1.
Minehead railway station
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Minehead railway station is situated in Minehead in Somerset, England. First opened in 1874 as the terminus and headquarters of the Minehead Railway and it reopened in 1976 and is now the terminus and headquarters of the West Somerset Railway, a heritage railway. The station was opened on 16 July 1874 by the Minehead Railway, the railway was operated by the Bristol and Exeter Railway which was amalgamated into the Great Western Railway in 1876. The Minehead Railway was itself absorbed into the GWR in 1897, the station was originally built with just one platform. The station offices were on the platform and a shed was opposite. In 1905 a second track was added on the side of the platform. An iron hut was added to provide more accommodation but was removed in the 1920s when the building was extended towards the town. The next major alterations came in 1934 when the single track line was replaced by a double line to cope with the heavy holiday traffic. The platforms were extended at the same time and they were now 1,250 feet long and a 200 feet canopy was provided to give extra shelter at the town end. The engine shed was closed in 1956, goods traffic ceased in 1964, the railway was closed on 4 January 1971. The station reopened on 28 March 1976 as a railway by a new West Somerset Railway. The goods shed was converted into a shed and extended in 1999. Meanwhile, the building was altered to be used as offices. The turntable was extended using genuine-GWR engineering pattern drawings to 65 feet, the station is on the sea front and close to the town centre. A wide, single platform has tracks on both sides, the main track on the seaward side is platform 1, while platform 2 stops short of the stone-built station buildings. The old goods shed is opposite the building and is now used as a locomotive workshop. Opposite platform 2 is the turntable, overlooked by an operated by the railway. The buildings on the platform include an office and a shop selling souvenirs
2.
Somerset
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Somerset is a county in South West England which borders Gloucestershire and Bristol to the north, Wiltshire to the east, Dorset to the south-east and Devon to the south-west. It is bounded to the north and west by the Severn Estuary and its traditional border with Gloucestershire is the River Avon. Somerset is a county of rolling hills such as the Blackdown Hills, Mendip Hills, Quantock Hills and Exmoor National Park. There is evidence of occupation from Paleolithic times, and of subsequent settlement in the Roman. The county played a significant part in the consolidation of power and rise of King Alfred the Great, and later in the English Civil War, the city of Bath is famous for its substantial Georgian architecture and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Somersets name derives from Old English Sumorsǣte, short for Sumortūnsǣte, an alternative suggestion is the name derives from Seo-mere-saetan meaning settlers by the sea lakes. The Old English name is used in the motto of the county, Sumorsǣte ealle, adopted as the motto in 1911, the phrase is taken from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Somerset settlement names are mostly Anglo-Saxon in origin, but some hill names include Brittonic Celtic elements, for example, an Anglo-Saxon charter of 682 refers to Creechborough Hill as the hill the British call Cructan and we call Crychbeorh. Some modern names are Brythonic in origin, such as Tarnock, the caves of the Mendip Hills were settled during the Palaeolithic period, and contain extensive archaeological sites such as those at Cheddar Gorge. Bones from Goughs Cave have been dated to 12,000 BC, examples of cave art have been found in Avelines Hole. Some caves continued to be occupied until modern times, including Wookey Hole, the Somerset Levels—specifically dry points at Glastonbury and Brent Knoll— also have a long history of settlement, and are known to have been settled by Mesolithic hunters. Travel in the area was facilitated by the construction of one of the worlds oldest known engineered roadways, the Sweet Track, the exact age of the henge monument at Stanton Drew stone circles is unknown, but it is believed to be Neolithic. There are numerous Iron Age hill forts, some of which, like Cadbury Castle, on the authority of the future emperor Vespasian, as part of the ongoing expansion of the Roman presence in Britain, the Second Legion Augusta invaded Somerset from the south-east in AD47. The county remained part of the Roman Empire until around AD409, a variety of Roman remains have been found, including Pagans Hill Roman temple in Chew Stoke, Low Ham Roman Villa and the Roman Baths that gave their name to the city of Bath. After the Romans left, Britain was invaded by Anglo-Saxon peoples, by AD600 they had established control over much of what is now England, but Somerset was still in native British hands. The Saxon royal palace in Cheddar was used several times in the 10th century to host the Witenagemot. After the Norman Conquest, the county was divided into 700 fiefs, Somerset contains HM Prison Shepton Mallet, which was Englands oldest prison still in use prior to its closure in 2013, having opened in 1610. In the English Civil War Somerset was largely Parliamentarian, with key engagements being the Sieges of Taunton, in 1685 the Monmouth Rebellion was played out in Somerset and neighbouring Dorset
3.
Bishops Lydeard railway station
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Bishops Lydeard railway station is a heritage railway station in the village of Bishops Lydeard, Somerset, England. It is the terminus for regular trains on the West Somerset Railway. The station was first opened on 31 March 1862 when the West Somerset Railway was opened from Norton Junction to Watchet, operated by the Bristol, there was also a house for the station master. The B&ER became part of the Great Western Railway in 1876, the second eastern platform was not added until 1906, together with a connecting foot bridge. The standard-pattern GWR medium-scale signal box was added at the end of the platform. On 10 June 1936 the line was doubled from here to Norton Fitzwarren, nationalisation in 1948 saw it become a part of the Western Region of British Railways. On 1 March 1970 the signal box was closed and its frame removed, the station was closed by BR along with the entire line 4 January 1971. Track remains to Norton Fitzwarren, controlled through a token and colour light signals, to allow special trains. The WSR revived the line from its end, starting at Minehead and operating to Stogumber. Initially the section west of Williton was operated as one-train-only, before the WSR began operating Bishops Lydeard as a terminus, HM Railway Inspectorate approved the new plans in 1997, and the full system including control of the Norton Fitwarren section came into use from August 1998. Today the station has two operational platforms and it is the headquarters of the West Somerset Railway Association which provides volunteer support for the railway and the Associationss Quantock Belle dining car train is based here. The original south western No.1 platform, was extended yet further towards Taunton by the WSR to allow for dual-platform departure. The old goods shed has been restored and is used as a centre and museum, its artefacts includes a GWR sleeping car. The original station offices with modern toilets are now used by the West Somerset Railway Association, the northern 1906-built platform, No.2, is today the stations main operating platform. Accessed via a carpark to its rear, it contains the office, toilets and a shop. This extension provided for the inclusion of the Taunton-facing platform No.3 and it is normally used to house the Quantock Belle dining cars. The northern locomotive stabling yard is also based here, which is where visiting locomotives arriving by road are unloaded onto the WSR. Trains run between Minehead and Bishops Lydeard at weekends and on other days from March to October, daily during the late spring and summer
4.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel
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Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships including the first propeller-driven transatlantic steamship, and numerous important bridges and tunnels. His designs revolutionised public transport and modern engineering, though Brunels projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems. Brunel set the standard for a railway, using careful surveys to minimise grades and curves. This necessitated expensive construction techniques, new bridges, new viaducts, one controversial feature was the wide gauge, a broad gauge of 7 ft 1⁄4 in, instead of what was later to be known as standard gauge of 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in. Brunel astonished Britain by proposing to extend the Great Western Railway westward to North America by building steam-powered iron-hulled ships and he designed and built three ships that revolutionised naval engineering, the Great Western, the Great Britain, and the Great Eastern. In 2002, Brunel was placed second in a BBC public poll to determine the 100 Greatest Britons, in 2006, the bicentenary of his birth, a major programme of events celebrated his life and work under the name Brunel 200. Brunels name is an amalgamation of his parents names and he inherited the family name of his father, and his middle name is his mothers surname. Brunels first name, Isambard, comes from his fathers middle name, Isambard is a Norman name of Germanic origin, meaning iron-bright. A cognate name is the German surname Eisenbarth, which can still be found today among Bavarians and German-Americans and he had two older sisters, Sophia and Emma, and the whole family moved to London in 1808 for his fathers work. Brunel had a childhood, despite the familys constant money worries. His father taught him drawing and observational techniques from the age of four, during this time he also learned fluent French and the basic principles of engineering. He was encouraged to draw interesting buildings and identify any faults in their structure, when Brunel was eight he was sent to Dr Morrells boarding school in Hove, where he learned the classics. When Brunel was 15, his father Marc, who had accumulated debts of over £5,000, was sent to a debtors prison. After three months went by with no prospect of release, Marc let it be known that he was considering an offer from the Tsar of Russia. In August 1821, facing the prospect of losing a prominent engineer, Brunel subsequently studied under the prominent master clockmaker and horologist Abraham-Louis Breguet, who praised Brunels potential in letters to his father. In late 1822, having completed his apprenticeship, Brunel returned to England, Brunels father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company. The composition of the riverbed at Rotherhithe was often more than waterlogged sediment. The latter incident, in 1828, killed the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death and he was seriously injured, and spent six months recuperating
5.
