1.
Regions of New Zealand
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New Zealand is divided into sixteen regions for devolved local government. Eleven are administered by councils, and five are administered by unitary authorities. The Chatham Islands Council is similar to an authority, authorised under its own legislation. The regional councils are listed in Part 1 of Schedule 2 of the Local Government Act 2002, the Act requires regional councils to promote sustainable development – the social, economic, environmental and cultural well-being of their communities. The current regions and most of their councils came into being through a government reform in 1989 that took place under the Local Government Act 1974. In addition they took over roles that had previously been performed by county councils. Auckland Regional Council, formed in 1989, was replaced by Auckland Council, the boundaries of the regions are based largely on drainage basins. This anticipated the responsibilities of the Resource Management Act 1991, most regional boundaries conform with territorial authority boundaries but there are a number of exceptions. An example is Taupo District, split between four regions, although most of its area is in the Waikato region, property rates are used to fund both regional and territorial government activities. There is often a degree of co-operation between regional and territorial councils as they have complementary roles. Regional councils have these specific functions under the Resource Management Act 1991, notes, These regions have unitary authorities. The Gisborne Region is still widely but unofficially known by its name or as East Coast. Some outlying islands are not included within regional boundaries, the Chatham Islands is not in a region, although its council has some of the powers of a regional council under the Resource Management Act. Councils may use a first past the post or single transferable vote system, the chairperson is selected by the elected council members. The Auckland Regional Council was preceded by the Auckland Regional Authority, the Wellington Regional Council was first formed in 1980 from a merger of the Wellington Regional Planning Authority and the Wellington Regional Water Board. In 1978, legislation was passed enabling the formation of regions with united councils, twenty regions were designated, excluding the Auckland and Wellington areas. For most of the country this was the first regional level of government since the abolition of provinces in 1876, councillors were not elected directly – they were appointed from the various territorial local authorities within the region. For example, in a number of cases the united council took responsibility for the allocation of revenue from regional petrol taxes, the united councils were based in the facilities of the largest TLA in the region and largely dependent on the TLAs for resources
Regions of New Zealand
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
3.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
New Zealand
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The Waitangi sheet from the
Treaty of Waitangi
New Zealand
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Flag
New Zealand
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Painting of
Mount Earnslaw by John Turnbull Thomson, oil on canvas, 1888
New Zealand
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John Key,
Prime Minister of New Zealand since 2008
4.
South Island
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The South Island or Te Waipounamu is the larger of the two major islands of New Zealand, the other being the smaller but more populous North Island. It is bordered to the north by Cook Strait, to the west by the Tasman Sea, the South Island covers 150,437 square kilometres and has a temperate climate. In the early stages of European settlement of the country, the South Island had the majority of the European population, in prose, the two main islands of New Zealand are called the North Island and the South Island, with the definite article. Charcoal drawings can be found on rock shelters in the centre of the South Island. The drawings are estimated to be between 500 and 800 years old, and portray animals, people and fantastic creatures, possibly stylised reptiles, some of the birds pictured are long extinct, including moa and Haasts eagles. They were drawn by early Māori, but by the time Europeans arrived, early inhabitants of the South Island were the Waitaha. They were largely absorbed via marriage and conquest by the Kāti Mamoe in the 16th century, Kāti Mamoe were in turn largely absorbed via marriage and conquest by the Kāi Tahu who migrated south in the 17th century. While today there is no distinct Kāti Mamoe organisation, many Kāi Tahu have Kāti Mamoe links in their whakapapa and, a notable feature of the Moriori culture, an emphasis on pacifism, proved disadvantageous when Māori warriors arrived in the 1830s aboard a chartered European ship. In the early 18th century, Kāi Tahu, a Māori tribe who originated on the east coast of the North Island, There they and Kāti Mamoe fought Ngāi Tara and Rangitāne in the Wairau Valley. Ngāti Māmoe then ceded the east coast regions north of the Clarence River to Kāi Tahu, Kāi Tahu continued to push south, conquering Kaikoura. By the 1730s, Kāi Tahu had settled in Canterbury, including Banks Peninsula, from there they spread further south and into the West Coast. In 1827-1828 Ngāti Toa under the leadership of Te Rauparaha successfully attacked Kāi Tahu at Kaikoura, Ngāti Toa then visited Kaiapoi, ostensibly to trade. When they attacked their hosts, the well-prepared Kāi Tahu killed all the leading Ngāti Toa chiefs except Te Rauparaha, Te Rauparaha returned to his Kapiti Island stronghold. After destroying Te Maiharanuis village they took their captives to Kapiti, John Stewart, though arrested and sent to trial in Sydney as an accomplice to murder, nevertheless escaped conviction. In the summer of 1831–32 Te Rauparaha attacked the Kaiapoi pā, Kaiapoi was engaged in a three-month siege by Te Rauparaha, during which his men successfully sapped the pā. They then attacked Kāi Tahu on Banks Peninsula and took the pā at Onawe, in 1832-33 Kāi Tahu retaliated under the leadership of Tūhawaiki and others, attacking Ngāti Toa at Lake Grassmere. Kāi Tahu prevailed, and killed many Ngāti Toa, although Te Rauparaha again escaped, fighting continued for a year or so, with Kāi Tahu maintaining the upper hand. Ngāti Toa never again made an incursion into Kāi Tahu territory
South Island
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Satellite view of the South Island
South Island
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Charcoal rock drawing at Carters rockpool on the Opihi River
South Island
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First European impression of Māori, at
Murderers' Bay, 1642.
South Island
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Ships in what is likely to be
Akaroa Harbour some time in the early 19th century.
5.
Territorial authorities of New Zealand
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Territorial authorities are the second tier of local government in New Zealand, below regional councils. There are 67 territorial authorities,12 city councils,53 district councils, Auckland Council, six territorial authorities also perform the functions of a regional council and thus are unitary authorities. A unitary authority may also have local boards, currently only Auckland Council has them, territorial authority districts are not subdivisions of regions, and some of them fall within more than one region. Taupo District has the distinction of straddling the boundaries of four different regions, Regional council areas are based on water catchment areas, whereas territorial authorities are based on community of interest and road access. Some activities are delegated to council-controlled organisations, the boundaries of councils tended to follow the edge of the built-up area, so little distinction was made between the urban area and the local government area. Regional councils were reduced in number from 20 to 13, territorial authorities from 200 to 75, the new district and city councils were generally much larger and most covered substantial areas of both urban and rural land. Many places that once had a city council were now being administered by a district council, as a result, the term city began to take on two meanings. The word city came to be used in a formal sense to describe major urban areas independent of local body boundaries. This informal usage is jealously guarded, gisborne, for example, adamantly described itself as the first city in the world to see the new millennium. Gisborne is administered by a council, but its status as a city is not generally disputed. Under the current law the minimum population for a new city is 50,000, since the 1989 reorganisations, there have been few major reorganisations or status changes in local government. Incomplete list,1991, Invercargill re-proclaimed a city,1992, Nelson-Marlborough Regional Council abolished by a Local Government Amendment Act. Of its territorial authorities, Kaikoura District was transferred to the Canterbury Region,2004, Tauranga became a city again on 1 March. 2006, Banks Peninsula District merged into Christchurch City as a result of 2005 referendum,2010, Auckland Council, a unitary authority, replaced seven local councils and the regional council. Reports on completed reorganisation proposals since 1999 are available on the Local Government Commissions site, the split areas as well as the current North Shore City would form a Waitemata local council. Waitakere local council would consist of the current Waitakere City as well as the Avondale area, tamaki Makaurau would consist of the current Auckland City and Otahuhu Manukau local council would consist of the urban parts of the current Manukau City and of the Papakura District. Hunua local council would consist of the entire Franklin District, much of which is currently in the Waikato Region, along with areas of the current Papakura District. The entire Papakura District would be dissolved between urban and rural councils, the National-led Government responded within about a week
Territorial authorities of New Zealand
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New Zealand
6.
Buller District
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Buller District is one of 53 districts of New Zealand, and is within the West Coast Region. It covers Westport, Karamea, Reefton and Inangahua Junction, Buller Districts overall land area is 7,953.12 km². The district is administered by the Buller District Council with the seat in Westport, the district had a population of 9,702 at the 2006 census with 3900 living in Westport,423 in Karamea,159 in Inangahua Junction and 948 in Reefton. It now has a population of 10,250 and it is understood by the carbon dating of Umu that the Maori people settled in this region some 700 years ago. During the period 1853 to 1876, Buller was administered as part of Nelson Province, after 1876 Buller County existed in this area. The Buller District was formed under the 1989 local government reforms through the amalgamation of the Buller County, Inangahua County, media related to Buller District at Wikimedia Commons Buller District Council
Buller District
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View of
Westport, the district's capital
Buller District
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Buller District
7.
Grey District
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Grey District in the West Coast Region of New Zealand is a municipality that covers Greymouth, Runanga, Blackball, Cobden and settlements along the Grey River. It has an area of 3,516.48 square kilometres. The seat of the Grey District Council, the government authority that administers the district, is at Greymouth. The Grey District is on the West Coast of the South Island, the district is rich in history and character. Key industries are tourism, mining, agriculture, fishing, manufacturing, the main hospital for the West Coast is in Greymouth. The district had a population of 13,221 at the 2006 census, of the total population,3600 live in Greymouth,1221 in Runanga,1707 in Cobden and 330 in Blackball. With around 95% of its inhabitants being of European descent, the Grey District has a homogeneous ethnic composition. Forty per cent of the population had no qualifications in 2001. It now has a population of 13,550, there are 619 km of road in the district, of which 358 km are sealed. The first buildings at the Grey River mouth were constructed by Ngati Wairangi Maori at Cobden, European settlement followed the discovery of coal and gold. Greymouth, the district’s largest centre, lies beside the Tasman Sea, Greymouth experienced a rapid change in the cultural makeup of the region, reflecting an influx of migrants drawn to the gold rush, mining and related business opportunities. As Greymouth developed, it became vulnerable to flooding, after two major floods in 1988, the Greymouth flood wall project was undertaken. Completed in 1990, the wall provides security for the town. A Māori settlement at Māwhera pā was long established on the bank of the Māwheranui river. When the first European explorers, Thomas Brunner and Charles Heaphy, arrived in 1846, they stayed at the pā, two years later Brunner travelled up the river, which he renamed after Governor George Grey. James Mackay negotiated with local Māori chiefs for purchase of the West Coast region by the government, one of the few Māori reserves was the land around the pā, now forming the main business district in Greymouth, and most of this still remains in Māori ownership. A range of books are available on the history of Greymouth, contact the Grey District Library for further information, or check out the on-line library catalogue to see what is available. The History House Museum is an excellent source of information about the history of the West Coast
Grey District
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Grey District
8.
Westland District
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Westland District is a political subdivision on the West Coast of New Zealands South Island. It is administered by the Westland District Council territorial authority, the Westland District is governed by an elected Council, headed by an elected Mayor. The Mayor is elected at large, the current Mayor is Bruce Smith. Councillors are elected to represent multi-member wards, three councillors are elected for the Northern Ward, three for the Southern Ward, and four for the town of Hokitika. The District is one of three included within the West Coast Region, the District consists of a long thin strip of land between the crest of the Southern Alps and the Tasman Sea. The low-lying areas near the coast are a mixture of pastoral farmland, Westland temperate rainforests contain many conifers and receives high rates of precipitation due to orographic lifting caused by the Southern Alps. The eastern part of the District is steep and mountainous, many small rivers flow down from the mountains. The southern part of the District notably contains the Franz Josef, Westland is one of the most sparsely populated parts of the country, with an area of 11,880.19 square kilometres and a population of 8,403 people. Approximately 45% of the lives in Hokitika. The remaining 55% lives in villages such as Ross, Franz Josef and Haast. In the north, the Taramakau River, the largest river in the district, the crest of the Southern Alps marks the eastern boundary. A small southern boundary lies between Westland proper and Fiordland, which lies within the Southland District and this boundary cannot be crossed by road. In the early years of settlement in Westland, gold was a major commodity, after the gold ran out, those who remained turned to pastoral farming. In recent years, tourism has become important, with drawcards such as the glaciers. Westland was originally a part of Canterbury Province, administered from Christchurch in the East coast, Westland Province also included what is now the southern portion of Grey District with the provincial boundary at the Grey and Arnold rivers. Greymouth proper was in Westland Province, Cobden, on the bank of the Grey River, was in Nelson Province. After the abolition of the provinces in 1876, a new Westland County was created with roughly the same borders as the old Province. About this time, the relative to the rest of the country began to decline, as the easily accessible gold soon ran out
Westland District
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Gillespie Beach, Westland
Westland District
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Westland
9.
