in 1974, and were offered for sale beginning in 1993. Paraskevakos was the first to introduce the concepts of intelligence, data processing and they were installed at Peoples Telephone Company in Leesburg, Alabama and were demonstrated to several telephone companies. The original and historic working models are still in the possession of Paraskevakos, the first mobile phone to incorporate PDA features was a prototype developed by Frank Canova in 1992 while at IBM and demonstrated that year at the COMDEX computer industry trade show. It included PDA features and other mobile applications such as maps, stock reports. A refined version was marketed to consumers in 1994 by BellSouth under the name Simon Personal Communicator, the Simon was the first commercially available device that could be properly referred to as a smartphone, although it was not called that in 1994. The term smart phone appeared in print as early as 1995, in the mid-late 1990s, many mobile phone users carried a separate dedicated PDA device, running early versions of operating systems such as Palm OS, BlackBerry OS or Windows CE/Pocket PC. These operating systems would later evolve into mobile operating systems, in March 1996, Hewlett-Packard released the OmniGo 700LX, a modified HP 200LX palmtop PC that supported a Nokia 2110 phone with ROM-based software to support it. It had a 640×200 resolution CGA compatible four-shade gray-scale LCD screen and could be used to place and receive calls and it was also 100% DOS5.0 compatible, allowing it to run thousands of existing software titles, including early versions of Windows. In August 1996, Nokia released the Nokia 9000 Communicator, a cellular phone based on the Nokia 2110 with an integrated PDA based on the PEN/GEOS3.0 operating system from Geoworks. The two components were attached by a hinge in what known as a clamshell design, with the display above. The PDA provided e-mail, calendar, address book, calculator and notebook applications, text-based Web browsing, when closed, the device could be used as a digital cellular phone. In June 1999 Qualcomm released the pdQ Smartphone, a CDMA digital PCS Smartphone with an integrated Palm PDA, subsequent landmark devices included, The Ericsson R380 by Ericsson Mobile Communications. The first device marketed as a smartphone, it combined the functions of a phone and PDA. The Kyocera 6035 introduced by Palm, Inc, combining a PDA with a mobile phone, it operated on the Verizon network, and supported limited Web browsing
5.
Watch
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A watch is a small timepiece intended to be carried or worn by a person. It is designed to keep working despite the motions caused by the persons activities, a wristwatch is designed to be worn around the wrist, attached by a watch strap or other type of bracelet. A pocket watch is designed for a person to carry in a pocket, watches evolved in the 17th century from spring-powered clocks, which appeared as early as the 14th century. During most of its history the watch was a device, driven by clockwork, powered by winding a mainspring. In the 1960s the electronic quartz watch was invented, which was powered by a battery, by the 1980s the quartz watch had taken over most of the market from the mechanical watch. Today most inexpensive and medium-priced watches, used mainly for timekeeping, have quartz movements, various extra features, called complications, such as moon-phase displays and the different types of tourbillon, are sometimes included. Modern watches often display the day, date, month and year, time-related features such as timers, chronographs and alarm functions are common. Some modern designs incorporate calculators, GPS and Bluetooth technology or have heart-rate monitoring capabilities, some watches use radio clock technology to regularly correct the time. Developments in the 2010s include smartwatches, which are elaborate computer-like electronic devices designed to be worn on a wrist and they generally incorporate timekeeping functions, but these are only small fractions of what the smartwatch can do. The study of timekeeping is known as horology, watches evolved from portable spring-driven clocks, which first appeared in 15th century Europe. Watches werent widely worn in pockets until the 17th century, one account says that the word watch came from the Old English word woecce which meant watchman, because it was used by town watchmen to keep track of their shifts at work. Another says that the term came from 17th century sailors, who used the new mechanisms to time the length of their shipboard watches, the increased accuracy of the balance wheel focused attention on errors caused by other parts of the movement, igniting a two-century wave of watchmaking innovation. The first thing to be improved was the escapement, the verge escapement was replaced in quality watches by the cylinder escapement, invented by Thomas Tompion in 1695 and further developed by George Graham in the 1720s. The British had predominated in watch manufacture for much of the 17th and 18th centuries, aaron Lufkin Dennison started a factory in 1851 in Massachusetts that used interchangeable parts, and by 1861 it was running a successful enterprise incorporated as the Waltham Watch Company. The concept of the wristwatch goes back to the production of the very earliest watches in the 16th century, elizabeth I of England received a wristwatch from Robert Dudley in 1571, described as an arm watch. The oldest surviving wristwatch is one made in 1806 and given to Joséphine de Beauharnais, from the beginning, wrist watches were almost exclusively worn by women, while men used pocket-watches up until the early 20th century. The Garstin Company of London patented a Watch Wristlet design in 1893, officers in the British Army began using wristwatches during colonial military campaigns in the 1880s, such as during the Anglo-Burma War of 1885. In continental Europe Girard-Perregaux and other Swiss watch makers began supplying German naval officers with wrist watches in about 1880 and these early models were essentially standard pocket-watches fitted to a leather strap but, by the early 20th century, manufacturers began producing purpose-built wristwatches
6.
Mobile computing
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Mobile computing is human–computer interaction by which a computer is expected to be transported during normal usage, which allows for transmission of data, voice and video. Mobile computing involves mobile communication, mobile hardware, and mobile software, communication issues include ad hoc networks and infrastructure networks as well as communication properties, protocols, data formats and concrete technologies. Hardware includes mobile devices or device components, Mobile software deals with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications. Portability, Facilitates movement of device within the computing environment. Individuality, Adapting the technology to suit individual needs, or Portability, Devices/nodes connected within the mobile computing system should facilitate mobility. These devices may have limited device capabilities and limited power supply, connectivity, This defines the quality of service of the network connectivity. Interactivity, The nodes belonging to a computing system are connected with one another to communicate and collaborate through active transactions of data. Mobile phones including a key set primarily intended but not restricted to for vocal communications, as smartphones, cell phones, feature phones. The existence of these classes is expected to be long lasting and these networks are usually available within range of commercial cell phone towers. High speed network wireless LANs are inexpensive but have limited range. Security standards, When working mobile, one is dependent on public networks, security is a major concern while concerning the mobile computing standards on the fleet. One can easily attack the VPN through a number of networks interconnected through the line. Power consumption, When a power outlet or portable generator is not available, mobile computers must rely entirely on battery power, combined with the compact size of many mobile devices, this often means unusually expensive batteries must be used to obtain the necessary battery life. Transmission interferences, Weather, terrain, and the range from the nearest signal point can all interfere with signal reception, reception in tunnels, some buildings, and rural areas is often poor. Potential health hazards, People who use mobile devices while driving are often distracted from driving and are thus assumed more likely to be involved in traffic accidents, cell phones may interfere with sensitive medical devices. Questions concerning mobile phone radiation and health have been raised, human interface with device, Screens and keyboards tend to be small, which may make them hard to use. Alternate input methods such as speech or handwriting recognition require training, many commercial and government field forces deploy a rugged portable computer with their fleet of vehicles. This requires the units to be anchored to the vehicle for safety, device security
7.
Accelerometer
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An accelerometer is a device that measures proper acceleration, proper acceleration is not the same as coordinate acceleration. For example, an accelerometer at rest on the surface of the Earth will measure an acceleration due to Earths gravity, by contrast, accelerometers in free fall will measure zero. Accelerometers have multiple applications in industry and science, highly sensitive accelerometers are components of inertial navigation systems for aircraft and missiles. Accelerometers are used to detect and monitor vibration in rotating machinery, accelerometers are used in tablet computers and digital cameras so that images on screens are always displayed upright. Accelerometers are used in drones for flight stabilisation, coordinated accelerometers can be used to measure differences in proper acceleration, particularly gravity, over their separation in space, i. e. gradient of the gravitational field. This gravity gradiometry is useful because absolute gravity is a weak effect, micromachined accelerometers are increasingly present in portable electronic devices and video game controllers, to detect the position of the device or provide for game input. An accelerometer measures proper acceleration, which is the acceleration it experiences relative to freefall and is the acceleration felt by people and objects. Put another way, at any point in spacetime the equivalence principle guarantees the existence of an inertial frame. Such accelerations are popularly denoted g-force, i. e. in comparison to standard gravity, an accelerometer at rest relative to the Earths surface will indicate approximately 1 g upwards, because any point on the Earths surface is accelerating upwards relative to the local inertial frame. The reason for the appearance of an offset is Einsteins equivalence principle. For similar reasons, an accelerometer will read zero during any type of free fall and this includes use in a coasting spaceship in deep space far from any mass, a spaceship orbiting the Earth, an airplane in a parabolic zero-g arc, or any free-fall in vacuum. Another example is free-fall at a high altitude that atmospheric effects can be neglected. However this does not include a fall in air resistance produces drag forces that reduce the acceleration. At terminal velocity the accelerometer will indicate 1 g acceleration upwards, Acceleration is quantified in the SI unit metres per second per second, in the cgs unit gal, or popularly in terms of standard gravity. For the practical purpose of finding the acceleration of objects with respect to the Earth, such as for use in a navigation system. This can be obtained either by calibrating the device at rest, conceptually, an accelerometer behaves as a damped mass on a spring. When the accelerometer experiences an acceleration, the mass is displaced to the point that the spring is able to accelerate the mass at the rate as the casing. The displacement is measured to give the acceleration
8.
Thermometer
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A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient. A thermometer has two important elements, a sensor in which some physical change occurs with temperature. Thermometers are widely used in industry to control and regulate processes, in the study of weather, in medicine, there are various principles by which different thermometers operate. They include the expansion of solids or liquids with temperature. Radiation-type thermometers measure the energy emitted by an object, allowing measurement of temperature without contact. Most metals are good conductors of heat and they are solids at room temperature, Mercury is the only one in liquid state at room temperature, and has high coefficient of expansion. Hence, the slightest change in temperature is notable when its used in a thermometer and this is the reason behind mercury and alcohol being used in thermometer. Some of the principles of the thermometer were known to Greek philosophers of two years ago. The modern thermometer gradually evolved from the thermoscope with the addition of a scale in the early 17th century, while an individual thermometer is able to measure degrees of hotness, the readings on two thermometers cannot be compared unless they conform to an agreed scale. Today there is a thermodynamic temperature scale. Internationally agreed temperature scales are designed to approximate this closely, based on fixed points, the most recent official temperature scale is the International Temperature Scale of 1990. It extends from 0.65 K to approximately 1,358 K, various authors have credited the invention of the thermometer to Hero of Alexandria. The thermometer was not an invention, however, but a development. The expansion and contraction of the air caused the position of the interface to move along the tube. Such a mechanism was used to show the hotness and coldness of the air with a tube in which the water level is controlled by the expansion and contraction of the gas. These devices were developed by several European scientists in the 16th and 17th centuries, as a result, devices were shown to produce this effect reliably, and the term thermoscope was adopted because it reflected the changes in sensible heat. The difference between a thermoscope and a thermometer is that the latter has a scale, though Galileo is often said to be the inventor of the thermometer, what he produced were thermoscopes. The first clear diagram of a thermoscope was published in 1617 by Giuseppe Biancani and this was a vertical tube, closed by a bulb of air at the top, with the lower end opening into a vessel of water
9.
