1.
Hindu wedding
–
A Hindu wedding is Vivaha and the wedding ceremony is called vivaah sanskar in North India and kalyanam in South India. Hindus attach a great deal of importance to marriages, the ceremonies are very colourful, and celebrations may extend for several days. The brides and grooms home - entrance, doors, wall, floor, roof - are sometimes decorated with colors, balloons, the rituals and process in a Hindu wedding vary widely. The Hindu wedding ceremony at its core is essentially a Vedic yajna ritual, the primary witness of a Hindu marriage is the fire-deity Agni, in the presence of family and friends. The ceremony is conducted entirely, or at least partially in Sanskrit. The local language of the bride and groom is also used and these rituals are prescribed in the Gruhya sutra composed by various rishis such as Baudhayana and Ashvalayana. The pre-wedding and post-wedding rituals and celebrations vary by region, preferences or the resources of the groom, bride and they can range from one day to multi-day events. Pre-wedding ceremonies include engagement, and arrival of the party at the brides residence, often in the form of a formal procession with dancing. The post-wedding ceremonies may include Abhishek, Anna Prashashan, Aashirvadah, the wedding marks the start of Grihastha stage of life for the new couple. In India, by law and tradition, no Hindu marriage is binding and complete unless the ritual of seven steps and vows in presence of fire is completed by the bride, a Hindu wedding is regionally called Thirumanam or kalyaanam, Vivaham or kalyaanam, vivaha. Ancient Hindu literature, such as Asvalayana Grhyasutra and Atharvaveda, identify eight forms of marriages and these are, Brahma marriage – considered the religiously most appropriate marriage, where the father finds an educated man, proposes the marriage of his daughter to him. The groom, bride and families willingly concur with the proposal, the two families and relatives meet, the girl is ceremoniously decorated, the father gifts away his daughter in betrothal, and a vedic marriage ceremony is conducted. This type of wedding is now most prevalent among Hindus in modern India, daiva marriage – in this type of marriage, the father gives away his daughter along with ornaments to a priest as a sacrificial fee. This form of marriage occurred in ancient times when yajna sacrifices were prevalent, arsha marriage – in this type of marriage, the groom gives a cow and a bull to the father of the bride and the father exchanges his daughter in marriage. The groom took a vow to fulfill his obligations to the bride, prajapatya marriage – in this type of marriage, a couple agree to get married by exchanging some Sanskrit mantras. This form of marriage was akin to a civil ceremony, the other four were considered aprashasta, since they do not follow any Vedic rituals and vows. This marriage is entered into without religious ceremonies, and was akin to the Western concept of Common-law marriage, Kama Sutra, as well as Rishi Kanva – the foster-father of Shakuntala – in the Mahabharata, claimed this kind of marriage to be an ideal one. Asura marriage – in this type of marriage, the groom offered a dowry to the father of the bride and this was akin to marrying off a daughter for money
Hindu wedding
–
A Hindu bride from
Gujarat
Hindu wedding
–
The bride is ceremoniously decorated, in Hindu weddings, by her friends and family in regional dress, jewelry, and body art called
Mehndi. The body art is produced from a mixture of henna and turmeric, and it symbolizes 'awakening of inner light'.
Hindu wedding
–
A Hindu Marriage Ceremony
Hindu wedding
–
Kanyadaan - a key ritual where the father gifts away the daughter to the groom. In this picture, the father's hand is on the left, the bride and groom are on the right.
2.
India
–
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
India
–
Flag
India
–
The granite
tower of
Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur was completed in 1010 CE by
Raja Raja Chola I.
India
–
Writing the will and testament of the Mughal king court in Persian, 1590–1595
3.
Muslim wedding
–
Muslim marriage and Islamic wedding customs are traditions and practices that relate to wedding ceremonies and marriage rituals prevailing within the Muslim world. According to the teachings of the Quran, a married Muslim couple is equated with clothing, within this context, both husband and wife are each other’s protector and comforter, just as real garments “show and conceal” the body of human beings. Thus, they are meant “for one another”, marriages within the Muslim community are incredibly important. The purpose of marriage in Islamic culture is to preserve the religion through the creation of a family, the family is meant to be “productive and constructive, helping and encouraging one another to be good and righteous, and competing with one another in good works”. In Islam, polygyny is allowed with restrictions, polyandry is not. The Quran directly addresses the matter of polygyny in Chapter 4 Verse 3. Marry of the women that you please, two, three, or four. But if you feel that you should not be able to deal justly, the Prophet accepts the marriage of multiple wives but only if the husbands duties will not falter as a result The groom kisses the bride 3 times on the cheek and 1 on the forehead. Since the 20th century and the rise of major feminist movements, both male and female homosexuality are forbidden in Islamic law, although only male homosexuality is explicitly condemned in the Quran. In regards to interfaith marriages and partners, the rules for Muslim women are more restrictive than the rules applied to Muslim men wishing to marry a non-Muslim. The specific passages of Islamic text that address the issue of marriage are in Quran 5,5. This day the good things are allowed to you, and hold not to the ties of marriage of unbelieving women, and ask for what you have spent, and let them ask for what they have spent. That is Allahs judgment, He judges between you, and Allah is Knowing, Wise, despite the Quranic text that seem to detest interfaith marriage, a growing movement of modern Islamic scholars are beginning to reinterpret and reexamine traditional Sharia interpretations. In most Islamic societies and communities it is not a practice for young people to actively seek a partner for themselves by following modern and Western rituals. Young Muslim men and women are encouraged to marry as soon as possible. According to traditional Islamic law, women and men are not free to date or intermingle, a large majority of Islamic marriages are arranged marriages in which the parents or guardians select appropriate matrimonial mates for their offspring. The amount of choice and acceptance involved in choosing marriage partners often depends on the class, a guardian who is allowed to force the bride into marriage is called wali mujbir. Since traditional Muslim societies are generally religiously heterogeneous, it is easier for individuals to find socially acceptable partners through traditional methods. Within these communities, families, friends, and services are used to help find a significant other
Muslim wedding
–
A portrait of newly married couple from
Dhaka,
Bangladesh in 2014
Muslim wedding
–
A
Sundanese wedding ceremony held inside a
mosque in Western Java,
Indonesia in 1977.
Muslim wedding
–
The
Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan attends the marriage procession of his eldest son
Dara Shikoh. Mughal-Era
fireworks were utilized to brighten the night throughout the wedding ceremony.
Muslim wedding
–
This article needs additional citations for
verification. Please help improve this article by
adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2010)
4.