Westport, New Zealand
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Westport is a town in the West Coast region of the South Island of New Zealand. It is on the bank and at the mouth of the Buller River. It is connected via State Highway 6 with Greymouth,100 kilometres to the south, the town is thought to have been named after Westport, County Mayo in Ireland, although the choice of name was no doubt also guided by the towns location. The population of the Westport urban area was 3,900 in the 2006 Census, including the surrounding area of Orowaiti, the 2006 population was 4,512. The Buller District Council gives a 2007 population of about 5,000, there is evidence that Māori settlers lived in the Buller area from very early on. The settlers appeared to live mostly coastal lives, though they explored the mountains for pounamu, the first white settlers came to Westport in 1861 as gold miners, and the first European vessel known to have entered the river was the sealing schooner Three Brothers in 1884. The 1880s saw many parties of geologists and surveyors combing the area for the presence of valuable resources. Amongst them were Charles Heaphy, William Fox and Thomas Brunner, during the period,1853 to 1876, Westport was administrated as part of the Nelson Province. The first railway of the area in 1864 ran from Westport 18 kilometres to the coal fields, the first section of railway from Westport to Fairdown via Sergeants Hill opened on 31 December 1875, this line ultimately reached Seddonville in 1895 and was known as the Seddonville Branch. The Westport climate is influenced by the high amount of precipitation from the Tasman Sea. Despite very high rainfall, Westport is often prone to drought. While colder than the northern parts of New Zealand, average temperature changes over the year are not extreme. Economic activity is based around fishing, coal mining and dairy farming, historically, gold mining was a major industry, and coal mining was much more extensive than today. However, the still is home to New Zealands largest opencast mining operation in Stockton. Some native forest logging occurred in the area until cessation around 1999, the Holcim company had a large cement plant in the southwest side of town until its closure on 30 June 2016. Tourism has some famous destinations in this area, such as the Oparara Basin Arches, for other wildlife such as whales and dolphins, Rafting and jetboating in the Buller Gorge are also popular. Westport is also a base for trips to Karamea, with the road access to the area running north from near Westport. The Coaltown Museum in Westport illustrates the history of the Buller District, a daily local newspaper is published in Westport, the Westport News
Westport, New Zealand
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Art Deco influenced civic building in Westport.
Westport, New Zealand
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Area of the fur seal colony at
Cape Foulwind
Westport, New Zealand
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The Holcim cement plant is a large factor in the local economy.
10.
Greymouth
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Greymouth is the largest town in the West Coast region in the South Island of New Zealand, and the seat of the Grey District Council. The population of the whole Grey District is 13,550, the Greymouth urban area had an estimated population of 9,750. The District Council expects growth of 1. 5% per year between 2006 and 2016, the town is located at the mouth of the Grey River, on a narrow coastal plain close to the foot of the Southern Alps. In clear weather, Aoraki / Mount Cook can be seen to the south from near the town. Greymouth is on State Highway 6, which connects it with Hokitika in the south, Highway 73 is accessed 20 kilometres south of Greymouth, which is the most direct route to or from Christchurch. The town is also the terminus of the Midland line from Christchurch. Large coal trains often operate from Greymouth on this line to Christchurch, the famous TranzAlpine train also terminates at Greymouth. The Greymouth Airport is only 1.9 kilometres south of the centre of the town, köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as oceanic. Greymouth receives mean annual rainfall high by New Zealand standards and this rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the year. This is due to its position receiving marine westerlies throughout the year that often do not rise above the Southern Alps, as a result of this, it creates a rain shadow effect that sees east coast locations having far sunnier and warmer summers. This extreme marine influence also shelters the Greymouth area from hot summer days, Māori had lived in Greymouth for considerable time before European settlement, and called the area Māwhera. The first European to visit the site of what is now Greymouth was Thomas Brunner in 1846, Brunner discovered coal in the Grey valley, and several places in the region bear his name. Brunner himself named the Grey River after prominent 19th century New Zealand politician Sir George Grey, together with gold, coal mining was a major impetus in the towns early European history. From 1853 until the abolition of provinces in 1876, Greymouth was first part of Canterbury Province, however Cobden, on the north bank of the Grey River was a part of Nelson Province from 1853 to 1876. At one point in this period Greymouth tried to join Nelson Province, john Rochfort undertook the original survey of the site of the township in 1865. Greymouth has a history of coal and gold mining, when the mining industry started to decline, forestry became a new staple industry. Fishing has long been important to the town, despite the fact that the entrance to the Grey River has two notoriously dangerous sandbars, an inner and outer bar, Greymouth was regularly flooded by the Grey River. Since the 1860s, the town had been under water almost two dozen times, when the town was flooded twice in 1988, the mayor of Greymouth, Barry Dallas, embarked on an ambitious project to build a flood protection wall
Greymouth
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Greymouth
Greymouth
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Aoraki / Mount Cook and other mountains from Greymouth's beach
Greymouth
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Fisherman statue on the
seawall
11.
Hokitika, New Zealand
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Hokitika is a township in the West Coast region of New Zealands South Island,40 kilometres south of Greymouth, and close to the mouth of the Hokitika River. According to the 2013 census, the usually-resident population of the Hokitika urban area was 2,967, there are 876 people living in rural Hokitika, an increase of 48 people since the 2006 Census. On a clear day Aoraki / Mount Cook can clearly be seen from Hokitikas main street, founded on gold mining in 1864, it was a centre of the West Coast Gold Rush. By late 1866, it was one of New Zealands most populous centres, on 16 September 1867, there were 41 vessels alongside the wharf at Hokitika, in some places three and four deep. In 1867, the port of Hokitika ranked first in New Zealand in both the number of vessels entered inwards and in the value of exports, principally gold. On 8 March 1868 a mock funeral was held in protest about the conviction, the funeral was led by Roman Catholic Father William Larkin and a Celtic Cross was erected in the cemetery. Larkin was later arrested, charged, and convicted of riot, in 1873 Hokitika became the capital of the short-lived Westland Province which lasted from 1873 until the abolition of provinces in 1876. On 20 October, after being spotted by two constables and a local civilian carrying his rifle and ammunition belts, Graham was fatally wounded by a police constable. The population has declined greatly since that time but the population of the Westland District is now on the thanks to lifestyle inhabitants. Almost 30% of the districts rate-payers live outside of Hokitika, Eleanor Cattons Man Booker Prize-winning novel The Luminaries is set in gold rush-era Hokitika. It has become a major tourist stop on the West Coasts main highway route and it is also gaining a reputation for its annual wild food festival which has been running since 1990. Seaview Asylum was once the towns biggest employer, another important industry is dairying, with Westland Milk Products being based in the town. The vast majority of its production is exported, the Hokitika Sock Machine Museum in town has on display a collection of antique sock-knitting machines and invites visitors to knit their own socks. The Art Deco theatre narrowly avoided being demolished, thanks to a coup in the management committee. State Highway 6 passes through the town, Air New Zealand Link provides two flights a day to Christchurch operated by Air Nelson. The Hokitika Airport is adjacent to the town, immediately to the north-east in the suburb of Seaview, a branch line railway known as the Hokitika Branch runs to the town from Greymouth, it opened in 1893 and an extension to Ross was open from 1909 to 1980. In the early 1940s, the Vulcan railcars were introduced and they provided a service between Ross and Christchurch via Hokitika. The mixed trains continued to operate until 1967, and all services to Hokitika ceased when the Vulcan railcars stopped running past Greymouth in 1972
Hokitika, New Zealand
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Hokitika
Hokitika, New Zealand
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Hokitika township in the 1870s
Hokitika, New Zealand
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Port of Hokitika in 1867
Hokitika, New Zealand
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Memorial for the 1941 shooting, Kowhitirangi
12.
Fiordland
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Fiordland is a geographic region of New Zealand in the south-western corner of the South Island, comprising the western-most third of Southland. Most of Fiordland is dominated by the sides of the snow-capped Southern Alps, deep lakes. The name Fiordland comes from a variant spelling of the Scandinavian word for this type of steep valley, Fiordland features a number of fiords, of which Milford Sound is the most famous, though Doubtful Sound is larger and has more, and longer, branches. Several other large lakes lie nearby, and Fiordland and the parts of Southland. Fiordland has never had any significant permanent population, even the Maori only visited temporarily for hunting, fishing and to collect the precious stone pounamu from Anita Bay and the mouth of Milford Sound. The area was administered as Fiord County from 1876 until it was absorbed into neighbouring Wallace County in 1981, since 1989 it has been part of Southland District, and the wider Southland Region. Much of Fiordland is heavily forested except for locations where surface rock exposures are extensive, the natural habitats are almost completely unspoilt. Nothofagus beech trees are dominant in many locations, silver beech in the fiords, the area is home to threatened native bird species such as the flightless takahe and kiwi, blue duck, and yellowhead. There are also a number of insects and one indigenous reptile. Most of the area is covered by the Fiordland National Park, several offshore areas are protected as part of Fiordlands marine reserves. Fiordland has never had more than a few inhabitants and is the least-populated area of the South Island, with no cities. The only settlements close by / in Fiordland are Manapouri and Te Anau township, blanket Bay Hotel may be the westernmost permanently inhabited locality of New Zealand, a fishermens refuelling and supply depot on a small island at the head of Doubtful Sound. Except for electricity generation and some agriculture, tourism is the other major economic factor of the region. Most tourists visit Milford Sound, though walking in the more eastern parts of the alps is a popular activity. Nonetheless, the remoteness of the region limits even tourism, and after visits to the major sites, most tourists return to other areas
Fiordland
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Lake Marian in
Fiordland National Park near the
Homer Tunnel on the road to
Milford Sound
Fiordland
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Winter view from west portal of
Homer Tunnel
Fiordland
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Sinbad Gully, seen between the mountains on the far side of a
fjord
Fiordland
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Milford Sound in February
13.
Westland Province
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The Westland Province was a province of New Zealand from 1873 until the abolition of provincial government in 1876. The area was part of Canterbury Province when the provinces were created in 1853, in 1868 the West Coast was separated from Canterbury Province with the formation of the County of Westland, and this was primarily triggered by the West Coast Gold Rush. The boundary to Canterbury was defined as the crest of the Southern Alps, in 1873 the County formed its own Province, the short-lived Westland Province, it was the last of the 10 New Zealand provinces to be established. The province covered an area roughly the same as the present day Westland District, when John Hall resigned as Westland county chairman the government appointed James Bonar. Bonar was chairman during the period of the Fenian riots and is credited with great tact in handling that explosive situation, in March 1868 he swore in 640 special constables to suppress an Irish nationalist procession in Hokitika. Bonar was replaced by Conrad Hoos, but later—when on 1 December 1873 Westland split from Canterbury Province—Bonar resumed, New Zealand law still provides for a provincial anniversary day. The Westland Province had one Superintendent, No legislation passed by the Westland Provincial Council has survived to the present time, map of the old provincial boundaries
Westland Province
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Westland Province within New Zealand post 1873
14.
Southland, New Zealand
–
Southland is New Zealands southernmost region. It consists mainly of the portion of the South Island. It includes Southland District, Gore District and the city of Invercargill, the region covers over 3.1 million hectares and spans over 3,400 km of coast. Southland was a scene of early extended contact between Europeans and Maori, in this case sealers, whalers and missionaries – Wohlers at Ruapuke, in 1853, Walter Mantell purchased Murihiku from local Maori iwi, claiming the land for European settlement. Over successive decades, present-day Southland and Otago were settled by large numbers of Scottish settlers, immigration to New Zealand had been precipitated by an economic depression in Scotland and a schism between the Church of Scotland and the Free Church of Scotland. In 1852, James Menzies, leader of the Southland separatist movement, under the influence of Menzies, Southland Province seceded from Otago in 1861 following the escalation of political tensions. However, rising debt forced Southland to rejoin Otago in 1870, in the 1880s, the development of an export industry based on butter and cheese encouraged the growth of dairy farming in Southland. Consequently, the colonys first dairy factory was established at Edendale in 1882, much of this export went to the United Kingdom. The regions largest flood on 27 January 1984 led to a state of emergency being declared, evacuation of 4,000 people, Southlands two principal urban settlements are the city of Invercargill and the town of Gore. Southland covers an area of 28,681 square kilometres, in the June 2016 it had a population of 98,000, making it one of New Zealands most sparsely populated areas. The sizable western part Fiordland is almost empty of permanent human inhabitation, Southland is divided into two parliamentary electorates. The large rural electorate of Clutha-Southland, held by Todd Barclay, the seat of Invercargill is held by Sarah Dowie. Both are members of the governing National Party, Regional responsibilities are handled by the Southland Regional Council. Three Territorial Authorities fall entirely within Southland, the Invercargill City Council governs Invercargill itself, together with some adjoining rural areas. Much of the area of Southland, including all of Stewart Island/Rakiura, falls within the Southland District. The Gore District Council administers the town of the same name, in 2001, three authorities created the joint initiative agency Venture Southland which is the agency responsible for the region’s economic and community development initiatives and tourism promotion. The region is home to two parks, Fiordland National Park and Rakiura National Park. The former which covers 7,860 square kilometres, making it New Zealands largest national park, Southland also includes Stewart Island, 85% of which is covered by Rakiura National Park
Southland, New Zealand
–
A winter scene in western Southland, at the edge to
Fiordland
Southland, New Zealand
–
Southland Region within New Zealand
15.
