1.
Provinces of Indonesia
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Indonesian territory is composed of 34 provinces. A province is the highest tier of the local government divisions of Indonesia, provinces are further divided into regencies and cities, which are in turn subdivided into sub-districts. Each province has its own government, headed by a governor. The governor and members of representative bodies are elected by popular vote for five-year terms. Five provinces have special status, Aceh, for the use of the law as the regional law of the province. Special Region of Yogyakarta, a sovereign monarchy within Indonesia with the sultan Hamengkubuwono as hereditary Governor, SR Yogyakarta refused to call themselves as the province according to Law No. 12/2012 about The Speciality of Special Region of Yogyakarta, Papua, for implementation of sustainable development. West Papua, for granting implementation of sustainable development, the provinces are officially grouped into seven geographical units. This clickable map shows provinces of Indonesia as of 25 October 2012, click on a province name to go to its main article. A considerable number of new provinces have been proposed in addition to the 34 existing provinces of Indonesia, as of 2013, the government has targeted the creation of eight new provinces by 2020, by splitting several of the existing provinces. On 25 October 2013, the Indonesian House of Representatives began reviewing draft laws on the establishment of 57 prospective regencies and 8 new provinces
2.
Raja Ampat Islands
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The Raja Ampat archipelago is the part of Coral Triangle which contains the richest marine biodiversity on earth. Raja Ampat Regency is a new regency which separated from Sorong Regency in 2004, the population of the Regency was recently put at 49,048. It encompasses more than 40,000 km² of land and sea, which also contains Cenderawasih Bay and it is a part of the newly named West Papua province of Indonesia which was formerly Irian Jaya. Some of the islands are the most northern pieces of land in the Australian continent, Raja Ampat is considered the global epicenter of tropical marine bio-diversity and is referred to as The Crown Jewel of the Birds Head Seascape, which also includes Cenderawasih Bay and Triton Bay. The name of Raja Ampat comes from mythology that tells about a woman who finds seven eggs. Four of the seven eggs hatch and become kings that occupy four of Raja Ampat biggest islands whilst the three become a ghost, a woman, and a stone. History shows that Raja Ampat was once a part of Sultanate of Tidore, yet, after the Dutch invaded Maluku, it was shortly claimed by the Netherlands. The English explorer William Dampier gave his name to Dampier Strait, to the east, there is a strait that separates Batanta from Salawati. In 1759 Captain William Wilson sailing in the East Indiaman Pitt navigated these waters and named one strait Pitt strait, after his vessel, the main occupation for people around this area is fishing since the area is dominated by the sea. They live in a colony of tribes that spreads around the area. Although traditional culture still exists, they are very welcoming to visitors. Raja Ampat people are more like Ambonese than Papuan people and now some of them are Muslim, the oceanic natural resources around Raja Ampat give it significant potential as a tourist area. Many sources place Raja Ampat as one of their top ten most popular places for diving whilst it retains the number one ranking in terms of underwater biodiversity. According to Conservation International, marine surveys suggest that the marine diversity in the Raja Ampat area is the highest recorded on Earth. Diversity is considerably greater than any other area sampled in the Coral Triangle composed of Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and East Timor. The Coral Triangle is the heart of the coral reef biodiversity. The Raja Ampat islands are remote and relatively undisturbed by humans, the high marine diversity in Raja Ampat is strongly influenced by its position between the Indian and Pacific Oceans, as coral and fish larvae are more easily shared between the two oceans. Raja Ampats coral diversity, resilience, and role as a source for larval dispersal make it a priority for marine protection
3.
Indonesian language
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Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
6.
Manokwari
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Manokwari is a city in Indonesia. It is the largest city and, since 2003, the capital of the province of West Papua, the city has many resorts and is a major tourist area. It is one of the seats of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Manokwari–Sorong and it is also the administrative seat of Manokwari Regency. The city is included of the Manokwari-Northeastern Birds Head Peninsula MSA. It is the largest city in the metro area, the city is also a major port, financial center, and tourist area that is important to West Papua and Eastern Indonesia. On 12 April 1942, a Japanese convoy steamed into Dore Bay, the area was already well-known to the Japanese, as the area was the location of a cotton plantation developed by the government-sponsored Nan’yō Kōhatsu development company from the early 1930s. As the KNIL ground force had no chance of engaging the Japanese invasion force, it withdrew into the interior of Dutch New Guinea. At 4, 43am on 4 January 2009 a magnitude 7.6 earthquake struck Manokwari, felt as far away as Australia, the 35 km deep earthquake killed four people, injured 19 more and 167,000 people were left without power. Local residents were evacuated to Manokwari Military Academy in order to shelter from possible tsunamis. Damage occurred to the Mutiara Hotel, the Naval hospital, Manokwari Regional Airport had significant damage, being closest to the epicenter, and all four deaths resulted there. The Indonesian government sent a team of seven doctors to Manokwari to assist with the injured, originally, the team was projected to be ten people, but due to the severe damage of the runway only seven were able to be transported in. This was not unlike the previous quakes on 10 October 2002 when another 7.6 magnitude quake shook the region, in 1996 similar quakes also halted progress in the local region but there is no record of the recorded magnitude. The tail of the aircraft broke off and came to rest in the creek off the end of Runway 35. All passengers survived, but 21 injured people were admitted to hospital, the flight originated in Sorong, West Papua. Manokwari is three meters above sea level on the coast of West Papua and its average temperature is 26.3 °C and its temperature fluctuation is only 1 °C. It receives 2,597 mm of rain per year, approximately 216 mm per month and it is located 52 minutes south of the equator and has an 86. 3% average humidity. The annual sunshine hours are 2127, an average of 5.8 hours of sunlight per day, to date, there are no recorded days of frost or snowfall in Manokwari. There are over twenty-four different tribal groups living in Manokwari, each tribe has its own unique language and culture
7.
Ethnic group
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An ethnic group or ethnicity is a category of people who identify with each other based on similarities, such as common ancestral, language, social, cultural or national experiences. Unlike other social groups, ethnicity is often an inherited status based on the society in which one lives, in some cases, it can be adopted if a person moves into another society. Ethnic groups, derived from the historical founder population, often continue to speak related languages. By way of language shift, acculturation, adoption and religious conversion, it is possible for individuals or groups to leave one ethnic group. Ethnicity is often used synonymously with terms such as nation or people. In English, it can also have the connotation of something exotic, generally related to cultures of more recent immigrants, the largest ethnic groups in modern times comprise hundreds of millions of individuals, while the smallest are limited to a few dozen individuals. Conversely, formerly separate ethnicities can merge to form a pan-ethnicity, whether through division or amalgamation, the formation of a separate ethnic identity is referred to as ethnogenesis. The term ethnic is derived from the Greek word ἔθνος ethnos, the inherited English language term for this concept is folk, used alongside the latinate people since the late Middle English period. In Early Modern English and until the mid-19th century, ethnic was used to mean heathen or pagan, as the Septuagint used ta ethne to translate the Hebrew goyim the nations, non-Hebrews, non-Jews. The Greek term in antiquity could refer to any large group, a host of men. In the 19th century, the term came to be used in the sense of peculiar to a race, people or nation, the abstract ethnicity had been used for paganism in the 18th century, but now came to express the meaning of an ethnic character. The term ethnic group was first recorded in 1935 and entered the Oxford English Dictionary in 1972, depending on the context that is used, the term nationality may either be used synonymously with ethnicity, or synonymously with citizenship. The process that results in the emergence of an ethnicity is called ethnogenesis, the Greeks at this time did not describe foreign nations but had also developed a concept of their own ethnicity, which they grouped under the name of Hellenes. Herodotus gave an account of what defined Greek ethnic identity in his day, enumerating shared descent. Whether ethnicity qualifies as a universal is to some extent dependent on the exact definition used. Many social scientists, such as anthropologists Fredrik Barth and Eric Wolf and they regard ethnicity as a product of specific kinds of inter-group interactions, rather than an essential quality inherent to human groups. According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, the study of ethnicity was dominated by two distinct debates until recently, one is between primordialism and instrumentalism. In the primordialist view, the participant perceives ethnic ties collectively, as a given, even coercive
8.
Melanesian people
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Melanesians are the dominant inhabitants of Melanesia. Most speak one of the many Papuan languages, though a few such as Moluccans. Melanesians occupy islands from Eastern Indonesia to as far east as the islands of Vanuatu, early European explorers noted the physical differences among groups of Pacific Islanders. By 1825 Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent developed a more elaborate and he described the inhabitants of modern-day Melanesia as Mélaniens, a distinct racial group from the Australian and Neptunian races surrounding them. In 1832 Dumont DUrville expanded and simplified much of this earlier work and he classified the peoples of Oceania into four racial groups, Malaysians, Polynesians, Micronesians, and Melanesians. DUrvilles model differed from that of Bory de Saint-Vincent in referring to Melanesians rather than Mélaniens, Bory de Saint-Vincent had distinguished Mélaniens from the indigenous Australians. Dumont DUrville combined the two peoples into one group, the original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking people. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in complex changes in genetics, languages. Kayser, et al. proposed that, from this area and this Polynesian theory is contradicted by the findings of a genetic study published by Temple University in 2008. The study was based on genome scans and evaluation of more than 800 genetic markers among a variety of Pacific peoples. It found that neither Polynesians nor Micronesians have much genetic relation to Melanesians, both groups are strongly related genetically to East Asians, particularly Taiwanese aborigines. They left little evidence in Melanesia. Such diversity developed over their tens of thousands of years of settlement before the Polynesian ancestors ever arrived at the islands, for instance, populations developed differently along the coasts than in more isolated valleys. Further DNA analysis has taken research into new directions, as more species have been discovered since the late 20th century. He has found people of New Guinea share 4%–6% of their genome with the Denisovans. The Denisovans are considered cousin to the Neanderthals, both groups are now understood to have migrated out of Africa, with the Neanderthals going into Europe, and the Denisovans heading east about 400,000 years ago. This is based on evidence from a fossil found in Siberia. The evidence from Melanesia suggests their territory extended into south Asia, Melanesians of some islands are one of the few non-European peoples, and the only dark-skinned group of people outside Australia, known to have blond hair
9.