Somerset County Council
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Created by the Local Government Act 1888, with effect from 1889, the County Council administered the whole ceremonial county of Somerset, except for the county borough of Bath. With the creation of the county of Avon in 1974, a part of the north of the county was taken out of Somerset. However, Avon was disbanded on 1 April 1996 and the two new administratively independent unitary authorities were established, the area now covered by the county council consists of the five remaining non-unitary districts of Somerset – Mendip, Sedgemoor, South Somerset, Taunton Deane, and West Somerset. Interestingly, Somerset can claim a longer history of official record keeping than any other county in England. A meeting of Quarter Sessions held at Wells in 1617 decided that a room should be provided for the keeping of the records of the Sessions. The new system of democracy was a significant development and reflected the increasing range of functions carried out by local government in late Victorian Britain. Schools were added to the County Councils responsibilities in 1902, until 1974, Somerset had a large number of urban district and rural district councils. In 1974, local government was reorganized in England and Wales generally and this makes it one of the largest employers in Somerset. The Council outsourced some work to a joint venture with IBM, SouthWest One, in September 2012 the Council prepared to sue Southwest One as a result of a procurement quality dispute. Somerset County Council contributes to encouraging businesses to relocate to the county through the investment agency Into Somerset. Somerset County Council appoints eight members to the Devon and Somerset Fire, Somerset County Council operates the local government cabinet system which was introduced by the Local Government Act 2000. Previously called the Executive Board, the Cabinet consists of six county councillors and is the county councils main decision making body, each of the members of the Cabinet is directly responsible for a particular area of county council activities. Decisions to do with the planning matters dealt with by the county council, the first elections to the new county council were held on 23 January 1889. Since then, members have been elected for a term of office, until the early 1970s, the County Council still included aldermen. Of a total of 92 members,69 were elected every three years by ratepayers, and 23 were aldermen, chosen by the 69 elected members, the aldermen served for six years, so after each triennial election either eleven or twelve were appointed, these numbers alternating. Until 1910, the aldermen could also vote on such appointments. Elections to the county council in May 2013 returned Councillors in the numbers, -29 Conservatives,18 Liberal Democrats. The council is led by John Osman, One of the UKIP Councillors joined the Independent Group in February 2014
6.
Standard gauge
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The standard gauge is a widely used railway track gauge. Approximately 55% of the lines in the world are this gauge, all high-speed rail lines, except those in Russia, Uzbekistan, and Finland, are standard gauge. The distance between the edges of the rails is defined to be 1435 mm except in the United States. It is also called the UIC gauge or UIC track gauge, as railways developed and expanded, one of the key issues was the track gauge to be used. The result was the adoption throughout a large part of the world of a gauge of 1435 mm. In North East England, some lines in colliery areas were 4 ft 8 in. All these lines had been widened to standard gauge by 1846, parts of the United States, mainly in the Northeast, adopted the same gauge, because some early trains were purchased from Britain. However, until well into the half of the 19th century, Britain. The American gauges converged as the advantages of equipment interchange became increasingly apparent, notably, all the 5 ft broad gauge track in the South was converted to standard gauge over the course of two days beginning on 31 May 1886. See Track gauge in the United States, snopes categorized this legend as false, but commented that. It is perhaps more fairly labelled as True, but for trivial, the historical tendency to place the wheels of horse-drawn vehicles approximately 5 feet apart probably derives from the width needed to fit a carthorse in between the shafts. Others were 4 ft 4 in or 4 ft 7 1⁄2 in, the English railway pioneer George Stephenson spent much of his early engineering career working for the coal mines of County Durham. He favoured 4 ft 8 in for wagonways in Northumberland and Durham, the Hetton and Springwell wagonways also used this gauge. Stephensons Stockton and Darlington railway was primarily to transport coal from mines near Shildon to the port at Stockton-on-Tees. The initial gauge of 4 ft 8 in was set to accommodate the existing gauge of hundreds of horse-drawn chaldron wagons that were already in use on the wagonways in the mines. The railway used this gauge for 15 years before a change was made to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge, George Stephenson used the 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in gauge for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, authorised in 1826 and opened 30 September 1830. The success of this led to Stephenson and his son Robert being employed to engineer several other larger railway projects. Monkland and Kirkintilloch Railway, authorised 1824 and opened 1825, used 4 ft 6 in, Dundee and Newtyle Railway, authorised 1829 and opened 1831, used 4 ft 6 1⁄2 in
7.
Track gauge conversion
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In rail transport, gauge conversion is the process of converting a railway from one rail gauge to another, through the alteration of the railway tracks. An alternative to gauge conversion is dual gauge track, or gauge conversion of the vehicles themselves. Rails may be too light for the loads imposed by broader-gauge railcars, in some cases, gauge-convertible sleepers are installed before the conversion of the track itself. The sleepers must be enough to take the wider of the two gauges, and must be able to accommodate the fittings for both the existing and the new gauges. In cases where the difference between the two gauges is small, such as 1,000 mm and 1,067 mm track, or 1,435 mm and 1,524 mm track, in those cases, gauntlet track is required. Timber sleepers are always gauge convertible, provided that they are long enough, if the new gauge is wider than the old, a shorter sleeper than would normally be used can be tolerated, provided it still allows for secure fastening of the wider track. Concrete sleepers cannot be converted as an afterthought, but must have the future fittings cast in place when manufactured, steel sleepers should have the extra fitting incorporated when manufactured, though it is theoretically possible to drill or weld new fittings to the sleeper after installation. A special gauge-convertible sleeper, with a chair for the Pandrol clip. In June 2008, the South Australian government announced that by 2012 the Adelaide metropolitan network would be converted from 1,600 mm broad gauge to standard gauge, consequently, broad-gauge timber sleepers are progressively being replaced with gauge-convertible concrete sleepers on the metropolitan rail network. As of 2016, however, gauge conversion had not commenced, narrow-gauge railways often have a significantly smaller structure gauge, and therefore the rolling stock used has a smaller loading gauge in both height and width. Conversion to a track gauge will often require enlargement of the structure gauge on bridges, under road overpasses. Embankments and cuts could need widening as well, the minimum curve radius of narrow-gauge railways is often less than on tracks with a wider gauge, so route deviations might be required to allow the radius of curves to be increased. Track centres at stations with multiple tracks may also have to be increased, in this instance, the loading gauge of the broad gauge and standard gauge lines are essentially the same. Where vehicles cross a change of gauge, they must either be equipped for a change of bogie or have adjustable gauge axles. For example passenger trains crossing between the 1,435 mm system in France and the 1,668 mm in Spain pass through an installation which adjusts their variable gauge axles. This temporary alteration to allow through working is generally referred to as gauge change, in the event, few have been so converted, but one such is Victorian Railways R class R766. Because boilers and fireboxes are in the way locomotives can be converted only to a wider gauge, about 1860, the Bristol and Exeter Railway converted five 1,435 mm gauge locomotives to 7 ft gauge, and later converted them back again. In the 19th century, in the US, some broad 1,524 mm gauge locomotives were designed for conversion to 1,435 mm gauge
8.
Heritage railway
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A heritage railway is a railway kept to carry living history rail traffic in order to re-create or preserve railway scenes of the past. Often heritage railways are old railway lines preserved in a state which depicts a certain period, or periods, Heritage railway lines contain historic rail infrastructure that has been substituted or made obsolete in modern railway transit systems. Historical installations, such as hand operated points, water cranes, due to the lack of modern technology, or to a desire for historical accuracy, railway operations can be handled with traditional practices, such as the use of physical tokens. Use of heritage infrastructure and operations often calls for assigning roles based on historical occupations to the railway staff, station masters and signalmen, sometimes wearing period-appropriate attire, can be seen on some heritage railways. Most heritage railways carry heritage rolling stock, but modern rail vehicles can be used to showcase railway scenes with historical line infrastructure, still other heritage railways offer a viable public transit option and can therefore sustain operations with a sufficient amount of revenue from regular riders or government subsidies. Childrens railways are extracurricular educational institutions, where children and teenagers learn railway professions, often they are fully functional, passenger-carrying narrow gauge rail lines. This phenomenon originated in the USSR and was developed in Soviet times. Many sites were called pioneer railways, after the communist youth organisation, the first childrens railway was opened Moscow in 1932, and at the breakup of the USSR,52 childrens railways existed in the country. Even though the fall of communist governments has led to closures of these railways, many preserved childrens railways are still functioning in post-Soviet states, many childrens railways were built on parklands in urban areas. Unlike many industrial areas, typically served by a gauge railway. Child volunteers and socialist fiscal policy enabled stagnant existence for many of these railways, the old childrens railways, which still carry traffic, have often retained their original infrastructure and rolling stock, including vintage steam locomotives. Some have also acquired heritage vehicles from other railways, creating passages for trains up steep hills and through mountain regions offers many obstacles which call for special technical solutions. Special steep grade railway -technologies and extensive tunneling may be employed, the use of narrow gauge allows tighter curves in the track and offers a smaller structure gauge and tunnel size. Pit railways have been an important part of operating an underground mine all over the world, small rail vehicles offer effective transportation of ore and waste rock, as well as workers, through narrow tunnels. Sometimes the trains were the mode of transport in the passages between the work sites and the mine entrance. Often the loading gauge of the railway dictated the cross-section of the passages to be dug, and the tunnel, on many mining sites, pit railways have been abandoned due to mine closure or adoption of new kinds of transportation equipment. Nowadays some show mines exhibit a vintage pit railway and offer a chance to experience a mantrip into the mine, Millennium Underground Railway or M1, built from 1894 to 1896, is the oldest line of the Budapest Metro system and the second oldest underground railway in the world. In the 1980s and 1990s, M1 underwent major reconstruction, the original appearance of the old stations has been preserved
9.