Tunisia
–
Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia is the northernmost country in Africa, covering 165,000 square kilometres. Its northernmost point, Cape Angela, is the northernmost point on the African continent and it is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisias population was estimated to be just under 11 million in 2014, Tunisias name is derived from its capital city, Tunis, which is located on Tunisias northeast coast. Geographically, Tunisia contains the end of the Atlas Mountains. Much of the rest of the land is fertile soil. Tunisia is a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic and it is considered to be the only full democracy in the Arab World. It has a human development index. In addition, Tunisia is also a state of the United Nations. Close relations with Europe – in particular with France and with Italy – have been forged through economic cooperation, privatisation, in ancient times, Tunisia was primarily inhabited by Berbers. Phoenician immigration began in the 12th century BC, these immigrants founded Carthage, a major mercantile power and a military rival of the Roman Republic, Carthage was defeated by the Romans in 146 BC. The Romans, who would occupy Tunisia for most of the eight hundred years, introduced Christianity. After several attempts starting in 647, the Arabs conquered the whole of Tunisia by 697, the Ottomans held sway for over three hundred years. The French colonization of Tunisia occurred in 1881, Tunisia gained independence with Habib Bourguiba and declared the Tunisian Republic in 1957. In 2011, the Tunisian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, the country voted for parliament again on 26 October 2014, and for President on 23 November 2014. The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis, an urban hub. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia, the French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications, introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages remained untouched, such as the Russian Туни́с and Spanish Túnez, in this case, the same name is used for both country and city, as with the Arabic تونس, and only by context can one tell the difference. The name Tunis can be attributed to different origins and it is generally associated with the Berber root ⵜⵏⵙ, transcribed tns, which means to lay down or encampment
Tunisia
–
Ancient ruins of a
Roman villa at
Carthage
Tunisia
–
Flag
Tunisia
–
The Roman amphitheater in
El Djem, built during the first half of the 3rd century AD
Tunisia
–
Domes of the
Great Mosque of Kairouan. Founded in 670, it dates in its present form largely from the Aghlabid period (9th century). It is the oldest mosque in the
Maghreb.
5.
Roman Catholic
–
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
Roman Catholic
–
Saint Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholic
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Roman Catholic
–
Pope Francis, elected in the
papal conclave, 2013
Roman Catholic
–
Traditional graphic representation of the Trinity: The earliest attested version of the diagram, from a manuscript of
Peter of Poitiers ' writings, c. 1210
6.
White wedding
–
A white wedding is a traditional formal or semi-formal wedding originating in Britain. The term originates from the colour of the wedding dress. The tradition of a wedding dress is commonly credited to Queen Victorias choice to wear a white court dress at her wedding to Prince Albert in 1840. Debutantes had long been required to wear white dresses for their first presentation at court. European and American brides had been wearing a plethora of colours, including blue, yellow, as accounts of Victorias wedding spread across the Atlantic and throughout Europe, elites followed her lead. After Queen Victorias and Prince Alberts wedding, the color white resembled wealth, worldwide, the color white has been associated with weddings and other significant life or spiritual events for millennia. In ancient Greece, white was the color of bridal joy, and brides not only wore white dresses and white flowers, in ancient Japan, white was also the color of purity and innocence. In Africa, the white is associated with deities and worship. In the Christian tradition, white clothes were worn at the time of baptism to represent spiritual purity, because of the limitations of laundering techniques before the later part of the 20th century, white dresses provided an opportunity for conspicuous consumption. Etiquette books then began to turn the practice into a tradition, the story put out about the wedding veil was that decorous brides were naturally too timid to show their faces in public until they were married. By the end of the 19th century the white dress was the garment of choice for brides on both sides of the Atlantic. However, middle-class British and American brides did not adopt the trend fully until after World War II, with increased prosperity in the 20th century, the tradition also grew to include the practice of wearing the dress only once. As historian Vicky Howard writes, f a bride wore white in the century, it was acceptable. Even Queen Victoria had her famous lace wedding dress re-styled for later use, the portrayal of weddings in Hollywood movies, particularly immediately after World War II, helped crystallize and homogenize the white wedding into a normative form. This wedding is considered the most influential white wedding of the 20th century. The traditional white wedding wasnt necessarily defined by the color of the dress only, the first edition of Brides Magazine was published in 1934 as a newspaper advertising insert called So Youre Going to Get Married. In a column titled To the Bride, and its rival Modern Bride began publishing in 1949, today a whole industry surrounds the provision of such weddings. They may also add optional features, such as a guest book or commemorative wedding leaflets and it is common to have a celebration after the wedding ceremony, normally featuring a large white wedding cake
White wedding
–
A
bride from the late 19th century wearing a black or dark coloured wedding dress
White wedding
–
Queen Victoria and Prince Albert on their return from the marriage service at St James's Palace, London, 10 February 1840.
White wedding
–
A bride in a contemporary white wedding dress with
train,
tiara and white
veil.
White wedding
–
The
bride and
groom stand at the altar during the wedding ceremony, surrounded by the
bridesmaids and
groomsmen.
7.
Philippines
–
The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is a sovereign island country in Southeast Asia situated in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of about 7,641 islands that are categorized broadly under three main geographical divisions from north to south, Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao, the capital city of the Philippines is Manila and the most populous city is Quezon City, both part of Metro Manila. The Philippines has an area of 300,000 square kilometers, and it is the eighth-most populated country in Asia and the 12th most populated country in the world. As of 2013, approximately 10 million additional Filipinos lived overseas, multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelagos earliest inhabitants and they were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples. Exchanges with Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Islamic nations occurred, then, various competing maritime states were established under the rule of Datus, Rajahs, Sultans or Lakans. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in Homonhon, Eastern Samar in 1521 marked the beginning of Hispanic colonization, in 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of Philip II of Spain. With the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi from Mexico City, in 1565, the Philippines became part of the Spanish Empire for more than 300 years. This resulted in Roman Catholicism becoming the dominant religion, during this time, Manila became the western hub of the trans-Pacific trade connecting Asia with Acapulco in the Americas using Manila galleons. Aside from the period of Japanese occupation, the United States retained sovereignty over the islands until after World War II, since then, the Philippines has often had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a dictatorship by a non-violent revolution. It is a member of the United Nations, World Trade Organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. It also hosts the headquarters of the Asian Development Bank, the Philippines was named in honor of King Philip II of Spain. Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos, during his expedition in 1542, named the islands of Leyte, eventually the name Las Islas Filipinas would be used to cover all the islands of the archipelago. Before that became commonplace, other such as Islas del Poniente. The official name of the Philippines has changed several times in the course of its history, during the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed the establishment of the República Filipina or the Philippine Republic. From the 1898 Treaty of Paris, the name Philippines began to appear, since the end of World War II, the official name of the country has been the Republic of the Philippines. The metatarsal of the Callao Man, reliably dated by uranium-series dating to 67,000 years ago is the oldest human remnant found in the archipelago to date and this distinction previously belonged to the Tabon Man of Palawan, carbon-dated to around 26,500 years ago. Negritos were also among the archipelagos earliest inhabitants, but their first settlement in the Philippines has not been reliably dated, there are several opposing theories regarding the origins of ancient Filipinos
Philippines
–
King Philip II of Spain.
Philippines
Philippines
–
Tabon Cave and its carvings.
Philippines
–
The
Banaue Rice Terraces where
Ifugao/Igorot utilized terrace farming in the steep mountainous regions of northern Philippines over 2000 years ago.
8.