Papuan peoples
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Papuan is an umbrella term for the various indigenous peoples of New Guinea and neighbouring islands, speakers of the Papuan languages. They are often distinguished ethnically and linguistically from Austronesians, speakers of a family introduced into New Guinea about three thousand years ago. Frans Kaisiepo, the 4th Governor of Papua and a National Hero of Indonesia, freddy Numberi, politician and former Indonesian minister. Heather Watson, an English female tennis player, michael Somare, former Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea. Oktovianus Maniani, an Indonesian professional footballer, peter ONeill, the 9th Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea. Nitya Krishinda Maheswari, an Indonesian badminton player and 2014 Asian Games womens doubles gold medalist, raema Lisa Rumbewas, an Indonesian weightlifter and silver medalist at 2000 Summer Olympics and 2004 Summer Olympics. People of New Guinea Proto-Australoids Papua conflict Stéphane Breton W. G. Lawes, New Guinea And Its People, Popular Science Monthly
10.
Javanese people
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The Javanese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Java. With approximately 100 million people, they form the largest ethnic group in Indonesia and they are predominantly located in the central to eastern parts of the island. There are also significant numbers of people of Javanese descent in most Provinces of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Suriname, Saudi Arabia, the Javanese ethnic group has many sub-groups, such as the Mataram, Cirebonese, Osing, Tenggerese, Samin, Naganese, Banyumasan, etc. A majority of the Javanese people identify themselves as Muslims, with a minority identifying as Christians, Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with the Indian subcontinent. Hindu and Buddhist - traders and visitors, arrived in the 5th century, the Hindu, Buddhist and Javanese faiths blended into a unique local philosophy. The cradle of Javanese culture is described as being in Kedu. The earliest Sanjaya and Sailendra dynasties had their base there. The move was most likely caused by the eruption of Merapi and/or invasion from Srivijaya. The major spread of Javanese influence occurred under King Kertanegara of Singhasari in the late 13th century, the expansionist king launched several major expeditions to Madura, Bali in 1284, Borneo and most importantly to Sumatra in 1275. Following the defeat of the Melayu Kingdom, Singhasari controlled trade in the Strait of Malacca, Singhasari dominance was cut short in 1292 by Kediris rebellion under Jayakatwang, killing Kertanegara. However, Jayakatwangs reign as king of Java soon ended as he was defeated by Kertanegaras son-in-law, Raden Wijaya would later establish Majapahit near the delta of the Brantas River in modern-day Mojokerto, East Java. Kertanegara policies were continued by the Majapahits under King Hayam Wuruk. Various kingdoms of Java were actively involved in the trade in the sea route of the Silk Road. Although not major producers, these kingdoms were able to stockpile spice by trading for it with rice. Majapahit is usually regarded as the greatest of these kingdoms and it was both an agrarian and a maritime power, combining wet-rice cultivation and foreign trade. The ruin of their capital can be found in Trowulan, Islam gained its foothold in port towns on Javas northern coast such as Gresik, Ampel Denta, Tuban, Demak and Kudus. The spread and proselytising of Islam among the Javanese was traditionally credited to Wali Songo, Java underwent major changes as Islam spread. Following succession disputes and civil wars, Majapahit power collapsed, after this collapse, its various dependencies and vassals broke free
11.
Bugis
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The Austronesian ancestors of the Buginese people settled on Sulawesi around 2500 B. C. E. Migration from South China by some of the ancestors of the Buginese is also supported by studies of Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroups. The Bugis in 1605 converted to Islam from Animism, some Buginese have retained their pre-Islamic belief called Tolotang, and some Bugis converted to Christianity by means of marriage, but they have remained a minority. The current Prime Minister of Malaysia, Najib Razak and the current Vice President of Indonesia, Jusuf Kalla are both Buginese. Although many Buginese people live in the port cities of Makassar and Parepare. The name Bugis is an exonym which represents a form of the name. The Buginese people speak a regional language in addition to Indonesian, called Basa Ugi. In reality, there are dialects, some of which are sufficiently different from others to be considered separate languages. Buginese language belongs to the South Sulawesi language group, other members include Makassarese language, Torajan, Mandar and Enrekang, the homeland of the Buginese is the area around Lake Tempe and Lake Sidenreng in the Walannae Depression in the southwest peninsula of Sulawesi. It was here that the ancestors of the present-day Bugis settled and this led over the next 400 years to the development of the major kingdoms of South Sulawesi, and the social transformation of chiefly societies into hierarchical proto-states. The conclusion in 1669 of a civil war led to a diaspora of Bugis and their entry into the politics of peninsular Malaysia. The Bugis played an important role in defeating Jambi and had an influence in Sultanate of Johor. Apart from the Malays, another faction in Johor at that time was the Minangkabau. Both the Buginese and the Minangkabau realised how the death of Sultan Mahmud II had provided them with the chance to exert power in Johor. Long before European colonialists extended their influence into these waters, the Makassarese, the Bajau, the Buginese sailors left their mark and culture on an area of the northern Australian coast which stretches over two thousand kilometres from the Kimberley to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Throughout these parts of northern Australia, there is evidence of a significant Bugis presence. Each year, the Bugis sailors would sail down on the monsoon in their wooden pinisi. They would stay in Australian waters for several months to trade, as Thomas Forrest wrote in A Voyage from Calcutta to the Mergui Archipelago, S.78 ff
12.
Ambonese
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The Ambonese, also known as South Moluccans, are an Indonesian ethnic group of mixed Austronesian-Papuan origin. They are mostly Christians or Muslims, Ambonese are from Ambon Island in Maluku, an island group east of Sulawesi and north of Timor in Indonesia. The predominant language of the island is Ambonese Malay, also called Ambonese language and it developed as the trade language of central Maluku, and is spoken elsewhere in Maluku as a second language. Bilingualism in Indonesian is high around Ambon City and they are an ethnic mixture of Southeast Asians and Melanesians people of New Guinea, as they speak a Malayo-Polynesian language. The Ambonese have been influenced by Islam and Christianity
13.
Butonese people
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The Butonese people is a generic term that embraces a number of sub-ethnic groups from Buton and its neighbouring islands in Southeast Sulawesi. Often at times the Bajau people are mislabeled as Butonese people, the Butonese are also referred to as Orang Burung, which literally means bird people. Just like most tribes in Sulawesi, the Butonese people are also seafarers and traders, in general, the Butonese is a community that inhabits the region of the Buton Sultanate. When the swapraja domain was abolished, so did the Buton Sultanate also ended in 1951 and those regions have now changed to several regencies and cities in Southeast Sulawesi. Among them are Bau-Bau city, Buton Regency, South Buton Regency, Central Buton Regency, North Buton Regency, Wakatobi Regency, apart from being a community of seafarers, the Butonese people are also familiar with agriculture in earlier times. Commodities that are planted include paddy, corn, cassava, sweet potatoes, cotton, coconut, betel, pineapple, banana, Butonese people are well known for their culture and until today it can still be seen in regions of the Buton Sultanate
14.
Makassar people
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The Makassar people are an ethnic group that inhabits the southern part of the South Peninsula, Sulawesi. They live around Makassar, the city of the province of South Sulawesi, as well as the Konjo highlands, the coastal areas. They speak Makassarese, which is related to Buginese and also a Malay creole called Makassar Malay. The main source of income of the Makassar is rice farming, however, they are famous throughout Indonesia for their skill in trading. Labor division is strict because of the separation of the sexes. Men are engaged in matters outside the house such as farming, fishing, women are usually responsible for the household duties, while the man is the head of the family. While they are in public, respect should be shown to him by the wife, usually the final decisions concerning the family are made by the husband. In rural areas, arranged marriage is widely practiced. Polygamy is accepted by the Makassar people, but, since a house must be provided for each wife. Siri is the code by which the Makassar live. Anyone seriously offending another persons siri carries the risk of being killed, the Makassar often help their neighbors in matters such as working in the rice fields and building houses. Also referred to as Basa Mangkasara is the language spoken by the tribes of Makassar, South Sulawesi and this language is classified as part of Makassarese sub-branch of South Sulawesi branch which in turn part of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian language family. Commonly known as Logat Makassar is a creole of Malay and this language is used as the language of commerce in the port of Makassar, South Sulawesi. The number of speakers is reached 1.889 million inhabitants in 2000, the language is mostly used by Immigrants from outside the city of Makassar, Makassar City Population, Youth Makassar, or people who are not proficient in Makassarese. This language is spoken along the South Peninsula region of Sulawesi, the Makassar are almost all Muslim, but some traditional beliefs are still influential, especially in the remote areas. Ahmad Hidayat in his article titled Islamic History Up to the archipelago said Datori Bandang are scholars who propagated Islam in the territory of the Kingdom of Gowa, while two other colleagues, each spread Islam in the region and in the Kingdom of Luwu Bulukumba. Dawah conducted by Datori Bandang not only touch the lower layers of society, previously, Mangkubumi Gowa, who also serves as the King Tallo, I Malingkaang Daeng Nyonri or Karaeng Katangka, first embraced Islam. He then got the name of Islam Sultan Abdullah al-Islam Awwal, since then, the Kingdom of Gowa who are in the southern part of South Sulawesi became the center of the spread of Islam since Islam serve as the official religion of the Kingdom of Gowa
15.