Public limited company
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A public limited company is a type of public company under the United Kingdom company law, some Commonwealth jurisdictions, and the Republic of Ireland. It is a liability company whose shares may be freely sold and traded to the public, with a minimum share capital of £50,000. Similar companies in the United States are called publicly traded companies, public limited companies will also have a separate legal identity. A PLC can be either an unlisted or listed company on the stock exchanges, in the United Kingdom, a public limited company usually must include the words public limited company or the abbreviation PLC or plc at the end and as part of the legal company name. Welsh companies may choose to end their names with ccc. However, some public limited companies incorporated under special legislation are exempted from bearing any of the identifying suffixes. The term public limited company and the PLC/plc suffix were introduced in 1981, prior to this, all limited companies bore the suffix Limited, which is still used by private limited companies. When a new company incorporates in England and Wales or in Scotland, it must register with Companies House, Formation of a public limited company requires a minimum of one director and one secretary. In England and Wales and in Scotland, the male/female is under 16 years old, some people who are not British citizens are restricted as to what work they may do while in the UK, which may exclude them from being a director. The members must agree to some, or all, of the shares when the company is registered. The memorandum of association must show the names of the people who have agreed to take shares and these people are called the subscribers. There is a share capital for public limited companies, Before it can start business. A quarter of them, £12,500, must be paid up, each allotted share must be paid up to at least one quarter of its nominal value together with the whole of any premium. A company can increase its share capital by passing an ordinary resolution. A copy of the resolution – and notice of the increase on Form 123 – must reach Companies House within 15 days of being passed, no fee is payable to Companies House. A company can decrease its authorised share capital by passing a resolution to cancel shares which have not been taken or agreed to be taken by any person. Notice of the cancellation, on Form 122, must reach Companies House within one month, no fee is payable to Companies House. A company may have as different types of shares as it wishes
10.
Charitable trust
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A charitable trust is an irrevocable trust established for charitable purposes and, in some jurisdictions, a more specific term than charitable organization. In the Islamic Republic of Iran religious charitable trusts, or Bonyads, make up a part of the countrys economy. Unlike some other Muslim-majority countries, the bonyads receive large and controversial subsidies from the Iranian government, in England and Wales, charitable trusts are a form of express trust dedicated to charitable goals. There are a variety of advantages to charitable trust status, including exception from most forms of tax, to be a valid charitable trust, the organisation must demonstrate both a charitable purpose and a public benefit. There is also a requirement that the trusts purposes benefit the public, such trusts will be invalid in several circumstances, charitable trusts are not allowed to be run for profit, nor can they have purposes that are not charitable. In addition, it is considered unacceptable for charitable trusts to campaign for political or legal change, charitable trusts, as with other trusts, are administered by trustees, but there is no relationship between the trustees and the beneficiaries. This results in two things, firstly, the trustees of a charitable trust are far freer to act than other trustees and secondly, beneficiaries cannot bring a court case against the trustees. Rather, the beneficiaries are represented by the Attorney General for England and Wales as a parens patriae, jurisdiction over charitable disputes is shared equally between the High Court of Justice and the Charity Commission. The Commission, the first port of call, is tasked with regulating and promoting charitable trusts, as well as providing advice, where there are flaws with a charity, the High Court can administer schemes directing the function of the charity. In the United States, many individuals use charitable trusts to leave all or a portion of their estate to charity when they die, charitable trusts may be set up inter vivos or as a part of a trust or will at death. There are two types of US charitable trusts. The first is a lead trust, wherein the charity is paid first, the second is a remainder trust, wherein the charity is paid last after termination of the trust, after other beneficiaries have received payments. Payments may be fixed amount, annuity trust, or a percentage of principal and these split interest trusts are defined in §664 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 as amended and are normally tax-exempt. A section 664 trust makes its payments, either of an amount or a percentage of trust principal. At the end of the trust term, which may be based on either lives or a term of years, parents who have a child with a disability should ensure that the inheritance they leave for their child does not affect their childs eligibility for social assistance programs. A Henson trust can be useful to ensure this, charitable lead trusts make payments, either of a fixed amount or a percentage of trust principal, to charity during its term. At the end of the trust term, the remainder can either go back to the donor or to heirs named by the donor. The donor may sometimes claim a charitable tax deduction or a gift/estate tax deduction for making a lead trust gift
11.
Steam engine
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A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. Steam engines are combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products. Non-combustion heat sources such as power, nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle, in the cycle, water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure. When expanded through pistons or turbines, mechanical work is done, the reduced-pressure steam is then exhausted to the atmosphere, or condensed and pumped back into the boiler. Specialized devices such as hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler. The use of boiling water to mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for an engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped, Saverys steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine was the first commercial steam engine using a piston. In 1781 James Watt patented an engine that produced continuous rotary motion. Watts ten-horsepower engines enabled a range of manufacturing machinery to be powered. The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained, by 1883, engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible. The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution, the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is considered to be the first recorded steam engine. Torque was produced by steam jets exiting the turbine, in the Spanish Empire, the great inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained a patent for the first steam engine in history in 1603. Thomas Savery, in 1698, patented the first practical, atmospheric pressure and it had no piston or moving parts, only taps. It was an engine, a kind of thermic syphon, in which steam was admitted to an empty container. The vacuum thus created was used to water from the sump at the bottom of the mine
12.
Diesel locomotive
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A diesel locomotive is a type of railway locomotive in which the prime mover is a diesel engine. Several types of diesel locomotive have been developed, differing mainly in the means by which power is conveyed to the driving wheels. Early internal combustion engine-powered locomotives and railmotors used gasoline as their fuel, soon after Dr. Rudolf Diesel patented his first compression ignition engine in 1892, it was considered for railway propulsion. Progress was slow, however, as several problems had to be overcome, power transmission was a primary concern. As opposed to steam and electric engines, internal combustion engines work efficiently only within a range of turning frequencies. In light vehicles, this could be overcome by a clutch, in heavy railway vehicles, mechanical transmission never worked well or wore out too soon. Experience with early gasoline powered locomotives and railcars was valuable for the development of diesel traction, one step towards diesel-electric transmission was the petrol-electric vehicle, such as the Acsev Weitzer railmotor, which could operate from batteries and electric overhead wires too. Steady improvements in diesel design gradually reduced its size and improved its power-to-weight ratio to a point where one could be mounted in a locomotive. Once the concept of drive was accepted, the pace of development quickened. In 1930, Armstrong Whitworth of the United Kingdom delivered two 1,200 hp locomotives using engines of Sulzer design to Buenos Aires Great Southern Railway of Argentina, currently, almost all diesel locomotives are diesel-electric, although the diesel-hydraulic type was widely used between the 1950s and 1970s. The Soviet diesel locomotive TEP80-0002 lays claim to the speed record for a diesel railed vehicle. In 1894, a 20 h. p. two axle machine built by Priestman Brothers was used on the Hull Docks, in 1896 an oil-engined railway locomotive was built for the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England, in 1896, using an engine designed by Herbert Akroyd Stuart. It was not, strictly, a diesel because it used a hot bulb engine, following the expiration of Dr. Rudolf Diesels patent in 1912, his engine design was successfully applied to marine propulsion and stationary applications. However, the massiveness and poor power-to-weight ratio of early engines made them unsuitable for propelling land-based vehicles. Therefore, the potential as a railroad prime mover was not initially recognized. This changed as development reduced the size and weight of the engine, the worlds first diesel-powered locomotive was operated in the summer of 1912 on the Winterthur-Romanshorn Railroad in Switzerland, but was not a commercial success. In 1906, Rudolf Diesel, Adolf Klose and the steam, Sulzer had been manufacturing Diesel engines since 1898. During further test runs in 1913 several problems were found, after the First World War broke out in 1914, all further trials were stopped
13.
Taunton railway station
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Taunton railway station is a junction station on the route from London to Penzance,143 miles west of London Paddington station. It is situated in Taunton, Somerset, England and is operated by Great Western Railway and it is also served by CrossCountry trains and by the West Somerset Railway on special event days and by mainline steam excursions. Originally opened on 1 July 1842 as part of the Bristol and Exeter Railway, isambard Kingdom Brunels original design was for a single-sided station with two platforms, each with their own buildings and train sheds, placed on the south side of the line. A hotel was built between them and the Grand Western Canal, an engine shed was provided at the west end of the station. A series of branches opened in the area during the thirty years. These were the Yeovil branch line, the West Somerset Railway to Watchet, the Chard Branch Line, while none of these branches had a junction in Taunton, the trains were generally run through to Taunton to provide connections. The station was unable to cope with all these trains and passengers. Goods traffic was moved away from the platforms by the opening on 1 November 1896 of a pair of avoiding lines that skirted around the south side of the station behind the old hotel. A larger engine shed was opened in the same year, the platforms were extended again in 1895. Now covering the length of the original single-sided station, they were the longest platforms on the Great Western Railway. New bay platforms were added to handle the trains from the branch lines and this work forced another rebuilding of the station. The train shed was dismantled and new buildings constructed on the up side along with a new platform in the middle of the station. This gave a face for each of the four through lines. Work included a new subway that replaced the old footbridge, the old goods shed was replaced by a two-storey goods warehouse next to the avoiding line, east of the station on 20 February 1932. London trains stopping at Taunton now crossed over to the lines at the London end of the station. The second pair of lines from Cogload were removed in 1986, the goods depot closed for general traffic in 1965, although bulk coal was handled until 1972. The engine shed closed on 1 January 1972, by time it only served as a fueling point for local diesel shunting locomotives. The various branch lines closed during the 1960s and 1970s, so only one bay platform was retained for local trains starting towards Bristol, the island platform was taken out of regular use for a few years, although it could be opened up in an emergency
14.
