1.
Great Trek
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The Great Trek resulted from the culmination of tensions between rural descendants of the Capes original European settlers, known collectively as Boers, and the British Empire. The Great Trek led directly to the founding of several autonomous Boer republics, namely the South African Republic, the Orange Free State, and the Natalia Republic. It was also responsible for the displacement of the Northern Ndebele people, vrijburgers were granted tax exempt status for twelve years and loaned all the necessary seeds and farming implements they requested. They were married Dutch citizens, considered of good character by the Company, as a result, by 1691 over a quarter of the colonys European population was not ethnically Dutch. Nevertheless, there was a degree of assimilation due to intermarriage. Following the Flanders Campaign and the Batavian Revolution in Amsterdam, France assisted in the establishment of a client state. This opened the Cape to French warships, to protect her own prosperous maritime shipping routes, Great Britain occupied the fledgling colony by force until 1803. From 1806 to 1814 the Cape was again governed as a British military dependency, the British formally assumed permanent administrative control around 1815, as a result of the Treaty of Paris. Just over a quarter were of German ancestry and about one-sixth were descended from French Huguenots, there were also 30,000 African and Asian slaves owned by the settlers, and about 17,000 indigenous Khoisan. Relations between the settlers—especially the Boers—and the new administration quickly soured, the British authorities were adamantly opposed to the Boers ownership of slaves, and what was perceived as their unduly harsh treatment of the indigenous peoples. The British government insisted that the Cape finance its own affairs through self taxation, in 1815, the controversial arrest of a white farmer for allegedly assaulting one of his servants resulted in the abortive Slachters Nek Rebellion. The British retaliated by hanging at least five Boers for insurrection, in 1828 the Cape governor declared that all native inhabitants but slaves were to have the rights of citizens, in respect of security and property ownership, on parity with the settlers. This had the effect of alienating the colonys white population. Boer resentment of successive British administrators continued to grow throughout the late 1820s and early 1830s and this replaced Dutch with English as the language used in the Capes judicial system, putting the Boers at a disadvantage, as most spoke little or no English at all. Great Britains alienation of the Boers was particularly amplified by the decision to abolish slavery in all its colonies in 1834. All 35,745 slaves registered with the Cape governor were to be freed and given rights on par with other citizens, although in most cases their masters could retain them as apprentices until 1838. Compensation was indeed offered by the British government, but payment had to be made in London and they resolved to trek beyond the colonys borders on their own. Droughts Perceived antagonism from British missionaries, the official recognition of the equality between settlers and native inhabitants
2.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
3.
Impi
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Impi is a Zulu word for any armed body of men. However, in English it is used to refer to a Zulu regiment. Its beginnings lie far back in historic tribal warfare customs, when groups of armed men called impis battled and these innovations in turn drew upon existing tribal customs, such as the iNtanga. This was an age grade tradition common among many of the Bantu peoples of the southern region. Youths were organised into age groups, with each responsible for certain duties. Kraal or settlement elders generally handled local disputes and issues, above them were the inDunas, and above the inDunas stood the chief of a particular clan lineage or tribe. The inDunas handled administrative matters for their chiefs – ranging from settlement of disputes, in time of war, the inDunas supervised the fighting men in their areas, forming leadership of the military forces deployed for combat. The age grade iNtangas, under the guidance of the inDunas, militarily warfare was mild among the Bantu prior to the rise of Shaka, though it occurred frequently. Objectives were typically limited to such matters as recovering cattle, avenging some personal insult, generally a loose mob, called an impi participated in these melees. There were no campaigns of extermination against the defeated and they simply moved on to other open spaces on the veldt, and equilibrium was restored. The bow and arrow were known but seldom used, warfare, like the hunt, depended on skilled spearmen and trackers. The primary weapon was a thin 6-foot throwing spear, the assegai, defensive weapons included a small cowhide shield, which was later improved by King Shaka. Many battles were prearranged, with the clan warriors meeting at a place and time. Ritualized taunts, single combats and tentative charges were the typical pattern, if the affair did not dissipate before, one side might find enough courage to mount a sustained attack, driving off their enemies. The defeated clan might pay in lands or cattle and have captives to be ransomed, outside the ritual battles, the quick raid was the most frequent combat action, marked by burning kraals, seizure of captives, and the driving off of cattle. Pastoral herders and light agriculturalists, the Bantu did not usually build permanent fortifications to fend off enemies, a clan under threat simply packed their meager material possessions, rounded up their cattle and fled until the marauders were gone. If the marauders did not stay to permanently dispossess them of grazing areas, the genesis of the Zulu impi thus lies in tribal structures existing long before the coming of Europeans or the Shaka era. In the early 19th century, a combination of factors began to change the customary pattern and these included rising populations, the growth of white settlement and slaving that dispossessed native peoples both at the Cape and in Portuguese Mozambique, and the rise of ambitious new men
4.
Dingane kaSenzangakhona
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Dingane kaSenzangakhona Zulu —commonly referred to as Dingane or Dingaan—was a Zulu chief who became king of the Zulu Kingdom in 1828. He set up his royal capital UmGungundlovu, and one of military encampments or kraals. Dingane came to power in 1828 after assassinating his half-brother Shaka with the help of brother, Umhlangana, as well as Mbopa. They were traditionally said to have killed Shaka because of his increase in brutal behaviour after the death of his mother Nandi, the assassination took place at present-day Stanger. Dingane built his city of UmGungundlovu in 1829 and enlarged it five years later. UmGungundlovu was built according to the layout of a Zulu military settlement. The ikhanda consisted of a large, central circular parade ground, surrounded by warriors barracks, the isibaya was entered from the north. The royal enclosure was situated on the side of the complex. The king, his mistresses and female attendants, a total of at least 500 people, the women were divided into two groups, namely the black isigodlo and the white isigodlo. The black isigodlo comprised about 100 privileged women, and within that group another elite called the bheje, a small settlement was built for them behind the main complex where they could enjoy some privacy. The remainder of the women were called the white isigodlo. These consisted mainly of girls presented to the king by his important subjects and he also selected other girls at the annual First fruit ceremony. A huge half-moon shaped area was included in the black isigodlo, here the women, the huts in the black isigodlo were divided into compartments of about three huts each, enclosed by a two-metre-high hedge of intertwined withes, which created a network of passages. The kings private hut was located in one such triangular compartment and had three or four entrances and his hut was very large and was kept very neat by attendants, it could easily accommodate 50 people. Modern archaeological excavations have revealed that the floor of large hut was approximately 10 metres in diameter. Archaeologists found evidence inside the hut of 22 large supporting posts completely covered in glass beads and these had been noted in historical accounts by Piet Retief, leader of the Voortrekkers, and the British missionaries Champion and Owen. On the south side, just behind the complex, were three separate enclosed groups of huts. The centre group was used by the women of the black isigodlo
5.
Zulu people
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The Zulu are a Bantu ethnic group of Southern Africa and the largest ethnic group in South Africa, with an estimated 10–11 million people living mainly in the province of KwaZulu-Natal. Small numbers also live in Zimbabwe, Zambia, Tanzania and Mozambique, the Zulu were originally a major clan in what is today Northern KwaZulu-Natal, founded ca.1709 by Zulu kaMalandela. In the Nguni languages, iZulu means heaven, or weather, at that time, the area was occupied by many large Nguni communities and clans. Nguni communities had migrated down Africas east coast over centuries, as part of the Bantu migrations probably arriving in what is now South Africa in about the 9th century, the Zulu formed a powerful state in 1818 under the leader Shaka. Shaka, as the Zulu King, gained an amount of power over the tribe. On 11 December 1878, agents of the British delivered an ultimatum to 11 chiefs representing Cetshwayo, the terms forced upon Cetshwayo required him to disband his army and accept British authority. Cetshwayo refused, and war followed January 12,1879, during the war, the Zulus defeated the British at the Battle of Isandlwana on 22 January. The British managed to get the hand after the Battle at Rorkes Drift. After Cetshwayos capture a month following his defeat, the British divided the Zulu Empire into 13 kinglets, the sub-kingdoms fought amongst each other until 1883 when Cetshwayo was reinstated as king over Zululand. This still did not stop the fighting and the Zulu monarch was forced to flee his realm by Zibhebhu, one of the 13 kinglets, Cetshwayo died in February 1884, killed by Zibhebhus regime, leaving his son, the 15-year-old Dinuzulu, to inherit the throne. In-fighting between the Zulu continued for years, until Zululand was absorbed fully into the British colony of Natal, under apartheid, the homeland of KwaZulu was created for Zulu people. In 1970, the Bantu Homeland Citizenship Act provided that all Zulus would become citizens of KwaZulu, KwaZulu consisted of a large number of disconnected pieces of land, in what is now KwaZulu-Natal. By 1993, approximately 5.2 million Zulu people lived in KwaZulu, the Chief Minister of KwaZulu, from its creation in 1970 was Chief Mangosuthu Buthelezi. In 1994, KwaZulu was joined with the province of Natal, Inkatha YeSizwe means the crown of the nation. In 1975, Buthelezi revived the Inkatha YaKwaZulu, predecessor of the Inkatha Freedom Party and this organization was nominally a protest movement against apartheid, but held more conservative views than the ANC. For example, Inkatha was opposed to the struggle. Inkatha was initially on good terms with the ANC, but the two came into increasing conflict beginning in 1976 in the aftermath of the Soweto Uprising. The modern Zulu population is evenly distributed in both urban and rural areas
6.
Battle of Blood River
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Casualties amounted to 3,000 of king Dinganes soldiers dead, including two Zulu princes competing with prince Mpande for the Zulu throne. Three Pioneers commando members were wounded, including Pretorius himself. After these two battles, Dinganes prime minister and commander in both the Battle of Maqongqe and the Battle of Blood River, General Ndlela, was strangled to death by Dingane for high treason. General Ndlela had been the protector of Prince Mpande, who after the Battles of Blood River and Maqongqe, became king. Dingane had agreed that, if Retief could recover approximately 700 head of cattle stolen from the Zulus by the Tlokwa, the accompanying request for the surrender of Trekker muskets at the entrance was taken as normal protocol when appearing before the king. While the Trekkers were being entertained by Dinganes dancing warriors/soldiers, Dingane suddenly accused the party of witchcraft and ordered his men. Dinganes soldiers then proceeded to impale all Retiefs men, lastly clubbing to death Retief, after the Battle of Blood River, the Dingane-Retief treaty was found on Retiefs bodily remains, providing a driving force for an overt alliance against Dingane between Prince Mpande and Pretorius. On 26 November 1838, Andries Pretorius was appointed as general of a wagon commando directed against Dingane at UmGungundlovu, by December 1838, Prince Mpande and 17,000 followers had already fled from Dingane, who was seeking to assassinate Mpande. In support of Prince Mpande as Dinganes replacement, Pretorius strategy was to target Dingane only, to allow Prince Mpande to oust King Dingane through military might, Pretorius had first to weaken Dinganes personal military power base in UmGungundlovu. Trekker leader Hendrik Potgieter had abandoned all hope of engaging Dingane in UmGungundlovu after losing the battle of Italeni, the military commander during Dinganes attack on Veglaer, was Ndlela kaSompisi. The highly experienced general Ndlela had served under Shaka, and was prime minister. Ndlela with his 10,000 troops had retreated from Veglaer, after three days and nights of fruitless attempts to penetrate the enclosed Trekker wagon laager, General Ndlela personally protected Prince Mpande—whom Pretorius later crowned as Zulu king in 1840—from Dinganes repeated assassination plans. King Dingane desired to have his half brother Mpande, the prince with children. Prince Mpande was married to Msukilethe, a daughter of general Ndlela, General Ndlela, like Pretorius the promotor of Prince Mpande, was responsible for Dinganes UmGungundlovu defence during the Trekkers second attack attempt under Pretorius in December 1838. Given general Ndlelas previous defence and attack experience at Italeni and Veglaer during April 1838 and August 1838 respectively, Ndlela had to let Pretorius come close to UmGungundlovu at Italeni, and lure the Trekkers into attack. Ndlela was not to attack the Trekkers when they were in a wagon laager position. The problem for Pretorius was that he had somehow to find a way to make Dinganes soldiers attack him in a defensive position at a place of his choice, far away from UmGungundlovu. The so-called covenant included that a church would be built in honour of God, should the commando somehow be successful, after the meeting with friendly Zulu chiefs at Danskraal, Pretorius let the commando relax and do their washing for a few days at Wasbank till 9 December 1838
7.