Toraja
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The Toraja are an ethnic group indigenous to a mountainous region of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Their population is approximately 1,100,000, of whom 450,000 live in the regency of Tana Toraja Regency, Toraja Utara Regency, most of the population is Christian, and others are Muslim or have local animist beliefs known as aluk. The Indonesian government has recognised this animist belief as Aluk To Dolo, the word toraja comes from the Bugis Buginese language term to riaja, meaning people of the uplands. The Dutch colonial government named the people Toraja in 1909, Torajans are renowned for their elaborate funeral rites, burial sites carved into rocky cliffs, massive peaked-roof traditional houses known as tongkonan, and colourful wood carvings. Toraja funeral rites are important social events, usually attended by hundreds of people, before the 20th century, Torajans lived in autonomous villages, where they practised animism and were relatively untouched by the outside world. In the early 1900s, Dutch missionaries first worked to convert Torajan highlanders to Christianity, when the Tana Toraja regency was further opened to the outside world in the 1970s, it became an icon of tourism in Indonesia, it was exploited by tourism developers and studied by anthropologists. Today, tourism and remittances from migrant Torajans have made for changes in the Toraja highland, giving the Toraja a celebrity status within Indonesia. The Torajan people had little notion of themselves as an ethnic group before the 20th century. Before Dutch colonisation and Christianisation, Torajans, who lived in areas, identified with their villages. Toraja was first used as an expression for highlanders. As a result, Toraja initially had more currency with outsiders—such as the Bugis and Makassarese, since then, South Sulawesi has four main ethnic groups—the Bugis, the Makassarese, the Mandarese, and the Toraja. From the 17th century, the Dutch established trade and political control on Sulawesi through the Dutch East Indies Company, over two centuries, they ignored the mountainous area in the central Sulawesi, where Torajans lived, because access was difficult and it had little productive agricultural land. In the late 19th century, the Dutch became increasingly concerned about the spread of Islam in the south of Sulawesi, especially among the Makassarese, the Dutch saw the animist highlanders as potential Christians. In the 1920s, the Reformed Missionary Alliance of the Dutch Reformed Church began missionary work aided by the Dutch colonial government, in addition to introducing Christianity, the Dutch abolished slavery and imposed local taxes. A line was drawn around the Sadan area and called Tana Toraja, Tana Toraja was first a subdivision of the Luwu kingdom that had claimed the area. In 1946, the Dutch granted Tana Toraja a regentschap, early Dutch missionaries faced strong opposition among Torajans, especially among the elite, because the abolition of their profitable slave trade had angered them. Some Torajans were forcibly relocated to the lowlands by the Dutch, taxes were kept high, undermining the wealth of the elites. Ultimately, the Dutch influence did not subdue Torajan culture, in 1950, only 10% of the population had converted to Christianity
16.
Minahasan people
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The Minahasans are an ethnic group located in the North Sulawesi province of Indonesia, formerly known as North Celebes. The Minahasa people would refer to themselves as Kawanua people, Touwenang people or more commonly as Manado people and they are actually a nation with oldest democracy and federal nation in the middle of the other Indonesian Tribes, even in Asia, because of their old tribal united government. They are the most populous group in the Minahassa Peninsula. They are a Christian-majority ethnic in a country with a Muslim majority, originally inhabited by Philippine languages-speaking peoples, the region was colonized in the 16th century by the Portuguese and Spanish, then in the 17th century by the Dutch. The centuries-old strong bond between the Minahasa and the Netherlands has recently studied and explained using the Stranger King concept. There is a number of people from the Minahasa living in the Netherlands. The name of the land of Minahasa has been changed several times, Batacina-Malesung-Minaesa and then finally the current name Minahasa and this name dates from the war against the southern Kingdom of Bolaang Mangondow. North Sulawesi never developed any large empire, in 670, the leaders of the different tribes, who all spoke different languages, met by a stone known as Watu Pinawetengan. There they founded a community of independent states, who would form one unit and stay together, until well into the 19th century the Minahasa was made up of rivaling warrior societies that practiced headhunting. Only during Pax Neerlandica of the colonisation of the Dutch East Indies did the state of permanent internal warfare. The Minahasa region of north Sulawesi is thought to have first been inhabited by humans in the late third, according to Minahasa mythology the Minahasans are descendants of Toar and Lumimuut. Initially, the descendants of Toar-Lumimuut were divided into 3 groups, Makatelu-pitu, Makarua-siouw, but soon there were disputes among these people. Their leaders named Tonaas then decided to meet and talk about this and that meeting was called Pinawetengan u-nuwu or Pinawetengan um-posan. At that meeting the descendants were divided into three groups named Tonsea, Tombulu, and Tontemboan corresponding to the mentioned above. At the place where this took place a memorial stone called Watu Pinabetengan was then built. It is a favourite tourist destination, the groups Tonsea, Tombulu, and Tontemboan then established their main territories which were Maiesu, Niaranan, and Tumaratas respectively. Soon several villages were established outside these territories and these new villages then became a ruling center of a group of villages called puak, later walak, comparable to the present-day district. Subsequently a new group of people arrived in Pulisan peninsula, due to numerous conflicts in this area, they then moved inland and established villages surrounding a large lake
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Sundanese people
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The Sundanese are an ethnic group native to the western part of the Indonesian island of Java. They number approximately 40 million, and are the second most populous of all the nations ethnicities, in their own language, Sundanese, the group is referred to as Urang Sunda, and Orang Sunda or Suku Sunda in the national language, Indonesian. The Sundanese have traditionally been concentrated in the provinces of West Java, Banten, Jakarta, Sundanese migrants can also be found in Lampung and South Sumatra. The provinces of Central Java and East Java are home to the Javanese, the name Sunda derives from the Sanskrit prefix su- which means goodness or possessing good quality. The example is used to describe gold. Sunda is also name for Hindu God Vishnu. In Sanskrit, the term Sundara or Sundari means beautiful or excellence, the term Sunda also means bright, light, purity, cleanness and white. The Sundanese are of Austronesian origins who are thought to have originated in Taiwan, migrated though the Philippines, the Sunda Wiwitan belief contains the mythical origin of Sundanese people, Sang Hyang Kersa, the supreme divine being in ancient Sundanese belief created seven bataras in Sasaka Pusaka Buana. The oldest of these bataras is called Batara Cikal and is considered the ancestor of the Kanekes people, other six bataras ruled various locations in Sunda lands in Western Java. This legend suggested the Parahyangan highland as the playland or the abode of gods, the earliest historical polity appeared in Sundanese realm in Western part of Java was the kingdom of Tarumanagara, flourished between 4th to 7th century. Hindu influences have reached Sundanese people as early as the 4th century CE as evident in Tarumanagara inscriptions, the adoption of these dharmic faith in Sundanese way of life however, was never as intense as their Javanese counterpart. It seems that despite the court began to adopt Hindu-Buddhist culture and institution. By the 4th century, the megalithic culture probably still alive. Court cultures flourished in ancient times, for example, during the era of Sunda Kingdom, however, the Sundanese appear not to have had the resources nor desire to construct large religious monuments similar to those built by Javanese in Central and East Java. Geographic constrains that isolate each regions, also led Sundanese village to enjoy their simple way of life and that was probably the factors that would contribute to the carefree nature, egalitarian, conservative, independent and somewhat individualistic social outlook of Sundanese people. The Sundanese seems to love and revere their nature in spiritual ways, the conservative tendency and somewhat their opposition of foreign influences, is demonstrated in extreme isolationist measures adopted keenly by Kanekes or Baduy people. They have these rules against interacting to outsiders and adopting foreign ideas, technology and they also has set some taboos, such as not to cut the trees nor harm the forest creatures, in order to conserve their natural ecosystem. One of the earliest historical record that mention the name Sunda appear in Sanghyang Tapak inscription dated 952 saka discovered in Cibadak, near Sukabumi
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Batak
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Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia. The term is used to include the Karo, Pakpak, Simalungun, Toba, Angkola, while the archaeology of southern Sumatra testifies to the existence of neolithic settlers, it seems that the northern part of Sumatra was settled by agriculturalists at a considerably later stage. Reliable historical records of the Batak before 1800 are virtually non-existent, the Batak may be mentioned in Zhao Ruguas 13th-century Description of the Barbarous People, which refers to a Ba-ta dependency of Srivijaya. The Suma Oriental, of the 15th century, also refers to the kingdom of Bata, bounded by Pasai and it has been suggested that the important port of Barus in Tapanuli was populated primarily by Batak people. Tamil remains have been found on key trade routes to the Batak lands, tamil influence on Karo religious practices are also noted, with the pekualuh secondary cremation ritual being specific to the Karo and Dairi people. Moreover the Pustaka Kembaren, a story of the Sembiring Kembaren suggests linkages with Pagarruyung in Minangkabau Highlands. From the 16th century onward, Aceh increased the production of pepper, an important export commodity, in exchange for rice, which grew well in the Batak wetlands. Batak people in different areas cultivated either sawah or ladang, the increasing importance of rice had religious significance, which increased the power of the Batak high priests, who had responsibility for ensuring agricultural success. The Batak speak a variety of related languages, all members of the Austronesian language family. Simalungun is an offspring of the southern branch. Some Simalungun dialects can be understood by speakers of Batak Karo and this is due to the existence of a linguistic continuum that often blurs the lines between the Batak dialects. Batak dialect still influences the dialects in Medan city today, the Batak possess their own script known as the Surat Batak. The writing has chiefly ceremonial importance within traditional religious ceremonies, and was subject to change for this reason. It is likely that the Batak people originally received their writing system from southern Sumatra, the traditional occupation of the Batak was agriculture, hunting and farming. The great lake of Toba provided vast opportunity for freshwater aquaculture since ancient times, the port of Barus on the western coast of Batak lands has become famous as the source of kapur barus. In ancient times, Batak warriors were recruited by neighboring Malay courts as mercenaries. In the colonial era, the Dutch introduced commercial cash crops, such as coffee, sawit palm oil, throughout the history of modern Indonesia, the Batak community has been a significant contributor. Batak people have filled a range of occupations, from running modest tire service workshops to serving as state ministers
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Chinese Indonesians