Tasman Sea
–
The Tasman Sea is a marginal sea of the South Pacific Ocean, situated between Australia and New Zealand. It measures about 2,000 kilometres across and about 2,800 kilometres from north to south, the sea was named after the Dutch explorer Abel Janszoon Tasman, who was the first recorded European to encounter New Zealand and Tasmania. The British explorer Captain James Cook later extensively navigated the Tasman Sea in the 1770s as part of his first voyage of exploration. The Tasman Sea is informally referred to in both Australian and New Zealand English as The Ditch, for example, crossing the Ditch means travelling to Australia from New Zealand, or vice versa. The diminutive term The Ditch used for the Tasman Sea is comparable to referring to the North Atlantic Ocean as The Pond, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Tasman Sea as follows, On the West. From the South East Rock to the North point of Three Kings Islands thence to North Cape in New Zealand, a line joining the South extreme of the foul ground off Cape Palliser and the Lighthouse on Cape Campbell. A line joining the Light on Waipapapa Point with East Head of Stewart Island, a line running from South West Cape, Stewart Island, through The Snares to North West Cape, Auckland Island, through this island to its Southern point. A line joining the Southern point of Auckland Island to South East Cape, the Tasman Seas mid-ocean ridge developed between 85 and 55 million years ago as Australia and Zealandia broke apart during the breakup of supercontinent Gondwana. It lies roughly midway between the continental margins of Australia and Zealandia, much of Zealandia is submerged, so the ridge runs much closer to the Australian coast than New Zealands. The first successful flight over the sea was accomplished by Charles Kingsford Smith later that year, the first person to row solo across the sea was Colin Quincey in 1977. The next successful crossing was completed by his son, Shaun Quincey in 2010. Axis naval activity in New Zealand waters Crossing the Ditch List of seas Media related to Tasman Sea at Wikimedia Commons
Tasman Sea
–
Map of the Tasman Sea
Tasman Sea
–
Location
Tasman Sea
–
Smoke from the
Black Saturday bushfires crosses the southern Tasman Sea
16.
Southern Ocean
–
As such, it is regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions, smaller than the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans but larger than the Arctic Ocean. This ocean zone is cold, northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer subantarctic waters. By way of his voyages in the 1770s, Captain James Cook proved that waters encompassed the southern latitudes of the globe. Since then, geographers have disagreed on the Southern Oceans northern boundary or even existence, considering the part of the Pacific, Atlantic. Others regard the seasonally-fluctuating Antarctic Convergence as the natural boundary, Borders and names for oceans and seas were internationally agreed when the International Hydrographic Bureau, the precusor to the IHO, convened the First International Conference on 24 July 1919. The IHO then published these in its Limits of Oceans and Seas, Australian authorities regard the Southern Ocean as lying immediately south of Australia. Map publishers using the term Southern Ocean on their maps include Hema Maps, Southern Ocean is an obsolete name for the Pacific Ocean or South Pacific, coined by Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the first European to discover it, who approached it from the north. The South Seas is an archaic synonym. A1745 British Act of Parliament established a prize for discovering a Northwest Passage to the Western and Southern Ocean of America, authors using Southern Ocean to name the waters encircling the unknown southern polar regions used varying limits. James Cooks account of his second voyage implies New Caledonia borders it, peacocks 1795 Geographical Dictionary said it lay to the southward of America and Africa, John Payne in 1796 used 40 degrees as the northern limit, the 1827 Edinburgh Gazetteer used 50 degrees. The United Kingdoms South Australia Act 1834 described the waters forming the southern limit of the new colony of South Australia as the Southern Ocean. The Colony of Victorias Legislative Council Act of 1881 delimited part of the division of Bairnsdale as along the New South Wales boundary to the Southern ocean. The limit then followed the west coast of Tasmania southwards to the South East Cape and then went eastwards to Broughton Island, New Zealand, the northern limits of the Southern Ocean were moved southwards in the IHOs 1937 second edition of the Limits of Oceans and Seas. From this edition, much of the northern limit ceased to abut land masses. As is discussed in detail below, prior to the 2002 edition the limits of oceans explicitly excluded the seas lying within each of them. The Great Australian Bight was unnamed in the 1928 edition, and it therefore encompassed former Southern Ocean waters but was technically not inside any of the three adjacent oceans by 1937. To perform direct comparisons of current and former limits of oceans it is necessary to consider, or at least be aware of, the limits of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans have therefore been extended South to the Antarctic Continent. The IHO readdressed the question of the Southern Ocean in a survey in 2000, of its 68 member nations,28 responded, and all responding members except Argentina agreed to redefine the ocean, reflecting the importance placed by oceanographers on ocean currents
Southern Ocean
–
1928 First Edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas with original IHO delineation of Southern Ocean abutting land-masses.
Southern Ocean
–
Earth's oceans
Southern Ocean
–
1937 Second Edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas showing IHO's pre-1953 delineation of Southern Ocean moved southwards.
Southern Ocean
–
1564 Typus Orbis Terrarum, a map by
Abraham Ortelius showed the imagined link between the proposed continent of Antarctica and
South America.
17.
Southern Alps (New Zealand)
–
The Southern Alps are a mountain range extending along much of the length of New Zealands South Island, reaching its greatest elevations near the islands western side. The term Southern Alps generally refers to the range, although separate names are given to many of the smaller ranges that form part of it. The range includes the South Islands Main Divide, which separates the water catchments of the heavily populated eastern side of the island from those on the west coast. Politically, the Main Divide forms the boundary between the Canterbury and West Coast Regions, the Southern Alps run 500 km north to south. Their tallest peak is Aoraki / Mount Cook, the highest point in New Zealand at 3,724 metres, the mountains are cut through with glacial valleys and lakes. A chain of lakes are found on the eastern side of the ridge from Lake Coleridge in the north to Lake Wakatipu in Otago in the south. Settlements include Maruia Springs, a spa near Lewis Pass, the town of Arthurs Pass, the Southern Alps were named by Captain Cook on 23 March 1770, who described their prodigious height. They had previously noted by Abel Tasman in 1642, whose description of the South Islands west coast is often translated as a land uplifted high. The climate is cold with snow and ice year-round at the highest points, because of its orientation perpendicular to the prevailing westerly winds, the range creates excellent wave soaring conditions for glider pilots. The town of Omarama, in the lee of the mountains, has gained a reputation for its gliding conditions. The prevailing westerlies also create a pattern known as the Norwest arch, in which moist air is pushed up over the mountains. This weather pattern is visible in summer across Canterbury and North Otago. Over the last 45 million years, the collision has pushed up a 20 km thickness of rocks on the Pacific Plate to form the Alps, although much of this has been eroded away. Uplift has been most rapid during the last 5 million years, despite the substantial uplift, most of the relative motion along the Alpine Fault is transverse, not vertical. However, significant dip-slip occurs on the boundary to the north and east of the North Island, in the Hikurangi Trench. The mountains are rich in flora with about 25% of the plant species being found above the treeline in alpine plant habitats. The cold windswept slopes above the treeline are covered with areas of fellfield, to the east, the Alps descend to the high grasslands of Canterbury and Otago. Plants adapted to the alpine conditions include woody shrubs like Hebe, Dracophyllum, and Coprosma, wildlife of the mountains includes the endemic rock wren and the kea, a large parrot that was once hunted as a pest
Southern Alps (New Zealand)
–
Snow highlights the Southern Alps in this satellite image of the
South Island, New Zealand.
Southern Alps (New Zealand)
–
Southern Alps viewed from Mount Hutt
Southern Alps (New Zealand)
–
View of the Southern Alps from road.
Southern Alps (New Zealand)
–
Panoramic view of some of the Southern Alps in Winter from the summit of Hamilton Peak in the
Craigieburn Range.
18.
Forest
–
A forest is a large area dominated by trees. Hundreds of more precise definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as density, tree height, land use, legal standing. According to the widely used Food and Agriculture Organization definition, forests covered four billion hectares or approximately 30 percent of the land area in 2006. Forests are the dominant terrestrial ecosystem of Earth, and are distributed across the globe, Forests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earths biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earths plant biomass. Forests at different latitudes and elevations form distinctly different ecozones, boreal forests near the poles, tropical forests near the equator, higher elevation areas tend to support forests similar to those at higher latitudes, and amount of precipitation also affects forest composition. Human society and forests influence each other in both positive and negative ways, Forests provide ecosystem services to humans and serve as tourist attractions. Forests can also affect peoples health, human activities, including harvesting forest resources, can negatively affect forest ecosystems. Although forest is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition, there are three broad categories of forest definitions in use, administrative, land use, and land cover. Land use definitions are based upon the purpose that the land serves. For example, a forest may be defined as any land that is used primarily for production of timber, land cover definitions define forests based upon the type and density of vegetation growing on the land. Such definitions typically define a forest as an area growing trees above some threshold and these thresholds are typically the number of trees per area, the area of ground under the tree canopy or the section of land that is occupied by the cross-section of tree trunks. Under such land cover definitions, and area of land only be defined as forest if it is growing trees, areas that fail to meet the land cover definition may be still included under while immature trees are establishing if they are expected to meet the definition at maturity. Under land use definitions, there is variation on where the cutoff points are between a forest, woodland, and savanna. Under some definitions, forests require high levels of tree canopy cover, from 60% to 100%, excluding savannas. Other definitions consider savannas to be a type of forest, the term was not endemic to Romance languages, and cognates in Romance languages, such as Italian foresta, Spanish and Portuguese floresta, etc. are all ultimately borrowings of the French word. The exact origin of Medieval Latin foresta is obscure, uses of the word forest in English to denote any uninhabited area of non-enclosure are now considered archaic. The word was introduced by the Norman rulers of England as a term denoting an uncultivated area legally set aside for hunting by feudal nobility. These hunting forests were not necessarily wooded much, if at all, however, as hunting forests did often include considerable areas of woodland, the word forest eventually came to mean wooded land more generally
Forest
–
A
conifer forest in the
Swiss Alps (
National Park)
Forest
–
The
Adirondack Mountains of
Upstate New York form the southernmost part of the
Eastern forest-boreal transition ecoregion.
Forest
–
Mixed
deciduous forest in
Stara Planina,
Serbia
Forest
–
A gate in a snowy forest
19.