Battle of Maqongqo
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The Battle of Maqongqo was fought on 29 January 1840 during a civil war between Zulu factions. The Zulu king Dingane was challenged for the throne by his brother Mpande, Mpande and his supporters were victorious. Shortly thereafter Dingane was murdered and Mpande became king of the Zulus, the Boer settlers under Pretorius had inflicted a crushing defeat on Dingane in 1838 at the Battle of Blood River, allowing them to carve out territory and create the Natalia Republic. As a result, the authority had been severely weakened. His attempt to reassert his leadership by expanding his territory to the north led to defeat at the hands of the Swazi in 1839. Fearing that Dingane intended to kill him, to rid himself of a rival for the throne. Mpande made a deal with Boers that he would grant them substantial land, on 14 January 1840, Mpandes general Nongalaza KaNondela crossed into Zululand with a force of around 5,000 impi, advancing along the coast towards Dinganes encampment. Mpande and the Boers under Pretorius advanced separately across the Ncome River, the Boers had a force of 308 armed men and another 500 servants in 50 wagons. Dingane attempted to negotiate, but Mpande and Nongalaza refused to listen, Dinganes envoy Dambusa was summarily executed when he arrived at the Boer camp. Dingane then withdrew into the Maguda mountain region, Dinganes general, Ndlela kaSompisi took up a position on a group of hillocks known as the Maqongqo hills. Nongazalas army soon caught up with them, but Pretorius force was still a hundred miles away, rather than wait for the Boers, Nongalaza decided to attack immediately. Both armies were around 5,000 strong, both adopted the traditional Zulu Chest and Horns formation. The battle was contested for a while, but Dinganes demoralised men began to desert to the enemy. It is said that Nongalaza deceived Dinganes men by creating the impression that the Boers had arrived and were about to take to the field, when it looked as though his army might desert en masse, Ndlela ordered the withdrawal of his remaining forces. Wounded survivors were massacred by the triumphant Nongalaza, as were the wives of Dingane, Dingane was furious, and had Ndlela strangled to death on the spot. However, this did not stop most of Dinganes remaining men dispersing back to their homes, the Boers arrived on 6 February, having taken the opportunity to grab as much cattle in booty as they could. They proclaimed Mpande king, and returned to Natalia with 36,000 head of cattle, Dingane escaped with a few followers into Swaziland, but was murdered shortly afterwards by a patrol of Swazis and Nyawos. On 14 February 1840 Pretorius issued a proclamation stating that a stretch of land extending from St. Lucia Bay was now the border between the Zulu kingdom and the Republic of Natalia
8.
Voortrekkers
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The Voortrekkers were Boer pastoralists from the frontiers of the Cape Colony who migrated eastwards during the Great Trek. Voortrekker Leaders arranged in order by size of party, - Hendrik Potgieter, Sarel Cilliers, Piet Retief, see List of massacres in South Africa. See List of massacres in South Africa Arie Zacharias Visagie, David Stephanus Fourie, Jan Matthys De Beer, Hermanus Stephanus Lombard, the total number of families that trekked under a trek leader is 1093. From available sources it was found that during the years 1835 to 1845 a total of about 2540 families took part in the Great Trek, some of them were wealthy men though most were not as they were from the poorer communities of the frontier. It was recorded that the 33 Voortrekker families at the Battle of Vegkop lost 100 horses, the Voortrekkers were mainly of Trekboer descent living in the eastern frontiers of the Cape. Hence, their ancestors had established a semi-nomadic existence of trekking into expanding frontiers. Amongst the Voortrekkers were poor men too belonging to the squatter or bywoner class, the British possession of the Cape was affirmed with the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814. With this change in government came a loss of control of the Cape and its resources such as land, the reasons for the mass emigration from the Cape Colony have been much discussed over the years. Afrikaner historiography has emphasized the hardships endured by the farmers which they blamed on British policies of pacifying the Xhosa tribes. Other historians have emphasized the harshness of the life in the Eastern Cape compared to the attractions of the country of Natal, the Orange Free State. Growing land shortages have also cited as a contributing factor. The revocation of Lord Glenelg of the Province of Queen Adelaide, the continued chronic insecurity on the frontier. Being blamed by the Government for provoking an unjust war, the Colony was perceived as being no place for Christian people to live. Land was becoming scarce and expensive owing to increase in the Afrikaans-speaking population. The advance of the English tongue, especially in official circles, the emancipation of the slaves ordained by the British in 1833. The inadequate compensation for the slaves by the British. The emancipation of the slaves took effect during harvest season, chronic mortification at the way the Boers actions were so freely criticized by the missionaries. The official recognition of the equality between colored men and whites, the Commisie Treks returned filled with enthusiasm for the countries they had visited
9.
Afrikaans
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Afrikaans is a West Germanic language spoken in South Africa, Namibia and, to a lesser extent, Botswana and Zimbabwe. Hence, it is a language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as Cape Dutch or kitchen Dutch. Although, it is described as a creole, a partially creolised language the least. The term is derived from Dutch Afrikaans-Hollands meaning African Dutch. It is the first language of most of the Afrikaner and Coloured people of Southern Africa, therefore, differences with Dutch often lie in the more analytic morphology and grammar of Afrikaans, and a spelling that expresses Afrikaans pronunciation rather than standard Dutch. There is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages—especially in written form. With about 7 million native speakers in South Africa, or 13. 5% of the population and it has the widest geographical and racial distribution of all the eleven official languages of South Africa, and is widely spoken and understood as a second or third language. About 1. 5% of black South Africans speak it as their first language, large numbers of speakers of Bantu languages and English-speaking South Africans also speak it as their second language. It is taught in schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students and it, along with German, was among the official languages of Namibia until the country became independent in 1990, 25% of the population of Windhoek spoke Afrikaans at home. Both Afrikaans and German survive as recognised regional languages in the country, estimates of the total number of Afrikaans speakers range between 15 and 23 million. The Afrikaans language arose in the Dutch Cape Colony, through a gradual divergence from European Dutch dialects, there is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form. Nevertheless, Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the way round. Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch, in general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is better than between Dutch and Frisian or between Danish and Swedish. The workers and slaves who contributed to the development of Afrikaans were Asians and Malagasys, as well as the Khoi, San, and Bantu peoples who also lived in the area. African creole people in the early 18th century — documented on the cases of Hendrik Bibault, Only much later in the second half of the 19th century did the Boers adopt this attribution, too. The Khoi and mixed-race groups became collectively referred to as Coloureds, beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replace Malay as the language of instruction in Muslim schools in South Africa, written with the Arabic alphabet, see Arabic Afrikaans. Later, Afrikaans, now written with the Latin alphabet, started to appear in newspapers and political, in 1925, Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a real language, rather than simply a slang version of Dutch proper. Before the Boer Wars, and indeed for some time afterwards, rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as ‘a kitchen language’ or as ‘a bastard jargon, suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants
10.
Massacre
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A massacre is a specific incident which involves the killing of people, although not necessarily a crime against humanity. Further origins are dubious, though may be related to Latin macellum provisions store, robert Melsons basic working definition, reads, by massacre we shall mean the intentional killing by political actors of a significant number of relatively defenseless people. The motives for massacre need not be rational in order for the killings to be intentional, Mass killings can be carried out for various reasons, including a response to false rumors. Should be distinguished from criminal or pathological mass killings, as political bodies we of course include the state and its agencies, but also nonstate actors. Equally important is that massacres are not carried out by individuals, the use of superior, even overwhelming force. Levene excludes legal, or even some quasi-legal, mass executions and he also points out that it is. most often. When the act is outside the normal bounds of the society witnessing it. List of events named massacres Disaster Ethnic cleansing Genocide Killing spree Mass murder Pogrom Tragedy Tragedy War crime
11.
Zulu Kingdom
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The area was subsequently absorbed into the Colony of Natal and later became part of the Union of South Africa. Shaka Zulu was the son of Senzangakona, King of the Zulus. He and his mother, Nandi, were exiled by Senzangakona, Shaka fought as a warrior under Jobe, and then under Jobes successor, Dingiswayo, leader of the Mthethwa Paramountcy. When Senzangakona died, Dingiswayo helped Shaka claim his place as chief of the Zulu Kingdom, after Dingiswayos death at the hands of Zwide, king of the Ndwandwe, around 1818, Shaka assumed leadership of the entire Mthethwa alliance. Shaka initiated many military, social, cultural and political reforms, the alliance under his leadership survived Zwides first assault at the Battle of Gqokli Hill. The death toll has never been determined, but the whole region became nearly depopulated. Normal estimates for the death toll during this period range from 1 million to 2 million people, by 1825, Shaka had conquered a huge empire covering an area of around 11,500 square miles. Shaka was succeeded by Dingane, his brother, who conspired with Mhlangana, another half-brother, and Mbopa. Following this assassination, Dingane murdered Mhlangana, and took over the throne, one of his first royal acts was to execute all of his royal kin. In the years followed, he also executed many past supporters of Shaka in order to secure his position. One exception to these purges was Mpande, another half-brother, who was considered too weak to be a threat at the time, before encountering the British, the Zulus were first confronted with the Boers. In an attempt to form their own state as a protection against the British, while travelling they first collided with the Ndebele kingdom, and then with Dinganes Zulu kingdom. In October 1837, the Voortrekker leader Piet Retief visited Dingane at his kraal to negotiate a land deal for the voortrekkers. In November, about 1,000 Voortrekker wagons began descending the Drakensberg mountains from the Orange Free State into what is now KwaZulu-Natal. Dingane asked that Retief and his party retrieve some cattle stolen from him by a chief as part of the treaty for land for the Boers. This Retief and his men did, returning on 3 February 1838, the next day, a treaty was signed, wherein Dingane ceded all the land south of the Tugela River to the Mzimvubu River to the Voortrekkers. On 6 February, at the end of the celebrations, Retiefs party were invited to a dance, at the peak of the dance, Dingane leapt to his feet and yelled Bambani abathakathi. Retief and his men were overpowered, taken to the nearby hill kwaMatiwane, some believe that they were killed for withholding some of the cattle they recovered, but it is likely that the deal was a plot to overpower the Voortrekkers
12.