Civil marriage
–
A Civil marriage is a marriage performed, recorded, and recognized by a government official. Such a marriage may be performed by a body and recognized by the state. Most countries define the conditions of civil marriage separately from religious requirements, most countries define the conditions of civil marriage separately from religious requirements. It was not necessary, however, to be married by any official or cleric. e, church of England, the Quakers, or in a Jewish ceremony. Any other form of marriage was abolished, children born into unions which were not valid under the Act would not automatically inherit the property or titles of their parents. For historical reasons, the Act did not apply in Scotland, consequently, until 1940, it continued to be enough in Scotland for a man and a woman to pledge their commitment to each other in front of witnesses to legalise their marriage. This led to an industry of fast marriages in Scottish towns on the border with England, in 1836, the requirement that the ceremony take place in a religious forum was removed, and registrars were given the authority to register marriages not conducted by a religious official. Many European countries had similar to common-law marriage. In 1566, the edict of the Council of Trent was proclaimed denying Catholics any form of marriage not executed in a ceremony before a priest. The Protestant pastor and theologian of Geneva, John Calvin, decreed that in order for a couple to be considered married they must be registered by the state in addition to a church ceremony. In 1792, with the French Revolution, religious ceremonies in France were made secondary to civil marriage. Religious ceremonies could still be performed, but only for couples who had already married in a civil ceremony. Napoleon later spread this custom throughout most of Europe, in present-day France, only civil marriage has legal validity. A religious ceremony may be performed after or before the civil union, in Germany, the Napoleonic code was valid only in territories conquered by Napoleon. With the fall of his empire, civil marriage in Germany began to die out, however, certain sovereign German states introduced civil marriages, which were either obligatory or optional, with either a religious or civil ceremony being accepted. German Grand-Duchies such as Oldenburg, Baden and Hesse as well as the Kingdom of Württemberg followed suit, Civil marriages enabled interfaith marriages as well as marriages between spouses of different Christian denominations. Religious ceremonies may still be performed at the couples discretion, until Dec.31,2008, religious marriages could not be performed until the couple had first married in a civil ceremony. Civil marriages require a certificate, and at times a licence, reference must not be made to God or any deity, or to a particular religion or denomination, this is strictly enforced, and readings and music in the ceremony must be agreed in advance
Civil marriage
–
A civil marriage in 19th century
Switzerland. (
Albert Anker, 1887)
Civil marriage
–
A couple waiting to get married in the town of
Alghero on the island of
Sardinia,
Italy.
Civil marriage
–
People leaving a town hall in a Danish town after a civil marriage
9.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
10.
Ceremony
–
A ceremony is an event of ritual significance, performed on a special occasion. The word may be of Etruscan origin, via the Latin caerimonia, ceremonies may have a physical display or theatrical component, dance, a procession, the laying on of hands. A declaratory verbal pronouncement may explain or cap the occasion, for instance, I now pronounce you husband, I swear to serve and defend the nation. I declare open the games of, both physical and verbal components of a ceremony may become part of a liturgy
Ceremony
–
Newly commissioned
officers celebrate their new positions by throwing their midshipmen covers into the air as part of the U.S. Naval Academy class of 2005 graduation and commissioning ceremony.
Ceremony
–
Ceremonial at court during
Prinsjesdag
Ceremony
–
Israel Defense Forces Chief of Staff Lt. Gen.
Benny Gantz salutes
Yom Kippur War casualties at an official annual memorial service.
Ceremony
–
Leaders welcome a boy into Scouting, March 2010, Mexico City, Mexico.
11.
Marriage
–
The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is principally an institution in which interpersonal relationships, usually sexual, are acknowledged. In some cultures, marriage is recommended or considered to be compulsory before pursuing any sexual activity, when defined broadly, marriage is considered a cultural universal. Individuals may marry for several reasons, including legal, social, libidinal, emotional, financial, spiritual, whom they marry may be influenced by socially determined rules of incest, prescriptive marriage rules, parental choice and individual desire. In some areas of the world, arranged marriage, child marriage, polygamy, conversely, such practices may be outlawed and penalized in parts of the world out of concerns for womens rights and because of international law. These trends coincide with the human rights movement. Marriage can be recognized by a state, an organization, an authority, a tribal group. It is often viewed as a contract, Marriages can be performed in a secular civil ceremony or in a religious setting via a wedding ceremony. The act of marriage usually creates normative or legal obligations between the individuals involved, and any offspring they may produce, some cultures allow the dissolution of marriage through divorce or annulment. In some areas, child marriages and polygamy may occur in spite of laws against the practice. For example, the number of marriages in Europe decreased by 30% from 1975 to 2005 and these changes have occurred primarily in Western countries. The word marriage derives from Middle English mariage, which first appears in 1250–1300 CE and this in turn is derived from Old French, marier, and ultimately Latin, marītāre, meaning to provide with a husband or wife and marītāri meaning to get married. The adjective marīt-us -a, -um meaning matrimonial or nuptial could also be used in the form as a noun for husband. Anthropologists have proposed several competing definitions of marriage in an attempt to encompass the wide variety of marital practices observed across cultures, even within Western culture, definitions of marriage have careened from one extreme to another and everywhere in between. The anthropological handbook Notes and Queries defined marriage as a union between a man and a such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners. In recognition of a practice by the Nuer people of Sudan allowing women to act as a husband in certain circumstances, Kathleen Gough suggested modifying this to a woman, none of these men had legal rights to the womans child. Economic anthropologist Duran Bell has criticized the definition on the basis that some societies do not require marriage for legitimacy. He argued that a definition of marriage is circular in societies where illegitimacy has no other legal or social implications for a child other than the mother being unmarried. In 1955 article in Man, Leach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures and he offered a list of ten rights associated with marriage, including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children, with specific rights differing across cultures
Marriage
–
A pair of
wedding rings
Marriage
–
Swedish royal wedding clothes from 1766,
Livrustkammaren in Stockholm
Marriage
–
Nepali wedding party in traditional dress
Marriage
–
An arranged marriage between
Louis XIV of France and
Maria Theresa of Spain.
12.
Wedding tradition
–
The Wedding procedure starts with the grooms side sending elders who then request a union between the parties. The elders discuss a dowry and verify that the intended bride, on the wedding day the groom and groomsmen get ready at the grooms house early in the morning and proceed to the brides parents house to begin the wedding ceremonies. At the brides house, the bride gets ready and is seated awaiting the grooms arrival. As the groom and his party arrive, the brides family. The groomsmen have to either serenade or bribe their way into the house so that the groom can take the bride with him, additionally, the best man holds perfume and sprays it everywhere inside the brides family house. After this ceremony, the groom retrieves his bride and they along with a go to a church/mosque to take their wedding vows. After the religious ceremony, the procession moves to a park/garden where lunch is served to guests. Afterwards, the party typically takes pictures while guests make their way to the reception. At the reception, depending on the ethnic group there are several traditional dances performed. Ethiopian weddings typically serve Ethiopian food and live music and the party goes on into the early morning. To close the ceremony, elders are seated at the exit of the venue. This is typically the conclusion the first day of a typical Ethiopian wedding, customarily, marriage proceedings often begin with the man proposing to the woman. Upon her acceptance the man calls for a meeting with his clan elders who largely consist of extended elderly family members. A delegation carrying small gifts is then sent to the home to meet with her clan elders. Deliberations on bride price actually begin on a date and these are strictly conducted by the older men only. Upon completion of negotiations, a wedding date is set. The rest of the dowry is expected later, no request is made for it, but the young man is expected to remember to finish his payment and failure to do so spells dishonor for that family. The wedding day begins with a convoy from the family that heads to the girls home to collect her
Wedding tradition
–
A wedding carriage in
Bristol,
England
Wedding tradition
–
A traditional
French wedding celebration at
Château de Hattonchâtel
Wedding tradition
–
Example of the traditional 'Money Dance' at a Greek wedding.