Watchet railway station
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Watchet railway station is a station on the West Somerset Railway, a heritage railway in Somerset, England. It is situated in the harbour town of Watchet. The station opened on 31 March 1862 when the West Somerset Railway opened from Norton Junction, Watchet was chosen as the WSR lines terminus, as it had been since the Middle Ages an important regional port on the Bristol Channel. Local iron ore, timber and paper products were exported, whilst from the time it had become an important national port for the import of French wine. The commercial aim of the WSR in choosing Watchet as its terminus was hence to provide a wider and cheaper distribution route for goods from the port. The station forecourt originally linked both station building and goods shed, hence the now unusual alignment of the building facing towards Taunton. From the planning stage, the harbour was to be served by a network of tracks, the compact area available and the steep access inclines restricted maximum shunting length to six railway wagons. On the mainline track from the northeast, there was a goods loop and sidings to allow easier shunting. An engine shed was located here, which remained open until 1882. The harbour tracks and goods tracks remained in place until the line was closed by British Railways in 1971, on 16 July 1874 the line was extended westwards by the Minehead Railway Company, and an industrial railway siding was also provided for Wansbrough Paper Mill. The footbridge was built to maintain the right of way when the line was extended across the original forecourt to Minehead. A signal box on the embankment above the platform was provided to handle traffic on the line to Minehead, both lines were operated by the Bristol and Exeter Railway which became a part of the Great Western Railway in 1876. The Minehead Railway was taken over by the Great Western in 1897, the GWR increased the capacity of the line in the 1930s. It opened on 10 July 1933 but the box was only used during the daytime each summer. Nationalisation in 1948 saw the GWR become the Western Region of British Railways, on 24 August 1952 the signal box at Washford closed, and the one at Kentford remained open until 7 May 1964 when it also closed. Freight traffic was withdrawn on 6 July 1964 and passenger trains on 4 January 1971, the station was reopened by the new West Somerset Railway on 28 August 1976. The station still has a platform and station building, located on the opposite side of the single track running line from Watchet town centre. It is connected to them by a footbridge at the west end of the station, the former goods shed on the opposite side of the track is now occupied by the Watchet Boat Museum
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British Rail
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British Railways, which from 1965 traded as British Rail, was the operator of most of the rail transport in Great Britain between 1948 and 1997. It was formed from the nationalisation of the Big Four British railway companies and lasted until the privatisation of British Rail. Originally a trading brand of the Railway Executive of the British Transport Commission, the period of nationalisation saw sweeping changes in the national railway network. A process of dieselisation and electrification took place, and by 1968 steam locomotion had been replaced by diesel and electric traction. Passengers replaced freight as the source of business, and one-third of the network was closed by the Beeching Axe of the 1960s in an effort to reduce rail subsidies. On privatisation, responsibility for track, signalling and stations was transferred to Railtrack, the British Rail double arrow logo is formed of two interlocked arrows showing the direction of travel on a double track railway and was nicknamed the arrow of indecision. The rail transport system in Great Britain developed during the 19th century, during World War I the railways were under state control, which continued until 1921. Complete nationalisation had been considered, and the Railways Act 1921 is sometimes considered as a precursor to that, nationalisation was subsequently carried out after World War II, under the Transport Act 1947. This Act made provision for the nationalisation of the network, as part of a policy of nationalising public services by Clement Attlees Labour Government. British Railways came into existence as the name of the Railway Executive of the British Transport Commission on 1 January 1948 when it took over the assets of the Big Four. There were also joint railways between the Big Four and a few railways to consider. Excluded from nationalisation were industrial lines like the Oxfordshire Ironstone Railway, the London Underground – publicly owned since 1933 – was also nationalised, becoming the London Transport Executive of the British Transport Commission. The Bicester Military Railway was already run by the government, the electric Liverpool Overhead Railway was also excluded from nationalisation. The Railway Executive was conscious that some lines on the network were unprofitable and hard to justify socially, however, the general financial position of BR became gradually poorer, until an operating loss was recorded in 1955. The Executive itself had abolished in 1953 by the Conservative government. Other changes to the British Transport Commission at the time included the return of road haulage to the private sector. British Railways was divided into regions which were based on the areas the former Big Four operated in, later. Western Region of British Railways, former Great Western Railway lines, London Midland Region of British Railways, former London Midland and Scottish Railway lines in England
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Norton Fitzwarren railway station
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Norton Fitzwarren railway station is an untimetabled station on the West Somerset Railway in Somerset, England. It was built in 2009 about 1⁄4 mile north of the site of the old station that served the village of Norton Fitzwarren from 1873 until 1961, there were fatal railway accidents in the vicinity in 1890,1940 and 1978. The Bristol and Exeter Railway was opened through Norton Fitzwarren on 1 May 1843, on 31 March 1862 the original West Somerset Railway was opened to Watchet, leaving the Exeter line at Norton Junction, but still no station was provided. The first section of the Devon and Somerset Railway to Wiveliscombe opened on 8 June 1871, the first two-platform station was finally opened at the junction on 1 June 1873, located immediately east of the junction. On the northern platform side closest to the village was a station building, a hotel. Both the branch lines were operated by the B&ER until 1 January 1876 when it was amalgamated with the Great Western Railway, in 1931 the GWR started a project to quadruple the track between Cogload Junction, for the 7 miles south through Taunton to Norton Fitzwarren. A new metal bridge was erected, connecting the new station buildings to the north with both island platforms. The completion of the project allowed the GWR to create the large regional goods facility at Fairwater Yard. The whole project was brought into operation on 2 December 1931, at the start of World War II, the Royal Army Service Corps choose the relatively large scale station serving the small community as the ideal location for a new logistics depot. Finished at the end of 1941, it was taken over by the United States Army as part of Operation Bolero in early 1942. Redesignated Quartermaster General Depot G-50, they equipped it with extensive sidings to the northeast of the railway station. Part of the reasoning behind the choice of the depot, was that it was one of five within the 18 designated as a US Army Medical Corps supplies depot. Medical supplies were allocated 110,680 square feet of under cover storage, the US Army also locally developed the 67th General Hospital at Musgrove Park. Both facilities under the control of the US Army Medical Corps came into operation on 1 September 1942, on 1 January 1948 the railways were nationalised and Norton Fitzwarren became a part of the Western Region of British Railways. The goods yard continued to operate until 6 July 1964, when the facilities of Norton Manor Camp closed. Although this factory has closed, it was this private siding that allowed the West Somerset Railway, in its new heritage railway guise. Three significant accidents have happened on the line in the vicinity of Norton Fitzwarren. The train was derailed at points as the driver mistook main line signals for his own
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Network Rail
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Network Rail is the owner and infrastructure manager of most of the rail network in England, Scotland and Wales. Network Rail is an arms length public body of the Department for Transport with no shareholders, since 1 September 2014, Network Rail has been classified as a public sector body. Britains railway system was built by companies, but it was nationalised by the Transport Act 1947. Infrastructure and passenger and freight services were separated at that time, between 1994 and 2002 the infrastructure was owned and operated by Railtrack. The Hatfield train crash on 17 October 2000 was a moment in the collapse of Railtrack. The costs of modernising the West Coast Main Line were also spiralling, the purchase was completed on 3 October 2002. The SRA was abolished in November 2006, the company moved its headquarters to Kings Place,90 York Way, from 40 Melton Street, Euston, in August 2008. In October 2008, Sir Ian McAllister announced that he would not stand for re-election as chairman of Network Rail and he had held the position for six years. He noted that as Network Rail moved to a new phase in its development it was appropriate for a new chairman to lead it there, many track safety initiatives have been introduced in the time Network Rail has been responsible for this area. This ruling came into force in January 2009 for maintenance and property workers and in April 2009 for infrastructure, in 2009, allegations appeared in the media from the Transport Salaried Staffs Association concerning treatment of Network Rail employees. Former chief executive Iain Coucher was also accused of financial impropriety involving unspecified payments to his business partner Victoria Pender during his tenure at Network Rail, an internal investigation held by Network Rail in 2010, vetted by its auditors PricewaterhouseCoopers, uncovered no evidence of wrongdoing. An independent enquiry headed by Anthony White QC in 2011 further examined the claims, critical commentary appeared in the media concerning the knighthood awarded to John Armitt in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to engineering and construction. The reorganisation has been interpreted as a move back towards vertical integration of track, in 2016 Network Rail failed to check whether the Flying Scotsman could fit through tunnels along the Borders Route resulting in the cancellation of a trip just 24 hours before departure. Scottish Transport Minister Derek Mackay branded the affair a debacle, Network Rails attempt to electrify the West Coast Mainline has been dogged by poor planning and cost overruns, the projected cost has ballooned from by £1.2 billion to £2. It however owns a fleet of departmental stock, although it owns over 2,500 railway stations, it manages only 18 of the biggest and busiest of them, all the other stations being managed by one or other of the various train operating companies. Network Rail has a 15-year lease on Square One in Manchester with 800 staff in one of Manchesters largest refurbished office spaces, Network Rail should not be confused with National Rail. National Rail is not an organisation, but merely a brand, used to explain, the majority of Network Rail lines also carry freight traffic, some lines are freight only. A few lines that carry passenger traffic are not part of the National Rail network, conversely, a few National Rail services operate over track which is not part of the Network Rail network
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Bristol and Exeter Railway