KwaZulu-Natal
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KwaZulu-Natal is a province of South Africa that was created in 1994 when the Zulu bantustan of KwaZulu and Natal Province were merged. It is located in the southeast of the country, enjoying a long shoreline beside the Indian Ocean and its capital is Pietermaritzburg and its largest city is Durban. It is the 2nd most populous province in South Africa, with fewer residents than Gauteng. Two areas in KwaZulu-Natal have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the iSimangaliso Wetland Park, at around 92,100 km2 in area, KwaZulu-Natal is roughly the size of Portugal. It has three different geographic areas, the areas largest river, the Tugela, flows west to east across the center of the province. The coastal regions typically have subtropical thickets and deeper ravines, steep slopes host some Afromontane Forest, the midlands have moist grasslands and isolated pockets of Afromontane Forest. The north has a primarily moist savanna habitat, whilst the Drakensberg region hosts mostly alpine grassland, the province contains rich areas of biodiversity of a range of flora and fauna. The iSimangaliso Wetland Park and the uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park have been declared UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the iSimangaliso Wetland Park, along with uKhahlamba Drakensberg Park and Ndumo, are wetlands of international importance for migratory species, and are designated as Ramsar sites. South Africa signed the 1971 Ramsar Convention to try to conserve and protect important wetlands because of their importance to habitats, the former Eastern Cape enclave of the town of Umzimkulu and its hinterland have been incorporated into KwaZulu-Natal following the 12th amendment of the Constitution of South Africa. The amendment also made changes to the southern border of the province. The northwesterly line of latitude and longitude traverses the province from the coast at Hibberdene to northeast Lesotho. KwaZulu-Natal has a varied yet verdant climate thanks to diverse, complex topography, generally, the coast is subtropical with inland regions becoming progressively colder. Temperature drops towards the hinterland, with Pietermaritzburg being similar in the summer, Ladysmith in the Tugela River Valley reaches 30 °C in the summer, but may drop below freezing point on winter evenings. The Drakensberg can experience heavy snow, with light snow occasionally experienced on the highest peaks in summer. The Zululand north coast has the warmest climate and highest humidity, one of these, eThekwini, is a metropolitan municipality and the other ten are district municipalities. The local seat of district municipality is given in parentheses. In 2012, the Ingonyama Trust owns 32% of the land in KwaZulu-Natal and this amounts to about three million hectares, occupied by over 4 million people. The Zulu king is the chairman of the Trust, the coastline is dotted with small towns, many of which serve as seasonal recreational hubs
13.
Piet Retief
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Pieter Mauritz Retief was a Voortrekker leader. Settling in 1814 in the region of the Cape Colony. He became a spokesperson for the farmers who voiced their discontent. He was a leading figure during their Great Trek, and at one stage their elected governor and he proposed Natal as the final destination of their migration and selected a location for its future capital, later named Pietermaritzburg in his honour. The massacre of Retief and his delegation by the Zulu King Dingane, the short-lived Boer republic Natalia suffered from ineffective government and succumbed to British annexation. Retief was born to Jacobus and Debora Retief in the Wagenmakersvallei, Cape Colony, today the town of Wellington, South Africa. His family were Boers of French Huguenot ancestry, his great-grandfather was the 1689 Huguenot refugee François Retif, from Mer, Loir-et-Cher near Blois, Retief grew up on the ancestral vineyard Welvanpas, where he worked until the age of 27. After moving to the vicinity of Grahamstown, Retief, like other Boers, acquired wealth through livestock and these prompted the 6th Cape Frontier War. Such losses impelled many frontier farmers to become Voortrekkers and to migrate to new lands in the north, Retief wrote their manifesto, dated 22 January 1837, setting out their long-held grievances against the British government. Retiefs manifesto was published in the Grahamstown Journal on 2 February and De Zuid-Afrikaan on 17 February, Retiefs household departed in two wagons from his farm in the Winterberg District in early February 1837 and joined a party of 30 other wagons. The pioneers crossed the Orange River into independent territory, when several parties on the Great Trek converged at the Vet River, Retief was elected Governor of the United Laagers and head of The Free Province of New Holland in South East Africa. This coalition was very short-lived, and Retief became the leader of the group moving east. On 5 October 1837 Retief established a camp of 54 wagons at Kerkenberg near the Drakensberg ridge and this was Bantjess second visit to Port Natal, his first having been there in 1834 on the Kommissitrek reconnaissance mission. Retief returned to the laarger with a message to the camp on 2 November 1837, due to his favourable impression of the region, Retief started negotiations for land with the Zulu king Dingane kaSenzangakhona in November 1837. After Retief led his band over the Drakensberg Mountains, he convinced Voortrekker leaders Gerrit Maritz, on Retiefs second visit to Dingane, the Zulu agreed to Boer settlement in Natal, provided that the Boer delegation recover cattle stolen by the rival Tlokwa nation. This the Boers did, their reputation and rifles cowing the people into handing over some 700 head of cattle. At Retiefs request, J. G. Bantjes drew up the famous Piet Retief / Dingaan Treaty outlining the areas of Natal to be secured for the Boers to settle and start their new farms and this was done and to be ratified at the Zulu Kings kraal. Despite warnings, Retief left the Tugela region on 25 January 1838, the deed of cession of the Tugela-Umzimvubu region, although dated 4 February 1838, was signed by Dingane on 6 February 1838, with the two sides recording three witnesses each
14.
Bushman's River
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The Bushmans River is an east to north-easterly flowing tributary of the Tugela River, in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. It rises in the Drakensberg Mountain range, with its catchment in the Giants Castle Game Reserve. It feeds the Wagendrift Dam and then flows past the town of Estcourt to join the Tugela River near the town of Weenen and its tributaries include the Little Bushmans River which joins the Bushmans River at Estcourt, Rensburgspruit, Mtontwanes River and the Mugwenya River. The Wagendrift Dam near Estcourt is its major reservoir, several densely populated rural villages, many inhabited by the amaHlubi, are found in the rivers upper catchment area. The river is flanked by the Bloukrans River to the north, List of rivers of South Africa List of reservoirs and dams in South Africa List of South African Dams Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
15.
Zulu language
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Zulu is the language of the Zulu people, with about 10 million speakers, the vast majority of whom live in South Africa. Zulu is the most widely spoken language in South Africa. It became one of South Africas 11 official languages in 1994, according to Ethnologue, it is the second most widely spoken of the Bantu languages, after Shona. Like many other Bantu languages, it is written with the Latin alphabet, even in English, the language is often referred to by using its native form, isiZulu. Zulu migrant populations have taken it to adjacent regions, especially Zimbabwe, Xhosa, the predominant language in the Eastern Cape, is often considered mutually intelligible with Zulu. Maho lists four dialects, central KwaZulu-Natal Zulu, northern Transvaal Zulu, eastern coastal Qwabe, the Zulu, like Xhosa and other Nguni people, have lived in South Africa for a long time. The Zulu language possesses several click sounds typical of Southern African languages, the Nguni people have coexisted with other Southern tribes like the San and Khoi. Zulu, like most indigenous Southern African languages, was not a written language until the arrival of missionaries from Europe, the first grammar book of the Zulu language was published in Norway in 1850 by the Norwegian missionary Hans Schreuder. The first written document in Zulu was a Bible translation that appeared in 1883, in 1901, John Dube, a Zulu from Natal, created the Ohlange Institute, the first native educational institution in South Africa. He was also the author of Insila kaShaka, the first novel written in Zulu, another pioneering Zulu writer was Reginald Dhlomo, author of several historical novels of the 19th-century leaders of the Zulu nation, U-Dingane, U-Shaka, U-Mpande, U-Cetshwayo and U-Dinizulu. Other notable contributors to Zulu literature include Benedict Wallet Vilakazi and, more recently, the written form of Zulu was controlled by the Zulu Language Board of KwaZulu-Natal. This board has now disbanded and superseded by the Pan South African Language Board which promotes the use of all eleven official languages of South Africa. English, Dutch and later Afrikaans had been the official languages used by all South African governments before 1994. However, in the Kwazulu bantustan the Zulu language was widely used, all education in the country at the high-school level was in English or Afrikaans. Since the demise of apartheid in 1994, Zulu has been enjoying a marked revival, zulu-language television was introduced by the SABC in the early 1980s and it broadcasts news and many shows in Zulu. Zulu radio is very popular and newspapers such as isoLezwe, Ilanga and UmAfrika in the Zulu language are available, mainly available in Kwazulu-Natal province, in January 2005 the first full-length feature film in Zulu, Yesterday, was nominated for an Oscar. South African matriculation requirements no longer specify which South African language needs to be taken as a second language, and some people have made the switch to learning Zulu. However people taking Zulu at high-school level overwhelmingly take it as a first language, according to statistics, in the 1994 film The Lion King, in the Circle of Life song, the phrases Ingonyama nengw enamabala, Nans ingonyama bakithi Baba and Siyonqoba were used
16.
Khoikhoi
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The Khoikhoi or Khoi, spelled Khoekhoe in standardised Khoekhoe/Nama orthography, are a group of Khoisan people native to southwestern Africa. Unlike the neighbouring hunter-gatherer San people, the Khoikhoi traditionally practised nomadic pastoral agriculture, when European immigrants colonised the area after 1652, the Khoikhoi maintained large herds of Nguni cattle in the Cape region. The Dutch settlers labelled them Hottentots, in imitation of the sound of the sounds that are characteristic of the Khoekhoe language. The Khoikhoi, originally part of a culture and language group to be found across Southern Africa. Southward migration of the group was steady, eventually reaching the Cape approximately 2,000 years ago. Khoikhoi subgroups include the Namaqua to the west, the Korana of mid-South Africa, advancing Bantu in the 3rd century AD encroached on the Khoikhoi territory, forcing movement into more arid areas. There was some intermarriage between migratory Khoi bands living around what is today Cape Town and the San, however the two groups remained culturally distinct as the Khoikhoi continued to graze livestock and the San to subsist on hunting-gathering. The Khoi first encountered Portuguese explorers and merchants around AD1500, the ongoing encounters were often violent. Local population dropped when the Khoi were exposed to smallpox by Europeans, warfare against Europeans flared when the Dutch East India Company enclosed traditional grazing land for farms. Over the following century, the Khoi were steadily driven off their land, Khoikhoi social organisation was profoundly damaged and, in the end, destroyed by colonial expansion and land seizure from the late 17th century onwards. As social structures broke down, some Khoikhoi people settled on farms and became bondsmen or farm workers, others were incorporated into existing clan, like many Khoikhoi and mixed-race people, the Griqua left the Cape Colony and migrated into the interior. Responding to the influence of missionaries, they formed the states of Griqualand West, by the early 1800s, the remaining Khoi of the Cape Colony suffered from restricted civil rights and discriminatory laws on land ownership. The more cynical motive was probably to create a buffer-zone on the Capes frontier, the settlements thrived and expanded, and Kat River quickly became a large and successful region of the Cape that subsisted more or less autonomously. The people were predominantly Afrikaans-speaking Gonaqua Khoi, but the settlement also began to attract other Khoi, Xhosa, the Khoi were known at the time for being very good marksmen, and were often invaluable allies of the Cape Colony in its frontier wars with the neighbouring Xhosa. In the Seventh Frontier War against the Gcaleka Xhosa, the Khoi gunmen from Kat River distinguished themselves under their leader Andries Botha in the assault on the Amatola fastnesses. However harsh laws were implemented in the Eastern Cape, to encourage the Khoi to leave their lands in the Kat River region. The growing resentment exploded in 1850, when the Xhosa rose against the Cape Government, large numbers of Khoi for the first time joined the Xhosa rebels. However, this principle was eroded in the late 1880s by a literacy test
17.