Rain forest
–
The monsoon trough, alternatively known as the intertropical convergence zone, plays a significant role in creating the climatic conditions necessary for the Earths tropical rainforests. Around 40% to 75% of all species are indigenous to the rainforests. It has been estimated there may be many millions of species of plants, insects. Tropical rainforests have been called the jewels of the Earth and the worlds largest pharmacy, the undergrowth in some areas of a rainforest can be restricted by poor penetration of sunlight to ground level. If the leaf canopy is destroyed or thinned, the ground beneath is soon colonized by a dense, tangled growth of vines, shrubs and small trees, the term jungle is also sometimes applied to tropical rainforests generally. Tropical rainforests are characterized by a warm and wet climate with no dry season. Mean monthly temperatures exceed 18 °C during all months of the year, average annual rainfall is no less than 168 cm and can exceed 1,000 cm although it typically lies between 175 cm and 200 cm. Many of the tropical forests are associated with the location of the monsoon trough. The broader category of tropical moist forests are located in the zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. Tropical forests have been called the Earths lungs, although it is now known that rainforests contribute little net oxygen addition to the atmosphere through photosynthesis, Tropical forests cover a large part of the globe, but temperate rainforests only occur in few regions around the world. Temperate rainforests are rainforests in temperate regions and they occur in North America, in Europe, in East Asia, in South America and also in Australia and New Zealand. A tropical rainforest typically has a number of layers, each with different plants, examples include the emergent, canopy, understorey and forest floor layers. They need to be able to withstand the hot temperatures and strong winds that occur above the canopy in some areas, eagles, butterflies, bats and certain monkeys inhabit this layer. The canopy layer contains the majority of the largest trees, typically 30 metres to 45 metres tall, the densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy, a more or less continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The canopy, by some estimates, is home to 50 percent of all plant species, epiphytic plants attach to trunks and branches, and obtain water and minerals from rain and debris that collects on the supporting plants. The fauna is similar to found in the emergent layer. A quarter of all species are believed to exist in the rainforest canopy. Scientists have long suspected the richness of the canopy as a habitat, true exploration of this habitat only began in the 1980s, when scientists developed methods to reach the canopy, such as firing ropes into the trees using crossbows
Rain forest
–
The
Daintree Rainforest in
Queensland,
Australia
Rain forest
–
The
Daintree Rainforest near Cairns, in
Queensland,
Australia
Rain forest
–
The canopy at the
Forest Research Institute Malaysia showing
crown shyness
Rain forest
–
Rainforest in the
Blue Mountains,
Australia
20.
Canterbury Plains
–
The Canterbury Plains are an area in New Zealand centred to the south of the city of Christchurch in the Canterbury Region. Their northern extremes are at the foot of the Hundalee Hills in the Hurunui District, the Canterbury Plains were formed from quaternary moraine gravels deposited during glacial periods in the late pleistocene approximately 3 million years to 10,000 years ago. The alluvial gravels were then reworked as shingle fans of several of the rivers, notably the Waimakariri, the Rakaia, the Selwyn. Part of the Canterbury-Otago tussock grasslands the land is suitable for moderately intensive livestock farming, at these times, the weather phenomenon known as the Norwest arch can be seen across much of the plain. Most of the population of Canterbury lives in a series of large and small towns arranged northeast to southwest along the plains, connected by State Highway 1 and these include Christchurch, Ashburton and Timaru, and the smaller Kaiapoi, Dunsandel, Rakaia, Temuka, and Glenavy. Other towns on the plains include Rangiora, Leeston, Lincoln, Darfield, Geraldine, Methven, the extremely rare weevil Hadramphus tuberculatus is endemic to the plains
Canterbury Plains
–
Location of the Canterbury Plains
21.
Firth of Thames
–
The Firth of Thames is a large bay located in the north of the North Island of New Zealand. It is the firth of the rivers Waihou and Piako, the former of which was named the Thames River. The firth lies at the end of the Hauraki Gulf. It occupies a valley or graben between the Coromandel Peninsula and Hunua Ranges which continues into the Hauraki Plains to the south. The Firth of Thames is an important site for waders or shorebirds, the Miranda Shorebird Centre, operated by the Miranda Naturalists Trust, is located on the western shore of the bay at Miranda. However, the firth overall is severely damaged by man-made influences, especially dairy-farm run-off, whales such as southern right whales and Brydes whales can be seen in the bay to calve and rest
Firth of Thames
–
A true-colour image showing the Hauraki Gulf (centre). The Firth of Thames is the large bay to the southeast. The image was acquired by NASA's
Terra satellite on 23 October 2002.
22.
Haast Pass
–
Haast Pass is a mountain pass in the Southern Alps of the South Island of New Zealand. It is named for Julius von Haast, a 19th-century explorer who was also geologist for the Provincial government of Canterbury, the pass was used by Māori in pre-European times, but not on a regular basis. It is one of the three passes where a road crosses over the Southern Alps, the two being Lewis Pass and Arthurs Pass, although the Homer Tunnel also passes under the Main Divide. The road through Haast Pass was converted from a track to a formed road in 1966. The Haast Pass rises to a height of 562 metres above sea level at the saddle between the valleys of the Haast and Makarora Rivers, as such, it is the lowest of the passes traversing the Southern Alps. The Haast Pass road is devoid of any settlements between Haast and Makarora, the road passes through predominantly unmodified beech forest. The pass itself is within the limits of Mount Aspiring National Park and forms part of the boundary between Otago and the West Coast
Haast Pass
–
Gates of Haast
Haast Pass
Haast Pass
–
Fantail falls, in the Haast pass.
23.
Fox Glacier
–
Fox Glacier / Te Moeka o Tuawe is a 13-kilometre-long temperate maritime glacier located in Westland Tai Poutini National Park on the West Coast of New Zealands South Island. It was named in 1872 after a visit by then Prime Minister of New Zealand Sir William Fox, following the passage of the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998, the name of the glacier was officially altered to Fox Glacier / Te Moeka o Tuawe. Although retreating throughout most of the last 100 years, it was advancing between 1985 and 2009, in 2006 the average rate of advance was about a metre a week. In January 2009, the face of the glacier was still advancing and had vertical or overhanging faces which were continually collapsing. Since then there has been a significant retreat, with the 2009 high level clearly visible as vegetation line on the slope above what is left of the lower glacier today. The outflow of the forms the Fox River. During the last ice age, its ice reached beyond the present coastline, lake Matheson formed as a kettle lake within one of these. Like nearby Franz Josef Glacier, it is one of the most accessible glaciers in the world and it is a major tourist attraction and about 1000 people daily visit it during high tourist season. Though people are not to, some go beyond the barriers and climb without guides onto the glacier, whose rapid advance creates dangers of sudden ice. The approximate township site had been gazetted as early as 1866, bruce Bay is 46 km to the south-west of the township, and Franz Josef is 23 km north-east. State Highway 6 runs through the town, the population was 375 in the 2006 Census, an increase of 117 from 2001. The town is served by the Fox Glacier Aerodrome, two Australian tourists, Ashish Miranda and Akshay Miranda, were killed on 8 January 2009 when more than 100 tonnes of ice fell on them. They were not part of a group and had crossed safety barriers. Ashishs body was recovered shortly after the accident, at the time, it was thought by rescuers that Akshay might have to be left under the ice permanently. However, his body was recovered a week later,10 km downstream from the accident, on 21 November 2015, seven people were killed when a Eurocopter Écureuil helicopter on a scenic flight crashed on the glacier. The helicopter was operated by Alpine Adventures, Fox Glacier School is a coeducational full primary school with a decile rating of 8 and a roll of 17. Climate change in New Zealand Retreat of glaciers since 1850 Franz Josef Glacier Fox Glacier area, Department of Conservation Fox Glacier Daily Access Update & Live Webcam - Glacier Country Tourism
Fox Glacier
–
Below Fox Glacier, February 2013
Fox Glacier
–
Fox Glacier
Fox Glacier
–
View of the glacier from the valley below.
Fox Glacier
–
The glacier reaching the rainforest in 2007.
24.
Franz Josef Glacier
–
Franz Josef Glacier / Kā Roimata o Hine Hukatere is a 12 km long temperate maritime glacier located in Westland Tai Poutini National Park on the West Coast of New Zealands South Island. Together with the Fox Glacier 20 km to the south, the area surrounding the two glaciers is part of Te Wahipounamu, a World Heritage Site park. The river emerging from the terminal of Franz Josef is known as the Waiho River. The first European description of one of the west coast glaciers was made in the log of the ship Mary Louisa in 1859, the glacier was later named after Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria by the German explorer, Julius von Haast in 1865. The Māori name for the glacier is Kā Roimata o Hine Hukatere, arising from a legend, Hine Hukatere loved climbing in the mountains and persuaded her lover, Wawe. Wawe was an experienced climber than Hine Hukatere but loved to accompany her until an avalanche swept Wawe from the peaks to his death. Hine Hukatere was broken-hearted and her many, many tears flowed down the mountain, following the passage of the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998, the name of the glacier was officially altered to Franz Josef Glacier / Kā Roimata o Hine Hukatere. Franz Josef Glacier is currently 12 km long and terminates 19 km from the Tasman Sea, Franz Josef Glacier had periods of advances from 1946 to 1951, 1965–1967, 1983–1999 and 2004–2008. The glacier advanced rapidly during the Little Ice Age, reaching a maximum in the eighteenth century. Having retreated several kilometres between the 1940s and 1980s, the glacier entered a phase in 1984 and at times has advanced at the phenomenal rate of 70 cm a day. The flow rate is about 10 times that of typical glaciers, over the longer term, the glacier has retreated since the last ice age, and it is believed that it extended into the sea some 10,000 to 15,000 years ago. This cyclic behaviour is well illustrated by a stamp issued in 1946. The church was built in 1931, with an altar window to take advantage of its location. By 1954, the glacier had disappeared from view from the church and this is due to the highly variable conditions on the snowfield, which take around 5–6 years before they result in changes in the terminus location. The glacier was still advancing until 2008, but since then it has entered a rapid phase of retreat. As is the case for most other New Zealand glaciers which are found on the eastern side of the southern alps. There have been incidents of jökulhlaups at the glacier, with one destroying a bridge on the access route in 1989. Based on past variations, scientists expect that Franz Josef Glacier will retreat 5 km, the Waiho Loop is the terminal moraine of the glacier, and indicates the extent of the Franz Josef Glacier, about 12,000 years ago
Franz Josef Glacier
–
Franz Josef Glacier
Franz Josef Glacier
Franz Josef Glacier
Franz Josef Glacier
–
An aerial view down the glacier.
25.
Punakaiki
–
Punakaiki is a small community on the West Coast of the South Island of New Zealand, between Westport and Greymouth. The community lies on the edge of the Paparoa National Park, the Pancake Rocks are a very popular tourist destination at Dolomite Point south of the main village. The Pancake Rocks are a heavily eroded limestone area where the sea bursts through several vertical blowholes during high tides, together with the pancake-layering of the limestone, these form the main attraction of the area. State Highway 6, the only road on the West Coast. Media related to Pancake Rocks at Wikimedia Commons Punakaiki - West Coast, New Zealand Limestone, Punakaiki
Punakaiki
–
Looking south from the pancake rocks
Punakaiki
–
Punakaiki
Punakaiki
–
Walkways around the pancake rocks area
Punakaiki
–
Walkway and blowhole
26.
Heaphy Track
–
The Heaphy Track is a popular tramping track in the north west of the South Island of New Zealand. It is located within the Kahurangi National Park and classified as one of New Zealands nine Great Walks by the Department of Conservation, named after Charles Heaphy, the track is 78.4 kilometres long and is usually walked in four or five days. The track runs from Kohaihai, north of Karamea on the northern west coast of the South Island to the valley of the Aorere River. Māori tribes are known to have settled along the course of the Heaphy River as early as the 16th century. Evidence has been found that the area crossed by todays Heaphy Track had been explored in pre-European times by Māori seeking greenstone in the Gouland Downs sector, the first recorded crossing of the whole range approximately along todays was by a European gold miner named Aldrige in 1859. Another visit by James MacKay and John Clark took place the following year, no gold was found in the area and after thirty years prospecting came to an end and by 1900 the track was virtually forgotten and became overgrown and seldom used except by an occasional hunter. The creation of the North-west Nelson Forest Park in 1965, which became Kahurangi National Park in 1996, led to the rediscovery, the track is now tramped by thousands of people every year. The Heaphy track is renowned for the variety of landscapes crossed, walking the path east to west, the journey begins through a forest where beeches are dominant. Some zigzags lead to the highest point of the track, at 915 m, from there on, tussocks replace forests, and the Gouland Downs are entered soon, a large featureless area drained by many rivers, with swingbridges helping to cross them when they are in spate. Now woody patches regain over tussock moors, near Gouland Downs Hut, after several kilometers of alternating tussock downs and bush, MacKay Hut is reached, with broad views reaching to the Tasman Sea. There begins a descent through the bush. This time podocarps are dominant, including impressive large rimu trees, at the end of this descent, the Heaphy River valley is reached at Lewis Hut. The river course is followed for 8 km of peaceful flat walk, crossing the Heaphy River and this leads to discovering the nikau palm forest, which is probably the most striking feature of the Heaphy Track. The seashore is reached at Heaphy Hut, at the mouth of the Heaphy River, the last section is a coastal walk, alternating sandy beaches beaten by the waves and forest sections, where nikau palms dominate. Repeated attempts, from the 1950s to the 1980s, by the South Island Local Bodies Association to have the Ministry of Works build the road were made, the Ministry considered the road proposal to be too expensive and did not view it as a priority. The famed coastal strip with its iconic nikau palm groves was particularly at risk with any road construction, even with simple track construction at Crayfish Point many years ago, the overall effect was to see major slips carry the groves into the sea. Those fighting roading proposals felt this could be the result along the very narrow, the campaign to save the Track and the popular support the conservation effort gathered over many years became pivotal in changing the attitude of the authorities to environmental matters. The New Zealand Government instigated many changes to curb unnecessary environmental destruction, following the major campaigns, track use grew substantially
Heaphy Track
–
The view from the highest point of the track
Heaphy Track
–
The Gouland Downs
Heaphy Track
–
The forest west of MacKay hut
Heaphy Track
–
Nikau palms along the Heaphy River
27.