Heart rate monitor
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This article refers to a device used by non-scientists. For the article on the medical device performing a similar function, a heart rate monitor is a personal monitoring device that allows one to measure ones heart rate in real time or record the heart rate for later study. It is largely used by performers of various types of physical exercise, early models consisted of a monitoring box with a set of electrode leads which attached to the chest. The first wireless EKG heart rate monitor was invented in 1977 by Seppo Säynäjäkangas, as an aid for the Finnish National Cross Country Ski team. As intensity training became a concept in athletic circles in the mid-80s. Modern heart rate monitors usually comprise two elements, a chest strap transmitter and a wrist receiver or mobile phone, in early plastic straps, water or liquid was required to get good performance. Later units have used conductive smart fabric with built-in microprocessors that analyze the EKG signal to determine heart rate, more recent devices utilise optics to measure heart rate using Infrared light. This is achieved by production of infrared light by a bulb, as Infrared light is absorbed by the blood. If it is darker, due the pulse causing a temporary increase in the amount of blood that is travelling through the measured area. Strapless heart rate monitors now allow the user to just touch two sensors on a display for a few seconds to view heart rate data. These are popular for comfort and ease of use, though they dont give as much detail as monitors that use a chest strap, some models of these variations of heart rate monitors utilise an infrared sensor to measure the heart rate, as opposed to two electrodes. More advanced models offer measurements of heart rate variability, activity, sensor fusion algorithms allow these monitors to detect core temperature and dehydration. Another style of heart rate monitor replaces the plastic around-the-chest strap with fabric sensors - the most common of these is a bra for women that includes sensors in the fabric. In old versions, when a beat is detected a radio signal is transmitted. This signal can be a radio pulse or a unique coded signal from the chest strap. Newer versions include a microprocessor, which is monitoring the EKG and calculating the heart rate. These may include accelerometers that can detect speed and distance, eliminating the need for foot worn devices, there are a wide number of receiver designs, with various features. The receiver can be built into a smartwatch or smartphone, wrist bands with integrated sensor work optically, and have poor accuracy
10.
Google Glass
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Google Glass was an optical head-mounted display designed in the shape of a pair of eyeglasses. It was developed by X with the mission of producing a ubiquitous computer, Google Glass displayed information in a smartphone-like hands-free format. Wearers communicated with the Internet via natural language voice commands. Google started selling a prototype of Google Glass to qualified Glass Explorers in the US on April 15,2013, for a period for $1,500. It also had an attached to it. The headset originally received a deal of criticism and legislative action due to privacy. On January 15,2015, Google announced that it would stop producing the Google Glass prototype, Google Glass was developed by Google X, the facility within Google devoted to technological advancements such as driverless cars, led by Jaque Aldrich and his team of 27 prodigies. The Google Glass product leveraged the intellectual property and inventions created by futurist and technologist Jason Alan Snyder, the Google Glass prototype resembled standard eyeglasses with the lens replaced by a head-up display. In mid-2011, Google engineered a prototype that weighed 8 pounds, in April 2013, the Explorer Edition was made available to Google I/O developers in the United States for $1,500. The product was announced in April 2012. Sergey Brin wore a prototype of the Glass to an April 5,2012, in May 2012, Google demonstrated for the first time how Google Glass could be used to shoot videos. Google provided four prescription frame choices for $225 and free with the purchase of any new Glass unit, Google entered in a partnership with the Italian eyewear company Luxottica, owners of the Ray-Ban, Oakley, and other brands, to offer additional frame designs. In June 2014, Nepal government adopted Google Glass for tackling poachers of wild animals and herbs of Chitwan International Park, in January 2015, Google ended the beta period of Glass. In early 2013, interested potential Glass users were invited to use a Twitter message, with hashtag #IfIHadGlass, on May 13,2014, Google announced a move to a more open beta, via its Google Plus page. In February 2015, The New York Times reported that Google Glass was being redesigned by former Apple executive Tony Fadell, and that it would not be released until he deemed it to be perfect. Touchpad, A touchpad is located on the side of Google Glass, sliding backward shows current events, such as weather, and sliding forward shows past events, such as phone calls, photos, circle updates, etc. Camera, Google Glass has the ability to take photos and record 720p HD video, display, The Explorer version of Google Glass uses a liquid crystal on silicon, field-sequential color system, LED illuminated display. The displays LED illumination is first P-polarized and then shines through the in-coupling polarizing beam splitter to the LCoS panel, the panel reflects the light and alters it to S-polarization at active pixel sensor sites
11.
Optical head-mounted display
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An optical head-mounted display is a wearable device that has the capability of reflecting projected images as well as allowing the user to see through it that is augmented reality. Various techniques have existed for see-through HMDs, most of these techniques can be summarized into two main families, Curved Mirror based and Waveguide or Light-guide based. The curved mirror technique has been used by Vuzix in their Star 1200 product, by Olympus, various waveguide techniques have existed for some time. These techniques include diffraction optics, holographic optics, polarized optics, Nokia technique now licensed to Vuzix. Holographic waveguide –3 holographic optical elements sandwiched together, used by Sony and Konica Minolta. Polarized waveguide –6 multilayer coated polarized reflectors in glass sandwich, reflective waveguide – thick light guide with single semi-reflective mirror. This technique is used by Epson in their Moverio product, Clear-Vu reflective waveguide – thin monolithic molded plastic w/ surface reflectors and conventional coatings developed by Optinvent and used in their ORA product. Switchable waveguide – developed by SBG Labs, head-mounted displays are not designed to be workstations, and traditional input devices such as keyboards do not support the concept of smart glasses. Mark Spitzer to develop advanced micro-optical devices reduced to the size of integrated circuits, the company was funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency through a contract with the U. S. Army Soldier Systems Command for the development of optical micro-electromechanical systems. In 1997, MicroOptical demonstrated the display in which the viewing optics were incorporated in the eyeglass lens. The eyeglasses display provided a 320x240 pixel resolution with 8 bit greyscale, on 16 June 2003, MicroOptical announced the availability of the SV-6 PC Viewer, the first eyewear-mounted display specifically designed for use with mobile personal computers. It was small, ultra-lightweight and highly ergonomic and could connect to mobile computing devices via a VGA output and its initial price tag was US$1995. In May 2008, the Crystal was launched at Amazon and Best Buy with the tag of $300. However, the company did not survive the 2008 recession, in August 2012, Mark Spitzer, formerly a principal scientist at Kopin Corporation and the founder and CEO of MicroOptical/MyVu, was hired by Google as a Director of Operations at Google X. In April 2013, Google acquired several of MicroOptical/MyVu patents from Foxconn, in 1997, Sony released the Glasstron, an HMD which included two LCD screens and two earphones for video and audio respectively. This recent filing is a continuation on patents filed in 2008 and 2009, in September 1998, IBM Japan demonstrated a wearable PC. Its components included a lightweight monocular head-mounted display with a resolution, headphones for sound and video, a controller / microphone for control. It ran Windows 98 and featured a 233 MHz Pentium MMX,64 MB of RAM and it could be controlled by voice commands or through a hand-held tracker ball
12.
Personal digital assistant
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A personal digital assistant, also known as a handheld PC, or personal data assistant, is a mobile device that functions as a personal information manager. PDAs were largely discontinued in the early 2010s after the adoption of highly capable smartphones, in particular those based on iOS. Nearly all PDAs have the ability to connect to the Internet, a PDA has an electronic visual display, letting it include a web browser. All models also have audio capabilities, allowing usage as a media player. Most PDAs can access the Internet, intranets or extranets via Wi-Fi or Wireless Wide Area Networks, the first PDA was released in 1984 by Psion, the Organizer, followed by Psions Series 3, in 1991. The latter began to resemble the more familiar PDA style, including a full keyboard, the term PDA was first used on January 7,1992 by Apple Computer CEO John Sculley at the Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Nevada, referring to the Apple Newton. In 1994, IBM introduced the first PDA with full mobile phone functionality, the IBM Simon, then in 1996, Nokia introduced a PDA with full mobile phone functionality, the 9000 Communicator, which became the worlds best-selling PDA. The Communicator spawned a new category of PDAs, the PDA phone, another early entrant in this market was Palm, with a line of PDA products which began in March 1996. A typical PDA has a touchscreen for entering data, a card slot for data storage. PDAs with wireless data connections also typically include an email client, many of the original PDAs, such as the Apple Newton and Palm Pilot, featured a touchscreen for user interaction, having only a few buttons—usually reserved for shortcuts to often-used programs. Some touchscreen PDAs, including Windows Mobile devices, had a stylus to facilitate making selections. The user interacts with the device by tapping the screen to select buttons or issue commands, typical methods of entering text on touchscreen PDAs include, A virtual keyboard, where a keyboard is shown on the touchscreen. Text is entered by tapping the on-screen keyboard with a finger or stylus, an external keyboard connected via USB, Infrared port, or Bluetooth. Some users may choose a chorded keyboard for one-handed use, handwriting recognition, where letters or words are written on the touchscreen, often with a stylus, and the PDA converts the input to text. Recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal and vertical formulas, such as 1 +2 =, stroke recognition allows the user to make a predefined set of strokes on the touchscreen, sometimes in a special input area, representing the various characters to be input. The strokes are often simplified character shapes, making them easier for the device to recognize, one widely known stroke recognition system is Palms Graffiti. Despite research and development projects, end-users experience mixed results with handwriting recognition systems, some find it frustrating and inaccurate, while others are satisfied with the quality of the recognition. Touchscreen PDAs intended for use, such as the BlackBerry and Palm Treo, usually also offer full keyboards and scroll wheels or thumbwheels to facilitate data entry
13.