Wedding tradition
–
The wedding feast is served at a
Hindu Rajput wedding
13.
Culture
–
Culture can be defined in numerous ways. In the words of anthropologist E. B, Tylor, it is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is the way of life, especially the customs and beliefs. As a defining aspect of what it means to be human, culture is a concept in anthropology. The word is used in a sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of culture that emerged in the 20th century. When used as a count noun, a culture is the set of customs, traditions, in this sense, multiculturalism is a concept that values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes culture is used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a context, meaning something similar. His use, and that of many writers after him, refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human. To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensive to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, thus a contrast between culture and civilization is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such. Cultural invention has come to any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior. Humanity is in a global accelerating culture change period, driven by the expansion of commerce, the mass media, and above all. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change, Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change, for example, the U. S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors, Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices
Culture
–
Human
symbolic expression developed as prehistoric humans reached
behavioral modernity
Culture
–
Religion and expressive
art are important aspects of human culture.
Culture
–
Celebrations,
rituals, and patterns of consumption are important aspects of
folk culture.
Culture
–
Social and political organization varies between different cultures.
14.
Ethnic group
–
An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. Unlike other social groups, ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which one lives, in some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Ethnic groups, derived from the historical founder population, often continue to speak related languages. By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with terms such as nation or people. In English, it can also have the connotation of something exotic, generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, the largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals, while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos, the inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan, as the Septuagint used ta ethne to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews. The Greek term in antiquity could refer to any large group, a host of men. In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of peculiar to a race, people or nation, the abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character. The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972, depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship. The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, the Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus gave an account of what defined Greek ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent. Whether ethnicity qualifies as a universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf and they regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently, one is between primordialism and instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as a given, even coercive
Ethnic group
–
Before the 1970s, the
Korowai people of
Papua were an
uncontacted people. Their population numbers no more than 3,000.
Ethnic group
–
The
Assyrians are the indigenous peoples of
Northern Iraq.
Ethnic group
–
Some European ethnic groups, such as
Basque people, do not constitute a majority in any one country.
15.
Social class
–
Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists, and social historians. However, there is not a consensus on the best definition of the class, the precise measurements of what determines social class in society has varied over time. According to philosopher Karl Marx, class is determined entirely by ones relationship to the means of production, the term class is etymologically derived from the Latin classis, which was used by census takers to categorize citizens by wealth, in order to determine military service obligations. In the late 18th century, the class began to replace classifications such as estates, rank. Historically social class and behavior was sometimes laid down in law, definitions of social classes reflect a number of sociological perspectives, informed by anthropology, economics, psychology, and sociology. The major perspectives historically have been Marxism and Structural functionalism, the common stratum model of class divides society into a simple hierarchy of working class, middle class and upper class. For Marx, class is a combination of objective and subjective factors, objectively, a class shares a common relationship to the means of production. Subjectively, the members will necessarily have some perception of their similarity, Class consciousness is not simply an awareness of ones own class interest but is also a set of shared views regarding how society should be organized legally, culturally, socially and politically. These class relations are reproduced through time and this is the fundamental economic structure of work and property, a state of inequality that is normalized and reproduced through cultural ideology. Marxists explain the history of civilized societies in terms of a war of classes between those who control production and those who produce the goods or services in society, in the Marxist view of capitalism, this is a conflict between capitalists and wage-workers. Furthermore, in countries where modern civilisation has become fully developed, an industrial army of workmen, under the command of a capitalist, requires, like a real army, officers and sergeants who, while the work is being done, command in the name of the capitalist. This would mark the beginning of a society in which human needs rather than profit would be motive for production. In a society with democratic control and production for use, there would be no class, no state and no need for financial and banking institutions and money. Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, that saw social class as emerging from an interplay between class, status and power. Weber believed that class position was determined by a relationship to the means of production. Weber derived many of his key concepts on social stratification by examining the structure of many countries. He noted that contrary to Marxs theories, stratification was based on more than simply ownership of capital, Weber pointed out that some members of the aristocracy lack economic wealth yet might nevertheless have political power. Likewise in Europe, many wealthy Jewish families in lack prestige and honor, Class, A persons economic position in a society
Social class
–
Burmese nobles and servants
Social class
–
A symbolic image of three orders of feudal society in Europe prior to the
French Revolution: The rural third estate carrying the clergy and the nobility.
Social class
–
In the United States the lowest stratum of the working class, the
underclass, often lives in urban areas with low-quality
civil services.
Social class
–
Members of the working class, and particularly peasantries,
starve to death at a much higher rate than petits-bourgeois professionals or capitalists.
16.
Marriage vows
–
Marriage vows are promises each partner in a couple makes to the other during a wedding ceremony based upon Western Christian norms. They are not universal to marriage and not necessary in most legal jurisdictions and they are not even universal within Christian marriage, as Eastern Christians do not have marriage vows in their traditional wedding ceremonies. Some jurisdictions require partners to test for sexually transmitted infections prior to pledging commitment, in the time of the Roman Empire the lower classes had free marriages. The brides father would deliver her to the groom, and the two agreed that they were wed, and would keep the vow of marriage by mutual consent. Wealthy Romans, though, would sign documents listing property rights to declare that their union was legalized. This was the beginning of the recording of marriage. The oldest traditional wedding vows can be traced back to the manuals of the medieval church, in England, there were manuals of the dioceses of Salisbury and York. The compilers of the first Book of Common Prayer, published in 1549, upon agreement to marry, the Church of England usually offered couples a choice. The couple could promise each other to love and cherish or, alternatively, the promises to love, cherish, and worship, and the bride to love, cherish. Couples wedding in the Roman Catholic Church essentially make the pledge to one another. According to the Rite of Marriage the customary text in English is, I, ____, take you, ____, I promise to be true to you in good times and in bad, in sickness and in health. I will love you and honour you all the days of my life, the priest will then say aloud You have declared your consent before the Church. May the Lord in his goodness strengthen your consent and fill you both with his blessings, what God has joined, men must not divide. Circumstances may result in the same partners having both ceremonies at different times, though this is rare, the vows, presence of witnesses, and civil registration are absolute requirements under the law. They were first published in English in the book of 1549. An older version of the phrase is until death us depart where depart means separate. Until death us depart had to be changed due to changes in the usage of depart in the Prayer Book of 1662, in the 1928 prayer book and in editions of the 1662 prayer book printed thereafter obey was retained. The 1928 revised form of Matrimony was quite widely adopted, though the form of 1662 was also widely used, in the Alternative Service Book two versions of the vows are included, the bride and groom must select one of the versions only
Marriage vows
–
Wedding ceremony at Kiuruvesi Church in
Kiuruvesi,
Finland
17.