Orographic
–
Orography is the study of the topographic relief of mountains, and can more broadly include hills, and any part of a regions elevated terrain. Orography falls within the discipline of geomorphology. Mountain ranges and elevated land masses have a impact on global climate. In scientific models, such as general models, orography defines the lower boundary of the model over land. When a rivers tributaries or settlements by the river are listed in orographic sequence and this method of listing tributaries is similar to the Strahler Stream Order, where the headwater tributaries are listed as category 1. Orographic precipitation, also known as relief precipitation, is generated by a forced upward movement of air upon encountering a physiographic upland. This lifting can be caused by two mechanisms, The upward deflection of large scale horizontal flow by the orography, the anabatic or upward vertical propagation of moist air up an orographic slope caused by daytime heating of the mountain barrier surface. Upon ascent, the air that is being lifted will expand, if enough water vapor condenses into cloud droplets, these droplets may become large enough to fall to the ground as precipitation. Drier air is left on the descending, generally warming, leeward side where a shadow is formed. Terrain-induced precipitation is a factor for meteorologists as they forecast the local weather. Orography can play a role in the type, amount, intensity. Researchers have discovered that barrier width, slope steepness and updraft speed are major contributors for the optimal amount, computer model simulations for these factors showed that narrow barriers and steeper slopes produced stronger updraft speeds which, in turn, enhanced orographic precipitation. Leeward coastal areas are especially dry—less than 20 in per year at Waikiki—and the tops of moderately high uplands are especially wet—about 475 in per year at Waialeale on Kauai. This is particularly noticeable between Manchester and Leeds where Leeds receives less due to a rain shadow of 12 miles from the Pennines. Coverage Orographic lift Map of the Orography of Europe from Euratlas. com
Orographic
–
An orographic map of Eastern
Siberia from 1875 by
Peter Kropotkin
28.
Precipitation (meteorology)
–
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
Precipitation (meteorology)
–
A thunderstorm with heavy precipitation
Precipitation (meteorology)
–
Long-term mean precipitation by month
Precipitation (meteorology)
–
Late-summer
rainstorm in
Denmark
Precipitation (meteorology)
–
Lenticular cloud forming due to mountains over Wyoming
29.
Rain shadow
–
A rain shadow is a dry area on the leeward side of a mountainous area. The mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems and cast a shadow of dryness behind them, wind and moist air is drawn by the prevailing winds towards the top of the mountains, where it condenses and precipitates before it crosses the top. The air, without much moisture left, advances behind the mountains creating a side called the rain shadow. The condition exists because warm moist air rises by orographic lifting to the top of a mountain range, as atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude, the air has expanded and adiabatically cooled to the point that the air reaches its adiabatic dew point. At the adiabatic dew point, moisture condenses onto the mountain and it precipitates on the top, the air descends on the leeward side, but due to the precipitation it has lost much of its moisture. There are regular patterns of prevailing winds found in round the Earths equatorial region. The zone designated the trade winds is the zone between about 30° N and 30° S, blowing predominantly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere, the strongest westerly winds in the middle latitudes can come in the Roaring Forties between 30 and 50 degrees latitude. The Dasht-i-Lut in Iran is in the shadow of the Elburz. The Ordos Desert is rain shadowed by mountain chains including the Kara-naryn-ula, the Sheitenula, and the Yin Mountains, which link on to the south end of the Great Khingan Mountains. The Thar desert is bounded and rain shadowed by the Aravalli ranges to the south-east, the Himalaya to the northeast, Eastern Side of Sahyadri ranges on Deccan e. g. Northern Karnataka & Solapur, Beed, Osmanabad and Vidharba Plateau of India. The central region of Myanmar is in the shadow of the Arakan Mountains and is almost semi-arid with only 750 millimetres of rain as against as much as 5.5 metres on the Rakhine State coast. The High Peaks of Mount Lebanon rain-shadow the northern parts of the Beqaa Valley, the Judean Desert, the Dead Sea and the western slopes of the Moab Mountains on the opposite side are rain-shadowed by the Judean Hills. The Atacama Desert in Chile is the driest non-polar desert on Earth because it is blocked from moisture on both sides, Cuyo and Eastern Patagonia is rain shadowed from the prevailing westerly winds by the Andes range and is arid. The Argentinian wine region of Cuyo and Northern Patagonia is almost completely dependent on irrigation, on the largest scale, the entirety of the North American Interior Plains are shielded from the prevailing Westerlies carrying moist Pacific weather by the North American Cordillera. More pronounced effects are observed, however, in valley regions within the Cordillera. Most rainshadows in the western United States are due to the Sierra Nevada, champlain Valley in upstate New York. It is protected by the Adirondack Mountains, hawaii also has rain shadows, with some areas being desert. Orographic lifting produces the worlds second-highest annual precipitation record,12.7 meters, on the island of Kauai, the entire island of Kahoolawe lies in the rain shadow of Mauis East Maui Volcano
Rain shadow
–
An example of a rain shadow.
Rain shadow
–
The
Tibetan Plateau (top), perhaps the best example of a rain shadow. Rain does not make it past the
Himalayas, leading to an arid climate on the leeward side of the
mountain range.
Rain shadow
–
The
Agasthiyamalai hills cut off
Tirunelveli (
India) from the
monsoons, creating a rainshadow region
30.
Territorial Authorities of New Zealand
–
Territorial authorities are the second tier of local government in New Zealand, below regional councils. There are 67 territorial authorities,12 city councils,53 district councils, Auckland Council, six territorial authorities also perform the functions of a regional council and thus are unitary authorities. A unitary authority may also have local boards, currently only Auckland Council has them, territorial authority districts are not subdivisions of regions, and some of them fall within more than one region. Taupo District has the distinction of straddling the boundaries of four different regions, Regional council areas are based on water catchment areas, whereas territorial authorities are based on community of interest and road access. Some activities are delegated to council-controlled organisations, the boundaries of councils tended to follow the edge of the built-up area, so little distinction was made between the urban area and the local government area. Regional councils were reduced in number from 20 to 13, territorial authorities from 200 to 75, the new district and city councils were generally much larger and most covered substantial areas of both urban and rural land. Many places that once had a city council were now being administered by a district council, as a result, the term city began to take on two meanings. The word city came to be used in a formal sense to describe major urban areas independent of local body boundaries. This informal usage is jealously guarded, gisborne, for example, adamantly described itself as the first city in the world to see the new millennium. Gisborne is administered by a council, but its status as a city is not generally disputed. Under the current law the minimum population for a new city is 50,000, since the 1989 reorganisations, there have been few major reorganisations or status changes in local government. Incomplete list,1991, Invercargill re-proclaimed a city,1992, Nelson-Marlborough Regional Council abolished by a Local Government Amendment Act. Of its territorial authorities, Kaikoura District was transferred to the Canterbury Region,2004, Tauranga became a city again on 1 March. 2006, Banks Peninsula District merged into Christchurch City as a result of 2005 referendum,2010, Auckland Council, a unitary authority, replaced seven local councils and the regional council. Reports on completed reorganisation proposals since 1999 are available on the Local Government Commissions site, the split areas as well as the current North Shore City would form a Waitemata local council. Waitakere local council would consist of the current Waitakere City as well as the Avondale area, tamaki Makaurau would consist of the current Auckland City and Otahuhu Manukau local council would consist of the urban parts of the current Manukau City and of the Papakura District. Hunua local council would consist of the entire Franklin District, much of which is currently in the Waikato Region, along with areas of the current Papakura District. The entire Papakura District would be dissolved between urban and rural councils, the National-led Government responded within about a week
Territorial Authorities of New Zealand
–
New Zealand
31.
Buller (district), New Zealand
–
Buller District is one of 53 districts of New Zealand, and is within the West Coast Region. It covers Westport, Karamea, Reefton and Inangahua Junction, Buller Districts overall land area is 7,953.12 km². The district is administered by the Buller District Council with the seat in Westport, the district had a population of 9,702 at the 2006 census with 3900 living in Westport,423 in Karamea,159 in Inangahua Junction and 948 in Reefton. It now has a population of 10,250 and it is understood by the carbon dating of Umu that the Maori people settled in this region some 700 years ago. During the period 1853 to 1876, Buller was administered as part of Nelson Province, after 1876 Buller County existed in this area. The Buller District was formed under the 1989 local government reforms through the amalgamation of the Buller County, Inangahua County, media related to Buller District at Wikimedia Commons Buller District Council
Buller (district), New Zealand
–
View of
Westport, the district's capital
Buller (district), New Zealand
–
Buller District
32.
Greymouth, New Zealand
–
Greymouth is the largest town in the West Coast region in the South Island of New Zealand, and the seat of the Grey District Council. The population of the whole Grey District is 13,550, the Greymouth urban area had an estimated population of 9,750. The District Council expects growth of 1. 5% per year between 2006 and 2016, the town is located at the mouth of the Grey River, on a narrow coastal plain close to the foot of the Southern Alps. In clear weather, Aoraki / Mount Cook can be seen to the south from near the town. Greymouth is on State Highway 6, which connects it with Hokitika in the south, Highway 73 is accessed 20 kilometres south of Greymouth, which is the most direct route to or from Christchurch. The town is also the terminus of the Midland line from Christchurch. Large coal trains often operate from Greymouth on this line to Christchurch, the famous TranzAlpine train also terminates at Greymouth. The Greymouth Airport is only 1.9 kilometres south of the centre of the town, köppen-Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as oceanic. Greymouth receives mean annual rainfall high by New Zealand standards and this rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the year. This is due to its position receiving marine westerlies throughout the year that often do not rise above the Southern Alps, as a result of this, it creates a rain shadow effect that sees east coast locations having far sunnier and warmer summers. This extreme marine influence also shelters the Greymouth area from hot summer days, Māori had lived in Greymouth for considerable time before European settlement, and called the area Māwhera. The first European to visit the site of what is now Greymouth was Thomas Brunner in 1846, Brunner discovered coal in the Grey valley, and several places in the region bear his name. Brunner himself named the Grey River after prominent 19th century New Zealand politician Sir George Grey, together with gold, coal mining was a major impetus in the towns early European history. From 1853 until the abolition of provinces in 1876, Greymouth was first part of Canterbury Province, however Cobden, on the north bank of the Grey River was a part of Nelson Province from 1853 to 1876. At one point in this period Greymouth tried to join Nelson Province, john Rochfort undertook the original survey of the site of the township in 1865. Greymouth has a history of coal and gold mining, when the mining industry started to decline, forestry became a new staple industry. Fishing has long been important to the town, despite the fact that the entrance to the Grey River has two notoriously dangerous sandbars, an inner and outer bar, Greymouth was regularly flooded by the Grey River. Since the 1860s, the town had been under water almost two dozen times, when the town was flooded twice in 1988, the mayor of Greymouth, Barry Dallas, embarked on an ambitious project to build a flood protection wall
Greymouth, New Zealand
–
Greymouth
Greymouth, New Zealand
–
Aoraki / Mount Cook and other mountains from Greymouth's beach
Greymouth, New Zealand
–
Fisherman statue on the
seawall
33.