Sotho people
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The Basotho are a Bantu ethnic group whose ancestors have lived in southern Africa since around the fifth century. Most Basotho today live in South Africa, as the area of the Orange Free State was originally part of Moshoeshoes nation, pastoralist Bantu-speaking peoples settled in the territory of modern South Africa by about 500 CE, displacing the aboriginal inhabitants of Southern Africa. The separation from the Tswana is assumed to have taken place by the 14th century, the first historical references to the Basotho date to the 19th century. By that time, a series of Basotho kingdoms covered the portion of the plateau. In 1823, those pressures caused one group of Basotho, the Kololo, to north, past the Okavango Swamp and across the Zambezi into Barotseland. In 1845, the Kololo conquered Barotseland, at about the same time, the Boers began to encroach upon Basotho territory. At the time of these developments, Moshoeshoe I gained control of the Basotho kingdoms of the southern Highveld, universally praised as a skilled diplomat and strategist, he was able to wield the disparate refugee groups escaping the Difaqane into a cohesive nation. His capital was moved to Thaba Bosiu To deal with the encroaching voortrekker groups. Missionaries sent by the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society provided the King with foreign affairs counsel, aside from acting as state ministers, missionaries played a vital role in delineating Sesotho orthography and printing Sesotho language materials between 1837 and 1855. The first Sesotho translation of the Bible appeared in 1878, local chieftains retained power over internal affairs while Britain was responsible for foreign affairs and the defence of the protectorate. In 1869, the British sponsored a process by which the borders of Basutoland were finally demarcated, britains protection ensured that repeated attempts by the Orange Free State, and later, the Republic of South Africa, to absorb part or all of Basutoland, were unsuccessful. In 1966, Basutoland gained its independence from Britain, becoming the Kingdom of Lesotho, internal migration explains why Sesotho is widely spoken throughout the sub-continent. To enter the economy, Basotho men often migrated to large cities in South Africa to find employment in the mining industry. Migrant workers from the Free State and Lesotho thus helped to spread Sesotho to the areas of South Africa. While men tended to find employment within the sector, women gravitated towards employment as agricultural or domestic workers. In terms of religion, the role that Christian missionaries played in helping Moshoeshoe I secure his kingdom helped to ensure widespread conversion among Basotho people to Christianity. Today, the bulk of Sesotho speakers practice a form of Christianity that blends elements of traditional Christian dogma with local, officially, the majority of Lesothos population is Catholic. Basothos heartland is the Free State province in South Africa and neighboring Lesotho, both of these largely rural areas are characterized by widespread poverty and underdevelopment
18.
Biggar family
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The Biggar family, Alexander Harvey Biggar and his two sons Robert and George, were pioneer traders at Port Natal, in what was to become the Colony of Natal. Subsequent to the massacre of Retiefs delegation, they involved in the exchange of attacks between Zulus and settlers. Although contributing to the overthrow of Dingane, all three lost their lives in the conflicts of 1838, Alexanders grandson John Dunn became a well-known Natal pioneer in his own right. Alexander was born in Kinsale, Ireland in 1781, to parents Harold Robert Biggar and Ann, on 3 March 1799, he married Mary Straton in Brechin, Scotland. Alexander first worked as Paymaster for the 85th regiment, before fighting in the Napoleonic Wars of 1803-1815, and his highest rank was Captain, but he was found guilty of embezzling £1,300 from War Office Funds and was discharged from service after repaying the money. He emigrated to the Cape Colony along with other 1820 Settlers, despite their signed Article of Agreement, by July 1820 all except George Pollard had deserted him or applied for release from their contracts. His family, which now included nine daughters and a son, Robert, departed from Portsmouth on HMS Weymouth on 20 January 1820 and his younger son George was born during the voyage. The family was allotted the Woodlands farm, near Bathurst on 6 September 1826, ten years later, in May 1836, Alexander moved to the frontier trading centre of Port Natal, in the later Colony of Natal, initially with his younger son George. Once there, he founded the Port Natal Volunteers in 1837, Alexander had 13 children in total. This included a son by a Zulu woman, as was the practice among Englishmen in the settler community. In February 1838 Alexanders youngest son of 18 years, George, was 120 miles inland at the Blaauwekrans camp of the Voortrekkers, when news reached Port Natal that the Zulus had exterminated Piet Retiefs delegation, Alexander sent Dick King to warn George and others at the Voortrekker camps. Dick King departed immediately on foot, accompanied by some natives, despite covering the distance in four days by walking day and night, they arrived just after the Rensburg voortrekker camp was attacked. They reached the vicinity of the camp, near present day Estcourt. Though cut off from Gerrit Maritzs laager, Dick King participated in its defence, but was unable to prevent the death of George, the traders at Port Natal were determined to make a diversion in the victims favor. Two Britons from Port Natal, George Biggar and Thomas Halstead, were among those killed at Blaauwekrans. Some 20 to 30 European men, including Dick King, were placed under Roberts command on 13 April 1838, with a following of 1,500 Zulus who deserted from Dingane, they crossed the Tugela river near its mouth and proceeded to uMgungundlovu. Four days later they were able to take 7,000 head of cattle from a group of Zulus who fled, the party returned with these cattle to the bay, and discovered that a spy of Dingane had been found and killed there in their absence. Once again they set off to Dinganes kraal and reached Ndondakusuka village north of the Tugela on 17 April 1838 and this kraal, built on high-lying ground, belonged to a captain of Dingane, named Zulu
19.
Assegai
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An assegai or assagai is a pole weapon used for throwing, usually a light spear or javelin made of wood and pointed with iron or fire-hardened tip. The use of types of the assegai was widespread all over Africa. The Zulu and other Nguni tribes of South Africa were renowned for their use of the assegai, shaka of the Zulu invented a shorter-style spear with a two-foot shaft and which had a larger, broader blade one foot long. This weapon is known as the iklwa or ixwa, after the sound that was heard as it was withdrawn from the victims wound. It was used as a weapon during mêlée attacks. The traditional spear was not discarded but was used for a range attack on enemy formations before closing in for close quarters battle with the iklwa. This tactical combination originated during Shakas military reforms and it is also the name of a southern African tree whose wood was suitable for making spears or lances, most notably by the Bantu peoples of southern Africa
20.
Andries Pretorius
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The large city of Pretoria, executive capital of South Africa, is named after him. Andries Pretorius had five children, the oldest, Marthinus Wessel Pretorius, Pretorius descended from the line of the earliest Dutch settlers in the Cape Colony. He belonged to the generation of the progenitor, Johannes Pretorius son of Reverend Wessel Schulte of the Netherlands. Schulte in his time as a student at the University of Leiden changed his name to the Latin form. Although the details of Andries Pretoriuss early life are scant, he grew up on his fathers farm named Driekoppen. In September 1836, after the up company of Gerrit Maritz left Graaff-Reinet to go northwards and he left his home in October 1837 on a scouting expedition to visit the Trekkers. Eventually Pretorius would leave the Cape Colony permanently, at the command of the Zulu king Dingane, Piet Retief was murdered in February 1838 along with his men. They were invited under false pretenses, during a visit, along with 70 men with boys among them. Pretorius arrived at the desperate Trekkers main camp on 22 November 1838, Pretorius diligence and thorough action immediately instilled confidence and he was appointed chief commander of the punitive commando against Dingane. The Voortrekkers fought with muzzle-loading rifles and made use of two small cannons, the Zulus sustained losses of an estimated 3,000 warriors in what became known as the Battle of Blood River. Three men were injured, including Andries Pretorius who was injured on his hand by an Assegai, the Boers believe that God granted them victory and thus promised that they and their descendants would commemorate the day of the battle as a day of rest. Boers memorialized it as Dinganes Day until 1910 and it was renamed Day of the Vow, later Day of the Covenant, and made a public holiday by the first South African government. After the fall of apartheid in 1994, the new government kept the day as a holiday as an act of conciliation to Boers. In January 1840, Pretorius with a commando of 400 burghers, Mpande and Pretorius defeated Dinganes army at the Battle of Maqongqo, which forced Dingane and those loyal to him into exile, after which Dingane was soon murdered. Immediately thereafter, Pretorious announced that Boer territory in Natal had been greatly enlarged due to the terms agreed with Mpande for Boer assistance and he was also the leader of the Natal Boers in their opposition to the British. In 1842, Pretorius besieged the small British garrison at Durban, afterward, he exerted his influence with the Boers to reach a peaceful solution with the British, who annexed Natalia. Remaining in Natal as a British subject, in 1847 Pretorius was chosen by the Boer farmers to present their grievances to the governor of Cape Colony and they were concerned about the continuous migration of natives who were assigned locations to the detriment of Boer land claims. Pretorius went to Grahamstown to seek an audience with the governor, Sir Henry Pottinger, Pretorius returned to Natal determined to abandon his farm and move beyond the British dominions
21.
Dutch language
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It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after English and German. Dutch is one of the closest relatives of both German and English and is said to be roughly in between them, Dutch vocabulary is mostly Germanic and incorporates more Romance loans than German but far fewer than English. In both Belgium and the Netherlands, the official name for Dutch is Nederlands, and its dialects have their own names, e. g. Hollands, West-Vlaams. The use of the word Vlaams to describe Standard Dutch for the variations prevalent in Flanders and used there, however, is common in the Netherlands, the Dutch language has been known under a variety of names. It derived from the Old Germanic word theudisk, one of the first names used for the non-Romance languages of Western Europe. It literarily means the language of the people, that is. The term was used as opposed to Latin, the language of writing. In the first text in which it is found, dating from 784, later, theudisca appeared also in the Oaths of Strasbourg to refer to the Germanic portion of the oath. This led inevitably to confusion since similar terms referred to different languages, owing to Dutch commercial and colonial rivalry in the 16th and 17th centuries, the English term came to refer exclusively to the Dutch. A notable exception is Pennsylvania Dutch, which is a West Central German variety called Deitsch by its speakers, Jersey Dutch, on the other hand, as spoken until the 1950s in New Jersey, is a Dutch-based creole. In Dutch itself, Diets went out of common use - although Platdiets is still used for the transitional Limburgish-Ripuarian Low Dietsch dialects in northeast Belgium, Nederlands, the official Dutch word for Dutch, did not become firmly established until the 19th century. This designation had been in use as far back as the end of the 15th century, one of them was it reflected a distinction with Hoogduits, High Dutch, meaning the language spoken in Germany. The Hoog was later dropped, and thus, Duits narrowed down in meaning to refer to the German language. g, in English, too, Netherlandic is regarded as a more accurate term for the Dutch language, but is hardly ever used. Old Dutch branched off more or less around the same time Old English, Old High German, Old Frisian and Old Saxon did. During that period, it forced Old Frisian back from the western coast to the north of the Low Countries, on the other hand, Dutch has been replaced in adjacent lands in nowadays France and Germany. The division in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch is mostly conventional, one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. This is assumed to have taken place in approximately the mid-first millennium BCE in the pre-Roman Northern European Iron Age, the Germanic languages are traditionally divided into three groups, East, West, and North Germanic. They remained mutually intelligible throughout the Migration Period, Dutch is part of the West Germanic group, which also includes English, Scots, Frisian, Low German and High German
22.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
23.