Wedding reception
–
Hosts provide their choice of food and drink, although a wedding cake is popular. Entertaining guests after a ceremony is traditional in most societies. In some cultures, separate wedding celebrations are held for the brides, until after World War II, wedding celebrations were most commonly held in the brides home, in whatever style of entertainment was within the means of the family. This might be a ball for a wealthy family, a luncheon for middle-class families, or an afternoon tea, featuring cake and lemonade. The choice depended primarily on the economic situation, and in some cases. At the beginning of the 20th century, dance halls became common, there are also many small businesses that specialize in providing places for wedding ceremonies and celebrations. Technically, to be a reception, instead of other form of entertainment. In a receiving line, newly wedded couple, the hosts, each guest greets the first person in the line and, if necessary, introduces him/herself. The first person then introduces the guest to the person in the line. As each guest properly speaks little more than name and conventional greetings or congratulations to each person in turn. Are not required to stand in the receiving line and it is increasingly common to feature only the couple, since more modern couples host and pay for their own weddings rather than their parents. Another option, especially popular on the East and West Coast of the United States, is having a grand entrance instead of a receiving line, the grand entrance might involve presenting some or all of the wedding party, the parents, and/or the bride and groom. The wedding party is introduced by a master of ceremonies, disc jockey. It may be done in the manner as they walked down the aisle during the wedding ceremony. This is generally faster than a receiving line and guests may be seated before the arrival of the wedding party. In addition, it can be an event in itself and be as entertaining as wished, introductions may be accompanied by music and information about each person to introduce them to the guests. However, unlike a reception line, it does not give the guests an opportunity to speak to any of the people being presented, the food served at a wedding reception is determined by the time of the wedding and local customs. Food may range from a single non-alcoholic drink with wedding cake to elaborate, the type of food is chosen entirely at the discretion of the hosts
Wedding reception
–
Wedding reception in 17th century
Russia by
Konstantin Makovsky
Wedding reception
Wedding reception
–
Entertainment at an English wedding reception. The organisers have hired two
opera singers to sing
arias during the meal for the entertainment of the guests. The mother of the
groom is being
serenaded.
Wedding reception
–
Wedding dance of an Azerbaijani married couple
18.
Religious text
–
Religious texts are texts which religious traditions consider to be central to their religious practice or set of beliefs. It is not possible to create an exhaustive list of religious texts, one of the oldest known religious texts is the Kesh Temple Hymn of Ancient Sumer, a set of inscribed clay tablets which scholars typically date around 2600 BCE. For example, the content of a Protestant Bible may differ from the content of a Catholic Bible, the word canon comes from the Sumerian word meaning standard. Hierographology is the study of sacred texts, the following is an in-exhaustive list of links to specific religious texts which may be used for further, more in-depth study. The writings of Franklin Albert Jones a. k. a, some denominations also include the Apocrypha. For Protestantism, this is the 66-book canon - the Jewish Tanakh of 24 books divided differently, some denominations also include the 15 books of the Apocrypha between the Old Testament and the New Testament, for a total of 81 books. For Catholicism, this includes seven deuterocanonical books in the Old Testament for a total of 73 books, called the Canon of Trent. For the Eastern Orthodox Church, this includes the anagignoskomena, which consist of the Catholic deuterocanon, plus 3 Maccabees, Psalm 151, the Prayer of Manasseh,4 Maccabees is considered to be canonical by the Georgian Orthodox Church. Some Syriac churches accept the Letter of Baruch as scripture, christian Scientists The Bible Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures by Mary Baker Eddy. This textbook, along with the Bible, serves as the permanent impersonal pastor of the church, the Community of Christ uses the Joseph Smith Translation, which it calls the Inspired Version, as well as updated modern translations. Seventh-day Adventists The Bible The writings of Ellen White are held to a status, though not equal with the Bible. Also known as the Gospel of Mani and The Living Gospel the Treasure of Life the Pragmateia the Book of Mysteries The Book of Giants the Epistles the Psalms, the Shabuhragan The Arzhang The Kephalaia, Discourses, found in Coptic translation. Odù Ifá Jaap Verduijns Odu Ifa Collection Primary religious texts, that is, the Avesta collection, The Yasna, the Visperad, a collection of supplements to the Yasna. The Yashts, hymns in honor of the divinities, the Vendidad, describes the various forms of evil spirits and ways to confound them. Shorter texts and prayers, the Yashts the five Nyaishes, the Sirozeh, there are some 60 secondary religious texts, none of which are considered scripture. The Khordeh Avesta, Zoroastrian prayer book for lay people from the Avesta, religious full text online library Ancient texts library Internet Sacred Text Archive
Religious text
–
Ancient style of scripture used for the
Pāli Canon
Religious text
–
The Chinese
Diamond Sutra, the oldest known dated
printed book in the world, printed in the 9th year of Xiantong Era of the
Tang Dynasty, or 868 CE.
British Library.
Religious text
–
Christian
Bible, 1407 handwritten copy
Religious text
–
The Bible (left) and Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures (right) serve as the pastor of the
Christian Science church.
19.
Genetic genealogy
–
Genetic genealogy is the use of DNA testing in combination with traditional genealogy and traditional genealogical and historical records to infer relationships between individuals. Genetic genealogy involves the use of genealogical DNA testing to determine the level and this application of genetics became popular with family historians in the first decade of the 21st century, as tests became affordable. The tests have been promoted by groups, such as surname study groups, or regional genealogical groups. As of 2013 hundreds of thousands of people had been tested, as this field has developed, the aims of practitioners broadened, with many seeking knowledge of their ancestry beyond the recent centuries for which traditional pedigrees can be constructed. The investigation of surnames in genetics can be said to go back to George Darwin, in 1875, George Darwin used surnames to estimate the frequency of first-cousin marriages and calculated the expected incidence of marriage between people of the same surname. He arrived at a figure between 2. 25% and 4. 5% for cousin-marriage in the population of Great Britain, higher among the upper classes and lower among the general rural population. One famous study examined the lineage of descendants of Thomas Jefferson’s paternal line and male descendants of the freed slave. Bryan Sykes, a molecular biologist at Oxford University tested the new methodology in general surname research and his study of the Sykes surname obtained results by looking at four STR markers on the male chromosome. It pointed the way to becoming a valuable assistant in the service of genealogy. The first company to provide direct-to-consumer genetic DNA testing was the now defunct GeneTree, however, it did not offer multi-generational genealogy tests. In fall 2001, GeneTree sold its assets to Salt Lake City-based Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation which originated in 1999, while in operation, SMGF provided free Y-Chromosome and mitochondrial DNA tests to thousands. Later, GeneTree returned to testing for genealogy in conjunction with the Sorenson parent company. In 2000, Family Tree DNA, founded by Bennett Greenspan and they initially offered eleven marker Y-Chromosome STR tests and HVR1 mitochondrial DNA tests. They originally tested in partnership with the University of Arizona, with the growing availability and affordability of genealogical DNA testing, genetic genealogy as a field grew rapidly. By 2003, the field of DNA testing of surnames was declared officially to have “arrived” in an article by Jobling, the number of firms offering tests, and the number of consumers ordering them, rose dramatically. The original Genographic Project was a research study launched in 2005 by the National Geographic Society and IBM, in partnership with the University of Arizona. In 2007, annual sales of genetic tests for all companies. The earliest test takers were customers most often those who started with a Y-Chromosome test to determine their fathers paternal ancestry and these men often took part in surname projects
Genetic genealogy
–
George Darwin, son of
Charles Darwin, was the first to estimate the frequency of
first-cousin marriages
20.