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Chinese Indonesians, are Indonesians descended from various Chinese ethnic groups, primarily the Han Chinese. Chinese came to Indonesia as workers both directly and through Maritime Southeast Asia and their population grew rapidly during the colonial period when workers were contracted from their home provinces in southern China. Evidence of discrimination against Chinese Indonesians can be throughout the history of Indonesia. Resentment of ethnic Chinese economic aptitude grew in the 1950s as native Indonesian merchants felt they could not remain competitive, in some cases, government action only propagated the stereotype that ethnic Chinese-owned conglomerates were corrupt. The development of local Chinese society and culture is based upon three pillars, clan associations, ethnic media, and Chinese-language schools, one group supported political reforms in mainland China, while others worked towards improved status in local politics. The New Order government dismantled the pillars of ethnic Chinese identity in favor of policies as a solution to the Chinese Problem. Patterns of assimilation and ethnic interaction can be found in Indonesias literature, architecture, the Chinese Indonesian population of Sumatra accounts for nearly half of the groups national population. Although they are more urbanized than Indonesias indigenous population, significant rural and agricultural communities exist throughout the country. Declining fertility rates have resulted in a shift in the population pyramid. Emigration has contributed to a population, and communities have emerged in more industrialized nations in the second half of the 20th century. Some have participated in programs to the Peoples Republic of China. Among the overseas residents, their identities are noticeably more Indonesian than Chinese, the first recorded movement of people from China into Maritime Southeast Asia was the arrival of Mongol forces under Kublai Khan that culminated in the invasion of Java in 1293. The Mongols introduced Chinese technologies to the island, including shipbuilding and their intervention hastened the decline of the classical kingdoms such as Singhasari and precipitated the rise of the Majapahit empire. Chinese Muslim traders from the eastern coast of China arrived at the towns of Indonesia and Malaysia in the early 15th century. They were led by the mariner Zheng He, who commanded several expeditions to southeastern Asia between 1405 and 1430, in the book Yingya Shenglan, his translator Ma Huan documented the activities of the Chinese Muslims in the archipelago and the legacy left by Zheng He and his men. These traders settled along the northern coast of Java, but there is no documentation of their settlements beyond the 16th century, the Chinese Muslims were likely to have been absorbed into the majority Muslim population. Between 1450 and 1520, the Ming Dynastys interest in southeastern Asia reached a low point and trade, the Portuguese made no mention of any resident Chinese minority population when they arrived in Indonesia in the early 16th century. Trade from the north was re-established when China legalized private trade in 1567 through licensing 50 junks a year, several years later silver began flowing into the region, from Japan, Mexico, and Europe, and trade flourished once again
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Gorontaloan people
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Gorontaloan or Hulandalo people are the native people to the northern part of Sulawesi. They are the most populous ethnicity in the Minahasa Peninsula, the Gorontaloans have traditionally been concentrated in the provinces of Gorontalo, North Sulawesi, and the northern part of Central Sulawesi
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Madurese people
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Common to most Madurese throughout the archipelago is the Islamic religion and the use of the Madurese language. The Madurese are an ethnicity, often affiliated with Nahdlatul Ulama. Pesantren has a role in Madurese life. While the Madurese have their roots on Madura off the northeastern coast of Java, the Madurese people have migrated out of Madura over several hundred years, mostly driven by poor agricultural resources in their home island. The majority have settled on Java, where a six million Madurese live. The Madurese people speak Madurese, which is part of the Malayo-Sumbawan Austronesian languages, the majority of Madurese practice Sunni Islam. Pesantren Muslim schools play an important role in their spiritual and social life, there are also Madurese who practice other religions, such as Christianity, and Hinduism, however, their numbers are extremely small. Culturally the Madurese people are close enough to oriental Javanese that they share similar forms of folklore, music, dance, the traditional attire, however, is very specific to the Madurese people. Men would wear a completely black long-skirted coat with a wide belt, while women would have donned a dark blue or mottled jacket over a sarong. A truly unique tradition of the islanders is bull racing, known as Karapan sapi, such competitions are typical of Madura, where they serve as its main tourist attraction. Races are held annually in August and October in different localities, after which their winners compete in the final round, races are usually accompanied by gamelan performances and festivities. By the end of the 1980s, the popularity of Madurese bull racing had grown so much that the winner of the competition would be awarded with a prize on behalf of the President of Indonesia. In addition, the scene of the races was depicted on the reverse of coins of 100 Indonesian rupiah, traditionally in terms of socio-economic life of the Madurese people, there had been a visible impact on their national character. In rural areas, the Madurese still practice an ancient tradition of vendetta and it is noteworthy that the killing may provoke resentment, quite small by the standards of ordinary European or Indonesian, but it is often interpreted as a grave insult to the tribal honor. In such cases, the avenger usually prepares the celurit in advance in an event of dueling by casting spells on the weapon. Sometimes in the battle of honor are involved several people from each side - relatives and friends of the offender and the offended, on the territory of Java, Madurese people had live for several centuries, forming in some of the north-eastern regions of the islands ethnic majority. However, they tend to get well with the Javanese people in relation to language, culture. A widespread of Javanese mixed Madurese marriages are also common, some of these migrant groups have been the subject of conflict with Dayak communities
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Betawi people
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Betawi people often described as the native Jakartans. They are the descendants of the living in and around Batavia from around the 17th century. Although the term itself is questionable, since Betawi people was formed in the 18th century as an amalgamation of various immigrant ethnic groups into Batavia. The name Betawi is derived from Batavia, the old name of Jakarta. In neighboring Javanese and Sundanese languages, the term Betawi originally referred to colonial Batavia, the Betawis are one of the youngest, or the latest formed ethnic group in Indonesia. They are an ethnic group that their ancestors came from various parts of Indonesia. Prior to the 19th century, the self-identity of Betawi people was not yet formed, in the 17th century, Dutch colonials began to imported servants and labours from all over the archipelago into Batavia. One of the earliest are Balinese slaves brought from Bali and Ambonese mercenaries, subsequently other ethnic groups follow suit, they are Malays, Sundanese, Javanese, Minangkabau, Bugis and Makassarese. Foreign ethnic groups were included, such as Mardijker, Portuguese, Dutch, Arabs, Chinese and Indian. This was shown in the Batavia census record that listed immigrants ethnic background of Batavias citizen and these ethnic groups merged and formed in around 18th to 19th century. The term Betawi was first listed as a category in 1930 census of Batavia residents. The Betawi people have a culture and language distinct from the surrounding Sundanese and Javanese, the Betawis are known for their traditions in music and food. The Betawi language—also known as Betawi Malay, is a Malay-based creole language, Betawi vocabulary has large amount of Hokkien Chinese, Arabic, and Dutch loanwords. Today the Betawi language is an informal language in Indonesia. It has become one of language in Indonesia, and also one of active local dialect in the country. Majority of the Betawi people follow Sunni Islam, however, there are significant number of them who profess the Christian faith. Although today Betawi culture is perceived as a Muslim culture. The culture and artform of the Betawi people demonstrate the influences experienced by them throughout their history, foreign influences are visible, such as Portuguese and Chinese influences on their musics, and Sundanese, Javanese and Chinese influences in their dances
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Bantenese people
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The Bantenese are people living in Banten Province in Java, just west of Jakarta. The area of Banten province corresponds more or less with the area of the former Banten Sultanate. In his book The Sultanate of Banten, Guillot Claude writes on page 35, “These estates, owned by the Bantenese of Chinese origin, were concentrated around the village of Kelapadua. ”People living in Banten, including Chinese, were called Bantenese. Bantenese is actually not a group, but more as a term for people originated from Banten with Sundanese language as their first language. The most dominant language is Sundanese, the indigenous people living in Banten Province speak a Sundanese dialect derived from archaic Sundanese language. The dialect is classified as informal or harsh layer in modern Sundanese language, mataram Sultanate tried to take control over Java island, including Banten territory covering the whole West Java region. But the Sultanate of Banten could defend its territory except Parahyangan area, in the mountainous regions and most of present-day Banten, the loma version of Sundanese language is the most dominant. By contrast, this version is considered harsh by people from Parahyangan, however, around Serang and Cilegon, Banten Province, a dialect of the Javanese language, the Banyumasan is also spoken by about 500,000 people. And, in Northern part of Tangerang, Indonesian language with Betawi dialect is used by Betawi immigrants. Besides Sundanese, Javanese and Betawi dialect, Indonesian language is widely spoken especially by other ethnic immigrants from other parts of Indonesia especially in urban centers
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Lampung people
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They speak the Lampung language, a Lampungic language estimated to have 1.5 million speakers. The origins of the Lampung people is closely tied to the name of Lampung itself, in the 7th century the Chinese had already mentioned about a place in the south where it is said to be the place of the Tolang Pohwang kingdom. To means people and Lang Pohwang means Lampung, hence its name Tolang Pohwang which means Lampung people or envoy from Lampung that came from China until the 7th century. There are strong evidence that Lampung was part of the Srivijaya kingdom with its capital in Jambi, in the 5th AD Tai-Ping-Huan-Yu-Chi chronicles, names of the Nan-hai states were recorded and among them are two states which were mentioned in sequence, To-lang and Po-hwang. The To-lang state was mentioned once, but the Po-hwang state was mentioned many times as this state did sent envoys to China in the year of 442,449,451,459,464 and 466. According to Prof. Gabriel Ferrand, it is likely that the name To-lang and Po-hwang are actually one same name and is located in Tulangbawang, Lampung. It is said there is also a Tulangbawang kingdom, although the idea simply came from the unification of the two names in the Chinese chronicles. The earlier generation of the Lampung people came from Sekala Brak, at the foot of Mount Pesagi and its people were inhabited by the Buay Tumil people and they were ruled by a woman named Ratu Sekerummong. The religion of the people is animism mixed with the Javanese Bairawa Hinduism influences, after the 15th century, the Buay Tumil people later had influences from four Muslim men who came from Pagaruyung Kingdom, West Sumatra that went there. They are Umpu Bejalan Diway, Umpu Nyerupa, Umpu Pernong, the fourth men is the forerunner of Paksi Pak Sekala Brak as it is mentioned in an ancient manuscript, Kuntara Raja Niti. However, in the Kuntara Raja Niti manuscript, their names are Inder Gajah, Pak Lang, Sikin, Belunguh, and Indarwati. Based on the Kuntara Raja Niti, the hypothesis of the descendants of the Lampung people are as the following, however, in its customary sense the Lampung people developed and became two people group, namely the Saibatin Lampungs and the Pepadun Lampungs. The Abung people lived in seven regions, which are Kotabumi, Seputih Timur, Sukadana, Labuhan Maringgai, Jabung, Gunung Sugih. The Tulangbawang people lived in four regions, which are Menggala, Mesuji, Panaragan. The Pubian people lived in eight regions, which are Tanjungkarang, Balau, Bukujadi, Tegineneng, Seputih Barat, Padang Ratu, Gedungtataan. The Sungkay-Way Kanan people lived in nine regions, which are Negeri Besar, Ketapang, Pakuan Ratu, Sungkay, Bunga Mayang, Blambangan Umpu, Baradatu, Bahuga. Juluk-Adok, A personality that is fitting to the title that one bears. Nemui-Nyimah, To keep in touch with one another by visiting, nengah-Nyampur, Active in communal fellowship and not being individualistic