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The Bristol & Exeter Railway was an English railway company formed to connect Bristol and Exeter. It was built on the gauge and its engineer was Isambard Kingdom Brunel. It opened in stages between 1841 and 1844 and it was allied with the Great Western Railway, which built its main line between London and Bristol, and in time formed part of a through route between London and Cornwall. At first it contracted with the GWR for that company to work the line, avoiding the expense of acquiring locomotives, but after that arrangement expired in 1849, the B&ER operated its own line. It opened a number of branches within the area it served, to Clevedon, Cheddar, Wells, Weston-super-Mare, Chard, Yeovil. The B&ER was financially successful but amalgamated with the GWR in 1876, the Great Western Railway obtained its authorising Act of Parliament in 1835, to build its line between London and Bristol. The merchants of Bristol were anxious to secure a route to Exeter, an important commercial centre. They promoted the Bristol and Exeter Railway and when they issued a prospectus on 1 October 1835, the Bill had an easy passage and was enacted on 19 May 1836. The Act did not specify the gauge of the track, branches at Bridgwater, notwithstanding the apparent family connection to the neighbouring GWR, none of the B&ER directors was also a GWR director at this time. The GWR was still under construction, the early euphoria turned to great difficulty in raising finance for construction. 4,000 of the 15,000 subscribed shares were forfeited for non-payment of calls before the line was built, a contract was let for the first part of the line, from a temporary terminus at Pylle Hill, west of the New Cut. The position improved somewhat in 1838, and indeed the Company obtained Parliamentary powers for four short branches, of only one. It was not until 5 March 1839 that the Company adopted the broad gauge, five locomotives were ordered from Sharp, Roberts & Co for the purpose. By the end of 1839 the Directors had decided to avoid the capital outlay by arranging with the GWR—by now in operation—to operate the line for them, by this time three Directors were also directors of the GWR, and the alliance was beginning to strengthen. The proposal to lease the line to the GWR was ratified by shareholders at a meeting in September 1841. The rent was to increase proportionally with the completion of the system, the first section of the line was opened between Bristol and Bridgwater on 14 June 1841, just before the GWR completed its line from London to Bristol. It was 33½ miles in length and double track, with a 1½ mile single-line branch to Weston-super-Mare, the Exeter station was at the site now known as Exeter St Davids station. The opening to Exeter competed the B&ER main line, and with the GWR formed a broad gauge line from London to Exeter with a mileage of 194 miles
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English Channel
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The English Channel, also called simply the Channel, is the body of water that separates southern England from northern France, and links the southern part of the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 560 km long and varies in width from 240 km at its widest to 33.3 km in the Strait of Dover and it is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some 75,000 km2. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the English Channel as follows, a line joining Isle Vierge to Lands End. The southwestern limit of the North Sea, the IHO defines the southwestern limit of the North Sea as a line joining the Walde Lighthouse and Leathercoat Point. The Walde Lighthouse is 6 km east of Calais, and Leathercoat Point is at the end of St Margarets Bay. The Strait of Dover, at the Channels eastern end, is its narrowest point and it is relatively shallow, with an average depth of about 120 m at its widest part, reducing to a depth of about 45 m between Dover and Calais. Eastwards from there the adjoining North Sea reduces to about 26 m in the Broad Fourteens where it lies over the watershed of the land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. It reaches a depth of 180 m in the submerged valley of Hurds Deep,48 km west-northwest of Guernsey. The eastern region along the French coast between Cherbourg and the mouth of the Seine river at Le Havre is frequently referred to as the Bay of the Seine. There are several islands in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast. The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is indented, several small islands close to the coastline, including Chausey. The Cotentin Peninsula in France juts out into the Channel, whilst on the English side there is a parallel channel known as the Solent between the Isle of Wight and the mainland. The Celtic Sea is to the west of the Channel, the time difference of about six hours between high water at the eastern and western limits of the Channel is indicative of the tidal range being amplified further by resonance. It was never defined as a border and the names were more or less descriptive. It was not considered as the property of a nation, strangely, before the development of the modern nations, British scholars very often referred to it as Gaulish and the French one as British or English. The name English Channel has been used since the early 18th century. In modern Dutch, however, it is known as Het Kanaal, later, it has also been known as the British Channel or the British Sea having been called the Oceanus Britannicus by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy. The same name is used on an Italian map of about 1450, the Anglo-Saxon texts often call it Sūð-sǣ as opposed to Norð-sǣ
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Watchet
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Watchet is a harbour town, civil parish and electoral ward in the English county of Somerset, with a population of 3,785. It is situated 15 miles west of Bridgwater,15 miles north-west of Taunton, the parish includes the hamlet of Beggearn Huish. The town lies at the mouth of the Washford River on Bridgwater Bay, part of the Bristol Channel, the original settlement may have been at the Iron Age fort Daws Castle. It then moved to the mouth of the river and a small harbour developed, named by the celts as Gwo Coed meaning Under the Wood. After the Saxon conquest of the area the town developed and was known as Weced or Waeced and was attacked by Vikings in the 10th century, the West Somerset Railway also served the town and port bringing goods and people from the Bristol and Exeter Railway. The iron ore trade reduced and ceased in the early-20th century, the port continued a smaller commercial trade until 2000 when it was converted into a marina. The church is dedicated to Saint Decuman who is thought to have died here around 706, an early church was built near Daws Castle and a new church was erected in the 15th century. It has several tombs and monuments to Sir John Wyndham and his family who were the lords of the manor, samuel Taylor Coleridges poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner which was written in the area is commemorated by a statue on the harbourside. Daws Castle is an Iron Age sea cliff hill fort about 0.5 miles to the west of the town. It was built and fortified, on the site of a settlement, as a burh by Alfred the Great. It is situated on an east-west cliff about 80 metres above the sea and its ramparts would have formed a semicircle backing on to the sheer cliffs, but only about 300 metres are visible today. A Saxon mint was established here in 1035, probably within the fort, there is no sign of Roman occupation, but the Anglo-Saxons took Watchet from the native Britons around AD680. Under Alfred the Great Watchet became an important port, and coins minted here have found as far away as Copenhagen. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records the early port being plundered by Danes led by Earl Ottir, Watchet is believed to be the place where Saint Decuman was killed around 706 and its parish church is dedicated to him. At the time of the Domesday Book Watchet was part of the held by William de Moyon. The parish of Watchet was in the Williton and Freemanners Hundred in the Middle Ages, T With access to wood from the Quantock Hills, records show that paper making was established by 1652. In the 15th century, a mill was established by the Fulford. By 1587 the Wyndham estate had established a fulling and grist mill to the south west, by 1652, the mill had started to produce paper
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Stogumber
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Stogumber is a village and civil parish in Somerset, England, on the eastern flank of the Brendon Hills. Besides Stogumber village itself, the parish includes the hamlets of Ashbeer, Capton, Escott, Higher Vexford, Kingswood, Lower Vellow, Lower Vexford, Preston, the village is on the route of the Samaritans Way South West. The name comes from the Old English Stoke meaning place or dairy farm with the addition in 1225 of the personal name Gunner, approximately 0.8 miles north-west of the village is Curdon Camp a univallate Iron Age hill fort. The camp was completely destroyed by quarrying and bulldozing. The parish of Stogumber was part of the Williton and Freemanners Hundred, the manor of Stogumber was held from 1286 by the Andleys family and later the Sydenhams and Notleys. Five fulling mills were established in the village between the 13th and 18th century to support the cloth making industry, a 19th-century limekiln in Lower Vellow was originally attached to a quarry. The parish council has responsibility for issues, including setting an annual precept to cover the councils operating costs. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security. Conservation matters and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council, the village falls within the Non-metropolitan district of West Somerset, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Williton Rural District. It is also part of the Bridgwater and West Somerset county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, Combe Sydenham is a Grade I listed 15th-century manor house. Hartrow Manor was a manor house. Stogumber railway station is a station on the West Somerset Railway. The parish Church of St Mary dates from the late 13th century and it has been designated as a Grade I listed building. It was founded as a Saxon minster with a chapelry at Bicknoller and other dues payable from property in Monksilver, the Old Vicarage which is a now private dwelling, was built in the 15th century. The old brewhouse behind the vicarage is medieval in origin, the Chantry chapel in Vellow was licensed as the Chapel of Our Lady Sweetwell in 1542. The Baptist Church in Brook Street dates from the 19th century, George Fredrick Curtis, the founding dean of the University of British Columbia Faculty of Law was born in the village. Elizabeth Sydenham of Combe Sydenham married Sir Francis Drake in the village in 1583, richard Tucker Founder of Portland, Maine in 1633 was born in Stogumber in 1594. John de Stogumber is the name of a bishop in George Bernard Shaws play Saint Joan, the name was selected after Shaw contacted the local rector to check that there was no-one living with the surname
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Bishops Lydeard
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Bishops Lydeard is a village and civil parish located in Somerset, England,5 miles north-west of Taunton in the district of Taunton Deane. The civil parish had a population of 2,839 persons as recorded in the 2011 census, the village is bypassed, since 1967, by the A358 road, the West Somerset Railway also runs through the area. The hamlet of East Lydeard is less than a mile to the east of the village, west of the village is Sandhill Park, an eighteenth-century country house. The name of the village relates to Gisa, Bishop of Wells. Lydeard is a compound of two Saxon personal names Lide and Geard, the remaining as a local name, Yarde. As well as a name, geard means a fence, enclosure. The parish of Bishops Lydeard was part of the Kilmersdon Hundred, Cotford St Luke is a new village, built in the southern part of Bishops Lydeard parish, which became a separate civil parish in 2011, splitting off from Bishops Lydeard. The parish council has responsibility for issues, including setting an annual precept to cover the council’s operating costs. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security. Conservation matters and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council, the village falls within the Non-metropolitan district of Taunton Deane, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Taunton Rural District. There is a ward with the same name as the parish. However the most populous area of the ward is at Cotford St. Luke from where it visits Halse, the ward has a population of 6,323 as at the 2011 Census. It is also part of a county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, there were originally two flour mills in the Bishops Lydeard. The Bishops Lydeard Mill and Rural Life Museum is housed in a building which dates from the 18th century and it has an overshot waterwheel and has been designated as a Grade II listed building. Since 2000 the building has been renovated and was opened by the town Mayor in 2003, the water wheel weighs over two tonnes and is driven by water from Back Stream which originates in the Brendon Hills. The museum focuses on traditional trades and crafts including a shop, coopers shop, saddlers shop, blacksmiths shop. Sandhill Park was built as a house around 1720. It was built by John Periam, the Member of Parliament for Minehead, as Hill House, during World War I it was used as a prisoner of war camp for German and Austrian Officers