Westland (district), New Zealand
–
Westland District is a political subdivision on the West Coast of New Zealands South Island. It is administered by the Westland District Council territorial authority, the Westland District is governed by an elected Council, headed by an elected Mayor. The Mayor is elected at large, the current Mayor is Bruce Smith. Councillors are elected to represent multi-member wards, three councillors are elected for the Northern Ward, three for the Southern Ward, and four for the town of Hokitika. The District is one of three included within the West Coast Region, the District consists of a long thin strip of land between the crest of the Southern Alps and the Tasman Sea. The low-lying areas near the coast are a mixture of pastoral farmland, Westland temperate rainforests contain many conifers and receives high rates of precipitation due to orographic lifting caused by the Southern Alps. The eastern part of the District is steep and mountainous, many small rivers flow down from the mountains. The southern part of the District notably contains the Franz Josef, Westland is one of the most sparsely populated parts of the country, with an area of 11,880.19 square kilometres and a population of 8,403 people. Approximately 45% of the lives in Hokitika. The remaining 55% lives in villages such as Ross, Franz Josef and Haast. In the north, the Taramakau River, the largest river in the district, the crest of the Southern Alps marks the eastern boundary. A small southern boundary lies between Westland proper and Fiordland, which lies within the Southland District and this boundary cannot be crossed by road. In the early years of settlement in Westland, gold was a major commodity, after the gold ran out, those who remained turned to pastoral farming. In recent years, tourism has become important, with drawcards such as the glaciers. Westland was originally a part of Canterbury Province, administered from Christchurch in the East coast, Westland Province also included what is now the southern portion of Grey District with the provincial boundary at the Grey and Arnold rivers. Greymouth proper was in Westland Province, Cobden, on the bank of the Grey River, was in Nelson Province. After the abolition of the provinces in 1876, a new Westland County was created with roughly the same borders as the old Province. About this time, the relative to the rest of the country began to decline, as the easily accessible gold soon ran out
Westland (district), New Zealand
–
Gillespie Beach, Westland
Westland (district), New Zealand
–
Westland
34.
Mining
–
Mining is extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually from an orebody, lode, vein, seam, reef or placer deposits. These deposits form a mineralized package that is of economic interest to the miner, ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water. Mining of stones and metal has been a human activity since pre-historic times, Mining operations usually create a negative environmental impact, both during the mining activity and after the mine has closed. Hence, most of the nations have passed regulations to decrease the impact. Work safety has long been a concern as well, and modern practices have significantly improved safety in mines, levels of metals recycling are generally low. Unless future end-of-life recycling rates are stepped up, some rare metals may become unavailable for use in a variety of consumer products, due to the low recycling rates, some landfills now contain higher concentrations of metal than mines themselves. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone, ceramics and, later and these were used to make early tools and weapons, for example, high quality flint found in northern France, southern England and Poland was used to create flint tools. Flint mines have been found in areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by shafts. The mines at Grimes Graves and Krzemionki are especially famous, other hard rocks mined or collected for axes included the greenstone of the Langdale axe industry based in the English Lake District. The oldest-known mine on archaeological record is the Lion Cave in Swaziland, at this site Paleolithic humans mined hematite to make the red pigment ochre. Mines of an age in Hungary are believed to be sites where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons. Ancient Egyptians mined malachite at Maadi, at first, Egyptians used the bright green malachite stones for ornamentations and pottery. Later, between 2613 and 2494 BC, large building projects required expeditions abroad to the area of Wadi Maghareh in order to secure minerals and other resources not available in Egypt itself. Quarries for turquoise and copper were found at Wadi Hammamat, Tura, Aswan and various other Nubian sites on the Sinai Peninsula. Mining in Egypt occurred in the earliest dynasties, the gold mines of Nubia were among the largest and most extensive of any in Ancient Egypt. These mines are described by the Greek author Diodorus Siculus, who mentions fire-setting as one used to break down the hard rock holding the gold. One of the complexes is shown in one of the earliest known maps, the miners crushed the ore and ground it to a fine powder before washing the powder for the gold dust
Mining
–
Surface
coal mining
Mining
–
Chalcolithic copper mine in
Timna Valley,
Negev Desert
Mining
–
Ancient Roman development of the
Dolaucothi Gold Mines, Wales
Mining
–
Agricola, author of
De Re Metallica
35.
Coal
–
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
Coal
–
Anthracite coal
Coal
–
Bituminous coal
Coal
–
Coastal exposure of the Point Aconi Seam (Nova Scotia)
Coal
–
Coal miner in Britain, 1942
36.
Alluvial deposit
–
Alluvium is loose, unconsolidated soil or sediments, which has been eroded, reshaped by water in some form, and redeposited in a non-marine setting. Alluvium is typically made up of a variety of materials, including fine particles of silt and clay and larger particles of sand, when this loose alluvial material is deposited or cemented into a lithological unit, or lithified, it is called an alluvial deposit. The term alluvium is not typically used in situations where the formation of the sediment can clearly be attributed to another process that is well described. This includes, lake sediments, river sediments, or glacially-derived sediments, sediments that are formed or deposited in a perennial stream or river are typically not referred to as alluvial. Most alluvium is very young, and is often referred to as cover because these sediments obscure the underlying bedrock. Most sedimentary material that fills a basin that is not lithified is typically lumped together as alluvial, alluvium of Pliocene age occurs, for example, in parts of Idaho. Alluvium of late Miocene age occurs, for example, in the valley of the San Joaquin River, alluvium can contain valuable ores such as gold and platinum and a wide variety of gemstones. Such a concentration of ores is termed a placer deposit
Alluvial deposit
–
Section of alluvium at the Blue Ribbon Mine in
Alaska
Alluvial deposit
–
Alluvium deposits in the Gamtoos Valley in
South Africa
Alluvial deposit
–
An
alluvial plain in
Red Rock Canyon State Park (California)
Alluvial deposit
–
Alluvial river deposits in the
Amazon Basin, near Autazes, AM,
Brazil. The seasonal deposits are extremely fertile, and crucial to
subsistence farming in the Amazon Basin along the river banks.
37.
Gold
–
Gold is a chemical element with symbol Au and atomic number 79. In its purest form, it is a bright, slightly yellow, dense, soft, malleable. Chemically, gold is a metal and a group 11 element. It is one of the least reactive chemical elements and is solid under standard conditions, Gold often occurs in free elemental form, as nuggets or grains, in rocks, in veins, and in alluvial deposits. It occurs in a solid solution series with the element silver and also naturally alloyed with copper. Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as gold compounds, often with tellurium, golds atomic number of 79 makes it one of the higher numbered, naturally occurring elements. It is thought to have produced in supernova nucleosynthesis, from the collision of neutron stars. Because the Earth was molten when it was formed, almost all of the present in the early Earth probably sank into the planetary core. Gold is resistant to most acids, though it does dissolve in aqua regia, a mixture of acid and hydrochloric acid. Gold also dissolves in solutions of cyanide, which are used in mining and electroplating. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, but this is not a chemical reaction, as a precious metal, gold has been used for coinage, jewelry, and other arts throughout recorded history. A total of 186,700 tonnes of gold is in existence above ground, the world consumption of new gold produced is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry. Gold is also used in infrared shielding, colored-glass production, gold leafing, certain gold salts are still used as anti-inflammatories in medicine. As of 2014, the worlds largest gold producer by far was China with 450 tonnes, Gold is cognate with similar words in many Germanic languages, deriving via Proto-Germanic *gulþą from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰelh₃-. The symbol Au is from the Latin, aurum, the Latin word for gold, the Proto-Indo-European ancestor of aurum was *h₂é-h₂us-o-, meaning glow. This word is derived from the root as *h₂éu̯sōs, the ancestor of the Latin word Aurora. This etymological relationship is presumably behind the frequent claim in scientific publications that aurum meant shining dawn, Gold is the most malleable of all metals, a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of 1 square meter, and an avoirdupois ounce into 300 square feet. Gold leaf can be thin enough to become semi-transparent
Gold
–
Gold, 79 Au
Gold
–
Moche gold necklace depicting feline heads.
Larco Museum Collection. Lima-Peru
Gold
–
Mirror for the future
James Webb Space Telescope coated in gold to reflect infrared light
Gold
–
The
world's largest gold bar has a mass of 250 kg.
Toi museum,
Japan.
38.
Forestry
–
Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, using, conserving, and repairing forests and associated resources to meet desired goals, needs, and values for human and environment benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands, the science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester, other terms are used a verderer and a silviculturalist being common ones. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere, and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries, the preindustrial age has been dubbed by Werner Sombart and others as the wooden age, as timber and firewood were the basic resources for energy, construction and housing. The development of forestry is closely connected with the rise of capitalism, economy as a science and varying notions of land use. Roman Latifundiae, large estates, were quite successful in maintaining the large supply of wood that was necessary for the Roman Empire. Large deforestations came with respectively after the decline of the Romans, however already in the 5th century, monks in the then Byzantine Romagna on the Adriatic coast, were able to establish stone pine plantations to provide fuelwood and food. This was the beginning of the massive forest mentioned by Dante Alighieri in his 1308 poem Divine Comedy, the use and management of many forest resources has a long history in China as well, dating back to the Han Dynasty and taking place under the landowning gentry. A similar approach was used in Japan and it was also later written about by the Ming Dynasty Chinese scholar Xu Guangqi. In Europe, land rights in medieval and early modern times allowed different users to access forests. The notion of commons refers to the traditional legal term of common land. The idea of enclosed private property came about during modern times, however, most hunting rights were retained by members of the nobility which preserved the right of the nobility to access and use common land for recreation, like fox hunting. Systematic management of forests for a yield of timber is said to have begun in the German states in the 14th century, e. g. in Nuremberg. Typically, a forest was divided into sections and mapped. Large firs in the black forest were called „Holländer“, as they were traded to the Dutch ship yards, large timber rafts on the Rhine were 200 to 400m in length, 40m in width and consisted of several thousand logs. The crew consisted of 400 to 500 men, including shelter, bakeries, ovens, timber rafting infrastructure allowed for large interconnected networks all over continental Europe and is still of importance in Finland. The notion of Nachhaltigkeit, sustainability in forestry, is connected to the work of Hans Carl von Carlowitz
Forestry
–
Forestry work in
Austria
Forestry
–
A deciduous
beech forest in
Slovenia
Forestry
–
Timber harvesting is a common component of forestry
Forestry
–
Hans Carl von Carlowitz
39.
Fishing
–
Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are normally caught in the wild, techniques for catching fish include hand gathering, spearing, netting, angling and trapping. Fishing may include catching aquatic animals other than fish, such as molluscs, cephalopods, crustaceans, the term is not normally applied to catching farmed fish, or to aquatic mammals, such as whales where the term whaling is more appropriate. According to United Nations FAO statistics, the number of commercial fishermen. Fisheries and aquaculture provide direct and indirect employment to over 500 million people in developing countries, in 2005, the worldwide per capita consumption of fish captured from wild fisheries was 14.4 kilograms, with an additional 7.4 kilograms harvested from fish farms. In addition to providing food, modern fishing is also a recreational pastime, Fishing is an ancient practice that dates back to at least the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic period about 40,000 years ago. Isotopic analysis of the remains of Tianyuan man, a 40. Archaeology features such as middens, discarded fish bones, and cave paintings show that sea foods were important for survival. During this period, most people lived a lifestyle and were, of necessity. However, where there are examples of permanent settlements such as those at Lepenski Vir. The British dogger was a type of sailing trawler from the 17th century. The Brixham trawler that evolved there was of a build and had a tall gaff rig. They were also sufficiently robust to be able to tow large trawls in deep water, the great trawling fleet that built up at Brixham, earned the village the title of Mother of Deep-Sea Fisheries. The small village of Grimsby grew to become the largest fishing port in the world by the mid 19th century, an Act of Parliament was first obtained in 1796, which authorised the construction of new quays and dredging of the Haven to make it deeper. It was only in the 1846, with the expansion in the fishing industry. The foundation stone for the Royal Dock was laid by Albert the Prince consort in 1849, the dock covered 25 acres and was formally opened by Queen Victoria in 1854 as the first modern fishing port. The elegant Brixham trawler spread across the world, influencing fishing fleets everywhere, by the end of the 19th century, there were over 3,000 fishing trawlers in commission in Britain, with almost 1,000 at Grimsby. These trawlers were sold to fishermen around Europe, including from the Netherlands, twelve trawlers went on to form the nucleus of the German fishing fleet
Fishing
–
Stilts fishermen, Sri Lanka
Fishing
–
Fishing with nets, Mexico
Fishing
–
Stone Age
fish hook made from bone
Fishing
–
Painting of A Brixham trawler by
William Adolphus Knell. The painting is now in the
National Maritime Museum.
40.