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Balinese people
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The Balinese are an ethnic group native to the Indonesian island of Bali. The Balinese population of 4.2 million live mostly on the island of Bali, there are also significant populations on the island of Lombok, and in the eastern-most regions of Java. The Balinese originated from three periods of migration, the first waves of immigrants came from Java and Kalimantan in prehistoric times and were of proto-Malay stock. The second wave of Balinese came slowly over the years from Java during the Hindu period and this in turn reshaped the Balinese culture into a syncretic form of classical Javanese culture mixed with many Balinese elements. A DNA study in 2005 by Karafet et al. found that 12% of Balinese Y-chromosomes are of likely Indian origin, while 84% are of likely Austronesian origin, Balinese culture is a mix of Balinese Hindu-Buddhist religion and Balinese customs. It is perhaps most known for its dance, drama and sculpture, the island is also known for its Wayang kulit or Shadow play theatre. Even in poor rural and neglected villages, beautiful temples are a common sight, even layered pieces of palm leaf and neat fruit arrangements made as offerings by Balinese women have an artistic side to them. Balinese artists are skilled in duplicating art works such as carvings that resemble Chinese deities or decorating vehicles based on what is seen in foreign magazines. The culture is noted for its use of the gamelan in music, each type of music is designated for a specific type of event. For example, music for a piodalan is different from music used for a ceremony, just as it is for weddings, Ngaben, Melasti. The diverse types of gamelan are also specified according to the different types of dance in Bali, according to Walter Spies, the art of dancing is an integral part of Balinese life as well as an endless critical element in a series of ceremonies or for personal interests. Traditionally, displaying of female breasts is not regarded as immodest, Balinese women can often be seen with bared chests, however, a display of the thigh is considered immodest. In modern Bali these customs are not strictly observed. In the Balinese naming system, a rank of birth or caste is reflected in the name. A puputan is an act of mass suicide through frontal assaults in battle, the latest act of puputan was during the Indonesian war of Independence, with Lt. Colonel I Gusti Ngurah Rai as the leader in the battle of Margarana. The airport in Bali is named after him in commemoration, the vast majority of the Balinese believe in Agama Tirta, holy-water religion. It is a Shivaite sect of Hinduism, traveling Indian priests are said to have introduced the people to the sacred literature of Hinduism and Buddhism centuries ago. The people accepted it and combined it with their own pre-Hindu mythologies, the Balinese from before the third wave of immigration, known as the Bali Aga, are mostly not followers of Agama Tirta, but retain their own animist traditions
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Sasak people
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The Sasak people live mainly on the island of Lombok, Indonesia, numbering around 3.6 million. They are related to the Balinese in language and race, although the Sasak are predominantly Muslim while the Balinese are Hindu, little is known about Sasak history except that Lombok was placed under direct rule of the Majapahit prime Minister, patih Gajah Mada. Lombok was conquered by the Gelgel Balinese kingdom in the early 16th century, the Balinese population of Lombok today is about 300,000, 10–15% of Lomboks population. The Balinese have also influenced the Wetu Telu religion of Lombok. The Sasak language is related to the languages of Bali and Sumbawa. There are also a number of Sasak dialect in various such as Kuto-Kute, Meno-Mene, Mriak-Mriku, Ngeno-Ngene, Ngeto-Ngete. Most of the Sasaks today are adherents of the Waktu Lima version of Islam, Waktu Lima or Five Times signifies the five daily prayers which Muslims are required to do. The term Waktu Lima is used to them from the Sasaks who are practitioners of Wetu Telu or Three Symbols who only pray three times a day. Orthodox Islamic teachers generally instruct adherents to pray five times a day, large numbers of people adhering to the Wetu Telu faith can be still found throughout the island, especially in the village of Bayan, where the religion originated. Large Wetu Telu communities can be found in Mataram, Pujung, Sengkol, Rambitan, Sade, Tetebatu, Bumbung, Sembalun, Senaru, Loyok. A small minority of Sasaks called the Bodha are mainly found in the village of Bentek and they are totally untouched by Islamic influence and worship animistic gods, incorporating some Hindu and Buddhist influences in their rituals and religious vocabulary. This group of Sasak, due in part to the name of their tribe, are recognized as Buddhists by the Indonesian government, the Bodha have the same magico-religious officials and institutions as the Wetu Telu. The Bodha religion is also to some extent influenced by both Hindu and Buddhist concepts, of late, they have come under the influence of mainstream Buddhism from Buddhist missionaries. Gandrung Gendang beleq Sasak architecture Sidetrip to Lombok by the New York Times
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Dayak people
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The Dayak or Dyak or Dayuh /ˈdaɪ. ək/ are the native people of Borneo. Dayak languages are categorised as part of the Austronesian languages in Asia, the Dayak were animist in belief, however, many converted to Islam and since the 19th century there has been mass conversion to Christianity. The Dayak people of Borneo possess an account of their history, mostly in oral literature, partly in writing in papan turai. The independent state of Nansarunai, established by the Maanyan Dayaks prior to the 12th century and these attacks contributed to the migration of the Maanyans to the Central and South Borneo region. In 1838, British adventurer James Brooke arrived to find the Sultan of Brunei fending off rebellion from warlike inland tribes, Brooke put down the rebellion, and was made Governor of Sarawak in 1841, with the title of Rajah. Brooke pacified the natives, including the Dayaks, who some of his most loyal followers. Brookes most famous Iban enemy was Libau Rentap, Brooke led three expeditions against him and finally defeated him at Sadok Hill, Brooke had many Dayaks in his forces at this battle, and famously said Only Dayaks can kill Dayaks. So he deployed Dayaks to kill Dayaks, sharif Mashor, a Melanau from Mukah, was another enemy of Brooke. In response, the Dayaks formed a force to assist the Allied forces. Eleven US airmen and a few dozen Australian special operatives trained a thousand Dayaks from the Kapit Division in guerrilla warfare and this army of tribesmen killed or captured some 1,500 Japanese soldiers and provided the Allies with vital intelligence about Japanese-held oil fields. The Dayak people classification are largely limited among the groups traditionally concentrated in southern and interior Sarawak. These groups though may be indigenous to coastal northeastern Borneo, they are nonetheless not Dayak, the Indigenous people of the Heart of Borneo are commonly known as Dayak. The term was coined by Europeans referring to the non-Malay and non-Muslim inhabitants of central, there are seven main ethnic divisions of Dayaks according to their respective native languages which are,1. Ot Danum Under the main classifications, there are dozens of ethnics, there are over 50 ethnic Dayak groups speaking different languages. This cultural and linguistic diversity parallels the high biodiversity and related traditional knowledge of Borneo, Dayaks do not speak just one language, even if just those on the island of Borneo are considered. Their indigenous languages belong in the classification of Malayo-Polynesian languages and to diverse groups of Bornean and Sabahan languages. Most Dayaks today are bilingual, in addition to their language, they are well-versed in Malay or Indonesian. Many of Borneos languages are endemic, in the past, the Dayak were feared for their ancient tradition of headhunting practices
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Minangkabau people
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Minangkabau people, also known as Minang, is an ethnic group indigenous to the Minangkabau Highlands of West Sumatra, Indonesia. This custom is called Lareh Bodi Caniago and is known as Adat perpatih in Malaysia, today 4.5 million Minangs live in the homeland of West Sumatra, while about 4.5 million more are scattered throughout many Indonesian and Malay Peninsular cities and towns. The Minangkabau are strongly Islamic, but also follow their ethnic traditions, the Minangkabau adat was derived from animist and Hindu-Buddhist beliefs before the arrival of Islam, and remnants of animist beliefs still exist even among some practising Muslims. The present relationship between Islam and adat is described in the tradition founded upon Islamic law, Islamic law founded upon the Quran. As one of the worlds most populous matrilineal ethnicity, Minangkabau gender dynamics have been studied by anthropologists. With the arrival of the Dutch and other Muslim groups, the traditions have gradually influenced by both western and conservative Islamic thought. Based on the Raffles vision, Minangkabau is believed to have been the cradle of the Malay race and their West Sumatran homelands was the seat of the Pagaruyung Kingdom and the location of the Padri War. The name Minangkabau is thought to be a conjunction of two words, minang and kabau, there is a legend that the name is derived from a territorial dispute between the Minangkabau and a neighbouring prince. To avoid a battle, the local people proposed a fight to the death between two water buffalo to settle the dispute, the prince agreed and produced the largest, meanest, most aggressive buffalo. The Minangkabau produced a hungry baby buffalo with its small horns ground to be as sharp as knives, seeing the adult buffalo across the field, the baby ran forward, hoping for milk. The big buffalo saw no threat in the buffalo and paid no attention to it. But when the baby thrust his head under the big belly, looking for an udder, the sharpened horns punctured and killed the bull, and the Minangkabau won the contest. The roofline of traditional houses in West Sumatra, called Rumah Gadang, curve upward from the middle and end in points, until the 20th century the majority of the Sumatran population lived in the highlands. The highlands are well suited for human habitation, with fresh water, fertile soil, a cool climate. It is probable that wet rice cultivation evolved in the Minangkabau Highlands long before it appeared in parts of Sumatra. By the 16th century, the time of the report after the reign of Adityawarman. They were the King of the World, the King of Adat, and the King of Religion, the Minangkabau kings were charismatic or magical figures, but did not have much authority over the conduct of village affairs. It was around the 16th century that Islam started to be adopted by the Minangkabau, the first contact between the Minangkabau and western nations occurred with the 1529 voyage of Jean Parmentier to Sumatra
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Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
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Islam