Polity
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A polity is any kind of political entity. A polity, like a state, does not need to be a sovereign unit, the most preeminent polities today are Westphalian states and nation-states, commonly referred to as nations. It therefore encapsulates a vast multitude of organisations, many of form the fundamental apparatuses of contemporary states such as their subordinate civil. Polities do not need to be in control of any geographic areas, as not all political entities, the historical Steppe Empires originating from the Eurasian Steppe are the most prominent example of non-sedentary polities. These polities differ from states because of their lack of a fixed, defined territory, Empires also differ from states in that their territories are not statically defined or permanently fixed, and consequently that their body politic was also dynamic and fluid. It is useful, then, to think of a polity as a political community, a polity can be defined either as a faction within a larger entity or, at different times, as the entity itself. Kurds in Iraqi Kurdistan, for example, are parts of their own separate and they are also, though, members of the sovereign state of Iraq which is itself a polity, albeit one which is much less specific and, as a result, much less cohesive. It is therefore possible for an individual to belong to more than one polity at a time, thomas Hobbes was a highly significant figure in the conceptualisation of polities, and in particular of states. Hobbes considered notions of the state and the body politic in his most notable work, in previous centuries, body politic was also understood to mean the physical person of the sovereign, emperor, king or dictator in monarchies and despotisms, and the electorate in republics. In present times, it may refer to representation of a group. Cabinets in liberal democracies are chosen to represent the body politic, politeia Political system Dictionary of the History of Ideas, analogy of the body politic
24.
Kingdom of Mapungubwe
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The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was a pre-colonial state in Southern Africa located at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers, south of Great Zimbabwe. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe lasted about 80 years, and at its height its population was about 5000 people, the Mapungubwe Collection is a museum collection of artifacts found at the archaeological site and is housed in the Mapungubwe Museum in Pretoria. They were the first Bantu to cross the Limpopo River to the south, the largest settlement from what has been dubbed the Leopards Kopje culture is known as K2 culture and was the immediate predecessor to the settlement of Mapungubwe. The people from K2 culture, probably derived from the ancestral Khoi culture, were attracted to the Shashi-Limpopo area, the area was also prime elephant country, providing access to valuable ivory. The control of the gold and ivory trade greatly decreased the power of the K2 culture. By 1075, the population of K2 had outgrown the area, spatial organisation in the kingdom of Mapungubwe involved the use of stone walls to demarcate important areas for the first time. There was a stone-walled residence likely occupied by the principal councillor, stone and wood were used together. There would have also been a wooden palisade surrounding Mapungubwe Hill, most of the capitals population would have lived inside the western wall. The capital of the kingdom was called Mapungubwe, which is where the kingdom gets its name, the site of the city is now a World Heritage Site, South African National Heritage Site, national park, and archaeological site. There is controversy regarding the origin and meaning of the name Mapungubwe, conventional wisdom has it that Mapungubwe means place of Jackals, or alternatively, place where Jackals eat or, according to Fouché—one of the earliest excavators of Mapungubwe—hill of the jackals. It also means place of wisdom and the place where the rock turns into liquid—from various ethnicities in the including the Pedi, Sotho. The ending bwe is a diminutive of the word ibwe, which means stone or rock in Shona language, Mapungubwe, in this respect, means the rocks of the bateleur eagles—an indication that there were many bateleurs in the area or location. Mapungubwean society is thought by archaeologists to be the first class-based social system in southern Africa, mapungubwes architecture and spatial arrangement also provide the earliest evidence for sacred leadership in southern Africa. Life in Mapungubwe was centred on family and farming, special sites were created for initiation ceremonies, household activities, and other social functions. Cattle lived in kraals located close to the houses, signifying their value. Most speculation about society continues to be based upon the remains of buildings, elites within the kingdom were buried in hills. Royal wives lived in their own away from the king. Important men maintained prestigious homes on the outskirts of the capital and this type of spatial division occurred first at Mapungubwe but would be replicated in later Butua and Rozwistates
25.
Dutch Cape Colony
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The Cape Colony was between 1652 and 1691 a Commandment, and between 1691 and 1795 a Governorate of the Dutch East India Company. Jan van Riebeeck established the colony as a re-supply and layover port for vessels of the Dutch East India Company trading with Asia. As the only permanent settlement of the Dutch East India Company not serving as a trading post, as these farms were labour-intensive, Vryburghers imported slaves from Madagascar, Mozambique and Asia, which rapidly increased the number of inhabitants. Due to the rule of the Company some farmers tried to escape the rule of the company by moving further inland. In order to avoid collision with the Bantu peoples advancing south and west from east central Africa, in 1795, after the Battle of Muizenberg in present-day Cape Town, the British occupied the colony. Renewed Dutch control did not last long, however, as the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars invalidated the Peace of Amiens, in January 1806 the British occupied the colony for a second time after the Battle of Blaauwberg at present-day Bloubergstrand. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 confirmed the transfer of sovereignty to Great Britain, traders of the Dutch East India Company, under the command of Jan van Riebeeck, were the first people to establish a European colony in South Africa. The support station gradually became a community, the forebears of the Afrikaners. At the time of first European settlement in the Cape, the southwest of Africa was inhabited by San people, the local Khoikhoi had neither a strong political organisation nor an economic base beyond their herds. They bartered livestock freely to Dutch ships, as Company employees established farms to supply the Cape station, they began to displace the Khoikhoi. Conflicts led to the consolidation of European landholdings and a breakdown of Khoikhoi society, military success led to even greater Dutch East India Company control of the Khoikhoi by the 1670s. The Khoikhoi became the source of colonial wage labour. There they contested still wider groups of Khoikhoi cattle herders for the best grazing lands, by 1700, the traditional Khoikhoi lifestyle of pastoralism had disappeared. The Cape society in this period was thus a diverse one, by the time of British rule after 1795, the sociopolitical foundations were firmly laid. In 1795, France occupied the Seven Provinces of the Netherlands and this prompted Great Britain to occupy the territory in 1795 as a way to better control the seas in order stop any potential French attempt to get to India. The British sent a fleet of nine warships which anchored at Simons Town and, following the defeat of the Dutch militia at the Battle of Muizenberg, the Dutch East India Company transferred its territories and claims to the Batavian Republic in 1798, and ceased to exist in 1799. Improving relations between Britain and Napoleonic France, and its state the Batavian Republic, led the British to hand the Cape Colony over to the Batavian Republic in 1803. In 1806, the Cape, now controlled by the Batavian Republic, was occupied again by the British after their victory in the Battle of Blaauwberg
26.
Cape Colony
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The Cape of Good Hope, also known as the Cape Colony, was a British colony in present-day South Africa and Namibia, named after the Cape of Good Hope. The British colony was preceded by an earlier Dutch colony of the same name, the Dutch lost the colony to Britain following the 1795 Battle of Muizenberg, but had it returned following the 1802 Peace of Amiens. It was re-occupied by the British following the Battle of Blaauwberg in 1806, the Cape of Good Hope then remained in the British Empire, becoming self-governing in 1872, and uniting with three other colonies to form the Union of South Africa in 1910. It then was renamed the Cape of Good Hope Province, South Africa became fully independent in 1931 by the Statute of Westminster. In the north, the Orange River, also known as the Gariep River, served as the boundary for some time, from 1878, the colony also included the enclave of Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands, both in what is now Namibia. An expedition of the Dutch East India Company led by Jan van Riebeeck established a trading post, van Riebeecks objective was to secure a harbour of refuge for Dutch ships during the long voyages between Europe and Asia. Reflecting the multi-national nature of the trading companies, the Dutch also granted vrijburger status to a number of former Scandinavian and German employees as well. In 1688 they also sponsored the immigration of two hundred French Huguenot refugees who had fled to the Netherlands upon the Edict of Fontainebleau. There was a degree of assimilation due to intermarriage. Many of the colonists who settled directly on the frontier became increasingly independent, known as Boers, they migrated westwards beyond the Cape Colonys initial borders and had soon penetrated almost a thousand kilometres inland. Some Boers even adopted a nomadic lifestyle permanently and were denoted as trekboers, Dutch traders imported thousands of slaves to the Cape of Good Hope from the Dutch East Indies and other parts of Africa. By the end of the century the Capes population swelled to about 26,000 people of European descent and 30,000 slaves. In 1795, France occupied the Seven Provinces of the Netherlands and this prompted Great Britain to occupy the territory in 1795 as a way to better control the seas in order stop any potential French attempt to reach India. The British sent a fleet of nine warships which anchored at Simons Town and, following the defeat of the Dutch militia at the Battle of Muizenberg, the Dutch East India Company transferred its territories and claims to the Batavian Republic in 1798, and ceased to exist in 1799. In 1806, the Cape, now controlled by the Batavian Republic, was occupied again by the British after their victory in the Battle of Blaauwberg. The temporary peace between Britain and Napoleonic France had crumbled into open hostilities, whilst Napoleon had been strengthening his influence on the Batavian Republic. The British, who set up a colony on 8 January 1806, hoped to keep Napoleon out of the Cape, in 1814 the Dutch government formally ceded sovereignty over the Cape to the British, under the terms of the Convention of London. The British started to settle the border of the colony
27.
Natalia Republic
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The Natalia Republic was a short-lived Boer republic on the coast of Southern Africa, established in 1839 by Voortrekkers shortly after the Battle of Blood River. The area was purchased from the Zulu king Chaka by Piet Retief and his party in 1838 and it was previously named Natália by Portuguese sailors. The republic was annexed by Britain in 1843 to form the Colony of Natal, after the British annexation of the Natalia Republic, most local Voortrekkers trekked north into Transorangia, later known as the Orange Free State, and the Transvaal. Vasco da Gama sighted the bluff at the entrance to what is now the harbour of Durban in 1497, da Gama made no landing here and, like the rest of South Africa, Natal was neglected by the Portuguese, whose nearest settlement was at Delagoa Bay. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the region was inhabited by Xhosa people, the British established small settlements along the coastline, including the town of Durban, established in 1835. The next Europeans to settle the country were emigrant Boers from the Cape Colony and these voortrekkers were led by Piet Retief. Passing through the almost deserted upper regions, Retief arrived at Port Natal in October 1837, during this journey, he chose a site for the capital of the future state which he envisioned. He went to the kraal of the Zulu king, Dingane, Dingane consented on condition that the Boers recover cattle stolen by another chief. Retief managed that and, with the help of the Rev. F. Owen, Dingane and Retief signed it on 4 February 1838. Two days later, Dingane ordered the execution of Retief and all of his party,66 whites and 34 Khoikhoi servants, the Zulu king commanded his impis to kill all the Boers who had entered Natal. Other of the farmers hastily laagered and were able to repulse the Zulu attacks, in one week after the murder of Retief, the Zulus had killed 600 Boers. Hearing of the attack on the Boers, the British settlers at the bay sent a force to help them, robert Biggar commanded 20 British and a following of 700 friendly Zulus and crossed the Tugela River near its mouth. On 17 April, in a fight with a Zulu force. Pursued by the Zulus, the inhabitants of Durban took refuge on a ship then in harbour. After the Zulus retired, fewer than a dozen Englishmen returned to live at the port, the Boers had repelled the Zulu attacks on their laagers, joined by others from the Drakensberg, about 400 men under Hendrik Potgieter and Piet Uys advanced to attack Dingane. On 11 April, they were attacked and with difficulty cut their way out, among those slain were Piet Uys and his son Dirk, aged 15. Toward the end of the year, the Boers received reinforcements, in December 460 men set out under Boer general Andries Pretorius to take on the Zulus. Andries Pretorius selected Jan Gerritze Bantjes as his scribe and secretary in recording events of the campaign, Bantjes wrote in his journal the daily progress of the commando when they started out 27 Nov.1838
28.