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Bridport
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Bridport is a market town in Dorset, England, situated approximately 1.5 miles inland from the English Channel near the confluence of the small River Brit and its tributary the Asker. Its origins are Saxon and it has a history as a rope-making centre. On the coast and within the boundary is West Bay. In the 21st century Bridports arts scene has contributed to the town becoming increasingly popular with people from outside the locality and it has an arts centre, theatre, library, cinema and museum, and several annual events. It features as Port Bredy in the fictional Wessex of Thomas Hardys novels, in the 2011 census the population of Bridports built-up area was 13,568. The town is twinned with Saint-Vaast-la-Hougue, France, Bridports name probably derives from another location nearby. In the early 10th century the Burghal Hidage recorded the existence of a centre or burh in this area, called Brydian. A probable location for an earlier burh is at Littlebredy, in 1086 the Domesday Book recorded that the town was called Brideport, port is Old English for a market town, thus Brideport may have described the market town belonging to or associated with Bredy. At a later date, in a reversal of a more typical derivation, the town lent its name to the river on which it stood, previously this had been the River Wooth, the Domesday Book recorded that Bridport had 120 houses in the reign of Edward the Confessor. In 1253 the town was awarded its first charter by Henry III, around this time the town was also subjected to attacks by raiding French and Spanish forces. Since the Middle Ages Bridport has been associated with the production of rope, the earliest official record of this industry dates from 1211, when King John ordered that Bridport make as many ropes for ships both large and small and as many cables as you can. The raw materials needed, flax and hemp, used to be grown in the surrounding countryside, Bridports main street is particularly wide due to it previously having been used to dry the ropes, after they had been spun in long gardens behind the houses. Ropes for gallows used to be made in the town, hence the phrase stabbed with a Bridport dagger being used to describe a hanging, in the English Civil War the population of Bridport mainly supported the royalists. At the end of the war in 1651 Charles II briefly stayed in the town as he sought to escape Parliamentarian forces after his defeat at the Battle of Worcester, many buildings in Bridport, particularly in the main street, date from the 18th century. Bridport Town Hall was built in 1785-6, with its clock tower, older buildings can be found in South Street, and include the 13th-century St. Marys parish church, the 14th-century chantry and the 16th-century Bridport Museum. In 1857 the Bridport Railway was opened, which joined the town with the national rail network. This benefitted the towns industry and brought cheaper goods such as coal to the area. In 1884 the line was extended from Bridports station to a new terminus on the coast at Bridport Harbour, the West Bay extension closed to passengers in 1930 and all traffic in 1962
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Land's End
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Lands End is a headland and holiday complex in western Cornwall, England. It is the most westerly point of mainland Cornwall and England, is within the Penwith peninsula and is eight miles west-south-west of Penzance at the western end of the A30 road. The actual Land’s End or Peal Point, is a modest headland compared with nearby headlands such as Pedn-men-dhu overlooking Sennen Cove and Pordenack, the present hotel and tourist complex is at Carn Kez,200 m south of the actual Land’s End. Lands End has a particular resonance because it is used to suggest distance. Lands End to the northernmost point of England is a distance of 556 miles by road, there are two varieties of granite represented at Lands End. Adjacent to the hotel the granite is coarse-grained with large phenocrysts of orthoclase, the granite dates to 268–275 million years ago of the Permian period. The contact zone between the Lands End granite pluton and the altered ″country rocks″ is nearby and the Longships Lighthouse, Lands End is a popular venue for rock climbers. The area around Lands End has been designated part of an Important Plant Area, by the organisation Plantlife, tourists have been visiting Land’s End for over two hundred years. In 1878 people left Penzance by horse-drawn vehicles from outside the Queens and Union hotels and travelled via St Buryan and Treen, there was a short stop to look at Porthcurno and the Eastern Telegraph Company followed by refreshments at the First and Last Inn in Sennen. They then headed for Land’s End, often on foot or horse, because of the uneven, over one hundred people could be at Lands End at any one time. At Carn Kez, the First and Last Inn owned a house which looked after the horses while visitors roamed the cliffs. The house at Carn Kez eventually developed into the present hotel, the earliest part of the house was damaged by the Luftwaffe when a plane returning from a raid on Cardiff jettisoned its remaining bombs. A number of local fisherman were injured or killed, in the build-up to D-Day American troops were billeted in the hotel leaving the building in a bad state. In 1987, Peter de Savary outbid the National Trust to purchase Land’s End for almost £7 million from David Goldstone and he had two new buildings erected and much of the present theme park development was instigated by him. He sold both Lands End and John o Groats to businessman Graham Ferguson Lacey in 1991, the current owners purchased Land’s End in 1996 and formed a company named Heritage Great Britain PLC. Attractions at the park include childrens playgrounds and recorded music. Twice a week in August, Lands End hosts Magic in the Skies, within the complex is the Lands End Hotel. In May 2012, Lands End received worldwide publicity as the point of the 2012 Summer Olympics torch relay
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Williton
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Williton is a large village and civil parish in Somerset, England. It has many of the features of a town, being the administrative centre for the district of West Somerset. Williton is situated at the junction of the A39, A358 and B3191 roads, the parish includes the seaside village of Doniford and the hamlet of St Decumans. Williton station is on the West Somerset Railway line, Doniford Halt on the same line serves the nearby Haven Holiday centre. Since 1974 Williton has been administered by West Somerset District Council, the Parish Council was created in 1983. It is a district for Births, Marriages and Deaths. Williton is twinned with Neung-sur-Beuvron in the Loir-et-Cher département of France, until 1902 Williton was part of the ancient parish of Saint Decuman, which included also the town of Watchet. The parish of St Decuman was part of the Williton and Freemanners Hundred, within Williton parish, to the south-west, is Orchard Wyndham House, a Grade I listed building, which was the centre of an estate called Orchard. Both watercourses seem to have known as the Willet in the 12th century. Willet may well be a British name, in the Domesday Survey Williton continued to form a royal estate, with Carhampton and Cannington. In the Middle Ages the village was divided into the manors of Williton Fulford, an estate known as Williton Templar belonged to the Knights Templar, and was later known as Williton Hospital and Williton Regis. Originally the centre of the village appears to have been near the church, much of the centre of Williton dates from the later 19th century but Long Street includes several 17th-century houses, as do Bridge, Priest, Robert and Shutgate Streets. Agriculture has been the activity in the parish while Williton village became a local government. Its importance increased with the creation of new roads that today are the main roads to the village. It is an important local shopping area and from 1894 has been an administration centre and it had a workhouse for the district, which became the local hospital until 1990 but has now been converted into housing. Doniford House has late medieval origins and was enlarged circa 1600, beside the beach is an early 19th-century lime kiln which is thought to have been in operation until the 1930s. Before World War II at a site between Watchet and Doniford a gunnery range was established for various units to practice anti-aircraft gunnery. Unmanned target aircraft were towed by planes from RAF Weston Zoyland, little of the camp buildings survive and it is now the site of a holiday park
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Minehead
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Minehead is a coastal town and civil parish in Somerset, England. It lies on the bank of the Bristol Channel,21 miles north-west of the county town of Taunton,12 miles from the border with the county of Devon. The parish of Minehead has a population of approximately 11,981 making it the most populous town in the West Somerset local government district and this figure includes Alcombe and Woodcombe, suburban villages which have been subsumed into Minehead. There is evidence of occupation in the area since the Bronze. There was a port at Minehead by 1380, which grew into a major trading centre during the medieval period. Most trade transferred to larger ports during the 20th century, there was a marked increase in building during the early years of the 20th century, which resulted in the wide main shopping avenue and adjacent roads with Edwardian style architecture. The towns flood defences were improved after a storm in 1990 caused flooding, Minehead is governed by a town council, which was created in 1983 and has been part of the West Somerset local government district since 1974. In addition to the church of St. Michael on the Hill in Minehead. Alcombe is also home to the Spiritualist Church in Grove Place, since 1991, Minehead has been twinned with Saint-Berthevin, a small town close to the regional centre of Laval in the Mayenne département of France. Blenheim Gardens, which is Minehead’s largest park, was opened in 1925, the town is also the home of a Butlins Holiday Park which increases Mineheads seasonal tourist population by several thousand. There are a variety of schools and religious, cultural and sporting facilities including sailing and wind surfing, the town is the starting point of the South West Coast Path National Trail, the nations longest long-distance countryside walking trail. The Minehead Railway was opened in 1874 and closed in 1971 but has since reopened as the West Somerset Railway. The town sits at the foot of a steeply rising outcrop of Exmoor known as North Hill, and the name of the town was mynydd. It has also written as Mynheafdon, Maneheve, Menehewed and Menedun. Minehead was part of the hundred of Carhampton and it is mentioned as a manor belonging to William de Moyon in the Domesday Book in 1086, although it had previously been held by Ælfgar, Earl of Mercia. William de Mohun of Dunster, 1st Earl of Somerset and his descendants administered the area from Dunster Castle, which was later sold to Sir George Luttrell and his family. There was a port at Minehead by 1380, but it was not until 1420 that money given by Lady Margaret Luttrell enabled improvements to be made. During the reign of Elizabeth I, the town had its own Port Officer similar to the position at Bristol, vessels in the 15th century included the Trinite which traded between Ireland and Bristol, and others carrying salt and other cargo from La Rochelle in France
27.