Calculator
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An electronic calculator is a small, portable electronic device used to perform operations ranging from basic arithmetic to complex mathematics. The first solid state electronic calculator was created in the 1960s, building on the history of tools such as the abacus. It was developed in parallel with the computers of the day. The pocket sized devices became available in the 1970s, especially after the first microprocessor and they later became used commonly within the petroleum industry. Modern electronic calculators vary, from cheap, give-away, credit-card-sized models to sturdy desktop models with built-in printers and they became popular in the mid-1970s. By the end of decade, calculator prices had reduced to a point where a basic calculator was affordable to most. In addition to general purpose calculators, there are designed for specific markets. For example, there are scientific calculators which include trigonometric and statistical calculations, some calculators even have the ability to do computer algebra. Graphing calculators can be used to graph functions defined on the real line, as of 2016, basic calculators cost little, but the scientific and graphing models tend to cost more. In 1986, calculators still represented an estimated 41% of the worlds general-purpose hardware capacity to compute information, by 2007, this diminished to less than 0. 05%. Modern 2016 electronic calculators contain a keyboard with buttons for digits and arithmetical operations, most basic calculators assign only one digit or operation on each button, however, in more specific calculators, a button can perform multi-function working with key combinations. Large-sized figures and comma separators are used to improve readability. Various symbols for function commands may also be shown on the display, fractions such as 1⁄3 are displayed as decimal approximations, for example rounded to 0.33333333. Also, some fractions can be difficult to recognize in decimal form, as a result, Calculators also have the ability to store numbers into computer memory. Basic types of these only one number at a time. The variables can also be used for constructing formulas, some models have the ability to extend memory capacity to store more numbers, the extended memory address is termed an array index. Power sources of calculators are, batteries, solar cells or mains electricity, some models even have no turn-off button but they provide some way to put off. Crank-powered calculators were also common in the computer era
14.
Thermal management (electronics)
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All electronic devices and circuitry generate excess heat and thus require thermal management to improve reliability and prevent premature failure. The amount of output is equal to the power input. There are several techniques for cooling including various styles of heat sinks, thermoelectric coolers, forced air systems and fans, heat pipes, in cases of extreme low environmental temperatures, it may actually be necessary to heat the electronic components to achieve satisfactory operation. This is usually quoted as the resistance from junction to case of the semiconductor device. For example, a heatsink rated at 10 °C/W will get 10 °C hotter than the air when it dissipates 1 Watt of heat. Thus, a heatsink with a low value is more efficient than a heatsink with a high °C/W value. Given two semiconductor devices in the package, a lower junction to ambient resistance indicates a more efficient device. A heatsinks thermal mass can be considered as a capacitor and the resistance as an electrical resistance. Together, these two form a thermal RC circuit with an associated time constant given by the product of R and C. This quantity can be used to calculate the heat dissipation capability of a device. A thermal interface material or mastic is used to fill the gaps between thermal transfer surfaces, such as microprocessors and heatsinks, in order to increase thermal transfer efficiency. It has a thermal conductivity value in Z-direction than xy-direction. Due to recent technological developments and public interest, the heat sink market has reached an all-time high. In the early 2000s, CPUs were produced that emitted more and more heat than earlier, overclocking has always meant greater cooling needs, and the inherently hotter chips meant more concerns for the enthusiast. Many companies now compete to offer the best heat sink for PC overclocking enthusiasts, prominent aftermarket heat sink manufacturers include, Aero Cool, Foxconn, Thermalright, Thermaltake, Swiftech, and Zalman. Temporary heat sinks were sometimes used while soldering circuit boards, preventing heat from damaging sensitive nearby electronics. In the simplest case, this means partially gripping a component using a heavy metal crocodile clip or similar clamp, modern semiconductor devices, which are designed to be assembled by reflow soldering, can usually tolerate soldering temperatures without damage. On the other hand, electrical components such as magnetic reed switches can malfunction if exposed to higher powered soldering irons, Heat sinks are widely used in electronics, and have become almost essential to modern central processing units
15.
Software architecture
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Software architecture refers to the high level structures of a software system, the discipline of creating such structures, and the documentation of these structures. These structures are needed to reason about the software system, each structure comprises software elements, relations among them, and properties of both elements and relations. The architecture of a system is a metaphor, analogous to the architecture of a building. Software architecture is about making fundamental structural choices which are costly to change once implemented, Software architecture choices include specific structural options from possibilities in the design of software. For example, the systems that controlled the space launch vehicle had the requirement of being very fast. Therefore, an appropriate real-time computing language would need to be chosen, documenting software architecture facilitates communication between stakeholders, captures early decisions about the high-level design, and allows reuse of design components between projects. The important stuff—whatever that is, this refers to the fact that software architects should concern themselves with those decisions that have impact on the system. Following this line of thought, architectural design issues may become non-architectural once their irreversibility can be overcome and this insight has led to substantial research into software architecture knowledge management. There is no distinction between software architecture versus design and requirements engineering. They are all part of a chain of intentionality from high-level intentions to low-level details, Software architecture exhibits the following, Multitude of stakeholders, software systems have to cater to a variety of stakeholders such as business managers, owners, users and operators. These stakeholders all have their own concerns with respect to the system, balancing these concerns and demonstrating how they are addressed is part of designing the system. This implies that architecture involves dealing with a variety of concerns and stakeholders. Separation of concerns, the way for architects to reduce complexity is to separate the concerns that drive the design. Architecture documentation shows that all stakeholder concerns are addressed by modeling and describing the architecture from separate points of view associated with the various stakeholder concerns and these separate descriptions are called architectural views. Recurring styles, like building architecture, the software architecture discipline has developed ways to address recurring concerns. These standard ways are called by various names at various levels of abstraction, common terms for recurring solutions are architectural style, tactic, reference architecture and architectural pattern. This vision should be separated from its implementation, the architect assumes the role of keeper of the vision, making sure that additions to the system are in line with the architecture, hence preserving conceptual integrity. Software architecture is an intellectually graspable abstraction of a complex system and this abstraction provides a number of benefits, It gives a basis for analysis of software systems behavior before the system has been built
16.
Wireless
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Wireless communication, or sometimes simply wireless, is the transfer of information or power between two or more points that are not connected by an electrical conductor. The most common wireless technologies use radio waves, with radio waves distances can be short, such as a few meters for television or as far as thousands or even millions of kilometers for deep-space radio communications. It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable applications, including radios, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants. Somewhat less common methods of achieving wireless communications include the use of other wireless technologies, such as light, magnetic. The term wireless has been used twice in history, with slightly different meaning. It was initially used from about 1890 for the first radio transmitting and receiving technology, as in wireless telegraphy and this became its primary usage in the 2000s, due to the advent of technologies such as LTE, LTE-Advanced, Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. Wireless operations permit services, such as communications, that are impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is used in the telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems which use some form of energy to transfer information without the use of wires. Information is transferred in this manner over both short and long distances, similar to free-space optical communication, the photophone also required a clear line of sight between its transmitter and its receiver. It would be decades before the photophones principles found their first practical applications in military communications. Marconi soon developed a system that was transmitting signals way beyond distances anyone could have predicted, guglielmo Marconi and Karl Ferdinand Braun were awarded the 1909 Nobel Prize for Physics for their contribution to this form of wireless telegraphy. Free space means the light travel through the open air or outer space. This contrasts with other technologies that use light beams traveling through transmission lines such as optical fiber or dielectric light pipes. The technology is useful where physical connections are due to high costs or other considerations. Sonic, especially ultrasonic short range communication involves the transmission and reception of sound, electromagnetic induction has short range communication and power. This has been used in situations such as pacemakers, as well as for short-range Rfid tags. Common examples of wireless equipment include, Infrared and ultrasonic remote control devices Professional LMR and SMR typically used by business, industrial, consumer Two-way radio including FRS Family Radio Service, GMRS and Citizens band radios. Consumer and professional Marine VHF radios, airband and radio navigation equipment used by aviators and air traffic control Cellular telephones and pagers, provide connectivity for portable and mobile applications, both personal and business
17.
Smartwatch
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A smartwatch is a computerized wristwatch with functionality that goes beyond timekeeping. While early models can perform tasks, such as calculations, translations. Many run mobile apps, using an operating system. Some smartwatches function as media players, with FM radio and playback of digital audio. Some models, also called watch phones, feature full mobile phone capability, while internal hardware varies, most have an electronic visual display, either backlit LCD or OLED. Some use transflective or electronic paper, to less power. Most have a battery and many have a touchscreen. Peripheral devices may include digital cameras, thermometers, accelerometers, altimeters, barometers, compasses, GPS receivers, tiny speakers, software may include digital maps, schedulers and personal organizers, calculators, and various kinds of watch faces. The watch may communicate with devices such as sensors, wireless headsets. Like other computers, a smartwatch may collect information from internal or external sensors and it may control, or retrieve data from and it may support wireless technologies like Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and GPS. For many purposes, a wristwatch computer serves as a front end for a system such as a smartphone. Smartwatches are advancing, especially their design, battery capacity, many smartwatch models manufactured in the 2010s are completely functional as standalone products. Some serve as sport watches, the GPS tracking unit being used to record historical data, for example, after a workout, data can be uploaded onto a computer or online to create a log of activities for analysis or sharing. Some watches can serve as full GPS watches, displaying maps and current coordinates, users can mark their current location and then edit the entrys name and coordinates, which enables navigation to those new coordinates. As companies add competitive products into the market, media space is becoming a commodity on smart watches. With Apple, Sony, Samsung, and Motorola introducing their smart watch models and this is a dense market of tech consumers who possess buying power, which has attracted many advertisers. It is expected for mobile advertising on wearable devices to increase heavily by 2017 as advanced hypertargeting modules are introduced to the devices. In order for an advertisement to be effective on a smart watch, sport watch functionality often includes activity tracker features as seen in GPS watches made for training, diving, and outdoor sports
18.
Welding helmet
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A welding helmet is a type of headgear used when performing certain types of welding to protect the eyes, face and neck from flash burn, ultraviolet light, sparks, infrared light, and heat. Welding helmets are most commonly used arc welding processes such as shielded metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding. They are necessary to prevent arc eye, a condition where the cornea is inflamed. Welding helmets can also prevent retina burns, which can lead to a loss of vision, both conditions are caused by unprotected exposure to the highly concentrated ultraviolet and infrared rays emitted by the welding arc. Ultraviolet emissions from the arc can also damage uncovered skin. In addition to the radiation, gasses or splashes can also be a hazard to the skin, the modern welding helmet used today was first introduced in 1937 by Willson Products. Most welding helmets include a covered with a filter called a lens shade. In most helmets, the window may be made of tinted glass, tinted plastic, with such electronic auto-darkening helmets, the welder no longer has to get ready to weld and then nod their head to lower the helmet over their face. In January 2004, 3M acquired all assets of Hornell, including the Adflo and Speedglas auto darkening helmets brand name, Speedglas helmets are now sold by 3M. In the 1970s and 1980s, Steve Mann introduced the Generation-1 and Generation-2 Digital Eye Glass, some of the early versions of this apparatus were built into welding helmets, and used for welding. See also, IEEE Technology & Society 31 and the supplemental material entitled GlassEyes, the device is an example of the full Virtuality Mediality continuum, on both the Virtuality axis and the Mediality axis, thus being able to implement, for example, Diminished Reality. In the 1980s and early 1990s, Mann invented high-dynamic-range imaging which combines multiple images to allow highlights, all welding helmets are susceptible to damages such as cracks that can compromise the protection from ultraviolet and infrared rays. In addition to protecting the eyes, the helmet protects the face from hot metal sparks generated by the arc, when overhead welding, a leather skull cap and shoulder cover are used to prevent head and shoulder burns. Green glass goggles are needed use for torch welding and also have ANSI standards, when viewing metal that is visibly hot for longer periods protection is needed for the eyes. While it seems to be low light the wavelengths are bright in non-visible spectrum and these are easier to see through and wear than helmets. In the United States, the standard for welding helmets is ANSI Z87. 1+ which specifies performance of a wide variety of eye protection devices. The standard requires that auto-darkening helmets provide full protection against both UV and IR even when they are not in the darkened state, the standard is voluntary, so buyers should confirm that the helmet is ANSI Z87.1 compliant
19.