Colony of Natal
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The Colony of Natal was a British colony in south-eastern Africa. It is now the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa, fierce conflict with the Zulu population led to the evacuation of Durban, and eventually the Boers accepted British annexation in 1844 under military pressure. A British governor was appointed to the region and many emigrated from Europe. The British established a sugar industry in the 1860s. Farm owners had a difficult time attracting Zulu labourers to work on their plantations, as a result of the importation of Indian labourers, Durban became the home to the largest concentration of Indians outside of India. In 1823 Francis Farewell, formerly a lieutenant in the British navy, with merchants of Cape Town. In the brig Salisbury, commanded by James S. King, the voyage was not successful as a trading venture, but Farewell was so impressed with the possibilities of Natal both for trade and colonization that he resolved to establish himself at the port. He went on with ten companions, among them Henry Francis Fynn, all the rest save Farewell and Fynn speedily returned to the Cape, but the two who remained were joined by three sailors, John Cane, Henry Ogle and Thomas Holstead. On the 27th of the same month Farewell declared the territory he had acquired a British possession, Farewell, King and Fynn made independent settlements at various parts of the bay. Both Dr Smith and Uys travelled overland through Kaffraria, and were received by the English living at the bay. The next step was taken by the settlers at the port, who in 1835 resolved to lay out a town, to all these requests no official answer was returned. The settlers had joined in the year named by Allen Francis Gardiner. With the support of the traders he founded a station on the hill overlooking the bay. In 1837 Gardiner was given authority by the British government to exercise jurisdiction over the traders and they, however, refused to acknowledge Gardiners authority, and from the Cape government he received no support. The next wave of immigration consisted of Voortrekkers fleeing British rule in Cape Colony, in May 1838 the Boers took control of the port and soon afterwards established the Natalia Republic. The Republic suffered from disorganized government and poor relations with the Zulus, on 2 December 1841, Sir George Thomas Napier, governor of Cape Colony, issued a proclamation declaring his intent to resume British military occupation of Port Natal. Most of the Voortrekkers left by 1843, Natal was proclaimed a British Colony in 1843, and administered from the Cape Colony in 1844. However, it was not until the end of 1845 that an administration was installed with Martin West as lieutenant-governor that the power of the Boer Volksraad finally came to an end
29.
Orange Free State
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It is the historical precursor to the present-day Free State province. In the northern part of the territory a Voortrekker Republic was established at Winburg in 1837 and this state was in federation with the Republic of Potchefstroom which later formed part of the South African Republic. The new republic incorporated the Orange River Sovereignty and included the traditions of the Winburg-Potchefstroom Republic and it ceased to exist as an independent Boer republic on 31 May 1902 with the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging at the conclusion of the Second Anglo-Boer War. Following a period of rule by the British, it joined the Union of South Africa in 1910 as the Orange Free State Province, along with the Cape Province, Natal. In 1961, the Union of South Africa became the Republic of South Africa. The republics name derives partly from the Orange River, which in turn was named in honour of the Dutch ruling royal family, the official language in the Orange Free State was Dutch. Europeans first visited the north of the Orange River towards the close of the 18th century. At that time, the population was sparse, early in the 19th century Griquas established themselves north of the Orange. Between 1817 and 1831, the country was devastated by the chief Mzilikazi and his Matabele in the known as the Mfecane. Up to this time the few Europeans who had crossed the Orange had come mainly as hunters or as missionaries and they were followed in 1836 by the first parties of the Great Trek. These emigrants left the Cape Colony for various reasons, but all shared the desire to escape from British authority. When Boer families first reached the area discovered that it had been devastated by a section of the Zulu tribe under Mzilikazi and his people. The Matebele had swept the country, destroying the fields, carrying off the cattle, the Boers soon came into collision with Mzilikazis raiding parties, which attacked Boer hunters who crossed the Vaal River. Reprisals followed, and in November 1837 the Boers decisively defeated Mzilikazi, in the meantime another party of Cape Dutch emigrants had settled at Thaba Nchu, where the Wesleyans had a mission station for the Barolong. The emigrants were treated with kindness by Moroka II, the chief of that tribe. In December 1836 the emigrants beyond the Orange drew up in general assembly an elementary form of government. After the defeat of Mzilikazi the town of Winburg was founded, a Volksraad elected, the emigrants already numbered some 500 men, besides women and children and many servants. Dissensions speedily arose among the emigrants, whose numbers were added to
30.
South African Republic
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The territory of the ZAR became known after this war as the Transvaal Colony. Constitutionally the name of the country was Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek, many people also called the ZAR Transvaal, in reference to the area over the Vaal River including the British press and the press in Europe. In fact the name Transvaal was later so often used later the British objected to the use of the real name. The British pointed out that the Convention of Pretoria of 3 August 1881 referred to the Transvaal Territory and that the Transvaal and the South African Republic did not have the same boundaries. However, in the London Convention dated 27 February 1884, a subsequent treaty between Britain and the ZAR, Britain acquiesced and reverted to the use of the true name and this proclamation was issued during the Second Boer War and whilst the ZAR was still an independent country. On 20 May 1903 an Inter Colonial Council was established, to manage the colonies of the British Government, the name Transvaal was finally changed in 1994, when the ANC government broke up the Transvaal area and renamed the core to Gauteng. In paleolithic times, between 2.2 and 3.3 million years ago, hominids lived within the area of the ZAR. The earliest hominid bones, between 2.2 and 3.3 million years old, were discovered at Sterkfontein in 1994, in 1938 Paranthropus robustus bones were found at Kromdraai, and during 1947 several more examples of Australopithecus africanus were uncovered in Sterkfontein. The capital was established at Potchefstroom and later moved to Pretoria, the parliament was called the Volksraad and had 24 members. The South African Republic became fully independent on the 27 February 1884 when the London Convention was signed, the country independently also entered into various agreements with other foreign countries after that date. On 3 November 1884 the country signed a Postal convention with the government of the Cape Colony, on the November 1859 the independent Republic of Lijdenburg merged with the Zuid Afrikaansche Republiek. On 9 May 1887, burghers from the territories of Stellaland, on 25 July 1895 the burghers that took part in the battle at Zoutpansberg, were granted citizenship of the ZAR. The constitution of the Zuid Afrikaansche Republiek has been referred to as interesting for its time. It contained provisions for the division between the leadership and office bearers in government administration. The legal system consisted of higher and lower courts and had adopted a jury system, the laws were enforced by the South African Republic Police which were divided into Mounted Police and Foot Police. Also established was a Municipal Government, Witwatersrand District court and the High Court of Transvaal, initially the State and Church were not separated in the constitution of the ZAR, citizens of the ZAR had to be members of the Dutch Reformed Church. In 1858 these clauses were altered in the constitution to allow for the Volksraad to approve other Dutch Christian churches. The Reformed Church was approved by the Volksraad in 1858, which had the effect of allowing Paul Kruger, the Bible itself was also often used to interpret the intention of legal documents
31.
Griqualand East
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The territory was occupied by the British Empire and became a colony in 1874, shortly before the death of its founder and only leader, Adam Kok III. A short while later, the territory was incorporated into the neighbouring Cape Colony. Though for a long time overshadowed in history by the story of the Voortrekkers, before the arrival of migrants from the west and north, the area formed part of the Mpondo kingdom under King Faku, who ruled as sovereign of the ethnically Xhosa dynasty from 1815–1867. During his reign, Faku initially welcomed many refugees who came over the territorys north-eastern border, fleeing from the incursions and raids by the army of Shaka. As Faku eventually realised that his warriors could not defend the eastern part of his kingdom against Shaka, he decided to evacuate the area, the British agreed to expel the entire population in exchange for a settlement of a border conflict between the Afrikaners and the Cape colonists. According to the sources, Adam Kok III and his followers only learned about the six years after the official document had been secretly signed. The plans to introduce them never materialised, and, with the exception of a few remaining samples. Confirmation that the Strachan and Co circulated as money in the region from 1874 comes from the local Standard Bank at Kokstad. On the banknote itself, it is flanked to the left and right by a band or ribbon which reads GOUVERNEMENT VAN | NIEUW GRIQUALAND, the actual implied colours are unknown. The Griqua flag is a vertically flipped version of the Vierkleur used by Transvaal, a single source dates its first documented appearance to 1903, but the flag itself might have been in use earlier, whether or not independent Griqualand East actually deployed it is uncertain. In the differing sources and versions of history, the end of Griqualand Easts story is as contested as its beginning, and the reasons for the countrys dissolution remain hazy. British sources also claim that the Griquas then sold much of their land voluntarily, on the other hand, opinion among the Griqua people themselves seems to have been divided. A quote by Adam Kok III, upon learning of the United Kingdoms plans, suggests there was misunderstanding or even deception involved in the British takeover. The British assumed direct control of the territory in 1874, what is known for a fact is that the Griqua leader, whose name still adorns the town he founded, died in December 1875 after being severely injured in a wagon-accident. At his funeral, his cousin commented that with Koks death, after coming under British rule, Griqualand East was administered by the British as a separate colony for several years. During this time, the British Colonial Office put considerable pressure on the government of the neighbouring Cape Colony to annexe the costly, however the Cape, newly under Responsible Government, was reluctant to assume responsibility for Griqualand East due to its considerable expenses and its understandably resentful population. Although initially the Cape had refused to annex the territory, agreement was reached after substantial negotiation, the act was only promulgated two years later on 17 September 1879, when four magistrates were set up, at Kokstad, Matatiele, Mount Frere and Umzimkulu. The Griqua people had ever been a small, ruling minority of the population of Griqualand East
32.
Griqualand West
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Griqualand West is an area of central South Africa with an area of 40,000 km² that now forms part of the Northern Cape Province. It was inhabited by the Griqua people - a semi-nomadic, Afrikaans-speaking nation of mixed-race origin and it was also inhabited by the pre-existing Tswana and Khoisan peoples. In 1873 it was proclaimed as a British colony, with its capital at Kimberley, when the Union of South Africa was formed in 1910 Griqualand West was part of the Cape Province, but continued to have its own provincial sports teams. The aboriginal population of the area were the Khoi-khoi and Bushmen peoples, early on they were joined by the agriculturalist Tswana people, who migrated into the area from the north. They comprised the majority of the population throughout the regions history, by the early 19th century the whole area came to be dominated by the powerful Griqua people, who gave the region its name. The Griqua are a people who originated in the intermarriages between Dutch colonists in the Cape and the Khoikhoi already living there. The Dutch East India Company did not intend the Cape Colony at the Southern tip of Africa to become a political entity, as it expanded and became more successful, its leaders did not worry about frontiers. The frontier of the colony was indeterminate and ebbed and flowed at the whim of individuals, while the VOC undoubtedly benefited from the trading and pastoral endeavours of the trekboers, it did little to control or support them in their quest for land. The high proportion of single Dutch men led to their taking indigenous women as wives and companions and they grew to be a sizeable population who spoke Dutch and were instrumental in developing the colony. These children did not attain the social or legal status accorded their fathers and this group became known as Basters, or bastards. The colonists, in their response to insurgent resistance from Khoi and San people. This ensured the men skilled in lightly armed, mounted. The resulting stream of disgruntled, Dutch-speaking, trained marksmen leaving the Cape hobbled the Dutch capability to crew their commandos and it also created belligerent, skilled groups of opportunists who harassed the indigenous populations the length of the Orange River. Once free of the colonies, these groups called themselves the Oorlam, in particular, the group led by Klaas Afrikaner became notorious. He attracted enough attention from the Dutch authorities to him to be rendered to the colony. One of the most influential of these Oorlam groups was the Griqua, in the 19th century, the Griqua controlled several political entities which were governed by Kapteins or Kaptyns and their Councils, with their own written constitutions. The Griqua had also adopted the Afrikaans language before their migrations. Adam Kok I, the first Kaptein of the Griqua and recognised by the British, was originally a slave who had bought his own freedom and he led his people north from the interior of the Cape Colony
33.