Porlock
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Porlock is a coastal village in Somerset, England,5 miles west of Minehead. It has a population of 1,440, in 2010, Porlock had the most elderly population in Britain, with over 40% being of pensionable age. East of the village is Bury Castle, an Iron Age hill fort, Porlock was part of the hundred of Carhampton. The area has links with several Romantic poets, and R. D. Blackmore, the author of Lorna Doone, the visitor centre has exhibits and displays about the local area. Also on display are the bones of an aurochs, discovered on Porlock beach in 1999, the parish council has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept to cover the council’s operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security. Conservation matters and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council, the village falls within the Non-metropolitan district of West Somerset, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Williton Rural District. Porlock has a ward called Porlock and District but this stretches westwards to the Devon boundary, eastwards to Minehead. The total population of the ward at the 2011 cenus was 2,338 and it is also part of the Bridgwater and West Somerset county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Copses of white dead trees remind the visitor of when this was freshwater pasture, a stream flows down a wooded combe called Hawkcombe leads about three miles from the village up to high open moorland. The stream, called Hawkcombe Waters, runs past a Victorian hunting lodge, called The Cleeve, the South West Coast Path goes through Porlock, many walkers stopping rather than continuing the long walk to Lynton. There is also a Coleridge Way walk, Culbone Church is said to be the smallest church in England. The main structure is 12th century, services are still held there, despite the lack of road access – Culbone is a two-mile walk from Porlock Weir, and some 3–4 miles from Porlock itself. A toll road bypasses the 1 in 4 gradient on Porlock Hill, there is the prehistoric Porlock Stone Circle on the hill. At low tide the remains of a submerged forest can be seen on Porlock Beach, the area was several miles inland until the sea level in the Bristol Channel rose about 7000 to 8000 years ago. The Church of St Dubricius dates from the 13th century, the spire was damaged in a storm of 1703. The church has been designated by English Heritage as a grade I listed building, within the church is a 15th-century tomb of John Harrington who fought alongside Henry V in France in 1417. Coleridge and William Wordsworth would often roam the hills and coast on long night walks, the Government sent an agent to investigate, but found they were mere poets
28.
Exmoor
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Exmoor is loosely defined as an area of hilly open moorland in west Somerset and north Devon in South West England. It is named after the River Exe, the source of which is situated in the centre of the area, two miles north-west of Simonsbath. Exmoor is more defined as the area of the former ancient royal hunting forest, also called Exmoor. The moor has given its name to a National Park, which includes the Brendon Hills, the East Lyn Valley, the total area of the Exmoor National Park is 692.8 km2, of which 71% is in Somerset and 29% in Devon. The upland area is underlain by sedimentary rocks dating from the Devonian, where these reach the coast cliffs are formed which are cut with ravines and waterfalls. It was recognised as a heritage coast in 1991, the highest point on Exmoor is Dunkery Beacon, at 519 metres it is also the highest point in Somerset. The terrain supports lowland heath communities, Ancient woodland and blanket mire which provide a habitat for some scarce flora, there have also been reports of The Beast of Exmoor, a cryptozoological cat roaming Exmoor. Several areas have been designated as Nature Conservation Review and Geological Conservation Review sites, there is evidence of human occupation from the Mesolithic. This developed for agriculture and extraction of mineral ores into the bronze, the remains of standing stones, cairns and bridges can still be identified. The royal forest was granted a charter in the 13th century, in the Middle Ages sheep farming was common with a system of agistment licensing the grazing of livestock as the Inclosure Acts divided up the land. The area is now used for a range of recreational purposes, Exmoor has been designated as a national character area by Natural England, the public body responsible for Englands natural environment. Neighbouring natural regions include The Culm to the southwest, the Devon Redlands to the south, Exmoor was designated a National Park in 1954, under the 1949 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act. The Exmoor National Park is primarily an area with a dispersed population living mainly in small villages. The largest settlements are Porlock, Dulverton, Lynton, and Lynmouth, Lynton and Lynmouth are combined into one parish and are connected by the Lynton and Lynmouth Cliff Railway. Exmoor was once a Royal forest and hunting ground, covering 18,810 acres, several areas within the Exmoor National Park have been declared Sites of Special Scientific Interest due to their flora and fauna. This title earns the site some protection from development, damage. In 1993 an environmentally sensitive area was established within Exmoor, Exmoor is an upland area formed almost exclusively from sedimentary rocks dating from the Devonian and early Carboniferous periods. The name of the period and system, Devonian, comes from Devon
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Stogursey
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Stogursey is the name of a small village and civil parish in the Quantock Hills in Somerset, England. It is situated 3 miles from Nether Stowey, and 8 miles west of Bridgwater, the village is situated near the Bristol Channel, which bounds the parish on the north. The parish includes the village of Stolford, which is believed to mean The stile ford from the Old English stigol and ford, and the hamlets of Burton, Knighton, Shurton, Stoford, Week, and Fairfield. On the beach near Stogursey are the remains of a submerged forest dated to 2500 B. C, a Romano-British coin hoard was discovered in 1999. It contained 1,097 base silver radiates, the remains of a vessel and 50 copper alloy coins. It takes its name from the manor of Stoke, medieval Stoche was in the possession of William de Falaise by 1086, who had recently married Geva, daughter of Serlo de Burci, and widow of Martin de Wallis. Early in the 12th century, William and Gevas daughter, Emma, was betrothed to William de Courcy, the manor was renamed Stoke Courcy, and is now known as Stogursey. Stogursey Castle was probably built in the 12th century, the best-known member of the family was John de Courcy, who made himself virtual Prince of Ulster after conquering it in 1177. He died about 1219, his descendants today being the Baron Kingsale of Ireland, during the reign of King John of England it became the property of one of his favourites and closest advisors, Fulke de Breauté of Gascony. Fulkes sister, Avice de Breauté, was mother of Sir Nicholas FitzMartin, who, like the de Courcys, was a descendant of Geva de Burci, part of a curtain wall from the castle remains incorporated into a cottage. It is a Grade II* listed building and Scheduled Ancient Monument, the remains of a Ham stone village cross on the High Street is from the Middle Ages. Approximately 1 metre of the shaft is still in the socket stone. In the Middle Ages Stogursey was an important place and it became a borough by 1225, and retained that status until at least 1833. Stogursey was part of the hundred of Cannington, the ancient parish of Stogursey was large. It included the north foreshore of the Steart Peninsula, including Stert Island which broke from the mainland in about 1798, in 1885 Stert Island was transferred to the parish of Huntspill, and in 1933 the north side of the Steart Peninsula was transferred to the parish of Otterhampton. Wick Barrow, near Stogursey, is associated with pixies and it is said that a ploughman working nearby once mended a pixies broken peel, and the pixie baked a cake to reward him. The parish council has responsibility for issues, including setting an annual precept to cover the council’s operating costs. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security
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Quantock Hills
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The Quantock Hills is a range of hills west of Bridgwater in Somerset, England. The Quantock Hills were Englands first Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, being designated in 1956, Natural England have designated the Quantock Hills as national character area 144. They are entirely surrounded by NCA146, the Vale of Taunton, the hills run from the Vale of Taunton Deane in the south, for about 15 miles to the north-west, ending at Kilve and West Quantoxhead on the coast of the Bristol Channel. They form the border of Sedgemoor and the Somerset Levels. The highest point on the Quantocks is Wills Neck, at 1,261 feet, soil types and weather combine to support the hills plants and animals. In 1970 an area of 6,194.5 acres was designated as a Biological Site of Special Scientific Interest, archaeological landscape features include Bronze Age round barrows, extensive ancient field systems and Iron Age hill forts. Evidence from Roman times includes silver coins discovered in West Bagborough, the hills are now a peaceful area popular with walkers, mountain bikers, horse riders and tourists. They explore paths such as the Coleridge Way or visit places of interest in the surrounding villages, the name first appears in Saxon charters in around AD880 as Cantuctun and two centuries later in the Domesday Book as Cantoctona and Cantetone. The name means settlement by a rim or circle of hills, Cantuc is Celtic for a rim or circle, a battle was fought locally at that time. The Quantock Hills are largely formed by rocks of the Devonian period, in the higher north-western areas older Early Devonian rocks known as Hangman Grits predominate and can be seen in the exposed rock at West Quantoxhead quarry, which was worked for road building. The Hangman Grits are described in three divisions, the lowest are the Little Quantock Beds, which are located near Crowcombe, between Triscombe and West Quantoxhead is a layer of the Triscombe Beds which is around 500 metres thick and is made up of green sandstone and mudstones. The uppermost division is the Hodders Combe Beds of sandstone and conglomerate and is approximately 300 metres thick, further south there are newer Middle and Late Devonian rocks, known as Ilfracombe beds and Morte Slates. These include sandstone and limestone, which have been quarried near Aisholt, at Great Holwell, south of Aisholt, is the only limestone cave in the Devonian limestone of North Devon and West Somerset. The lower fringes around the hills are composed of younger New Red Sandstone rocks of the Triassic period and these rocks were laid down in a shallow sea and often contain irregular masses or veins of gypsum, which was mined on the foreshore at Watchet. Several areas have outcrops of slates, younger rocks of the Jurassic period can be found between St Audries and Kilve. This area falls within the Blue Anchor to Lilstock Site of Special Scientific Interest and is considered to be of geological importance. Kilve has the remains of a red-brick retort built in 1924 after the shale in the cliffs was found to be rich in oil, along this coast, the cliffs are layered with compressed strata of oil-bearing shale and blue, yellow and brown Lias embedded with fossils. The Shaline Company was founded in 1924 to exploit these strata but was unable to raise sufficient capital, the companys retort house is thought to be the first structure erected here for the conversion of shale to oil and is all that remains of the anticipated Somerset oil boom