Health care
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It includes the work done in providing primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, as well as in public health. Access to healthcare varies across countries, groups, and individuals, largely influenced by social, countries and jurisdictions have different policies and plans in relation to the personal and population-based health care goals within their societies. Healthcare systems are organizations established to meet the needs of target populations. Their exact configuration varies between national and subnational entities, in some countries and jurisdictions, healthcare planning is distributed among market participants, whereas in others, planning occurs more centrally among governments or other coordinating bodies. Healthcare can contribute to a significant part of a countrys economy. In 2011, the healthcare industry consumed an average of 9.3 percent of the GDP or US$3,322 per capita across the 34 members of OECD countries.1 years, a gain of 10 years since 1970. The USA ranges only on place 26 among the 34 OECD member countries, all OECD countries have achieved universal health coverage, except Mexico and the USA. Healthcare is conventionally regarded as an important determinant in promoting the general physical and mental health, an example of this was the worldwide eradication of smallpox in 1980, declared by the WHO as the first disease in human history to be completely eliminated by deliberate health care interventions. The delivery of health care depends on groups of trained professionals and paraprofessionals coming together as interdisciplinary teams. Healthcare can be defined as public or private. Primary care refers to the work of professionals who act as a first point of consultation for all patients within the health care system. Depending on the nature of the condition, patients may then be referred for secondary or tertiary care. Primary care is used as the term for the health care services which play a role in the local community. It can be provided in different settings, such as Urgent care centres which provide services to patients same day with appointment or walk-in bases, consequently, a primary care practitioner must possess a wide breadth of knowledge in many areas. The International Classification of Primary Care is a tool for understanding and analyzing information on interventions in primary care by the reason for the patient visit. Common chronic illnesses usually treated in primary care may include, for example, hypertension, diabetes, asthma, COPD, depression and anxiety, back pain, Primary care also includes many basic maternal and child health care services, such as family planning services and vaccinations. Physicians in this model bill patients directly for services, either on a monthly, quarterly, or annual basis. Examples of direct primary care practices include Foundation Health in Colorado, the World Health Organization attributes the provision of essential primary care as an integral component of an inclusive primary health care strategy
20.
Monitoring (medicine)
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In medicine, monitoring is the observation of a disease, condition or one or several medical parameters over time. It can be performed by continuously measuring certain parameters by using a monitor, and/or by repeatedly performing medical tests. Transmitting data from a monitor to a distant monitoring station is known as telemetry or biotelemetry, a small monitor worn by an ambulatory patient for this purpose is known as a Holter monitor. Cardiac monitoring can also involve cardiac output monitoring via an invasive Swan-Ganz catheter, hemodynamic monitoring, which monitors the blood pressure and blood flow within the circulatory system. Blood pressure can be measured either invasively through a blood pressure transducer assembly. Also, there are special patient monitors which incorporate the monitoring of brain waves, gas concentrations, bispectral index. They are usually incorporated into anesthesia machines, in neurosurgery intensive care units, brain EEG monitors have a larger multichannel capability and can monitor other physiological events, as well. Blood glucose monitoring Childbirth monitoring Body temperature monitoring through an adhesive pad containing a thermoelectric transducer and these allow for continuous monitoring of a patient, with medical staff being continuously informed of the changes in general condition of a patient. Some monitors can even warn of pending fatal cardiac conditions before visible signs are noticeable to clinical staff, a medical monitor or physiological monitor is a medical device used for monitoring. It can consist of one or more sensors, processing components, display devices, sensors of medical monitors include biosensors and mechanical sensors. Besides the tracings of physiological parameters along time, digital medical displays have automated numeric readouts of the peak and/or average parameters displayed on the screen, old analog patient displays, in contrast, were based on oscilloscopes, and had one channel only, usually reserved for electrocardiographic monitoring. Therefore, medical monitors tended to be highly specialized, one monitor would track a patients blood pressure, while another would measure pulse oximetry, another the ECG. Later analog models had a second or third channel displayed in the screen, usually to monitor respiration movements. Ambulatory telemetry can also be achieved by portable, battery-operated models which are carried by the patient and this newer method of charting patient data reduces the likelihood of human documentation error and will eventually reduce overall paper consumption. In addition, automated ECG interpretation incorporates diagnostic codes automatically into the charts, long-distance connectivity can avail for telemedicine, which involves provision of clinical health care at a distance. A medical monitor can also have the function to produce an alarm to alert the staff when certain criteria are set, an entirely new scope is opened with mobile carried monitors, even such in sub-skin carriage. This class of monitors delivers information gathered in body-area networking to e. g. smart phones, monitoring of clinical parameters is primarily intended to detect changes in the clinical status of an individual. For example, the parameter of oxygen saturation is usually monitored to detect changes in respiratory capability of an individual, when monitoring a clinical parameters, differences between test results can reflect either an actual change in the status of the condition or a test-retest variability of the test method
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System
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A system is a set of interacting or interdependent component parts forming a complex or intricate whole. Every system is delineated by its spatial and temporal boundaries, surrounded and influenced by its environment, described by its structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Alternatively, and usually in the context of social systems. The term system comes from the Latin word systēma, in turn from Greek σύστημα systēma, whole compounded of several parts or members, system, according to Marshall McLuhan, System means something to look at. You must have a high visual gradient to have systematization. In philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no system, in the 19th century the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, who studied thermodynamics, pioneered the development of the concept of a system in the natural sciences. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the substance in steam engines. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, in 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term working body when referring to the system. The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the systems theory. Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby, who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, in the 1980s John H. Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term complex adaptive system at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute. Environment and boundaries Systems theory views the world as a system of interconnected parts. One scopes a system by defining its boundary, this means choosing which entities are inside the system, one can make simplified representations of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure and behavior of the system, Natural and human-made systems There are natural and human-made systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposefull by an observer, human-made systems are made to satisfy an identified and stated need with purposes that are achieved by the delivery of wanted outputs. Their parts must be related, they must be designed to work as a coherent entity – otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems, Theoretical framework An open system exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings. Most systems are open systems, like a car, a coffeemaker, a closed system exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment, like Earth or the project Biosphere2 or 3. An isolated system exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment, a theoretical example of such system is the Universe. Inputs are consumed, outputs are produced, the concept of input and output here is very broad
22.
E-textiles
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E-textiles, also known as smart garments, smart clothing, electronic textiles, smart textiles, or smart fabrics, are fabrics that enable digital components, and electronics to be embedded in them. Smart textiles are fabrics that have developed with new technologies that provide added value to the wearer. Smart textiles can be broken into two different categories, aesthetic and performance enhancing, aesthetic examples include fabrics that light up and fabrics that can change color. Some of these fabrics gather energy from the environment by harnessing vibrations, sound or heat, performance enhancing smart textiles are intended for use in athletic, extreme sports and military applications. These include fabrics designed to body temperature, reduce wind resistance. Other fabrics have been developed for clothing, to guard against extreme environmental hazards, such as radiation. The health and beauty industry is taking advantage of these innovations, which range from drug-releasing medical textiles, to fabric with moisturizer, perfume. Many smart clothing, wearable technology, and wearable computing projects involve the use of e-textiles, electronic textiles are distinct from wearable computing because emphasis is placed on the seamless integration of textiles with electronic elements like microcontrollers, sensors, and actuators. Furthermore, e-textiles need not be wearable, for instance, e-textiles are also found in interior design. The related field of fibretronics explores how electronic and computational functionality can be integrated into textile fibers, a new report from Cientifica Research examines the markets for textile based wearable technologies, the companies producing them and the enabling technologies. The report identifies three distinct generations of textile wearable technologies, First generation attach a sensor to apparel, in third generation wearables, the garment is the sensor. A growing number of companies are creating pressure, strain and temperature sensors for this purpose, future applications for e-textiles may be developed for sports and well-being products, and medical devices for patient monitoring. Technical textiles, fashion and entertainment will also be significant applications, the basic materials needed to construct e-textiles, conductive threads and fabrics have been around for over 1000 years. In particular, artisans have been wrapping fine metal foils, most often gold and silver, many of Queen Elizabeth Is gowns, for example, are embroidered with gold-wrapped threads. For example, in the late 1800s, a person could hire young women adorned in light-studded evening gowns from the Electric Girl Lighting Company to provide cocktail party entertainment. In 1968, the Museum of Contemporary Craft in New York City held an exhibition called Body Covering that focused on the relationship between technology and apparel. The show featured astronauts space suits along with clothing that could inflate and deflate, light up, in 1985, inventor Harry Wainwright created the first fully animated sweatshirt. The shirt consisted of fiber optics, leads, and a microprocessor to control individual frames of animation, the result was a full color cartoon displayed on the surface of the shirt. C
23.
Fashion design
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Fashion design is the art of application of design and aesthetics or natural beauty to clothing and accessories. Fashion design is influenced by cultural and social attitudes, and has varied over time, Fashion designers work in a number of ways in designing clothing and accessories such as bracelets and necklace. Because of the required to bring a garment onto the market. Fashion designers attempt to design clothes which are functional as well as aesthetically pleasing and they consider who is likely to wear a garment and the situations in which it will be worn. They have a range and combinations of materials to work with. Though most clothing worn for everyday wear falls within a range of conventional styles. Some clothes are made specifically for an individual, as in the case of haute couture or bespoke tailoring, today, most clothing is designed for the mass market, especially casual and every-day wear are called ready to wear. Fashion designers may work full-time for one house, as in-house designers. They may work alone or as part of a team, freelance designers work for themselves, selling their designs to fashion houses, directly to shops, or to clothing manufacturers. The garments bear the buyers label, some fashion designers set up their own labels, under which their designs are marketed. Some fashion designers are self-employed and design for individual clients, other high-end fashion designers cater to specialty stores or high-end fashion department stores. These designers create original garments, as well as those that follow established fashion trends, most fashion designers, however, work for apparel manufacturers, creating designs of mens, womens, and childrens fashions for the mass market. Fashion designers work in different ways, some sketch their ideas on paper, while others drape fabric on a dress form. Finally, a garment is made up and tested on a model to make sure it is an operational outfit. Fashion design is considered to have started in the 19th century with Charles Frederick Worth who was the first designer to have his label sewn into the garments that he created. Before the former draper set up his maison couture in Paris, clothing design and creation was handled by largely anonymous seamstresses, worths success was such that he was able to dictate to his customers what they should wear, instead of following their lead as earlier dressmakers had done. The term couturier was in fact first created in order to describe him, while all articles of clothing from any time period are studied by academics as costume design, only clothing created after 1858 is considered as fashion design. It was during this period that many design houses began to hire artists to sketch or paint designs for garments, the images were shown to clients, which was much cheaper than producing an actual sample garment in the workroom
24.