State of Goshen
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Goshen, officially known as the State of Goshen was a short-lived Boer Republic in southern Africa founded by Boers opposing British rule in the region. During its history, Goshen, though small in size, became a point of conflict between the British Empire and the South African Republic, the two major players vying over the territory. After a series of claims and annexations, British fears of Boer expansionism ultimately led to its demise and, among other factors, set the stage for the Second Boer War. Two of the groups were under the leadership of chiefs Mankurwane and Montshiwa, whom the British regarded as friendly. Mahikeng fell on 24 October 1882 and, in gratitude, Moshoette ceded large portions of Mankurwanes land to the Boer mercenaries who had supported him. Goshen covered an area of 10,400 km2, with its border the Molopo River. It had an population of 17,000, of whom approximately 2,000 were of European origin. Goshens capital Rooigrond was little more than a farm consisting of a collection of mud huts. Goshens flag, designed by Gey van Pittius, was adopted in early 1883 and consisted of black, white. Less than a year after declaring independence, on 6 August 1883, Goshen, Gey van Pittius immediately arrested Thompson before eventually releasing him to tell Rhodes that Goshen remained independent and demanded British recognition of that independence. Warren met with no resistance and Goshen was subsequently incorporated into British Bechuanaland, on 3 October 1895 the colony was abolished and incorporated into the colony of the Cape of Good Hope. African Boundaries, A Legal and Diplomatic Encyclopaedia, C, flags of the World, Frederick Warne and Co. Crown and Charter, The Early Years of the British South Africa Company, the Afrikaners, Biography of a People, C. Mackenzie, J. Austral Africa, losing it or ruling it, Being incidents and experiences in Bechuanaland, Cape Colony, History of South Africa from 1873 to 1884, George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Meredith, M. Diamonds, Gold and War, Pocket Books, rosenthal, E. Encyclopaedia of Southern Africa, Fifth Edition, Frederick Warne & Co. An International, Social, Cultural, and Political Encyclopedia, vol, stewart, J. African states and rulers, McFarland & Co. The Cambridge History of the British Empire, vol, dictionary of National Biography, 1922-1930, Oxford University Press, London. The Illustrated at the Fireside, True Southern African Stories, Spearhead, cecil Rhodes, Henry Holt & Company, New York
34.
Stellaland
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The Republic of Stellaland was from 1882 to 1883 a Boer republic located in an area of Bechuanaland, west of the Transvaal. After unification with the neighbouring State of Goshen, it was the United States of Stellaland from 1883 to 1885. During its short history, the state became a focal point for conflict between the British Empire and the South African Republic, the two major players vying for control of the territory. After a series of claims and annexations, British fears of Boer expansionism led to its demise and, among other factors, set the stage for the Second Boer War. Two of the groups were under the leadership of chiefs Mankoroane and Montsioa, whom the British regarded as friendly. When a feud erupted between Mankoroane and another chief, each side resorted to recruiting volunteers, promising them land in return for their assistance, the town of Vryburg was founded and declared its capital. At its founding, the new country covered an area of 15,500 km2 and was home to a population of 20,500 individuals,3,000 of whom were of European ancestry. Goshen had an population of 17,000, of whom approximately 2,000 were of European origin. On 6 August 1883, Stellaland and Goshen united to form the United States of Stellaland, whether or not the independence of any of these states was ever recognised by another country is not clear. Only later did Warren realise that his wording could be interpreted as an acknowledgment of Stellalands legality, in February 1884, Great Britain unilaterally declared the area a British protectorate. Stellalands laws and constitution were practically identical to those of the South African Republic and these fears were fuelled when, on 10 September 1884, President Paul Kruger of Transvaal declared the area to be under the protection of the South African Republic and annexed it six days later. Beginning in 2008, the political group Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging started lobbying for the area to be re-established as an independent Boer republic. Eugène TerreBlanche has since been murdered, on 4 May 2014 the Front National political party said they want to call for restitution of the Republic of Stellaland. Postage stamps and postal history of Stellaland Republic Flag of Stellaland Coat of arms of Stellaland
35.
Nieuwe Republiek
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The Nieuwe Republiek was a small Boer republic, which existed from 1884 to 1888 in present-day South Africa. The Niewe Republiek or legally Nieuwe Republiek Zuid Afrika was a Boer Republic which was recognised only by the German Empire and its independence was proclaimed on August 16 of 1884 with land donated by the Zulu Kingdom through a treaty. It covered 13,600 square kilometres and the capital was Vryheid or Vrijheid, the founder and president until it requested incorporation by Transvaal on 20 July 1888 was Lucas Johannes Meijer, as Secretary of State acted in the same period Daniel Johannes Esselen. On August 5,1884 the Boers formed the Nieuwe Republiek with recognition by Germany, ZAR, British annexation of the Zulu territory resulted in a revolt, led by Dinizulu who was defeated by the British and king Dinizulu was tried for high treason in Eshowe, and sentenced. The annexation of Zululand did not leave much hope for security in the Nieuwe Republiek against British imperialism, on July 20 of 1888 the New Republic was incorporated with the Transvaal on its own request, although enjoying considerable autonomy. The relations between the Boers and the Zulu continued stable until the break-out of the Second Anglo-Boer War, in June 1900 the British forces entered Vryheid, the capital. In March 1901 he declared martial law in the region, after the Second Boer War the territory was transferred to the British Colony of Natal
36.
Upingtonia
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Upingtonia, or the Republic of Upingtonia, was a short-lived Boer republic in the area of present-day Namibia. Declared on 20 October 1885, in 1886 it changed its name to Lijdensrust, in 1887 it was merged into German South-West Africa. Between the years 1874 and 1880, farmers migrated from the Transvaal to what was then southern Angola, there, they came into conflict with the Portuguese colonial authorities, and some of their number decided to return to the Transvaal, while others migrated further south. In 1885, William Worthington Jordan bought a tract of land from the Ovambo chief Kambonde for three hundred pounds, paid as twenty-five firearms, one salted horse, and a cask of brandy. This land stretched almost 170 kilometres from Okaukuejo in the west to Fischers Pan in the east, chief Kambonde relied on the help of Jordan to defeat his rival for power, Nehale. Between 1876 and 1879, at the time of the Dorsland Trek, Boers had crossed the area, in 1885 some of these trekkers returned and settled at Grootfontein on land given to them free of charge by Jordan. The Republic of Upingtonia was declared on 20 October 1885, at that time, the population of Upingtonia was around five hundred settlers. The state was named after Thomas Upington, prime minister of the Cape Colony, in 1886, under the influence of the Boers returning to the Transvaal from southern Angola, the name was changed from Upingtonia to Lijdensrust or Lydensrust. The short-lived republics capital was Grootfontein, and its head of state was President George Diederik P. Prinsloo, the new state fought the Herero and became dependent on German protection. In 1886 Jordan was killed by Nehale Mpingana, and the republic collapsed, the next year the area it had covered was incorporated into German South-West Africa
37.
Klein Vrystaat
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From around 1876, a group of Boers lived on land bought from the Swazi king Mbandzeni. In 1886, a government was formed, following the adoption of a constitution. King Mbandzeni sold the land, but kept his kingdom and he was another son of Mswati II, ruling from 1875 to 1889. This state existed until 1891, when it was incorporated into the South African Republic, the flag of the Klein Vrystaat has identical relations to the Transvaal Vierkleur which is the four colors of, a horizontal red-white-blue with a vertical green stripe near the hoist. The width of the stripe was equal to the height of the horizontal stripes in the Klein Vrystaat flag and 1.25 times this height in the Vierkleur flag. The land consisted of 36,000 acres northeast of the present town of Piet Retief, what Mbandzeni thought he had granted was in the nature of a permanent grazing concession, but Ferreira and Maritz opened up the territory to Afrikaner settlement and subdivided into small farms. In 1886, the settlers declared their independence as the Little Free State and were able to rebuff Mbandzenis halfhearted attempts to evict them on the grounds that they had exceeded his mandate. In 1888, Ferreira and Maritz requested that the South African Republic incorporate them into the Transvaal, at that point, Mbandzeni reasserted his sovereignty over the territory and demanded an annual rental payment of £21, but, by then, it was too late. By the terms of the first Swaziland Convention, the Little Free State was incorporated into the ZAR, with the accord of the British, as part of the Piet Retief, Mpumalanga district. However, the creation of the Nieuwe Republiek Zuid Afrika in 1884, in addition, the Europeans arrived in greater numbers throughout the 1880s, after the discovery of gold in neighboring Transvaal and at Piggs Peak and Forbes Reef in Swaziland. After their victory in the Second Anglo-Boer War, Britain assumed control of the territory, the Swazi saw the Zulus refusal to allow white farmers, traders and missionaries to penetrate their land, leading to Britains destruction of the Zulu monarchy in 1879. In the 1880s, King Mbandzeni granted numerous concessions to Boer graziers and this amounted to a paper conquest of Swaziland. After the Zulu War, the Swazis aided the British in dismantling the Pedi Kingdom, in gratitude, Britain promised the Swazis they would retain their independence. This was despite the scramble for Africa in the 1880s, in 1886 the discovery of gold made the Transvaal the prime force in southern Africa. The Boers demanded British agreement to their expansion either north across the Limpopo or east through Swaziland, Britain reversed its position on Swazi independence and by 1894 had allowed the Transvaal to establish control over Swaziland. Historical Dictionary of Swaziland Second Edition, land Policy in Southern Africa During the Nineteenth Century. Department of Geography, University of Port Elizabet, the Rough Guide to South Africa. Swazi History Olden Times to 1900, Klein Vrystaat at Flags of the World
38.
Orange River Colony
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The Orange River Colony was the British colony created after Britain first occupied and then annexed the independent Orange Free State in the Second Boer War. The colony ceased to exist in 1910, when it was absorbed into the Union of South Africa as Orange Free State Province, during the Second Boer War, the British forces entered the territory of the Orange Free State and occupied the capital Bloemfontein on 13 March 1900. The Orange Free State government had moved to Kroonstad during the first months of the war, from the perspective of the Orange Free State, independence was only lost with the ratification of the Treaty of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902. Therefore, there existed an ambiguous constitutional situation between 6 October 1900 and 31 May 1902, with two entities and two governments. On the British side, Sir Alfred Milner was appointed Administrator of the Orange River Colony on 4 January 1901 and he was sworn in as Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Orange River Colony on the same day. The Orangia Unie was formally constituted in May 1906, after months of preparation. A similar organisation, called Het Volk, had formed by the Transvaal Boers in January 1905. The chairman of the Orangia Unie was Abraham Fischer, leading politician of the pre-Boer War period, among the other prominent members were J. B. M. Hertzog, Christiaan de Wet and Martinus Theunis Steyn. A second political party, the Constitutional Party was formed by a group of burghers content with British rule, chairman of the party was Sir John G. Fraser, before the Second Boer War a prominent member of the Volksraad of the Orange Free State. The Constitutional Party had a following in Bloemfontein, but not outside the capital. It is noteworthy that the programmes of the two parties were very similar, the real difference between them being the attitude towards British annexation and Afrikaner influence. In 1905 Lord Selborne, formerly First Lord of the Admiralty, replaced Viscount Milner as high commissioner for South Africa and governor of the Transvaal, Selborne had come to South Africa with a brief to guide the former Boer republics from Crown colony government towards self-government. When Liberal Party came into office in Britain in December 1905 the process was speeded up, Selborne accepted the changed situation, and the experiment proved successful. On 7 January 1907 Selborne released a despatch, known as the Selborne Memorandum, the document had a marked influence on the course of events and together with Selbornes conciliatory approach assisted in reconciling the Dutch and British communities of South Africa. After the elections of 1907, the colony received self-government on 27 November 1907, Abraham Fischer became the first prime minister of the colony. The first Legislative Assembly consisted of members of the Orangia Unie, five Constitutionalists. The first Legislative Council counted five members from the Orangia Unie, five Constitutionalists, in this convention former state president M. T. Under the imperial act by which unification was established the colony entered the Union under the style of the Orange Free State Province, Fischer and Hertzog became members of the first Union government, while A. E. W
39.