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Islam is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion which professes that there is only one and incomparable God and that Muhammad is the last messenger of God. It is the worlds second-largest religion and the major religion in the world, with over 1.7 billion followers or 23% of the global population. Islam teaches that God is merciful, all-powerful, and unique, and He has guided mankind through revealed scriptures, natural signs, and a line of prophets sealed by Muhammad. The primary scriptures of Islam are the Quran, viewed by Muslims as the word of God. Muslims believe that Islam is the original, complete and universal version of a faith that was revealed many times before through prophets including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses. As for the Quran, Muslims consider it to be the unaltered, certain religious rites and customs are observed by the Muslims in their family and social life, while social responsibilities to parents, relatives, and neighbors have also been defined. Besides, the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad prescribe a comprehensive body of moral guidelines for Muslims to be followed in their personal, social, political, Islam began in the early 7th century. Originating in Mecca, it spread in the Arabian Peninsula. The expansion of the Muslim world involved various caliphates and empires, traders, most Muslims are of one of two denominations, Sunni or Shia. Islam is the dominant religion in the Middle East, North Africa, sizable Muslim communities are also found in Horn of Africa, Europe, China, Russia, Mainland Southeast Asia, Philippines, Northern Borneo, Caucasus and the Americas. Converts and immigrant communities are found in almost every part of the world, Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, submission, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means voluntary submission to God, Islām is the verbal noun of Form IV of the root, and means submission or surrender. Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the verb form. The word sometimes has connotations in its various occurrences in the Quran. In some verses, there is stress on the quality of Islam as a state, Whomsoever God desires to guide. Other verses connect Islām and dīn, Today, I have perfected your religion for you, I have completed My blessing upon you, still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. In the Hadith of Gabriel, islām is presented as one part of a triad that also includes imān, Islam was historically called Muhammadanism in Anglophone societies. This term has fallen out of use and is said to be offensive because it suggests that a human being rather than God is central to Muslims religion
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Roman Catholicism
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The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church or the Universal Church, is the largest Christian church, with more than 1.28 billion members worldwide. As one of the oldest religious institutions in the world, it has played a prominent role in the history, headed by the Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, the churchs doctrines are summarised in the Nicene Creed and the Apostles Creed. Its central administration is located in Vatican City, enclaved within Rome, the Catholic Church is notable within Western Christianity for its sacred tradition and seven sacraments. It teaches that it is the one church founded by Jesus Christ, that its bishops are the successors of Christs apostles. The Catholic Church maintains that the doctrine on faith and morals that it declares as definitive is infallible. The Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches, as well as such as mendicant orders and enclosed monastic orders. Among the sacraments, the one is the Eucharist, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest the sacrificial bread and wine become the body, the Catholic Church practises closed communion, with only baptised members in a state of grace ordinarily permitted to receive the Eucharist. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Queen of Heaven and is honoured in numerous Marian devotions. The Catholic Church has influenced Western philosophy, science, art and culture, Catholic spiritual teaching includes spreading the Gospel while Catholic social teaching emphasises support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church is the largest non-government provider of education and medical services in the world, from the late 20th century, the Catholic Church has been criticised for its doctrines on sexuality, its refusal to ordain women and its handling of sexual abuse cases. Catholic was first used to describe the church in the early 2nd century, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in the letter from Saint Ignatius of Antioch to the Smyrnaeans, written about 110 AD. In the Catechetical Discourses of Saint Cyril of Jerusalem, the name Catholic Church was used to distinguish it from other groups that call themselves the church. The use of the adjective Roman to describe the Church as governed especially by the Bishop of Rome became more widespread after the Fall of the Western Roman Empire and into the Early Middle Ages. Catholic Church is the name used in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church follows an episcopal polity, led by bishops who have received the sacrament of Holy Orders who are given formal jurisdictions of governance within the church. Ultimately leading the entire Catholic Church is the Bishop of Rome, commonly called the pope, in parallel to the diocesan structure are a variety of religious institutes that function autonomously, often subject only to the authority of the pope, though sometimes subject to the local bishop. Most religious institutes only have male or female members but some have both, additionally, lay members aid many liturgical functions during worship services
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Hinduism
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Hinduism is a religion, or a way of life, found most notably in India and Nepal. Hinduism has been called the oldest religion in the world, and some practitioners and scholars refer to it as Sanātana Dharma, scholars regard Hinduism as a fusion or synthesis of various Indian cultures and traditions, with diverse roots and no founder. This Hindu synthesis started to develop between 500 BCE and 300 CE following the Vedic period, although Hinduism contains a broad range of philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, and pilgrimage to sacred sites. Hindu texts are classified into Shruti and Smriti and these texts discuss theology, philosophy, mythology, Vedic yajna, Yoga, agamic rituals, and temple building, among other topics. Major scriptures include the Vedas and Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, prominent themes in Hindu beliefs include the four Puruṣārthas, the proper goals or aims of human life, namely Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, karma, samsara, and the various Yogas. Hindu practices include such as puja and recitations, meditation, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals. Some Hindus leave their world and material possessions, then engage in lifelong Sannyasa to achieve Moksha. Hinduism prescribes the eternal duties, such as honesty, refraining from injuring living beings, patience, forbearance, self-restraint, Hinduism is the worlds third largest religion, with over one billion followers or 15% of the global population, known as Hindus. The majority of Hindus reside in India, Nepal, Mauritius, the Caribbean, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan/Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Hindu in these ancient records is a geographical term, the Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as an alternative name of India. It was only towards the end of the 18th century that European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism, then spelled Hindooism, was introduced into the English language in the 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion defies our desire to define and categorize it, Hinduism has been variously defined as a religion, a religious tradition, a set of religious beliefs, and a way of life. From a Western lexical standpoint, Hinduism like other faiths is appropriately referred to as a religion, in India the term dharma is preferred, which is broader than the western term religion. Hindu traditionalists prefer to call it Sanatana Dharma, the study of India and its cultures and religions, and the definition of Hinduism, has been shaped by the interests of colonialism and by Western notions of religion. Since the 1990s, those influences and its outcomes have been the topic of debate among scholars of Hinduism, Hinduism as it is commonly known can be subdivided into a number of major currents
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Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
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Languages
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Language is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so, and a language is any specific example of such a system. The scientific study of language is called linguistics, questions concerning the philosophy of language, such as whether words can represent experience, have been debated since Gorgias and Plato in Ancient Greece. Thinkers such as Rousseau have argued that language originated from emotions while others like Kant have held that it originated from rational and logical thought, 20th-century philosophers such as Wittgenstein argued that philosophy is really the study of language. Major figures in linguistics include Ferdinand de Saussure and Noam Chomsky, estimates of the number of languages in the world vary between 5,000 and 7,000. However, any precise estimate depends on an arbitrary distinction between languages and dialects. Natural languages are spoken or signed, but any language can be encoded into secondary media using auditory, visual, or tactile stimuli – for example, in whistling, signed and this is because human language is modality-independent. All languages rely on the process of semiosis to relate signs to particular meanings, human language has the properties of productivity and displacement, and relies entirely on social convention and learning. Its complex structure affords a wider range of expressions than any known system of animal communication. Language is processed in different locations in the human brain. Humans acquire language through interaction in early childhood, and children generally speak fluently when they are approximately three years old. The use of language is deeply entrenched in human culture, a group of languages that descend from a common ancestor is known as a language family. The languages of the Dravidian family that are mostly in Southern India include Tamil. Academic consensus holds that between 50% and 90% of languages spoken at the beginning of the 21st century will probably have become extinct by the year 2100. The English word language derives ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *dn̥ǵʰwéh₂s tongue, speech, language through Latin lingua, language, tongue, and Old French language. The word is used to refer to codes, ciphers. Unlike conventional human languages, a language in this sense is a system of signs for encoding and decoding information. This article specifically concerns the properties of human language as it is studied in the discipline of linguistics. As an object of study, language has two primary meanings, an abstract concept, and a specific linguistic system, e. g. French
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Time in Indonesia