User interface
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The user interface, in the industrial design field of human–computer interaction, is the space where interactions between humans and machines occur. Examples of this concept of user interfaces include the interactive aspects of computer operating systems, hand tools, heavy machinery operator controls. The design considerations applicable when creating user interfaces are related to or involve such disciplines as ergonomics and psychology. Generally, the goal of user interface design is to produce a user interface makes it easy, efficient. This generally means that the needs to provide minimal input to achieve the desired output. Other terms for user interface are man–machine interface and when the machine in question is a computer human–computer interface, the user interface or human–machine interface is the part of the machine that handles the human–machine interaction. Membrane switches, rubber keypads and touchscreens are examples of the part of the Human Machine Interface which we can see. In complex systems, the interface is typically computerized. The term human–computer interface refers to this kind of system, in the context of computing the term typically extends as well to the software dedicated to control the physical elements used for human-computer interaction. The engineering of the interfaces is enhanced by considering ergonomics. The corresponding disciplines are human factors engineering and usability engineering, which is part of systems engineering, tools used for incorporating human factors in the interface design are developed based on knowledge of computer science, such as computer graphics, operating systems, programming languages. Nowadays, we use the graphical user interface for human–machine interface on computers. There is a difference between a user interface and an interface or a human–machine interface. A human-machine interface is typically local to one machine or piece of equipment, an operator interface is the interface method by which multiple equipment that are linked by a host control system is accessed or controlled. The system may expose several user interfaces to serve different kinds of users, for example, a computerized library database might provide two user interfaces, one for library patrons and the other for library personnel. The user interface of a system, a vehicle or an industrial installation is sometimes referred to as the human–machine interface. HMI is a modification of the original term MMI, in practice, the abbreviation MMI is still frequently used although some may claim that MMI stands for something different now. Another abbreviation is HCI, but is commonly used for human–computer interaction
25.
Augmented reality
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Augmented reality is a live direct or indirect view of a physical, real-world environment whose elements are augmented by computer-generated sensory input such as sound, video, graphics or GPS data. It is related to a general concept called mediated reality. As a result, the functions by enhancing one’s current perception of reality. By contrast, virtual reality replaces the real world with a simulated one, augmentation is conventionally in real time and in semantic context with environmental elements, such as sports scores on TV during a match. With the help of advanced AR technology the information about the real world of the user becomes interactive. Information about the environment and its objects is overlaid on the real world and this information can be virtual or real, e. g. seeing other real sensed or measured information such as electromagnetic radio waves overlaid in exact alignment with where they actually are in space. Augmented reality brings out the components of the world into a persons perceived real world. One example is an AR Helmet for construction workers which displays information about the construction sites, hardware components for augmented reality are, processor, display, sensors and input devices. Various technologies are used in Augmented Reality rendering including optical projection systems, monitors, hand held devices, a head-mounted display is a display device paired to the forehead such as a harness or helmet. HMDs place images of both the world and virtual objects over the users field of view. Modern HMDs often employ sensors for six degrees of freedom monitoring that allow the system to align virtual information to the physical world, HMDs can provide VR users mobile and collaborative experiences. Specific providers, such as uSens and Gestigon, are even including gesture controls for full virtual immersion, in January 2015, Meta launched a project led by Horizons Ventures, Tim Draper, Alexis Ohanian, BOE Optoelectronics and Garry Tan. On February 17,2016, Meta announced their product at TED. AR displays can be rendered on devices resembling eyeglasses, a head-up display, also known as a HUD, is a transparent display that presents data without requiring users to look away from their usual viewpoints. Near eye augmented reality devices can be used as portable head-up displays as they can show data, information, many definitions of augmented reality only define it as overlaying the information. CrowdOptic technology can be used by Google Glass users to learn where to look at a point in time. In January 2015, Microsoft introduced HoloLens, which is an independent smartglasses unit, First impressions and opinions have been generally that HoloLens is a superior device to the Google Glass, and manages to do several things right in which Glass failed. Contact lenses that display AR imaging are in development and these bionic contact lenses might contain the elements for display embedded into the lens including integrated circuitry, LEDs and an antenna for wireless communication
26.
Pattern recognition
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Pattern recognition systems are in many cases trained from labeled training data, but when no labeled data are available other algorithms can be used to discover previously unknown patterns. The terms pattern recognition, machine learning, data mining and knowledge discovery in databases are hard to separate, in pattern recognition, there may be a higher interest to formalize, explain and visualize the pattern, while machine learning traditionally focuses on maximizing the recognition rates. In machine learning, pattern recognition is the assignment of a label to an input value. In statistics, discriminant analysis was introduced for this purpose in 1936. An example of pattern recognition is classification, which attempts to assign each input value to one of a set of classes. However, pattern recognition is a general problem that encompasses other types of output as well. Pattern recognition algorithms generally aim to provide an answer for all possible inputs and to perform most likely matching of the inputs. This is opposed to pattern matching algorithms, which look for matches in the input with pre-existing patterns. Pattern recognition is generally categorized according to the type of learning procedure used to generate the output value, supervised learning assumes that a set of training data has been provided, consisting of a set of instances that have been properly labeled by hand with the correct output. A combination of the two that has recently been explored is semi-supervised learning, which uses a combination of labeled and unlabeled data. Note that in cases of unsupervised learning, there may be no training data at all to speak of, in other words, Note that sometimes different terms are used to describe the corresponding supervised and unsupervised learning procedures for the same type of output. Note also that in some fields, the terminology is different, For example, in community ecology, the piece of input data for which an output value is generated is formally termed an instance. The instance is formally described by a vector of features, which constitute a description of all known characteristics of the instance. Typically, features are either categorical, ordinal, integer-valued or real-valued, often, categorical and ordinal data are grouped together, likewise for integer-valued and real-valued data. Furthermore, many algorithms work only in terms of categorical data, many common pattern recognition algorithms are probabilistic in nature, in that they use statistical inference to find the best label for a given instance. Unlike other algorithms, which output a best label, often probabilistic algorithms also output a probability of the instance being described by the given label. In addition, many probabilistic algorithms output a list of the N-best labels with associated probabilities, for some value of N, when the number of possible labels is fairly small, N may be set so that the probability of all possible labels is output. Probabilistic algorithms have many advantages over non-probabilistic algorithms, They output a confidence value associated with their choice, correspondingly, they can abstain when the confidence of choosing any particular output is too low
27.
Disability
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Disability is an impairment that may be cognitive, developmental, intellectual, mental, physical, sensory, or some combination of these. It substantially affects a persons activities and may be present from birth or occur during a persons lifetime. Disabilities is a term, covering impairments, activity limitations. Disability is thus not just a health problem and it is a complex phenomenon, reflecting the interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society in which he or she lives. Disability is a concept, with different meanings for different communities. It may be used to refer to physical or mental attributes that some institutions, particularly medicine and it may refer to limitations imposed on people by the constraints of an ableist society. Or the term may serve to refer to the identity of people with disabilities, debates about proper terminology and their implied politics continue in disability communities and the academic field of disability studies. In some countries, the law requires that disabilities are documented by a provider in order to assess qualifications for disability benefits. During the Middle Ages, madness and other conditions were thought to be caused by demons and they were also thought to be part of the natural order, especially during and in the fallout of the Plague, which wrought impairments throughout the general population. Contemporary concepts of disability are rooted in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century developments, foremost among these was the development of clinical medical discourse, which made the human body visible as a thing to be manipulated, studied, and transformed. These worked in tandem with scientific discourses that sought to classify and categorize and, in so doing, became methods of normalization. The concept of the norm developed in time period, and is signaled in the work of the French statistician Alphonse Quetelet. Quetelet postulated that one could take the sum of all attributes in a given population and find their average. Disability, as well as other concepts including, abnormal, non-normal, the circulation of these concepts is evident in the popularity of the freak show, where showmen profited from exhibiting people who deviated from those norms. With the rise of eugenics in the part of the nineteenth century. With disability viewed as part of a persons biological make-up and thus their genetic inheritance, various metrics for assessing a persons genetic fitness, which were then used to deport, sterilize, or institutionalize those deemed unfit. In the early 1970s, disability activists began to challenge how society treated people with disabilities, due to this work, physical barriers to access were identified. These conditions functionally disabled them, and what is now known as the model of disability emerged
28.
Steve Mann
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Steven Mann is a Canadian researcher and inventor best known for his work on computational photography, particularly wearable computing and high dynamic range imaging. Mann holds a PhD in Media Arts from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, B. Eng. and M. Eng. from McMaster University in 1987,1989 and 1992, respectively. He was also inducted into the McMaster University Alumni Hall of Fame, Alumni Gallery 2004, in recognition of his career as an inventor and teacher. In 2004 he was named the recipient of the 2004 Leonardo Award for Excellence for his article Existential Technology, many of Manns inventions pertain to the field of computational photography. This is called the Video Orbits algorithm and he was also the first to propose and implement an algorithm to automatically extend dynamic range in an image by combining multiple differently exposed pictures of the same subject matter. Manns work on wearable computing was motivated by his early computer systems that helped people see better. Integral kinematics and integral kinesiology, principles of negative derivatives of displacement, such as absement and this work has been built-upon by others, and also forms the basis for a new way of understanding electrical engineering, based on using the electrical analog of absement as the base unit. See also Integral Kinematics and Integral Kinesiology Hydraulophone, Mann invented a musical instrument that uses pressurized hydraulic fluid, such as water. The instrument is played by placing the fingers in direct contact with the hydraulic fluid. Sensory Singularity, together with Marvin Minsky and Ray Kurzweil, Mann proposed the theory of the Sensularity Sensory Singularity, Mann also works in the fields of computer-mediated reality. He is an advocate of privacy rights, for which work he was an award recipient of the Chalmers Foundation in the fine arts. His work also extends to the area of sousveillance, Mann and one of his PhD students, James Fung, together with some of his other students, have been building a cyborg community around the cyborg-logging concept. Mann, together with Professor Ian Kerr at the University of Ottawa, have written extensively on surveillance, sousveillance and he has created the related concept of humanistic intelligence. Joi Ito, a researcher in moblogging, credits Mann with having initiated the moblogging movement by creating a system for transmission of realtime pictures, video. The anonequity project is ongoing, and collaborator Kerr has also researched and lectured widely on implantable technologies, thorp and Claude Shannons, timing devices concealed in shoes cigarette packs for cheating at a game of roulette. Mann is author of more than 200 publications, including a textbook on electric eyeglasses, the subsequent media coverage resulted in Mann being successful in contacting McDonalds Head of Customer Service, but only to receive a denial, not an apology. Mann requested a review of the video recordings from the many surveillance cameras in this McDonalds establishment. Subsequently, Mann sent a much shorter letter, in French, to McDonalds Head of Customer Service, in this context, Mann also formalized the concept of McVeillance as placing people under surveillance while simultaneously forbidding them from using their own cameras
29.