Transvaal Colony
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The physical borders of the Transvaal Colony were not identical to the defeated South African Republic, but was larger. In 1910 the entire territory became the Transvaal Province of the Union of South Africa, both the Boer republics, the South African Republic known as ZAR and the Orange Free State were defeated in the Anglo Boer War and surrendered to Britain. That all burghers so surrendering will not be deprived of their property No Civil or Criminal proceedings against burghers for acts of war, the Commission would also feed the homeless and assist with the reconstruction of homes affected by the war. To that end, the crown agrees to a grant of £3,000,000 as well as loans at no interest for two years to be repaid at 3 percent interest over years thereafter. In 1902, with following the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging. The political issue faced depended on what side of politics you stood on, the existing British administrators under Alfred Milner wished to anglicise the population through two main means. One by increasing the English speaking population of the Transvaal and secondly teach the Boer children in English with very little Dutch used, followed by self-rule, the Transvaal Boers political objectives was the restoration of self-rule in the colony and the political environment to be dominated by the Boer. As the war ended the British were faced with a proportion of Boer men as prisoners of war. As the British followed a scorched earth policy in the Transvaal, Boer lands, stock, roman Dutch law was translated into English so the law courts could continue, with some old acts repealed and a considerable amount of new law promulgated by the authorities in Johannesburg. The Resident Magistrate then submitted the names of three members of the district to the Governor for district commission under the magistrate. They would consist of one British subject, and two Boers, one from those who had surrendered early on in the war and one who had fought until the end. Repatriation depots were established in the districts and they were stocked with food, seed, agricultural equipment, transport, plough animals and stone, the rail transport network struggled to compete with the transport of army requirement to maintain a garrison and civilian requirements to repair the colony. All feed for transport animals had to be brought to the depots as process started in the winter of 1902, refugees from the concentration camps and prisoners of war were returned to their districts in a system of drafts. At the depots, they would receive farm equipment, tents and rations to start again, food rations were provided for almost a year. The loan scheme was never going to compensate a person for the actual loss experienced by the war, damage and the reconstruction required varied from district to district, In the larger towns, municipal or health boards were “appointed” to manage them under the resident Magistrate. They had limited functions and the rates they levied were for sanitary functions. The British administrators set out to place most Boer farmers back on their land by March 1903 with nineteen million pounds spent on war damages, grants, the administrators reformed the state agricultural departments to modernise farming in the colony which resulted in a maize and beef surplus by 1908. They also attempted to solve the poor white problem by settling them as tenant farmers on land but lack of capital
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Union of South Africa
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The Union of South Africa is the historic predecessor to the present-day Republic of South Africa. It came into being on 31 May 1910 with the unification of four previously separate British colonies, Cape Colony, Natal Colony, Transvaal Colony and it included the territories formerly part of the Boer republics annexed in 1902, South African Republic and Orange Free State. The Union of South Africa was a dominion of the British Empire and it was governed under a form of constitutional monarchy, with the Crown represented by a governor-general. The Union came to an end when the 1961 constitution was enacted, on 31 May 1961 the country became a republic and left the Commonwealth, under the new name Republic of South Africa. Unlike Canada and Australia, the Union of South Africa was a state, rather than a federation. A bicameral parliament was created, consisting of a House of Assembly and Senate, during the course of the Union the franchise changed on several occasions always to suit the needs of the government of the day. Bloemfontein and Pietermaritzburg were given financial compensation, the Union initially remained under the British Crown as a self-governing dominion of the British Empire. With the passage of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, the Union and other dominions became equal in status to the United Kingdom, the Monarch was represented in South Africa by a Governor-General, while effective power was exercised by the Executive Council, headed by the Prime Minister. Louis Botha, formerly a Boer general, was appointed first Prime Minister of the Union, heading a coalition representing the white Afrikaner, prosecutions before courts were instituted in the name of the Crown and government officials served in the name of the Crown. Some extremist Nationalist organisations, like the Ossewa Brandwag, openly supported Nazi Germany during the Second World War, the Afrikaner-dominated Government consequently withdrew South Africa from the Commonwealth. Natal, which had an English-speaking majority, voted against, following the referendum result, some whites in Natal even called for secession from the Union. Five years earlier, some 33,000 Natalians had signed the Natal Covenant in opposition to the plans for a republic, subsequently the National Party Government passed a Constitution that repealed the South Africa Act. The features of the Union were carried over with little change to the newly formed Republic. The decision to transform from a Union to Republic was narrowly decided in the referendum, the South Africa Act dealt with race in two specific provisions. Second it made native affairs a matter for the national government, the practice therefore was to establish a Minister of Native Affairs. Several previous unsuccessful attempts to unite the colonies were made, with proposed political models ranging from unitary, Sir George Grey, the Governor of Cape Colony from 1854 to 1861, decided that unifying the states of southern Africa would be mutually beneficial. He believed that a united South African Federation, under British control and his idea was greeted with cautious optimism in southern Africa, the Orange Free State agreed to the idea in principle and the Transvaal may also eventually have agreed. However, he was overruled by the British Colonial Office which ordered him to desist from his plans and his refusal to abandon the idea eventually led to him being recalled
41.
Transkei
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The Transkei, officially the Republic of Transkei, was a Bantustan—an area set aside for members of a specific ethnicity—and nominal parliamentary democracy in the southeastern region of South Africa. Its capital was Umtata, which was renamed Mthatha in 2004, in 1994, it was reintegrated into its larger neighbour and became part of the Eastern Cape province. The South African government set up the area as one of the two homelands for Xhosa-speaking people in Cape Province, the other being Ciskei, it was given autonomy in 1963. Of the 109 members in the parliament, only 45 were elected. Chief Kaiser Daliwonga Matanzima was Transkeis Prime Minister until 1979, when he assumed the office of President, South African prime minister B. J. A press release by the African National Congress at the time rejected the Transkeis independence, an article published in Time Magazine opined that though Transkei declared independence theoretically as a free Black state, Matanzima ruled as the dictator of a one-party state. He banned local opposition parties and bought farmlands for himself and his family offered by the South African government at subsidised prices, throughout its existence, Transkeis economy remained dependent on that of its larger neighbour, with the local population being recruited as workers into South Africas Rand mines. This created the situation of a country refusing to deal with the only internationally recognised nation it was recognised by. Matanzima soon backed down in the face of Transkeis dependence on South African economic aid, on 20 February 1986, faced with South African evidence of corruption, Matanzima was forced to retire as President. He was succeeded by his brother George, Holomisa became the Head of State, and the Transkei was from that point onwards effectively in alliance with the African National Congress and provided a relatively safe area for the ANCs activities. In 1990, Holomisa himself evaded a failed attempt to be ousted from his post, and it was later found that those deemed responsible for the foiled coup had only suffered minor injuries, but were subsequently executed without trial. The Transkei government was a participant in the Codesa negotiations for a new South Africa, the territory was reincorporated into South Africa on 27 April 1994, and the area became part of the Eastern Cape province. Nominally, the Republic of Transkei was a democracy which allowed for a multi-party system. During its existence, six different parties registered to compete in elections at different points of its history, until the military coup of 1987, the TNIP remained the ruling party, while the Transkei Peoples Freedom Party constituted the official opposition. Other parties that existed never did gain any representation in parliament, according to the Constitution of Transkei, parliament consisted of the president in joint session with the National Assembly and its laws and legislative decisions were immune to judicial review. Seventy-five of its members were elected by popular vote from the various districts Transkeis territory was divided into, the remaining members were unelected Paramount Chiefs and ex officio chiefs whose number per district was enshrined in the constitution. With the establishment of the republic, the citizenry consisted of all those who had been holding the citizenship of the territory of Transkei. Individuals were given no choice in this matter as the Transkeian constitution was a binding act, for the future
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Bophuthatswana
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Bophuthatswana, officially the Republic of Bophuthatswana, was a Bantustan and nominal parliamentary democracy in the northwestern region of South Africa. Its seat of government was Mmabatho, Bophuthatswana was the first area to be declared an independent state whose territory constituted a scattered patchwork of individual enclaves. During its last days of existence, events taking place within its borders led to the weakening, in 1994, it was reintegrated into South Africa, and its territory was distributed among the new provinces of the Orange Free State, Northern Cape, and North West Province. The area was set up as the homeland for Tswana-speaking people in 1961. It was given nominal self-rule in 1971, and elections were held the following year, following the 1977 elections, Lucas Mangope became president after his Bophuthatswana Democratic Party won a majority of seats. The territory became independent on 6 December 1977. In the 1982 elections, the Democratic Party won all 72 elected seats and it also won a large majority in the 1987 elections. Bophuthatswanas independence was not recognized by any government other than those of South Africa and Transkei, in addition, it was later internally recognized by the two additional countries within the TBVC-system, Ciskei and Venda. Its the price we are prepared to pay for being masters of our own destiny, Bophuthatswana maintained an unofficial embassy in Israel during the 1980s, located next to the British embassy in Tel Aviv. The Israeli Foreign Ministry objected to the presence, as Israel did not recognize Bophuthatswana as a country. The bantustans president, Lucas Mangope, was able to meet with prominent figures such as Moshe Dayan during visits to Israel. On 10 February 1988 Rocky Malebane-Metsing of the Peoples Progressive Party became the President of Bophuthatswana for one day when he took over the government through a military coup and he accused Mangope of corruption and charged that the recent election had been rigged in the governments favour. A statement by the defence force said serious and disturbing matters of concern had emerged. During the subsequent invasion by the South African Defence Force, Mangope was reinstated and continued his term unabated. P. W. Botha, president of South Africa at the time, human Rights Watch put the number of protesters at 150,000. In the beginning of 1994 with South Africa heading for democratic elections, forty people were wounded when Bophuthatswana Defence Force troops opened fire on striking civil servants. They themselves were shot at by members of the Bophuthatswana Defence Force, one member of the AWB travelling back in a blue Mercedes Benz shot at some people along the road and members of Bophuthatswana police opened fire at the car. The driver, Nicolaas Fourie, and his two passengers promptly surrendered and were disarmed, after allowing the media to photograph the badly injured prisoners, they were then executed at point blank range by an ANC-supporting Bophuthatswana policeman, Ontlametse Bernstein Menyatsoe