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The Indonesian archipelago geographically stretches across four time zones from UTC+6 in Aceh to UTC+9 in Western Papua. The border between central and eastern time zones runs north from the tip of Timor to the eastern tip of Sulawesi. Daylight saving time is not currently observed in almost all of Indonesia due to its tropical location, the only unofficial exception of this is Muara Teweh and Maurainu, which unofficially uses Western Indonesian Daylight Time. All provinces in the island of Java including major cities such as, Bandung, Surabaya, Jakarta, Semarang, two provinces in Kalimantan island, West Kalimantan and Central Kalimantan. Including major cities such as, Pontianak, Palangkaraya, and Sampit, Muara Teweh and Maurainu unofficially uses Western Indonesian Daylight Time, which has the same time as Central Indonesian Time. All provinces in the Lesser Sunda Islands including major cities such as, Denpasar, Mataram, three provinces in Kalimantan island, North Kalimantan, East Kalimantan and South Kalimantan, including major cities such as, Balikpapan, Banjarmasin, Samarinda, and Tarakan. IANA time zone identifier is Asia/Makassar Indonesia Eastern Standard Time is observed in, Maluku Islands including major cities such as, Ambon City, Ternate City. All provinces in West Papua including major cities such as, Jayapura, Biak, all provinces in Papua including all major islands in the province. IANA time zone identifier is Asia/Jayapura It observed since January 1,1988. Central and Southern Sumatra Time, was observed in Bengkulu, Palembang and Lampung, Java, Bali, and Borneo Time, was observed in Java, Bali, Madura and Kalimantan. Celebes Time, was observed in Sulawesi and Lesser Sunda Islands, moluccan Time, was observed in Ternate, Namlea, Ambon, Sofifi and Banda. West Irian Time was observed in West Irian and it observed during November 1,1932 to August 31,1944. Dutch New Guinea Time, was observed in West Irian during named Dutch New Guinea because Netherlands still hold West Irian. It observed from September 1,1944 to December 31,1963, Daylight saving time was observed in Jakarta from May 1,1948 to May 1,1950. Its UTC offset during daylight saving time is UTC+08,00. tab, asia/Jakarta Asia/Pontianak Asia/Makassar Asia/Jayapura ASEAN Common Time Time in Malaysia Time in the Philippines Time in Singapore UTC+8 Indonesian Standard Time
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Vehicle registration plate
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A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate or a license plate, is metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the owner within the issuing regions database. The first two letters indicate the state to which the vehicle is registered, the next two digit numbers are the sequential number of a district. Due to heavy volume of vehicle registration, the numbers were given to the RTO offices of registration as well, the third part indicates the year of registration of the vehicle and is a 4 digit number unique to each plate. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Thus, it is illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates. Alternately, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the owners responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is destroyed or exported to a different country. Other jurisdictions follow a policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyers name, a person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with personal plates, in some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration. Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames, in some jurisdictions licence plate frames are illegal
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Vehicle registration plates of Indonesia
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All motorized vehicles including motorcycles in Indonesia are required to have registration plates. The plates need to be displayed in front and at the back of the vehicles. Except for some cases, every vehicle license plate in Indonesia follows the following format, LL NNNN LL where L are letters of the Latin alphabet. The first single or double letters denote the area of registration and this is followed by numbers, which can range from one to four digits. This is then followed by one or two letters although they may be optional, for example, DK1855 BS is a vehicle registered in Bali region, because it begins with DK. A smaller numbers being added to the bottom or the top of the plate, indicates the month and year where the plate will expire, a new format was recently introduced which have three ending letters, due to the increase of motorized vehicle numbers. At first, this format is used for motorcycles since July 2008 until present, for cars in Jakarta, Tangerang, Bekasi, in the last three letters of this new format, the first letter divides the Jakarta area into sub areas. For example, The first letter of the number plate for Jakarta vehicles is B. For example, B1886 CC indicates it is from Jakarta, but under the new system, the B indicator is not enough. There are now three ending letters and it is representing Jakarta, because the three cities are represented as sub areas of Jakarta, because the distance from Jakarta and those three cities are very near. The lettering convention to denote area of registration is a legacy of the Dutch colonial era, instead, they follow the old system of Dutch Karesidenan or residencies. In General, plates that start with K are from Kalimantan Island, D for the group of islands east of Java, such as Bali, Lombok. B is generally used in Sumatra but only alongside another letter - B as a letter is only for vehicles registered in the Jakarta Metropolitan Area. Red on white, Vehicles that have not been registered yet, Black on yellow, Public transportation, such as buses, taxis, angkot, auto rickshaws and trucks. Black on Red, Vehicles belonging to foreign countries, commonly used by foreign embassies or vehicles belonging to International organizations. Black on White, Vehicles belonging to foreign countries, commonly used by foreign embassies or vehicles belonging to International organizations. White on Blue, Belongs to rickshaws in Surabaya, mainly coded SB Black on green, Free Zone vehicles. Blue on white, Vehicles belonging to foreign countries, but this one is used before it has been registered
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Human Development Index
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The Human Development Index is a composite statistic of life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development. A country scores higher HDI when the lifespan is higher, the level is higher. The 2010 Human Development Report introduced an Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index, while the simple HDI remains useful, it stated that the IHDI is the actual level of human development, and the HDI can be viewed as an index of potential human development. The origins of the HDI are found in the annual Human Development Reports produced by the Human Development Reports Office of the United Nations Development Programme, nobel laureate Amartya Sen, utilized Haqs work in his own work on human capabilities. The following three indices are used,1, Life Expectancy Index = LE −2085 −20 LEI is 1 when Life expectancy at birth is 85 and 0 when Life expectancy at birth is 20. Education Index = MYSI + EYSI22.1 Mean Years of Schooling Index = MYS15 Fifteen is the maximum of this indicator for 2025. 2.2 Expected Years of Schooling Index = EYS18 Eighteen is equivalent to achieving a degree in most countries. Income Index = ln − ln ln − ln II is 1 when GNI per capita is $75,000 and 0 when GNI per capita is $100. Finally, the HDI is the mean of the previous three normalized indices, HDI = LEI ⋅ EI ⋅ II3. Standard of living, as indicated by the logarithm of gross domestic product per capita at purchasing power parity. This methodology was used by the UNDP until their 2011 report, the formula defining the HDI is promulgated by the United Nations Development Programme. The 2016 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Programme was released on March 21,2017, below is the list of the very high human development countries, = increase. The number in brackets represents the number of ranks the country has climbed relative to the ranking in the 2015 report, the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index is a measure of the average level of human development of people in a society once inequality is taken into account. The rankings are not relative to the HDI list above due to the exclusion of countries which are missing IHDI data. Countries in the top quartile of HDI with a missing IHDI, New Zealand, Singapore, Hong Kong, Liechtenstein, Brunei, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Andorra, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Kuwait. The 2015 Human Development Report by the United Nations Development Programme was released on December 14,2015, below is the list of the very high human development countries, = increase. The number in brackets represents the number of ranks the country has climbed relative to the ranking in the 2014 report, the Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index is a measure of the average level of human development of people in a society once inequality is taken into account. Note, The green arrows, red arrows, and blue dashes represent changes in rank, the rankings are not relative to the HDI list above due to the exclusion of countries which are missing IHDI data
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New Guinea
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New Guinea is a large Island in the South West Pacific region. It is the worlds second-largest island, after Greenland, covering an area of 785,753 km2. The island is divided between two countries, Papua New Guinea to the east, and Indonesia to the west, the island has been known by various names. The name Papua was used to refer to parts of the island before contact with the West and its etymology is unclear, one theory states that it is from Tidore, the language used by the Sultanate of Tidore, which controlled parts of the islands coastal region. The name came from papo and ua, which means not united or, ploeg reports that the word papua is often said to derive from the Malay word papua or pua-pua, meaning frizzly-haired, referring to the highly curly hair of the inhabitants of these areas. When the Portuguese and Spanish explorers arrived in the island via the Spice Islands, when the Dutch colonized it as part of Netherlands East Indies, they called it Nieuw Guinea. The name Irian was used in the Indonesian language to refer the island and Indonesian province, the name was promoted in 1945 by Marcus Kaisiepo, brother of the future governor Frans Kaisiepo. It is taken from the Biak language of Biak Island, and means to rise and this name of Irian is the name used in the Biak language and other languages such as Serui, Merauke and Waropen. The name was used until 2001, when the name Papua was again used for the island, the name Irian, which was originally favored by natives, is now considered to be a name imposed by the authority of Jakarta. New Guinea is an island to the north of Australia, and it is isolated by the Arafura Sea to the west and the Torres Strait and Coral Sea to the east. A spine of east–west mountains, the New Guinea Highlands, dominates the geography of New Guinea, stretching over 1,600 km from the head to the tail of the island. The western half of the island of New Guinea contains the highest mountains in Oceania, rising up to 4,884 m high, the tree line is around 4,000 m elevation and the tallest peaks contain permanent equatorial glaciers—which have been retreating since at least 1936. Various other smaller mountain ranges occur both north and west of the central ranges, except in high elevations, most areas possess a warm humid climate throughout the year, with some seasonal variation associated with the northeast monsoon season. At 4,884 metres, Puncak Jaya makes New Guinea the worlds fourth highest landmass, Puncak Mandala, located in Papua, is the second highest peak on the island at 4,760 metres. Puncak Trikora, also in Papua, is 4,750 metres, mount Wilhelm is the highest peak on the PNG side of the border at 4,509 metres. Its granite peak is the highest point of the Bismarck Range, mount Giluwe 4,368 metres is the second highest summit in PNG. It is also the highest volcanic peak in Oceania, another major habitat feature is the vast southern and northern lowlands. Stretching for hundreds of kilometres, these include lowland rainforests, extensive wetlands, savanna grasslands, the southern lowlands are the site of Lorentz National Park, also a UNESCO World Heritage Site
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Southern Hemisphere