Elizabeth I of England
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Elizabeth I was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, his second wife, who was executed two and a half years after Elizabeths birth. Annes marriage to Henry VIII was annulled, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate, edwards will was set aside and Mary became queen, deposing Lady Jane Grey. During Marys reign, Elizabeth was imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels, in 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister to the throne and set out to rule by good counsel. She depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers, led by William Cecil, one of her first actions as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement was to evolve into the Church of England and it was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir to continue the Tudor line. She never did, despite numerous courtships, as she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity. A cult grew around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, in government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and half-siblings had been. One of her mottoes was video et taceo, in religion, she was relatively tolerant and avoided systematic persecution. Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs, manoeuvring between the powers of France and Spain. She only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France, by the mid-1580s, England could no longer avoid war with Spain. Englands defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 associated Elizabeth with one of the greatest military victories in English history, Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era. Some historians depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, sometimes indecisive ruler, towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity. Such was the case with Elizabeths rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, after the short reigns of Elizabeths half-siblings, her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Elizabeth was born at Greenwich Palace and was named after both her grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard and she was the second child of Henry VIII of England born in wedlock to survive infancy. Her mother was Henrys second wife, Anne Boleyn, at birth, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne of England. She was baptised on 10 September, Archbishop Thomas Cranmer, the Marquess of Exeter, the Duchess of Norfolk, Elizabeth was two years and eight months old when her mother was beheaded on 19 May 1536, four months after Catherine of Aragons death from natural causes. Elizabeth was declared illegitimate and deprived of her place in the royal succession, eleven days after Anne Boleyns execution, Henry married Jane Seymour, who died shortly after the birth of their son, Prince Edward, in 1537
30.
Algorithm
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In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm is a self-contained sequence of actions to be performed. Algorithms can perform calculation, data processing and automated reasoning tasks, an algorithm is an effective method that can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time and in a well-defined formal language for calculating a function. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic, some algorithms, known as randomized algorithms, giving a formal definition of algorithms, corresponding to the intuitive notion, remains a challenging problem. In English, it was first used in about 1230 and then by Chaucer in 1391, English adopted the French term, but it wasnt until the late 19th century that algorithm took on the meaning that it has in modern English. Another early use of the word is from 1240, in a manual titled Carmen de Algorismo composed by Alexandre de Villedieu and it begins thus, Haec algorismus ars praesens dicitur, in qua / Talibus Indorum fruimur bis quinque figuris. Which translates as, Algorism is the art by which at present we use those Indian figures, the poem is a few hundred lines long and summarizes the art of calculating with the new style of Indian dice, or Talibus Indorum, or Hindu numerals. An informal definition could be a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations, which would include all computer programs, including programs that do not perform numeric calculations. Generally, a program is only an algorithm if it stops eventually, but humans can do something equally useful, in the case of certain enumerably infinite sets, They can give explicit instructions for determining the nth member of the set, for arbitrary finite n. An enumerably infinite set is one whose elements can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the integers, the concept of algorithm is also used to define the notion of decidability. That notion is central for explaining how formal systems come into being starting from a set of axioms. In logic, the time that an algorithm requires to complete cannot be measured, from such uncertainties, that characterize ongoing work, stems the unavailability of a definition of algorithm that suits both concrete and abstract usage of the term. Algorithms are essential to the way computers process data, thus, an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations that can be simulated by a Turing-complete system. Although this may seem extreme, the arguments, in its favor are hard to refute. Gurevich. Turings informal argument in favor of his thesis justifies a stronger thesis, according to Savage, an algorithm is a computational process defined by a Turing machine. Typically, when an algorithm is associated with processing information, data can be read from a source, written to an output device. Stored data are regarded as part of the state of the entity performing the algorithm. In practice, the state is stored in one or more data structures, for some such computational process, the algorithm must be rigorously defined, specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise. That is, any conditional steps must be dealt with, case-by-case
31.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
32.
Qing dynasty
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It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the base for the modern Chinese state. The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in Manchuria, in the late sixteenth century, Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal, began organizing Banners, military-social units that included Jurchen, Han Chinese, and Mongol elements. Nurhaci formed the Jurchen clans into an entity, which he renamed as the Manchus. By 1636, his son Hong Taiji began driving Ming forces out of Liaodong and declared a new dynasty, in 1644, peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng conquered the Ming capital, Beijing. The Ten Great Campaigns of the Qianlong Emperor from the 1750s to the 1790s extended Qing control into Central Asia, the early rulers maintained their Manchu ways, and while their title was Emperor, they used khan to the Mongols and they were patrons of Tibetan Buddhism. They governed using Confucian styles and institutions of government and retained the imperial examinations to recruit Han Chinese to work under or in parallel with Manchus. They also adapted the ideals of the system in dealing with neighboring territories. The Qianlong reign saw the apogee and initial decline in prosperity. The population rose to some 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, corruption set in, rebels tested government legitimacy, and ruling elites did not change their mindsets in the face of changes in the world system. Following the Opium War, European powers imposed unequal treaties, free trade, the Taiping Rebellion and the Dungan Revolt in Central Asia led to the deaths of some 20 million people, most of them due to famines caused by war. In spite of disasters, in the Tongzhi Restoration of the 1860s, Han Chinese elites rallied to the defense of the Confucian order. The initial gains in the Self-Strengthening Movement were destroyed in the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895, in which the Qing lost its influence over Korea, New Armies were organized, but the ambitious Hundred Days Reform of 1898 was turned back by Empress Dowager Cixi, a conservative leader. Sun Yat-sen and other revolutionaries competed with reformist monarchists such as Kang Youwei, after the deaths of Cixi and the Guangxu Emperor in 1908, the hardline Manchu court alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on October 11,1911, led to the Xinhai Revolution, General Yuan Shikai negotiated the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, on February 12,1912. Nurhaci declared himself the Bright Khan of the Later Jin state in both of the 12–13th century Jurchen Jin dynasty and of his Aisin Gioro clan. His son Hong Taiji renamed the dynasty Great Qing in 1636, there are competing explanations on the meaning of Qīng. The character Qīng is composed of water and azure, both associated with the water element and this association would justify the Qing conquest as defeat of fire by water
33.
Abacus
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The exact origin of the abacus is still unknown. Today, abaci are often constructed as a frame with beads sliding on wires. The use of the word abacus dates before 1387 AD, when a Middle English work borrowed the word from Latin to describe a sandboard abacus, the Latin word came from Greek ἄβαξ abax which means something without base, and improperly, any piece of rectangular board or plank. Alternatively, without reference to ancient texts on etymology, it has suggested that it means a square tablet strewn with dust. Whereas the table strewn with dust definition is popular, there are those that do not place credence in this at all, Greek ἄβαξ itself is probably a borrowing of a Northwest Semitic, perhaps Phoenician, word akin to Hebrew ʾābāq, dust. The preferred plural of abacus is a subject of disagreement, with both abacuses and abaci in use, the user of an abacus is called an abacist. The period 2700–2300 BC saw the first appearance of the Sumerian abacus, some scholars point to a character from the Babylonian cuneiform which may have been derived from a representation of the abacus. Archaeologists have found ancient disks of various sizes that are thought to have used as counters. However, wall depictions of this instrument have not been discovered, during the Achaemenid Empire, around 600 BC the Persians first began to use the abacus. The earliest archaeological evidence for the use of the Greek abacus dates to the 5th century BC, also Demosthenes talked of the need to use pebbles for calculations too difficult for your head. The Greek abacus was a table of wood or marble, pre-set with small counters in wood or metal for mathematical calculations and this Greek abacus saw use in Achaemenid Persia, the Etruscan civilization, Ancient Rome and, until the French Revolution, the Western Christian world. A tablet found on the Greek island Salamis in 1846 AD, dates back to 300 BC and it is a slab of white marble 149 cm long,75 cm wide, and 4.5 cm thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. Below these lines is a space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Also from this frame the Darius Vase was unearthed in 1851. It was covered with pictures including a holding a wax tablet in one hand while manipulating counters on a table with the other. The earliest known documentation of the Chinese abacus dates to the 2nd century BC. The Chinese abacus, known as the suanpan, is typically 20 cm tall and it usually has more than seven rods. There are two beads on each rod in the deck and five beads each in the bottom for both decimal and hexadecimal computation
34.
Ring (jewellery)
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A ring is a round band, usually of metal, worn as an ornamental piece of jewellery around the finger, or sometimes the toe, it is the most common current meaning of the word ring. Rings are most often made of metal but can be of almost any material, metal, plastic, stone, wood, bone, glass and they may be set with a stone or stones, often a gemstone such as diamond, ruby, sapphire or emerald. Although tracing the history is difficult, the custom of giving and receiving finger rings dates back over approximately 6,000 years. The Hittite civilization produced rings, including rings, only a few of which have been discovered. People in Old Kingdom Egypt wore a variety of rings, of which a few examples have been found. Rings became more common during the Egyptian middle kingdom, with complex designs. Egyptians made metal rings but also made rings from faience some of which were used as new year gifts, native styles were superseded by Greek and Roman fashions during the Ptolemaic dynasty. Archaic Greek rings were to some extent influenced by Egyptian rings, although they tended to be less substantial, a lack of locally available gold meant that rings made in the eastern colonies tended to be made from silver and bronze while Etruria used gold. The classical period showed a shift away from bronze to wider adoption of silver, the most typical design of the period involved a lozenge bezel mounting an intaglio device. Over time the bezel moved towards a circular form. During the early and middle imperial era the closest there is to a typical Roman ring consisted of a hoop that tapered directly into a slightly wider bezel. An engraved oval gem would be embedded within the bezel with the top of the gem only rising slightly above the ring material. Such rings are referred to Henig II and III/Guiraud 2 in formal academic parlance or simply as Roman rings by modern jewellers, in general Roman rings became more elaborate in the third and fourth centuries AD. The fourth digit or ring finger of the hand has become the customary place to wear a wedding ring in much of the world. This custom was established as the norm during World War II. The use of the finger of the left hand is associated with an old belief that the left hands ring finger is connected by a vein directly to the heart. This idea was known in 16th and 17th century England, when Henry Swinburne referred to it in his book about marriage. It can be traced back to ancient Rome, when Aulus Gellius cited Appianus as saying the ancient Egyptians had found a fine nerve linking that particular finger to the heart, occasionally rings have been re-purposed to hang from bracelets or necklaces
35.