Kinship
–
Anthropologist Robin Fox states that the study of kinship is the study of what man does with these basic facts of life – mating, gestation, parenthood, socialization, siblingship etc. Human society is unique, he argues, in that we are working with the raw material as exists in the animal world. These social ends include the socialization of children and the formation of economic, political. Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves, or it can refer to the study of the patterns of relationships in one or more human cultures. Further, even within two broad usages of the term, there are different theoretical approaches. Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related by both descent – i. e. social relations during development – and by marriage. Human kinship relations through marriage are commonly called affinity in contrast to the relationships that arise in ones group of origin, in some cultures, kinship relationships may be considered to extend out to people an individual has economic or political relationships with, or other forms of social connections. Within a culture, some descent groups may be considered to lead back to gods or animal ancestors and this may be conceived of on a more or less literal basis. Kinship can also refer to a principle by which individuals or groups of individuals are organized into groups, roles, categories. Family relations can be represented concretely or abstractly by degrees of relationship, a relationship may be relative or reflect an absolute. Degrees of relationship are not identical to heirship or legal succession, many codes of ethics consider the bond of kinship as creating obligations between the related persons stronger than those between strangers, as in Confucian filial piety. In a more general sense, kinship may refer to a similarity or affinity between entities on the basis of some or all of their characteristics that are under focus. This may be due to a shared origin, a shared historical or cultural connection. For example, a person studying the roots of human languages might ask whether there is kinship between the English word seven and the German word sieben. It can be used in a more diffuse sense as in, for example, in biology, kinship typically refers to the degree of genetic relatedness or coefficient of relationship between individual members of a species. It may also be used in this sense when applied to human relationships. Family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity, affinity, in most societies it is the principal institution for the socialization of children. Kin terminologies can be descriptive or classificatory
Kinship
–
A broad comparison of (left, top-to-bottom)
Hawaiian,
Sudanese,
Eskimo, (right, top-to-bottom)
Iroquois,
Crow and
Omaha kinship systems.
21.
Family
–
Family is the second album released by May J. and her first under the label Rhythm Zone. No singles were released form the album and it entered the daily Oricon chart at #5 and climbed to #3. DJ Kaori, Diggy-Mo, Clench and Blistah もし君と. with Kimaguren 旅立つ君に Family, Clench and Blistah Unity Crescent Moon, Daishi Dance Remix もし君と… with キマグレン, Music Video Garden feat. DJ Kaori, Diggy-Mo’, クレンチ＆ブリスタ, Music Video 旅立つ君に, Music Video Making of music videos and private movie in Okinawa
Family
22.
Sibling
–
A sibling is one of two or more individuals having one or both parents in common. A male sibling is a brother, and a sibling is a sister. In most societies throughout the world, siblings often grow up together, the emotional bond between siblings is often complicated and is influenced by factors such as parental treatment, birth order, personality, and personal experiences outside the family. However, there are cases where siblings grow up in separate homes and it is known that both nature and nurture figure in development, researchers are attempting to ascertain just which one plays the larger role. Identical twins share 100% of their DNA, full siblings are first-degree relatives and, on average, share 50% of their genes out of those that vary among humans. Half-siblings are second-degree relatives and have, on average, a 25% overlap in their genetic variation. Full siblings have the same parents and are 50% related. Identical twins by definition are 100% related, there are two types of twins, identical and fraternal. Identical twins have exactly the same genes, fraternal twins are no more similar than regular siblings, often, twins with a close relationship will develop a twin language from infanthood, a language only shared and understood between the two. Studies suggest that identical twins appear to display more twin talk than fraternal twins, at about 3 years of age, twin talk usually ends. Researchers were interested in subjects who were in the years of life. They knew that past studies suggested that genetics played a role in ones personality in the earlier years of their life. However, they were curious about whether or not this was later on in life. They gathered subjects with an age of 59, who included 99 pairs of identical twins. They also gathered twins who were reared together,160 pairs of identical twins and they studied the most heritable traits in regard to personality, which are emotionality, activity level and sociability, also known as EAS. This study found that identical twins resembled each other twice as much as fraternal twins, furthermore, environment influences personality substantially, however, it has little to do with whether they are reared together or apart. This study also suggests that heritability is substantial, but not as substantial as for younger subjects, half-siblings are people who share one parent but not both. They may share the same mother but different fathers, or they may have the same father and they share only one parent instead of two as full siblings do and are on average 25% related
Sibling
–
Two brothers
Sibling
–
The Benzon Daughters by
Peder Severin Krøyer
Sibling
–
Portrait of Lady Cockburn and her Three Eldest Sons, by
Joshua Reynolds
Sibling
–
Sibling Physical Conflict
23.
Cousin
–
A cousin is a relative with whom a person shares one or more common ancestors. In the general sense, cousins are two or more away from any common ancestor, thus distinguishing a cousin from an ancestor, descendant, sibling, aunt, uncle, niece. However, in common parlance, cousins typically refers to first cousins as the children of ones uncles, systems of degrees and removals are used in the English-speaking world to describe the exact relationship between two cousins and the ancestor they have in common. The ordinals in the terms first cousins, second cousins, third cousins, the number of G words used to describe this ancestor will determine how close the relationship is. For example, having great-great-grandparents in common would be third cousins, when the cousins are not the same generation, they are described as removed. In this case, the number of generations to the common ancestor is used to determine the degree. Note that the ages of the cousins are irrelevant to the definition of the cousin relationship, the following is a list of less common cousin terms. A cousin chart, or table of consanguinity, is helpful in identifying the degree of relationship between two people using their most recent common ancestor as the reference point. Cousinship between two people can be described in degrees and removals by determining how close, generationally. Another visual chart used in determining the relationship between two people who share a common ancestor is based upon a rhombus shape, usually referred to as a canon law relationship chart. The chart is used by placing the common progenitor in the top space in the diamond-shaped chart, then follow the line down the outside edge of the chart for each of the two people until their respective relationship to the common ancestor is reached. Upon determining that place along the opposing outside edge for each person, the information contained in the common intersection defines the relationship. Then, following the spaces inward, they would intersect in the brother diamond
Cousin
–
Canon Law Relationship Chart. See an
example of how to use chart.
24.