Whitebait
–
Whitebait is a collective term for the immature fry of fish, typically between 25 and 50 millimetres long. Such young fish often travel together in schools along the coast, whitebaiting is the activity of catching whitebait. Whitebait are tender and edible, and can be regarded as a delicacy, the entire fish is eaten including head, fins, bones, and guts. Some species make better eating than others, and the species that are marketed as whitebait varies in different parts of the world. As whitebait consists of fry of many important food species it is not an ecologically viable foodstuff. The Alboran Sea is the westernmost element of the Mediterranean Sea, Whitebait have been consumed as a favoured element of the diet of peoples living along the northern coasts of the Alboran Sea in Spain, even though sale of these products has been banned. In Australia whitebait refers to the stage of several predominantly galaxias species during their return to freshwater from the marine phase of their lifecycle. Comments for New Zealand are generally applicable, Whitebait were once subject to a substantial commercial fishery but today only recreational fishers are permitted to gather them, under strict conditions and for a limited season. Chinese whitebait is raised in farms and plentiful quantities are produced for export. The Chinese whitebait is larger than the New Zealand whitebait and not nearly so delicate, the frozen product is commonly available in food stores and supermarkets at reasonable prices. The Chinese name for these is often translated as silver fish in English, gianchetti are the whitebait of the pesce azzurro of the Mediterranean, caught with special nets named from the Ligurian sciabegottu in the early months of the year. A speciality of the Liguria cuisine, gianchetti are generally boiled in salted water and served hot, dressed with oil. Another classic approach is to make fritters of the fish together with an egg and flour batter, finally they may simply be dipped in flour, the gianchetti of a red colour are tougher and scaly to the palate, they are largely used to flavour fish-based sauces. In Sicilian cuisine whitebait are known as ceruses, in Neapolitan cuisine whitebait are known as cicenielli. In Brindisian cuisine whitebait are known as chuma, Whitebait is commonly eaten in Japan and known as Shirasu. New Zealand whitebait are the juveniles of five species which live as adults in freshwater rivers. The whitebait are caught during their migration into freshwater habitats after their larval stage at sea and they are much smaller than Chinese or British whitebait, averaging 45–55 mm in length and are around 15–22 weeks old. The eggs develop out of the water until inundated by the spring tide which stimulates the eggs to hatch
Whitebait
–
Whitebait is the immature fry of fish, in this case
sardines and
anchovies fished on the
Riviera
Whitebait
–
New Zealand whitebait fritters
Whitebait
–
A man in a hoodie waits on a flood-control bank watching his whitebait net in the lower reaches of the Hutt River in New Zealand
Whitebait
–
British whitebait are much larger than New Zealand whitebait
41.
Tourism
–
Tourism is travel for pleasure or business, also the theory and practice of touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tours. Tourism may be international, or within the travellers country, Tourism can be domestic or international, and international tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a countrys balance of payments. Today, tourism is a source of income for many countries. International tourism receipts grew to US$1.03 trillion in 2011, the ITB Berlin is the worlds leading tourism trade fair. The word tourist was used by 1772 and tourism by 1811. It is formed from the tour, which is derived from Old English turian, from Old French torner, from Latin tornare, to turn on a lathe. Tourism is an important, even vital, source of income for many regions and it also creates opportunities for employment in the service sector of the economy associated with tourism. This is in addition to goods bought by tourists, including souvenirs, in 1936, the League of Nations defined a foreign tourist as someone traveling abroad for at least twenty-four hours. Its successor, the United Nations, amended this definition in 1945 and it includes movements for all purposes. In 1981, the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism defined tourism in terms of particular activities chosen and undertaken outside the home, in this context, travel has a similar definition to tourism, but implies a more purposeful journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited, by contrast, traveler is often used as a sign of distinction. The sociology of tourism has studied the values underpinning these distinctions. International tourist arrivals reached 1.035 billion in 2012, up from over 996 million in 2011, the World Tourism Organization reports the following ten destinations as the most visited in terms of the number of international travellers in 2016. International tourism receipts grew to US$1.2 trillion in 2014, based upon air traffic, the MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index reports the following cities as the top ten most popular destinations of international tourism worldwide. MasterCard reports the following cities as the top ten biggest earners on international tourism worldwide in 2015, as early as Shulgi, however, kings praised themselves for protecting roads and building waystations for travelers. During the Roman Republic, spas and coastal resorts such as Baiae were popular among the rich, pausanias wrote his Description of Greece in the 2nd century AD. In ancient China, nobles sometimes made a point of visiting Mount Tai and, on occasion, the Islamic hajj is still central to its faith and Chaucers Canterbury Tales and Wu Chengens Journey to the West remain classics of English and Chinese literature. The 10th- to 13th-century Song dynasty also saw secular travel writers such as Su Shi, under the Ming, Xu Xiake continued the practice
Tourism
–
A tourist taking photographs and video at archaeological site
Tourism
–
Backpacking tourists in Vienna
Tourism
–
1922 postcard of tourists in the
High Tatras,
Slovakia.
Tourism
–
Strandkorb chairs on
Usedom Island, Germany. Not only the service sector grows thanks to tourism, but also local
manufacturers (like those producing the strandkorb),
retailers, the
real estate sector and the general
image of a location can benefit a lot.
42.
Westland Milk Products
–
Westland Milk Products is the trading name of Westland Co-operative Dairy Company Limited. Westland is an independent co-operative dairy company in New Zealand, owned by over 429 farmer shareholders that supply milk for processing, Milk is sourced from farms as far north as Karamea and as far south as Haast on the West Coast and from farms throughout Canterbury. Westland Milk Products shareholders elected not to participate in the amalgamation and so became a fully independent dairy company responsible for the sales, Westland Milk Products is the third largest independent dairy company in New Zealand and processes approximately three per cent of the countrys total milk production. During the 2015-16 financial year,68 million kilogrammes of milk solids were produced by Westland Milk Products which were marketed, in 2004, Westland launched their consumer butter brand Westgold. In 2010, Westland acquired full ownership of EasiYo, a make-at-home yoghurt company based in Auckland The following year, in 2011, in 2012, Westland began manufacture of Infant nutritional products and launched their Westpro Nutrition range. This was closely followed, in 2013, by the construction of Dryer 7, the headquarters based in Hokitika, New Zealand, is located on the corner of Livingstone and Stafford Streets. The second New Zealand site is located in the zone in the small Canterbury town of Rolleston on Westland Place. An independent organization audits this system to an international standard, Westland Milk Products has won a number of business and innovation awards. In 2012, Westland Milk Products won the Ministry of Science and Innovations Best Use of Research, in the same year, Westland Milk Products was also named the Supreme Winner of the 2012 West Coast Lending Light Business Excellence Awards. Four years later, Westland Milk Products was a finalist in the 2016 New Zealand International Business Awards for the Excellence in Design category, in March of 2016, Westgold Unsalted Butter, a trademarked product of Westland Milk Products, won the prestigious Food for Chefs Champion Butter Award. In 2016, Westland Milk Products partnered with the Westland District Council to fund the Blue Spur Water Treatment Plant Expansion Project and this project received a highly commended award in the Chorus Excellence Award for Best Practice in Infrastructure Management. Additionally, Westland Milk Products has formerly been a sponsor of the West Coast Penguin Trust, Westland Milk Products is an equal opportunity employer. Westland Milk Products offers a number of benefits to its employees including medical insurance, access to an Employee Assistance Programme, New Zealand Co-operatives Association Dairy Companies Association of New Zealand
Westland Milk Products
–
Westland Milk Products
43.
Fonterra
–
Fonterra Co-operative Group Limited /ˈfɒnˌtɛrə/ is a New Zealand multinational dairy co-operative owned by around 10,500 New Zealand farmers. The company is responsible for approximately 30% of the worlds dairy exports, the name Fonterra comes from Latin fons de terra, meaning spring from the land. In New Zealand, as in most Western countries, dairy co-operatives have long been the main structure in the industry. The first dairy co-operative was established in Otago in 1871, by 1920, there were 600 dairy processing factories of which about 85% were owned by co-operatives. By the late 1990s, there were four co-operatives, the Waikato-based New Zealand Dairy Group, Fonterra effectively has monopsony control of the New Zealand domestic and export dairy industry. The two smaller co-operatives, Tatua and Westland, did not join Fonterra, preferring to remain independent, the company has an annual turnover of around NZ$17 billion. Its core business consists of exporting dairy products under the NZMP brand and it also operates a fast-moving consumer goods business for dairy products, Fonterra Brands. Fonterra has a number of subsidiaries and joint-venture companies operating in markets around the world, also in 2005 the company made moves towards purchasing Australian companies Dairy Farmers and National Foods. It also converted its 50 per cent stake in Victoria dairy producer Bonlac to full ownership, at this time $1 billion of Fonterras revenue was from Australian sales, which was 14 per cent of the dairy products it sells around the world. In June 2008, the acquired the yoghurt and dairy dessert business of Nestlé Australia. In 2010, US embassy cables leaked by Wikileaks suggested New Zealand had only sent troops to Iraq in 2003, following the initial invasion, the aim was to give more access to funds for global growth. Praised by some as a move which would allow better access to outside capital. Despite including a range of safeguards, farmers were concerned at the risk of losing control. The board responded in 2008 by shelving the November 2007 proposal, in September 2009, the board announced a three-step process to revamp Fonterra’s capital structure. The new approach abandoned thoughts of a listing of Fonterra shares and retained 100% farmer control. A key goal of the structure changes was to stop large amounts of money washing in. Under the previous structure, farmers matched their shareholding with their production by owning one co-operative share for each kilogram of milksolids produced annually. If their milk production dropped in any season, they could redeem shares back to the co-operative, consequently, Fonterra faced the risk of losing large amounts of share capital through redemptions during times of declining milk production
Fonterra
–
Te Rapa dairy factory north of
Hamilton.
Fonterra
–
Fonterra Co-operative Group Limited
Fonterra
–
Fonterra Riverina Fresh in
Wagga Wagga, New South Wales,
Australia
Fonterra
–
Lower part of the
Fonterra Centre, the firm's headquarters in Auckland
44.
Pounamu
–
Pounamu refers to several types of hard, durable and highly valued nephrite jade, bowenite, or serpentinite stone found in southern New Zealand. These rocks are also known as greenstone in New Zealand English. There are two systems for classifying pounamu, geologically, the rock falls into the three categories named above, but Māori classify pounamu by appearance. The main classifications are kawakawa, kahurangi, īnanga, and tangiwai, the first three are nephrite jade, while tangiwai is a form of bowenite. Īnanga pounamu takes its name from a freshwater fish and is pearly-white or grey-green in colour. Kahurangi pounamu is highly translucent and has a shade of green. It is named after the clearness of the sky and is the rarest variety of pounamu, kawakawa pounamu comes in many shades, often with flecks or inclusions, and is named after the leaves of the native kawakawa tree. It is the most common variety of pounamu, tangiwai pounamu is clear like glass but in a wide range of shades. The name comes from the word for the tears come from great sorrow. In modern usage pounamu almost always refers to nephrite jade, Pounamu is generally found in rivers in specific parts of the South Island as nondescript boulders and stones. These are difficult to identify as pounamu without cutting them open, Pounamu plays a very important role in Māori culture. It is considered a taonga and therefore protected under the Treaty of Waitangi, Pounamu taonga increase in mana as they pass from one generation to another. The most prized taonga are those with known histories going back many generations and these are believed to have their own mana and were often given as gifts to seal important agreements. Pounamu taonga include tools such as toki, whao, whao whakakōka, ripi pounamu, scrapers, awls, hammer stones, and drill points. Hunting tools include matau and lures, spear points, and kākā poria, weapons such as mere, and ornaments such as pendants, ear pendants, and cloak pins. Functional pounamu tools were widely worn for practical and ornamental reasons, and continued to be worn as purely ornamental pendants even after they were no longer used as tools. Pounamu is found only in the South Island of New Zealand, in 1997 the Crown handed back the ownership of all naturally occurring pounamu to the South Island tribe Ngāi Tahu, as part of the Ngai Tahu Claims Settlement. Jewellery and other items made from gold and pounamu were particularly fashionable in New Zealand in the Victorian and Edwardian years in the late 19th
Pounamu
–
Pounamu pendant.
Pounamu
–
From space, the west coast of New Zealand resembles the greenstone after which it is named.
Pounamu
–
Maori Wahine with Matt of Kiwi Feather and Pendent Heitiki.
Pounamu
–
Maori chief holding a Mere weapon.
45.