Edward O. Thorp
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He was a pioneer in modern applications of probability theory, including the harnessing of very small correlations for reliable financial gain. He is the author of Beat the Dealer, the first book to prove, in 1962. He also developed and applied effective hedge fund techniques in the financial markets, Thorp received his Ph. D. in mathematics from the University of California, Los Angeles in 1958, and worked at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1959 to 1961. He learned Fortran in order to program the equations needed for his research model on the probabilities of winning at blackjack. Thorp subsequently decided to test his theory in practice in Reno, Lake Tahoe, Thorp started his applied research using $10,000, with Manny Kimmel, a wealthy professional gambler and one-time illegal bookie with mob connections, providing the venture capital. First they visited Reno and Lake Tahoe establishments where they tested Thorps theory at the blackjack tables. The experimental results proved successful and his theory was verified since he won $11,000 in a single weekend, casinos now shuffle well before the end of the deck as a countermeasure to his methods. During his Las Vegas casino visits Thorp frequently used such as wraparound glasses. In addition to the activities, Thorp had assembled a baccarat team which was also winning. News quickly spread throughout the community, which was eager for new methods of winning. X. Thorps blackjack research is one of the few examples where results from such research reached the public directly, completely bypassing the usual academic peer review process cycle. Moreover, Thorp became one of the very few applied mathematicians who risked physical harm in verifying a computer simulation and he has also stated that he considered the whole experiment an academic exercise. This also marked the first time in the history of computing that a computer was used as a gambling aid, the wearable computer was co-developed with Claude Shannon between 1960–61. The final operating version of the device was tested in Shannon’s home lab at his basement in June 1961 and his achievements have led him to become an inaugural member of the Blackjack Hall of Fame. He also devised the Thorp count, a method for calculating the likelihood of winning in certain positions in backgammon. Thorps first hedge fund was Princeton/Newport Partners and he is currently the President of Edward O. Thorp & Associates, based in Newport Beach, California. In May 1998, Thorp reported that his personal investments yielded an annualized 20 percent rate of return averaged over 28.5 years. Edward O. Thorp, A Man for All Markets, From Las Vegas to Wall Street, How I Beat the Dealer, the Quants, How a New Breed of Math Whizzes Conquered Wall Street and Nearly Destroyed It, Crown Business,352 pages,2010
36.
Claude Shannon
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Claude Elwood Shannon was an American mathematician, electrical engineer, and cryptographer known as the father of information theory. Shannon is noted for having founded information theory with a paper, A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Shannon contributed to the field of cryptanalysis for national defense during World War II, including his work on codebreaking. Shannon was born in Petoskey, Michigan and grew up in Gaylord and his father, Claude, Sr. a descendant of early settlers of New Jersey, was a self-made businessman, and for a while, a Judge of Probate. Shannons mother, Mabel Wolf Shannon, was a language teacher, most of the first 16 years of Shannons life were spent in Gaylord, where he attended public school, graduating from Gaylord High School in 1932. Shannon showed an inclination towards mechanical and electrical things and his best subjects were science and mathematics. At home he constructed such devices as models of planes, a model boat. While growing up, he worked under Andrew Coltrey as a messenger for the Western Union company. His childhood hero was Thomas Edison, who he learned was a distant cousin. Both were descendants of John Ogden, a leader and an ancestor of many distinguished people. Shannon was apolitical and an atheist, in 1932, Shannon entered the University of Michigan, where he was introduced to the work of George Boole. He graduated in 1936 with two degrees, one in electrical engineering and the other in mathematics. In 1936, Shannon began his studies in electrical engineering at MIT, where he worked on Vannevar Bushs differential analyzer. While studying the complicated ad hoc circuits of this analyzer, Shannon designed switching circuits based on Booles concepts, in 1937, he wrote his masters degree thesis, A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits, A paper from this thesis was published in 1938. In this work, Shannon proved that his switching circuits could be used to simplify the arrangement of the electromechanical relays that were used then in telephone call routing switches, next, he expanded this concept, proving that these circuits could solve all problems that Boolean algebra could solve. In the last chapter, he presents diagrams of several circuits, using this property of electrical switches to implement logic is the fundamental concept that underlies all electronic digital computers. Shannons work became the foundation of digital design, as it became widely known in the electrical engineering community during. The theoretical rigor of Shannons work superseded the ad hoc methods that had prevailed previously, howard Gardner called Shannons thesis possibly the most important, and also the most noted, masters thesis of the century
37.
Roulette
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Roulette is a casino game named after the French word meaning little wheel. The ball eventually loses momentum and falls onto the wheel and into one of 37 or 38 colored and numbered pockets on the wheel The first form of roulette was devised in 18th century France. A century earlier, Blaise Pascal introduced a form of roulette in the 17th century in his search for a perpetual motion machine. The game has played in its present form since as early as 1796 in Paris. The description included the house pockets, There are exactly two slots reserved for the bank, whence it derives its sole mathematical advantage and it then goes on to describe the layout with. two betting spaces containing the banks two numbers, zero and double zero. The book was published in 1801, an even earlier reference to a game of this name was published in regulations for New France in 1758, which banned the games of dice, hoca, faro, and roulette. The roulette wheels used in the casinos of Paris in the late 1790s had red for the single zero, to avoid confusion, the color green was selected for the zeros in roulette wheels starting in the 1800s. In some forms of early American roulette wheels - as shown in the 1886 Hoyle gambling books, there were numbers 1 through 28, plus a single zero, a zero. The Eagle slot, which was a symbol of American liberty, was a slot that brought the casino extra edge. Soon, the tradition vanished and since then the features only numbered slots. Existing wheels with Eagle symbols are rare, with fewer than a half-dozen copies known to exist. Authentic Eagled wheels in excellent condition can fetch tens of thousands of dollars at auction, in the 19th century, roulette spread all over Europe and the US, becoming one of the most famous and most popular casino games. A legend says that François Blanc supposedly bargained with the devil to obtain the secrets of roulette, the legend is based on the fact that the sum of all the numbers on the roulette wheel is 666, which is the Number of the Beast. In the United States, the French double zero wheel made its way up the Mississippi from New Orleans and this eventually evolved into the American style roulette game as different from the traditional French game. The American game developed in the gambling dens across the new territories where makeshift games had been set up, whereas the French game evolved with style and leisure in Monte Carlo. However, it is the American style layout with its simplified betting and fast cash action, using either a single or double zero wheel, that now dominates in most casinos around the world. During the first part of the 20th century, the only towns of note were Monte Carlo with the traditional single zero French wheel. In the 1970s, casinos began to flourish around the world, by 2008 there were several hundred casinos worldwide offering roulette games
38.
Analog computer
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An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities symbolically, as their values change. As an analog computer does not use values, but rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence. Unlike digital signal processing, analog computers do not suffer from the quantization noise, Analog computers were widely used in scientific and industrial applications where digital computers of the time lacked sufficient performance. Analog computers can have a wide range of complexity. Slide rules and nomographs are the simplest, while naval gunfire control computers, systems for process control and protective relays used analog computation to perform control and protective functions. More complex applications, such as synthetic aperture radar, remained the domain of analog computing well into the 1980s, setting up an analog computer required scale factors to be chosen, along with initial conditions—that is, starting values. Another essential was creating the network of interconnections between computing elements. Sometimes it was necessary to re-think the structure of the problem so that the computer would function satisfactorily, no variables could be allowed to exceed the computers limits, and differentiation was to be avoided, typically by rearranging the network of interconnects, using integrators in a different sense. Running an electronic computer, assuming a satisfactory setup, started with the computer held with some variables fixed at their initial values. Moving a switch released the holds and permitted the problem to run, in some instances, the computer could, after a certain running time interval, repeatedly return to the initial-conditions state to reset the problem, and run it again. This is a list of examples of early computation devices which are considered to be precursors of the modern computers, some of them may even have been dubbed as computers by the press, although they may fail to fit the modern definitions. The south-pointing chariot can be considered the earliest analog computer and it was a mechanical-geared wheeled vehicle used for to discern the southern cardinal direction. The Antikythera mechanism was an orrery and is claimed to be the earliest known mechanical analog computer. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions and it was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later, many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī in the early 11th century, the astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy
39.
Miniature snap-action switch
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Switching happens reliably at specific and repeatable positions of the actuator, which is not necessarily true of other mechanisms. They are very common due to their low cost and durability, greater than 1 million cycles and this durability is a natural consequence of the design. The defining feature of micro switches is that a small movement at the actuator button produces a relatively large movement at the electrical contacts. Most successful designs also exhibit hysteresis, meaning that a reversal of the actuator is insufficient to reverse the contacts. Both of these help to achieve a clean and reliable interruption to the switched circuit. The first micro switch was invented by Phillip Kenneth McGall in 1932 in Freeport, Illinois, McGall was an employee of the Burgess Battery Company at the time. In 1937 W. B. Schulte, McGalls employer, started the company MICRO SWITCH, the company and the Micro Switch trademark has been owned by Honeywell Sensing and Control since 1950. The trademark has become genericized for any snap-action switch, companies other than Honeywell now manufacture miniature snap-action switches. In one type of microswitch, internally there are two conductive springs, a long flat spring is hinged at one end of the switch and has electrical contacts on the other. A small curved spring, preloaded so it attempts to extend itself, is connected between the spring near the contacts and a fulcrum near the midpoint of the flat spring. An actuator nub presses on the spring near its hinge point. Because the flat spring is anchored and strong in tension the curved spring cannot move it to the right, the curved spring presses, or pulls, the flat spring upward, that is away, from the anchor point. Owing to the geometry, the force is proportional to the displacement which decreases as the flat spring moves downward. As the actuator depresses it flexes the flat spring while the spring keeps the electrical contacts touching. When the flat spring is flexed enough it will provide sufficient force to compress the curved spring, even though the flat spring unflexes as it moves downward, the switch is designed so the net effect is acceleration. This over-center action produces a distinctive clicking sound and a very crisp feel. In the actuated position the curved spring provides some upward force, if the actuator is released this will move the flat spring upward. As the flat spring moves, the force from the spring increases
40.