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The Southern Hemisphere is the half sphere of Earth which is south of the equator. It contains all or parts of five continents, four oceans and its surface is 80. 9% water, compared with 60. 7% water in the case of the Northern Hemisphere, and it contains 32. 7% of Earths land. Due to the tilt of Earths rotation relative to the Sun, September 22 or 23 is the vernal equinox and March 20 or 21 is the autumnal equinox. The South Pole is in the middle of the southern hemispherical region, Southern Hemisphere climates tend to be slightly milder than those at similar latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere, except in the Antarctic which is colder than the Arctic. This is because the Southern Hemisphere has significantly more ocean and much land, water heats up. In the Southern Hemisphere the sun passes from east to west through the north, sun-cast shadows turn anticlockwise throughout the day and sundials have the hours increasing in the anticlockwise direction. Cyclones and tropical storms spin clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect, the southern temperate zone, a subsection of the Southern Hemisphere, is nearly all oceanic. Forests in the Southern Hemisphere have special features which set apart from those in the Northern Hemisphere. Both Chile and Australia share, for example, unique species or Nothofagus. The eucalyptus is native to Australia but is now planted in Southern Africa and Latin America for pulp production and, increasingly. Approximately 800,000,000 humans live in the Southern Hemisphere and this is due to the fact that there is significantly less land in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere. Africa Antarctica Asia Australia South America Zealandia Media related to Southern Hemisphere at Wikimedia Commons
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Northern Hemisphere
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The Northern Hemisphere is the half of Earth that is north of the equator. For other planets in the Solar System, north is defined as being in the celestial hemisphere relative to the invariable plane of the solar system as Earths North pole. Due to the Earths axial tilt, winter in the Northern Hemisphere lasts from the December solstice to the March Equinox, the dates vary each year due to the difference between the calendar year and the astronomical year. Its surface is 60. 7% water, compared with 80. 9% water in the case of the Southern Hemisphere, the Arctic is the region north of the Arctic Circle. Its climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers, precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow. The Arctic experiences some days in summer when the Sun never sets, the duration of these phases varies from one day for locations right on the Arctic Circle to several months near the North Pole, which is the middle of the Northern Hemisphere. Between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer lies the Northern Temperate Zone, the changes in these regions between summer and winter are generally mild, rather than extreme hot or cold. However, a temperate climate can have very unpredictable weather, tropical regions are generally hot all year round and tend to experience a rainy season during the summer months, and a dry season during the winter months. In the Northern Hemisphere, objects moving across or above the surface of the Earth tend to turn to the right because of the coriolis effect, as a result, large-scale horizontal flows of air or water tend to form clockwise-turning gyres. These are best seen in circulation patterns in the North Atlantic. For the same reason, flows of air down toward the surface of the Earth tend to spread across the surface in a clockwise pattern. Thus, clockwise air circulation is characteristic of high pressure weather cells in the Northern Hemisphere, conversely, air rising from the northern surface of the Earth tends to draw air toward it in a counterclockwise pattern. Hurricanes and tropical storms spin counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, the shadow of a sundial moves clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere. When viewed from the Northern Hemisphere, the Moon appears inverted compared to a view from the Southern Hemisphere, the North Pole faces away from the galactic center of the Milky Way. The Northern Hemisphere is home to approximately 6.57 billion people which is around 90% of the total human population of 7.3 billion people
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Melanesian Spearhead Group
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In June 2015, Indonesia was recognized as an associate member. It was founded as a gathering in 1986. On 23 March 2007, members signed the Agreement Establishing the Melanesian Spearhead Group and it is headquartered in Port Vila, Vanuatu. A secretariat building has been constructed by the Peoples Republic of China, the first MSG Director General was Rima Ravusiro of Papua New Guinea. Since September 2011, Peter Forau of Solomon Islands heads the MSG, Melanesian Spearhead Group was formed with focus to promote economic growth among Melanesian countries. Negotiations are held regularly between the leaders to consider the progress and developments of the agreement. After a revision in 2005, it covers 180 articles free of fiscal duty, the Melanesian Spearhead Group was conceived in 1986 between the three Melanesian Pacific Island Countries namely Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands. The MSG Trade Agreement was signed in 1993 by Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, at the 6th Melanesian Spearhead Group Trade and Economic Officials’ Meeting on 16 April 1997 in Honiara, the Fiji delegation indicated its willingness to accede to it. This initiative was endorsed at the 1997 MSG Leaders Summit, Fiji became a formal member of the MSG Trade Agreement on 14 April 1998. The 9th MSG Trade & Economic Officials meeting was held in Papua New Guinea on 29 and 30 November 2000, the Melanesian Spearhead Group Secretariat was established in May 2008 after years of operating on an ad-hoc basic. The opening of a permanent office in Port Vila, Vanuatu, more recently, the Melanesian Spearhead Group got heavily involved in the political discussions following Fijis suspension from the Pacific Islands Forum in May 2009. In July 2010, Fiji expelled Australias acting high commissioner accusing the latter of causing the postponement of a so-called Engaging Fiji meeting, Australia responded that it had to do with the lack of democracy in the country. An alternate meeting was held instead despite pressure from Australia and New Zealand, Melanesian Spearhead Group is also involved in the issue of Papua, which involves a West Papuan independence movement and the Indonesian government. The West Papuan National Council for Liberation hopes to use Melanesian Spearhead Group as a platform to fight for independence. Indonesia won observer status in 2011 with the support of Fiji, in May 2013, Buchtar Tabuni, the leader of the National Committee for West Papua supported the notion that if West Papua was granted independence, he would support them joining the MSG. West Papua submitted an application to the Group in October 2013. A second application of West Papua independence movement has been submitted in 2015 by the United Liberation Movement for West Papua, the ULMWP was considered only as the representative of West Papuans outside the country. Despite being denied of full membership, ULMWP secretary-general Octavianus Mote regarded the observer status positively and we might not be a full member of the MSG, but a door has opened to us
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Western New Guinea
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Western New Guinea, formerly known as Irian Jaya, is the Indonesian part of the island of New Guinea, lying to the west of the nation of Papua New Guinea. The territory is considered to include smaller nearby islands including Biak, the region is predominantly dense forest where numerous traditional tribes live such as the Dani of the Baliem Valley, although the majority of the population live in or near coastal areas. The largest city in the region is Jayapura, the official and most commonly spoken language is Indonesian. Estimates of the number of languages in the region range from 200 to over 700, with the most widely spoken including Dani, Yali, Ekari. The predominant religion is Christianity followed by Islam, the main industries include agriculture, fishing, oil production, and mining. The territory has been part of Indonesia since May 1963, human habitation is estimated to have begun between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago. The Netherlands claimed the region and commenced work in the nineteenth century. The region was annexed by Indonesia in the 1960s, following the 1998 commencement of reforms across Indonesia, Papua and other Indonesian provinces received greater regional autonomy. In 2001, Special Autonomy status was granted to Papua province, although to date, implementation has been partial, the region was administered as a single province until 2003, when it was split into the provinces of Papua and West Papua. Speakers align themselves with a political orientation when choosing a name for the half of the island of New Guinea. West Papua, which is not the name for the western half of the island, is preferred by ethnic Papuans. The region has had the names of Netherlands New Guinea, West New Guinea, West Irian, Irian Jaya. Indonesian president Abdurrahman Wahid considered his use of the name Papua in 2002 as a concession to the West Papuans. Since 2003, western New Guinea has had two provinces, the province of West Papua on the west, and the province of Papua on the east, officials and administrators refer to the province when they say West Papua, independence activists mean the whole of western New Guinea. The region is 1,200 kilometres from east to west and 736 kilometres from north to south and it has an area of 420,540 square kilometres, which equates to approximately 22% of Indonesias land area. The border with Papua New Guinea mostly follows the 141st meridian east, the island of New Guinea was once part of the Australian landmass and lie on the Sahul. The collision between the Indo-Australian Plate and Pacific plate resulting in the Maoke Mountains run through the centre of the region and are 600 km long and 100 km across. The range includes about ten peaks over 4,000 metres, including Puncak Jaya, Puncak Mandala, the range ensures a steady supply of rain from the tropical atmosphere
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Bird's Head Peninsula
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The Birds Head Peninsula or Doberai Peninsula is a large peninsula that makes up the northwest portion of the island of New Guinea and the major part of the Province of West Papua, Indonesia. The Birds Head Peninsula forms the end of the island of New Guinea. To the east is Cenderawasih Bay and to the south Bintuni Bay, to the west, across the Dampier Strait is Waigeo island of Raja Ampat, and Batanta island lies just off the northwest tip. The peninsula south is Bomberai Peninsula, the peninsula is around 200 by 300 kilometers, and is bio-geographically diverse, containing coastal plains to the south. The Arfak Mountains are a 2900-meter-high mountain range that are found in the east, slightly shorter than the Arfak Mountains, the Tamrau Mountains are found in the north. Bon Irau is the highest mountain in the Tamrau Mountains, at 2,501 meters, the highest mountain on the Birds Head Peninsula is Pegunungan Arfak. It is 2,955 meters high and is located 21 miles southwest of Manokwari, both of the mountain ranges have a diverse mix of sandstone, limestone, and volcanic rock. A large basin called the Kebar Valley divides the two mountain ranges apart, the peninsula is covered by the Vogelkop Montane Rain Forests Ecoregion. It includes more than 22,000 km2 of montane forests at elevations of 1,000 m, over 50% of these forests are located within protected areas. There are over 300 bird species on the peninsula, of which at least 20 are unique to the ecoregion and these include the grey-banded munia, Vogelkop bowerbird, and the king bird-of-paradise. Road construction, illegal logging, commercial expansion and ranching potentially threaten the integrity of the ecoregion. The south-western coast of the Birds Head Peninsula forms part of the Teluk Cenderawasih National Park, archaeological findings indicate that local settlement dates back at least 26,000 years BP. Today, most people live in villages along the coast, with small concentrations inland, villagers practise subsistence farming by shifting cultivation of copra, rice, corn and peanuts, as well as hunting. There are more than 80 villages scattered around the peninsula, there are about 18 main settlements that are the principal town of one of the five regencies found on the peninsula. These cities include Bintuni, Teminabuan, Sorong, Aimas, although, the largest settlements are the city of Sorong on the west coast and Manokwari on the east coast. Manokwari is the largest city with as of 2010 a population of 135,000, the city of Sorong has a population of 125,000 and a metropolitan area of 170,000. This city also has the largest metropolitan area, there are a large number of traditional languages spoken on the peninsula, classified as South Birds Head languages, East Birds Head languages, or West Papuan languages
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