Sphagnum moss
–
Sphagnum is a genus of approximately 380 accepted species of mosses, commonly known as peat moss. The empty cells help retain water in drier conditions, hence, as sphagnum moss grows, it can slowly spread into drier conditions, forming larger mires, both raised bogs and blanket bogs. These peat accumulations then provide habitat for an array of peatland plants, including sedges and ericaceous shrubs, as well as orchids. Sphagnum and the formed from it do not decay readily because of the phenolic compounds embedded in the mosss cell walls. In addition, bogs, like all wetlands, develop anaerobic soil conditions, Peat moss can also acidify its surroundings by taking up cations, such as calcium and magnesium, and releasing hydrogen ions. Under the right conditions, peat can accumulate to a depth of many meters, different species of Sphagnum have different tolerance limits for flooding and pH, so any one peatland may have a number of different Sphagnum species. Individual peat moss plants consist of a stem, with tightly arranged clusters of branch fascicles usually consisting of two or three spreading branches and two to four hanging branches. The top of the plant, or capitulum, has compact clusters of young branches, along the stem are scattered leaves of various shapes, named stem leaves, the shape varies according to species. The leaves consist of two kinds of cells, small, green, living cells, and large, clear, structural, the latter have the large water-holding capacity. Sphagnum, like all other plants, has an alternation of generations, like other bryophytes. Unlike other mosses, the long-lived gametophytes do not rely upon rhizoids to assist in water uptake, Sphagnum species can be unisexual or bisexual, In North America, 80% of Sphagnum species are unisexual. Gametophytes have substantial asexual reproduction by fragmentation, producing much of the material in sphagnum peatlands. Swimming sperm fertilize eggs contained in archegonia that remain attached to the female gametophyte, the sporophyte is relatively short-lived, and consists almost entirely of a shiny green, spherical spore capsule that becomes black with spores. Sporophytes are raised on stalks to facilitate spore dispersal, but unlike other mosses, the spores germinate to produce minute protonemae, which start as filaments, can become thalloid, and can produce a few rhizoids. Soon afterwards the protonema develops buds and these differentiate into its characteristic, erect, leafy, branched gametophyte with chlorophyllose cells and this stage dominates the environment where Sphagnum grows, obliterating and burying the protonema and eventually building up into layers of dead moss called peat. Carpets of living Sphagnum may be attacked by fungi, and one fungus that is also a mushroom, Sphagnurus paluster. It is unknown whether the stage can produce such gemmae. Peat moss can be distinguished from other species by its unique branch clusters
Sphagnum moss
–
Sphagnum
Sphagnum moss
–
Red sphagnum closeup
Sphagnum moss
–
Sphagnum with Northern Pitcher Plants (
Sarracenia purpurea) at
Brown's Lake Bog,
Ohio.
Sphagnum moss
–
Peat moss soil amendment, made of partly decayed, dried sphagnum moss.
46.
Nephrite jade
–
Jade is an ornamental green rock. The middle member of series with an intermediate composition is called actinolite. The higher the content, the greener the colour. Jadeite is a sodium- and aluminium-rich pyroxene, the precious form of jadeite jade is a microcrystalline interlocking growth of jadeite crystals. The English word jade is derived from the Spanish term piedra de ijada or loin stone, from its reputed efficacy in curing ailments of the loins, nephrite is derived from lapis nephriticus, a Latin translation of the Spanish piedra de ijada. Nephrite and jadeite were used from prehistoric periods for hardstone carving, jadeite has about the same hardness as quartz. Nephrite is slightly softer but tougher than jadeite and it was not until the 19th century that a French mineralogist, Alexis Damour, determined that jade was in fact two different minerals. Among the earliest known jade artifacts excavated from prehistoric sites are simple ornaments with bead, button, additionally, jade was used for adze heads, knives, and other weapons, which can be delicately shaped. As metal-working technologies became available, the beauty of jade made it valuable for ornaments and decorative objects. Jadeite measures between 6.0 and 7.0 Mohs hardness, and nephrite between 6.0 and 6.5, so it can be worked with quartz or garnet sand, of the two, jadeite is rarer, documented in fewer than 12 places worldwide. Translucent emerald-green jadeite is the most prized variety, both historically and today, Burma and Guatemala are the principal sources of modern gem jadeite. In the area of Mogaung in the Myitkyina District of Upper Burma, jadeite formed a layer in the dark-green serpentine, Canada provides the major share of modern lapidary nephrite. Nephrite jade was used mostly in pre-1800 China as well as in New Zealand, the Pacific Coast and the Atlantic Coast of North America, Neolithic Europe, in addition to Mesoamerica, jadeite was used by Neolithic Japanese and European cultures. Dushan Jade was being mined as early as 6000 BC, in the Yin Ruins of the Shang Dynasty in Anyang, Dushan Jade ornaments were unearthed in the tomb of the Shang kings. Jade was used to create many utilitarian and ceremonial objects, from indoor decorative items to jade burial suits, Jade was considered the imperial gem. There, white and greenish nephrite jade is found in quarries and as pebbles. The river jade collection is concentrated in the Yarkand, the White Jade, jadeite, with its bright emerald-green, pink, lavender, orange and brown colours was imported from Burma to China only after about 1800. The vivid green variety became known as Feicui or Kingfisher Jade, in the history of the art of the Chinese empire, jade has had a special significance, comparable with that of gold and diamonds in the West
Nephrite jade
–
A selection of antique, hand-crafted
Chinese jade buttons
Nephrite jade
–
Unworked jade
Nephrite jade
–
Jade on display in
Jade City, British Columbia, Canada
Nephrite jade
–
Jade dragon,
Western Han Dynasty (202 BC – 9 AD)
47.
Nelson Province
–
It was abolished, along with all other provinces, in 1876. Nelson Province initially covered the entire upper South Island, land sales in Nelson and Marlborough netted the Nelson Provincial Council £33,000 and £160,000, respectively. Of that, £200 were expended benefiting the Marlborough region, there was considerable conflict between Superintendent John Perry Robinsons policies of supporting smaller land holders, and the objectives of the large pastoral run-holders in the Wairau Valley. The New Provinces Act 1858 allowed for parts of a province to break if the area was large enough. The petition was signed by almost all settlers in the Wairau, the new Marlborough Province was gazetted on 4 October 1859. The election of Nelsons first superintendent was contested by three candidates, Edward Stafford, Francis Jollie and John Waring Saxton, the election took place on 1 August 1853 and resulted in Edward Stafford being Nelsons first superintendent. The final results for the election were, Stafford, Saxton, Edward Stafford will be remembered for his free, secular and compulsory education system became the model for New Zealand, with this ‘Nelson system’ introduced to all state primary schools in 1877. Nelson was the seat of government and Superintendent John Perry Robinson laid the foundation stone for the Provincial Government buildings in Nelson on 26 August 1859. The building was in Albion Square in Bridge Street and it was designed by visiting architect Maxwell Bury and he modeled it on Aston Hall near Birmingham. Whereas Aston Hall was built from stone, the Government buildings were from timber, the buildings were run down and had stood empty for some years when they were demolished in 1969, amidst much controversy. The Nelson District Court building now stands on the site, during the First Taranaki War in 1860 nearly 1,200 Taranaki settlers including women and children were relocated to Nelson. The Nelson Provincial Council funded the building of cottages known as the Taranaki Buildings for the housing of these refugees, upon the cessation of hostilities the war refugees were offered free passage back to Taranaki, the majority took advantage of this offer but some elected to remain in Nelson. By 1876 the province was abolished under the Counties Bill of 1876 with the following boroughs, in 1886, there was a proposal for the Grey District to be annexed by the Nelson Province. New Zealand law provides for an anniversary day
Nelson Province
–
Coat of arms
Nelson Province
–
Nelson Province in 1859 after the separation of
Marlborough
Nelson Province
–
Nelson Provincial Council buildings
Nelson Province
–
Model of the Nelson Provincial Government building on display in the
Nelson Provincial Museum
48.
Canterbury Province
–
The Canterbury Province was a province of New Zealand from 1853 until the abolition of provincial government in 1876. Canterbury Province was founded in December 1850 by an association of influential Englishmen associated with the Church of England, the Charlotte Jane and the Randolph—the first two of the First Four Ships—arrived in the area on 16 December 1850, later celebrated as the provinces initial Anniversary Day. Elections were held in 1853 for Superintendent and, later that year and these elections predated any elected national assembly. The franchise was extended to men over the age of 21 who owned property in the province, the first meeting place was the former office of the Guardian and Advertiser, Canterburys second newspaper, on Chester Street near the Avon River. In 1866, the moved to Guise Brittans house, which later became part of the Clarendon Hotel. One session in 1858 was held in the hall on what is now High Street. On 28 September 1859, the council first met in what known as the Timber Chamber of the Canterbury Provincial Council Buildings. The Stone Chamber of the Provincial Council Buildings was used from November 1865, following the West Coast Gold Rush, the portion of the province west of the Southern Alps was split off as Westland in 1867. Upon the establishment of the University of New Zealand in 1870, on the east coast the province was bounded by the Hurunui River in the north and the Waitaki River in the south. The boundary on the west coast was largely undefined before the West Coast became its own province. In 1868 the West Coast was separated from the Province with the formation of the County of Westland on the West Coast with the line defined as the crest of the Southern Alps. In 1873 the County formed its own Province, the short-lived Westland Province, in the south the course of the Waitaki River was not known and disputes arose with the Province of Otago over pastoral leases in the inland high country. In the 1860s South Canterbury made two bids to become separate province but this was rejected by the national government, when the province was abolished, the area was distributed across eight counties. The Ferrymead Railway was the first railway to be opened and closed in New Zealand and it was made obsolete by the opening of a new 8 miles line through a tunnel giving Christchurch access to the better port of Lyttelton. The mainlines of the Canterbury Provincial Railways were Irish gauge with some lines in Colonial gauge. These lines were all absorbed into the New Zealand Railways Department in 1876. Charles Simeon was the officer for the first election of a Superintendent. Canterbury had four Superintendents, The Executive Council is comparable to a cabinet, the following 26 Executive Councils existed, Each New Zealand province celebrates an anniversary day
Canterbury Province
–
The
Canterbury Provincial Council Buildings, designed by
Benjamin Mountfort
Canterbury Province
–
Canterbury Province within New Zealand post 1868
49.
Buller River
–
The Buller River is in the South Island of New Zealand. One of the countrys longest rivers, it flows for 170 kilometres from Lake Rotoiti through the Buller Gorge and into the Tasman Sea near the town of Westport. As Rotoiti itself is fed by the Travers River it can be claimed that the Bullers source is at the headwaters of the Travers, the Paparoa Range separates the Buller River from the Grey River. A number of flora and fauna are found in the Buller watershed, the Maori name for the Buller, Kawatiri, is rarely used. The Buller River upstream from Murchison along with the Mangles River are popular for whitewater kayaking, state Highway 6 follows the river for much of its length. This river has a mean flow of 429 cubic metres per second. The Buller has several major tributaries and these include the Gowan River, the Matakitaki River, the Maruia River, and the Inangahua River. Other smaller tributaries include the Hope, Owen, Mangles, Matiri, Blackwater, the river is named after Charles Buller, Member of Parliament and director of the New Zealand Company. Water Conservation Order for Buller River to take, official website of the New Zealand Government
Buller River
–
Buller River near Berlins
Buller River
–
The Buller River
50.
Cape Foulwind
–
Cape Foulwind is a prominent headland on the West Coast of New Zealands South Island, overlooking the Tasman Sea. It is located ten kilometres west of the town of Westport and it was previously named Rocky Cape by Abel Tasman, the first European to visit it, in 1642. The present name was bestowed upon this promontory by English explorer James Cook in 1770 after his ship Endeavour was blown quite a distance offshore from this point, Tauranga Bay at Cape Foulwind is home to a fur seal breeding colony, which is accessible by a well-maintained walking track. That track, the Cape Foulwind Walkway crosses over undulating farmland, the walkway extends from the Cape Foulwind Road to Tauranga Bay. Starting from endemic Hectors Dolphins, several species including Orcas. Though still in small numbers, whales such as Southern Right Whales are started making slow comebacks as well. A large cement works is located close to the cape, taking advantage of the abundant limestone, sand and clay in the immediate area, plus nearby coal mines. In the lee of the cape, toward the Buller River mouth lies Carters Beach, for the former branch railway line to the quarry see Cape Foulwind Railway
Cape Foulwind
–
Area of the Fur Seal colony
Cape Foulwind
–
Cape Foulwind living up to its name, with the cement works centre foreground.
Cape Foulwind
–
The lighthouse at Cape Foulwind