Octant (plane geometry)
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In plane geometry, octant is a circular sector obtained by division of the full circle into 8 equal parts, hence the name. It is a sector with the angle of 45°. Most commonly, octants are seen on the compass rose, the name of the instrument octant comes from the fact that it is based on 1/8th of the cirle. Octant - three-dimensional orthant - n-dimensional
41.
Las Vegas Valley
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The Las Vegas Valley is a major metropolitan area located in the southern part of the U. S. state of Nevada. The largest urban agglomeration in the state, it is the heart of the Las Vegas–Paradise-Henderson, the Valley is largely defined by the Las Vegas Valley landform, a 600 sq mi basin area surrounded by mountains to the north, south, east and west of the metropolitan area. The Valley is home to the three largest incorporated cities in Nevada, Las Vegas, Henderson and North Las Vegas, six unincorporated towns governed by the Clark County government are part of the Las Vegas Township and constitute the largest community in the state of Nevada. Since the 1990s the Las Vegas Valley has seen exponential growth, in 2014, a record breaking 41 million visited the Las Vegas area, producing a gross metropolitan product of more than $100 billion. The first reported non-Native American visitor to the Las Vegas Valley was the Mexican scout Rafael Rivera in 1829. Las Vegas was named by Mexicans in the Antonio Armijo party, including Rivera, in the 19th century, areas of the valley contained artesian wells that supported extensive green areas, or meadows, hence the name Las Vegas. The area was settled by Mormon farmers in 1854 and later became the site of a United States Army fort in 1864. Since the 1930s, Las Vegas has generally been identified as a center as well as a resort destination. Nellis Air Force Base is located in the northeast corner of the valley, the ranges that the Nellis pilots use and various other land areas used by various federal agencies, limit growth of the valley in terms of geographic area. Businessman Howard Hughes arrived in the late 1960s and purchased many casino hotels, as well as television, legitimate corporations began to purchase casino hotels as well, and the mob was run out by the federal government over the next several years. The constant stream of tourist dollars from the hotels and casinos was augmented by a new source of money from the establishment of what is now Nellis Air Force Base. The influx of personnel and casino job-hunters helped start a land building boom which is now leveling off. The Las Vegas area remains one of the top entertainment destinations. The valley is contained in the Las Vegas Valley landform and this includes the cities of Las Vegas, North Las Vegas, and Henderson, and the unincorporated towns of Paradise, Spring Valley, Sunrise Manor, Enterprise, Winchester, and Whitney. The valley is located within the larger metropolitan area, as the metropolitan area covers all of Clark County -including parts that do not fall within the valley. The government of Clark County has an Urban Planning Area of Las Vegas and this definition is a roughly rectangular area, about 20 mi from east to west and 30 miles from north to south. Notable exclusions from the Urban Planning Area include Red Rock, Blue Diamond, the Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department is the largest police department in the valley and the state and exercises jurisdiction in the entire county. The department does not exercise jurisdiction in areas with separate police forces such as North Las Vegas, Henderson, Boulder City, Nellis Air Force Base
42.
Programmable calculator
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Programmable calculators are calculators that can automatically carry out a sequence of operations under control of a stored program, much like a computer. The first programmable calculators such as the IBM CPC used punched cards or other media for program storage, hand-held electronic calculators store programs on magnetic strips, removable read-only memory cartridges, or in battery-backed read/write memory. Since the early 1990s, most of these flexible handheld units belong to the class of graphing calculators, before the mass-manufacture of inexpensive dot-matrix LCDs however, programmable calculators usually featured a one-line numeric or alphanumeric display. The Big Four manufacturers of programmable calculators are Casio, Hewlett-Packard, Sharp, all of the above have also made pocket computers in the past, especially Casio and Sharp. As they are used for graphing functions, the screens of these machines are pixel-addressable, programming capability appears most commonly in graphing calculators, as the larger screen allows multiple lines of source code to be viewed simultaneously. Many programs written for calculators can be found on the internet, users can download the programs to a personal computer, and then upload them to the calculator using a specialized link cable, infrared wireless link or through a memory card. Sometimes these programs can also be run through emulators on the PC, programming these machines can be done on the machine, on the PC side and uploaded as source code, or compiled on the PC side and uploaded as with Flash and some C/C++ implementations. Programmes, data, and so forth can also be exchanged amongst similar machines via the ports on the calculator used for PC connectivity. On-board programming tools which use non-native language implementations include the On-Board C Compiler for fx series Casio calculators, commonly available programs for calculators include everything from math/science related problem solvers to video games, as well as so-called demos. The companies themselves also have such as TIEducation. com with information. In the early days most programmable calculators used a simplified programming language. Calculators supporting such programming were Turing-complete if they supported both conditional statements and indirect addressing of memory, notable examples of Turing complete calculators were Casio FX-602P series, the HP-41 and the TI-59. Keystroke programming is used in mid-range calculators like the HP 35s. BASIC is a programming language commonly adapted to desktop computers. The most common languages now used in high range calculators are proprietary BASIC-style dialects as used by CASIO and these BASIC dialects are optimised for calculator use, combining the advantages of BASIC and keystroke programming. They have little in common with mainstream BASIC, the version for the Ti-89 and subsequent is more fully featured, including the full set of string and character manipulation functions and statements in standard Basic. A complete port of BBC Basic to the TI-83 subfamily of calculators is now available and it is installed via a cable or IrDA connection with a computer. RPL is a special Forth-like programming language used by Hewlett Packard in its high range devices, the first device with RPL calculator was the HP-28C released in 1987
43.
Calculator watch
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A calculator watch is a digital watch with a built in calculator, usually including buttons on the watch face. Calculator watches were first introduced in the 1970s and continue to be produced, the most notable brand is the Casio Databank series, though watches made by Timex were also popular. Calculator watches first appeared in the mid 1970s introduced by Pulsar, several watch manufacturers have made calculator watches over the years, such as Pulsar and Timex, but the Japanese electronics company Casio produced the largest variety of models. In the mid-1980s, Casio created the Databank calculator watch, which not only performed calculator functions, but also stored appointments, names, addresses, as a result, many calculator watches are used for aesthetic purposes. Smartwatches introduced in the 2010s are similar to calculator watches in both aesthetics and functionality, even though far advanced in capabilities. Programmable calculators - Specifications and descriptions WATCH, history of the modern wrist watch. - Section on Calculator Watches Vintage Digital Watches - Home of Vintage Retro Digital LCD Watches
44.
Haptic technology
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Haptic or kinesthetic communication recreates the sense of touch by applying forces, vibrations, or motions to the user. Haptic devices may incorporate tactile sensors that measure forces exerted by the user on the interface, most researchers distinguish three sensory systems related to sense of touch in humans, cutaneous, kinesthetic and haptic. All perceptions mediated by cutaneous and/or kinesthetic sensibility are referred to as tactual perception, the sense of touch may be classified as passive and active, and the term haptic is often associated with active touch to communicate or recognize objects. Haptic technology has made it possible to investigate how the sense of touch works by allowing the creation of carefully controlled haptic virtual objects. The word haptic, from the Greek, ἁπτικός, means pertaining to the sense of touch and comes from the Greek verb ἅπτεσθαι haptesthai, One of the earliest applications of haptic technology was in large aircraft that use servomechanism systems to operate control surfaces. Such systems tend to be one-way, meaning external forces applied aerodynamically to the surfaces are not perceived at the controls. Here, the normal forces are simulated with springs and weights. In lighter aircraft without servo systems, as the aircraft approached a stall the aerodynamic buffeting was felt in the pilots controls and this was a useful warning of a dangerous flight condition. This control shake is not felt when servo control systems are used, alternatively, the servo force may be measured and the signal directed to a servo system on the control, known as force feedback. Force feedback has been implemented experimentally in some excavators and is useful when excavating mixed material such as large rocks embedded in silt or clay and it allows the operator to feel and work around unseen obstacles, enabling significant increases in productivity and less risk of damage to the machine. The first US patent for a telephone was granted to Thomas D. Shannon in 1973. An early tactile man-machine communication system was constructed by A. Michael Noll at Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. in the early 1970s, the Interactor Vest is worn over the upper torso and the audio signal is reproduced through a speaker embedded in the vest. Both the Vest and the Cushion were launched with a tag of $99. In 1995 Norwegian Geir Jensen described a wrist watch haptic device with a skin tap mechanism and it would connect to a mobile phone via Bluetooth. Tapping-frequency patterns would identify callers to a mobile and enable the wearer to respond by selected short messages and it was submitted for a governmental innovation contest and received no award. It was not pursued or published until recovered in 2015, the Tap-in device by Jensen was devised facing the user to avoid twisting of the wrist, see image. It would adapt across all mobile phone and watch brands, in 2015 Apple started to sell a wrist watch which included skin tap sensing of notifications and alerts to mobile phone of the watch wearer. A tactile electronic display is a kind of device that presents information in tactile form
45.
Webcam
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A webcam is a video camera that feeds or streams its image in real time to or through a computer to a computer network. When captured by the computer, the stream may be saved, viewed or sent on to other networks via systems such as the internet. When sent to a location, the video stream may be saved, viewed or on sent there. Unlike an IP camera, a webcam is generally connected by a USB cable, or similar cable, or built into computer hardware, some of them, for example, those used as online traffic cameras, are expensive, rugged professional video cameras. Webcams are known for their low manufacturing cost and their high flexibility and they have also become a source of security and privacy issues, as some built-in webcams can be remotely activated by spyware. The most popular use of webcams is the establishment of video links, other popular uses include security surveillance, computer vision, video broadcasting, and for recording social videos. Researchers claim that this method is accurate to ±5 bpm, Webcams may be installed at places such as childcare centres, offices, shops and private areas to monitor security and general activity. Webcams have been used for augmented reality experiences online, one such function has the webcam act as a magic mirror to allow an online shopper to view a virtual item on themselves. The Webcam Social Shopper is one example of software that utilizes the webcam in this manner, improved video quality has helped webcams encroach on traditional video conferencing systems. Webcam features and performance can vary by program, computer operating system, video calling support has also been added to several popular instant messaging programs. Webcams can be used as security cameras, software is available to allow PC-connected cameras to watch for movement and sound, recording both when they are detected. These recordings can then be saved to the computer, e-mailed, unauthorized access of webcams can present significant privacy issues. In December 2011, Russia announced that 290,000 Webcams would be installed in 90,000 polling stations to monitor the Russian presidential election,2012, Webcams can be used to take video clips and still pictures. Various software tools in use can be employed for this, such as PicMaster, Photo Booth. For a more complete list see Comparison of webcam software, special software can use the video stream from a webcam to assist or enhance a users control of applications and games. Video features, including faces, shapes, models and colors can be observed and tracked to produce a form of control. This can be applied to games, providing additional control, improved interactivity, by removing the IR filter of the webcam, IR LEDs can be used, which has the advantage of being invisible to the naked eye, removing a distraction from the user. TrackIR is a version of this technology
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