Husband
–
A husband is a male in a marital relationship. The rights and obligations of a husband regarding his spouse, others, in monogamous cultures, there may be only two parties to a marriage. This is enforced by legal codes which outlaw bigamy, in polygamous cultures, there may be more than two parties to a marriage. On the death of his spouse, a husband is referred to as a widower and after a divorce a man may be referred to as ex-husband of his former spouse. In todays society a husband is not necessarily considered the breadwinner of the family, especially if his spouse has a more financially rewarding occupation or career, in such cases, it is not uncommon for a husband to be considered a stay-at-home father if the married couple have children. The term husband refers to Middle English huseband, from Old English hūsbōnda, at the conclusion of a valid wedding, the marrying parties acquire the status of married person and, while the marriage persists, a man is called a husband. In heterosexual marriages the woman is called a wife, in same-sex marriages between males, each male is called a husband, between females, each is called a wife, regardless of gender, a married person is the spouse of the other party to the marriage. Although husband is a term to groom, the latter is a male participant in a wedding ceremony, while a husband is a married man after the wedding. In some cases of marriage, before the marriage, he or his family may have received a dowry, or have had to pay a bride price. For the time of the marriage, they were made inalienable by the husband and he might leave his wife, then widow, a dower to support her as dowager. Husband further refers to the form in relation to the spouse and offspring, unlike father. As an external symbol of the fact that they are married, in the Middle Ages and Early Modern European history, it was unusual to marry out of love, but then doing so became an influential ideal. During this period, a husband had more opportunities in society than his wife, in contemporary secularized Western culture, the rights of the spouses have been made equal. The civil marriage generally forces the wealthier spouse breadwinner to provide alimony to the spouse, even after separation. In Islamic marital jurisprudence, husbands are considered protectors of the household, as in most cases in Islam law and culture, everything is being related to the Quran. Many Muslims may agree on an equal relationship. Islam is the major religion that puts a cap on polygamy. Although some religions, such as Catholicism for instance, puts a cap on all together, or even serial monogamy, allowing one spouse until death does them apart
Husband
–
A newly
wed husband kissing his bride
25.
Wife
–
A wife is a female partner in a continuing marital relationship. A wife may also be referred to as a spouse, which is a gender-neutral term, on the death of her partner, a wife is referred to as a widow, but not after she is divorced from her partner. The rights and obligations of a wife in relation to her partner and her status in the community, the word is of Germanic origin, from Proto-Germanic *wībam, woman. In Middle English it had the form wif, and in Old English wīf, in many cultures, with marriage it is generally expected that a woman will take her husbands surname, though that is not universal. A married woman is given the honorific title Mrs, but some married women prefer to be referred to as Ms. A woman on her day is usually described as a bride, even after the wedding ceremony. Historically, if her partner was male he was known as the bridegroom during the wedding, if her partner is female she may also be described as a bride during and after the ceremony and as a wife within the marriage. Wife refers to the relation to the other spouse, unlike mother. However, a woman in a common law marriage may describe herself as a common law wife, de facto wife. Those seeking to advance gender neutrality may refer to marriage partners as spouses, and many countries and societies are rewording their statute law by replacing wife. A former wife whose spouse is deceased is a widow, the status of a wife may be terminated by divorce, annulment, or death of the other spouse. In the case of divorce, terminology such as former-wife or ex-wife is often used, in the case of the death of the other spouse, the term used is widow. The legal rights of a wife have been since the 19th century and this subject was in particular addressed by John Stuart Mill, in The Subjection of Women. Historically, many societies have given sets of rights and obligations to husbands that have very different from the sets of rights. In particular, the control of property, inheritance rights. However, this practice was curtailed to a deal in many countries in the twentieth century. Among the last European countries to establish gender equality in marriage were Switzerland, Greece, Spain. The purpose of the dowry varies by culture and has varied historically, in some cultures, particularly in the Anglophone West, wives often change their surnames to that of the husband upon getting married
Wife
–
The Merchant's Wife (1918) by
Boris Kustodiev
Wife
–
A
white gold wedding ring and a single-
diamond,
gold -banded engagement ring. In many cultures, wives show their marital status through various symbols.
Wife
–
A young bride at her
Nikah.
Wife
–
A traditional, formal presentation of the
bride price at a
Thai engagement ceremony.
26.
Polyandry
–
Polyandry involves marriage that includes more than two partners and can fall under the broader category of polyamory. More specifically, it is a form of polygamy, where a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time, Polyandry is contrasted with polygyny, involving one male and two or more females. If a marriage involves a number of husbands and wives participants of each gender, then it can be called polyamory. In its broadest use, polyandry refers to relations with multiple males within or without marriage. Of the 1,231 societies listed in the 1980 Ethnographic Atlas,186 were found to be monogamous,453 had occasional polygyny,588 had more frequent polygyny, Polyandry is less rare than this figure which listed only those examples found in the Himalayan mountains. More recent studies have more than 50 other societies practicing polyandry. It is associated with partible paternity, the belief that a child can have more than one father. Polyandry is believed to be likely in societies with scarce environmental resources. It is believed to limit population growth and enhance child survival. It is a form of marriage that exists not only among peasant families. For example, polyandry in the Himalayan mountains is related to the scarcity of land, the marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife allows family land to remain intact and undivided. If every brother married separately and had children, family land would be split into small plots. In contrast, very poor persons not owning land were likely to practice polyandry in Buddhist Ladakh. In Europe, the splitting up of land was prevented through the practice of impartible inheritance. For example, disinheriting most siblings where many of whom then became celibate monks, polyandrous mating systems are also a common phenomenon in the animal kingdom. In the Indian Himalayas, polyandry may be combined with polygyny to produce a system termed polygynandry, the system results in less land fragmentation, a diversification of domestic economic activities, and lower population growth. Fraternal polyandry, also called adelphic polyandry, is a form of polyandry in which a woman is married to two or more men who are one anothers brothers. Fraternal polyandry was found in areas of Tibet, Nepal, and Northern India
Polyandry
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Draupadi, a princess and queen in the Indian epic
Mahābhārata, with her five husbands.
Polyandry
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Sepulcral inscription for Allia Potestas, Museo Epigrafico, Terme di Diocleziano, Rome
Polyandry
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Draupadi with her five husbands - the
Pandavas. The central figure is
Yudhishthira; the two to his left are
Bhima and
Arjuna.
Nakula and
Sahadeva, the twins, are to his right. Their wife, at far right, is Draupadi.
Deogarh, Dasavatar temple.
27.
Polygamy
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Polygamy involves marriage with more than one spouse. When a man is married to more than one wife at a time, when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is called polyandry. If a marriage includes multiple husbands and wives, it can be called a group marriage, in contrast, monogamy is marriage consisting of only two parties. Like monogamy, the term polygamy is often used in a de facto sense, in sociobiology and zoology, researchers use polygamy in a broad sense to mean any form of multiple mating. Polygamy is widely accepted among different societies worldwide, according to the Ethnographic Atlas, of 1,231 societies noted,588 had frequent polygyny,453 had occasional polygyny,186 were monogamous and 4 had polyandry. Polygamy is also common among animals, such as the common fruit-fly. Polygyny is the practice wherein a man has more than one wife at the same time, the vast majority of polygamous marriages are polygynous. Polygyny is legally accepted in many Muslim majority countries and some countries with a sizeable Muslim minority, in some of the sparsely populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place in Africa, women do much of the work. This favours polygamous marriages in which men sought to monopolize the production of women who are valued both as workers and as child bearers, goody however, observes that the correlation is imperfect and varied. Senior wives can benefit as well when their work load is lightened by the addition of junior wives to the family. Wives, especially wives, status in the community can be increased by the addition of other wives. For such reasons, senior wives sometimes work hard or contribute from their own resources to enable their husbands to accumulate the bride price for a second wife, Polygyny may also result from the practice of levirate marriage. In such cases, the deceased mans heir may inherit his assets and wife, or, more usually and this provides support for the widow and her children and maintains the tie between the husband and wives kin groups. The sororate is like the levirate, in that a widower must marry the sister of his dead wife, the wifes family, in other words, must provide a replacement for her thus maintaining the ties between them. Both levirate and sororate may result in a man having multiple wives and this is a form of de facto polygyny that is referred to as concubinage. In many polygynous marriages the husbands wives may live in separate households often at a great distance and they can thus be described as a series of linked nuclear families with a father in common. Polyandry is the practice wherein a woman has more than one husband at the same time, polyandry is much less popular than polygyny and is illegal in virtually every state in the world. It occurs only in remote communities, polyandry is believed to be more likely in societies with scarce environmental resources, as it is believed to limit human population growth and enhance child survival
Polygamy
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Prince Manga Bell and favorite wives
Polygamy
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A Mormon polygamist family in 1888.
Polygamy
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Azim Azimzade. "The old wife and the new one". 1935
28.
Polygyny
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Polygyny is the most common and accepted form of polygamy, entailing the marriage of a man with several women. Most countries that permit polygamy are Muslim-majority countries in which polygyny is the only form permitted, polyandry is illegal in virtually every state of the world. In some countries where polygamy is illegal, and sometimes even when legal, at times it is known for men to have one or more mistresses, whom they do not marry. The status of a mistress is not that of a wife, throughout the polygyny belt stretching from Senegal in the west to Tanzania in the east, as many as a third to a half of married women are in polygynous unions. Historically, polygyny was partly accepted in ancient Hebrew society, in classical China, in India it was known to have been practiced during ancient times. It was accepted in ancient Greece, until the Roman Empire, Boserup was the first to propose that the high incidence of polygyny in sub-Saharan Africa is rooted in the sexual division of labor in hoe-farming and the large economic contribution of women. In the regions of shifting cultivation where polygyny is most frequently recorded, the task of felling trees in preparation of new plots is usually done by older boys and very young men. An elderly cultivator, with wives and likely several young male children. By the combined efforts of his sons and young wives, he may gradually expand his cultivation. A man with a wife has less help in cultivation and is likely to have little or no help for felling trees. According to Boserups historical data, women living in such a structure also welcome one or more co-wives to share them the burden of daily labor. However, the wife will usually do the most tiresome work, almost as if she were a servant to the first wife. Polygyny is considered an advantage in many rural areas. In some cases, the role of the additional wife enables the husband to enjoy more leisure. Drawing on the work of Ester Boserup, Goody notes that in some of the populated regions where shifting cultivation takes place in Africa. This favoured polygamous marriages in which men sought to monopolize the production of women who are valued both as workers and as child bearers, Goody, however, observes that the correlation is imperfect. Most research into the determinants of polygyny has focused on macro-level factors, widespread polygyny is linked to the kinship groups that share descent from a common ancestor. Scholars have argued that in farming systems where men do most of the agriculture work, in order to feed an additional wife, the husband must either work harder himself or he must hire laborers to do part of the work
Polygyny
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Polygamy permitted and practiced
29.
Boyfriend
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A boyfriend is a male friend or acquaintance, often specifying a regular male companion with whom one is platonic, romantically or sexually involved. This is normally a short-term committed relationship, where titles are more commonly used for long-term committed relationships. A boyfriend can also be called an admirer, beau, suitor, partners in committed non-marital relationships are also sometimes described as a significant other or partner, especially if the individuals are cohabiting. Boyfriend and partner mean different things to different people, the distinctions between the terms are subjective, how the term is used will ultimately be determined by personal preference. There is a significant difference between girlfriend and boyfriend, and girl friend and boy friend, in a strictly grammatical sense, a girlfriend or boyfriend is an individual of significance with whom one shares a relationship. The word dating entered the American language during the Roaring Twenties, prior to that, courtship was a matter of family and community interest. Starting around the time of the American Civil War, courtship became a matter for couples. In the early to mid 20th century in the US, women were visited by gentleman callers. The era of the gentleman caller ended in the early 20th century, in literature, the term is discussed in July 1988 in Neil Bartletts, Who Was That Man. A Present for Mr Oscar Wilde, on pages 108-110, Bartlett quotes from an issue of The Artist and Journal of Home Culture, which refers to Alectryon as a boyfriend of Mars. An older man may be referred to as a sugar daddy, in popular culture, slang, internet chat, and cellphone texting, the truncated acronym bf is also used. The term young man was at some periods used with a similar connotation
Boyfriend
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A woman with her boyfriend.
Boyfriend
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A man with his boyfriend.
30.
Cohabitation
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Cohabitation is an arrangement where two people who are not married live together. Such arrangements have become common in Western countries during the past few decades, being led by changing social views, especially regarding marriage, gender roles. They often involve a romantic relationship and/or sexually intimate relationship on a long-term or permanent basis, more broadly, the term cohabitation can mean any number of people living together. To cohabit, in a sense, means to coexist. The origin of the term comes from the mid 16th century, from the Latin cohabitare, today, cohabitation is a common pattern among people in the Western world. In Europe, the Scandinavian countries have been the first to start this leading trend, mediterranean Europe has traditionally been very conservative, with religion playing a strong role. Until the mid-1990s, cohabitation levels remained low in this region, during the past decades, in Western countries, there has been an increase in unmarried couples cohabiting. Historically, many Western countries have been influenced by Christian doctrines on sex, as social mores have changed, such beliefs have become less widely held by the population and some Christian denominations today view cohabitation as a precursor to marriage. Pope Francis has married a couple who had children, while former Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams. All these changes favored living arrangement alternatives to marriage, in Central and Eastern Europe, during the late 1980s and early 1990s, there were major political changes, such as the fall of Communist governments. These societies entered a new era of increased social freedom, less rigid rules and they interacted with Western Europe and some became members of the European Union. As a result, the patterns of life have started to change, marriage rates have declined. Cohabitation and births to unmarried mothers increased, and in countries the increase was very quick. The deinstitutionalization of marriage refers to the weakening of the social and legal norms that regulate behavior in regard to marriage. The rise in cohabitation is part of major social changes such as, higher divorce rate, older age at first marriage and childbearing. There have been objections against the legal and social regulation of female sexuality, in addition, some individuals may feel that marriage is unnecessary or outdated, leading to couples not formalizing their relation. The fact that many choose to live together without formalizing their relation is also recognized by the European Union. A2004 directive forbids EU members from denying entry or residence of partners with whom the Union citizen has a durable relationship, a reason for the more permissive and less traditional views on cohabiting would be a low sex ratio
Cohabitation
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Irish
Magdalene Laundry, c. early 1900s. Women who had sexual relations outside marriage were often sent to Magdalene laundries until the mid-20th century
Cohabitation
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Cohabitation is very common in Quebec. Since 1995, the majority of births in this province are outside of marriage.
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The dictionary definition of wedding at Wiktionary