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Crowcombe
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Crowcombe is a village and civil parish under the Quantock Hills in Somerset, England,5.5 miles south east of Watchet, and 8 miles from Taunton. The village has a population of 489, the parish covers the hamlets of Crowcombe Heathfield, Flaxpool, Halsway, Lawford and Triscombe. The village is on the route of the Samaritans Way South West, the name Triscombe is believed to derive from the Old English words treows and cumb. The first documentary evidence of the village is by Æthelwulf of Wessex in 854, at that time the manor belonged to Glastonbury Abbey. Later Gytha Thorkelsdóttir, wife of Earl Godwin, gave it to the monks of Winchester to make amends for her husbands treacherous abuses of divers monastic institutions. The Domesday Book of 1086 lists the village as Crawcombe, which is believed to come from the Old English words craw, the parish of Crowcombe was part of the Williton and Freemanners Hundred. The medieval cross of red sandstone is 170 metres north west of Holy Ghost Church, the octagonal shaft is 3 metres high, topped by a Greek cross added in the 19th century, standing on an octagonal base. Crowcombe Heathfield railway station is two miles from the village on the West Somerset Railway, a heritage railway, a small part of the filming of The Beatles first feature film, A Hard Days Night, took place here. The parish council has responsibility for issues, including setting an annual precept to cover the council’s operating costs. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security. Conservation matters and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council, the village falls within the Non-metropolitan district of West Somerset, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Williton Rural District. There is an electoral ward termed Crowcombe and Stogumber and this extends westerly from Crowcombe via Stogumber to Willett. The total population at the 2011 Census was 1,191 and it is also part of the Bridgwater and West Somerset county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It is the point on the Quantock Greenway a footpath exploring the Quantock Hills. The meadows contain Cornish moneywort, a scarce plant restricted to south-west Britain. Crowcombe Court is a country house dating from 1724–39, by Thomas Parker. Minor alterations were carried out by Edward Middleton Barry around 1870 and it has previously been used as a nursing home and today the Court is hired out for weddings and other functions. Halsway Manor is Englands National Centre for Traditional Music, Dance and it is the only residential folk centre in the UK
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Bridgwater
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Bridgwater is a market town and civil parish in Somerset, England. At the 2011 census, it had a population of 35,886, Bridgwater is at the edge of the Somerset Levels, in level and well-wooded country, to the north are the Mendips and to the west the Quantock hills. The town lies along both sides of the River Parrett,10 miles from its mouth, has been a port and trading centre. It is linked to Taunton by the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal, Bridgwater is between two junctions of the M5 motorway and Bridgwater railway station is on the main railway line between Bristol and Taunton. Historically, the town had a politically radical tendency, the Battle of Sedgemoor, where the Monmouth Rebellion was finally crushed in 1685, was fought nearby. Notable buildings include the Church of St Mary and the house in Blake Street, largely restored, which was the birthplace of Admiral Blake in 1598, the town has an arts centre and plays host to the annual Bridgwater Guy Fawkes Carnival. It is thought that the town was originally called Brigg, meaning quay and it has been argued that the name may instead come from the Old English brycg or Old Norse bryggja, though this idea has been opposed on etymological grounds. In the Domesday Book the town is listed as Brugie, while Brugia was also used, after the Norman invasion the land was given to Walter of Douai, hence becoming known variously as Burgh-Walter, Brugg-Walter and Brigg-Walter, eventually corrupted to Bridgwater. An alternative version is that it derives from Bridge of Walter and it was formerly part of the Hundred of North Petherton. William Briwere was granted the lordship of the Manor of Bridgwater by John of England in 1201, through Briweres influence, King John granted three charters in 1200, for the construction of Bridgwater Castle, for the creation of a borough, and for a market. Bridgwater Castle was a structure built in Old Red Sandstone. A tidal moat, up to 65 feet wide in places, flowed about along the line of the thoroughfares of Fore Street and Castle Moat. The main entrance opposite the Cornhill was built with a pair of adjacent gates and drawbridges, in addition to a keep, located at the south-east corner of what is now King Square, documents show that the complex included a dungeon, chapel, stables and a bell tower. Built on the raised ground in the town, the castle controlled the crossing of the town bridge. The foundations of the forming the north-east corner of the castle are buried beneath Homecastle House. William Briwere also went on to found the Franciscan Bridgwater Friary in the town, during the 11th century Second Barons War against Henry III, Bridgwater was held by the barons against the King. Bridgwaters peasants under Nicholas Frampton took part in the Peasants Revolt of 1381, sacking Sydenham House, murdering the local tax collectors, Bridgwater was incorporated by charter of Edward IV, confirmed in 1554,1586,1629 and 1684. Parliamentary representation as a borough constituency began in 1295 and continued until the Reform Act of 1870, from 4 July 1870 the town was incorporated within the county constituency of West Somerset
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Exeter
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Exeter is a cathedral city in Devon, England with a population of 127,300. It lies within the county of Devon, of which it is the county town as well as the home of Devon County Council, currently, the administrative area has the status of a non-metropolitan district and is therefore under the administration of the County Council. The city is on the River Exe about 37 miles northeast of Plymouth and 70 miles southwest of Bristol, Exeter was the most south-westerly Roman fortified settlement in Britain, although there is evidence a Cornish tribe existed in Exeter before the Roman invasion. Exeter became a centre during the Middle Ages and into the Tudor times, Exeter Cathedral, founded in the mid 11th century. During the late 19th century, Exeter became an affluent centre for the wool trade, after the Second World War, much of the city centre was rebuilt and is now considered to be a centre for modern business and tourism in Devon and Cornwall. The name Exe is a development of the Brittonic name—meaning water or, more exactly, full of fish —that also appears in the English Axe and Esk, the Welsh Usk. Exeter began as settlements on a dry ridge ending in a spur overlooking a navigable river teeming with fish, although there have been no major prehistoric finds, these advantages suggest the site was occupied early. Coins have been discovered from the Hellenistic kingdoms, suggesting the existence of a settlement trading with the Mediterranean as early as 250 BC. Such early towns had been a feature of pre-Roman Gaul as described by Julius Caesar in his Commentaries, the Romans established a 42-acre playing-card shaped fort named Isca around AD55. To distinguish the two, the Romans also referred to Exeter as Isca Dumnoniorum, Watertown of the Dumnonii, a small fort was also maintained at Topsham, a supply depot on the route between the two was excavated at St Loyes on Topsham Road in 2010. The presence of the built up an unplanned civilian community of natives. This area was excavated in the 1970s, but could not be maintained for public view owing to its proximity to the present-day cathedral, in January 2015, it was announced that Exeter Cathedral had launched a bid to restore the baths and open an underground centre for visitors. In the late 2nd century, the ditch and rampart defences around the old fortress were replaced by a bank and wall enclosing a much larger area, although most of the visible structure is older, the course of the Roman wall was used for Exeters subsequent city walls. Thus about 70% of the Roman wall remains, and most of its route can be traced on foot, the dating of the coins so far discovered, however, suggests a rapid decline, virtually none have been discovered dated after the year 380. By that time, the city was held by the Saxons, Exeter was known to the Saxons as Escanceaster. In 876, it was attacked and briefly captured by Danish Vikings, alfred the Great drove them out the next summer. Over the next few years, he elevated Exeter to one of the four burhs in Devon and these permitted the city to fend off another attack and siege by the Danes in 893. King Athelstan again strengthened the walls around 928, and at the time drove out the remaining Britons from the city
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Tiverton, Devon
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Tiverton is a town in the English county of Devon and the main commercial and administrative centre of the Mid Devon district. The built-up area had a population of 19,544 in 2011, the towns name is conjectured to derive from Twy-ford-ton or Twyverton, meaning the town on two fords, and was historically referred to as Twyford. The town stands at the confluence of the rivers Exe and Lowman, human occupation in the area dates back to the Stone Age, with many flint tools found in the area. Countess Gytha of Wessex controlled the town in 1066 and the Domesday Book indicates that William the Conqueror was its tenant-in-chief in 1086, Tiverton was also the seat of the court of the hundred of Tiverton. It was the site chosen by Henry I for a Norman castle, Tiverton Castle first built in 1106 as a motte-and-bailey type. Isabella also controlled the Port of Topsham, Devon, through much of Tivertons woollen exports were shipped. Every seven years there is a Perambulation of the Town Leat ceremony to clear the path of the Leat, the leat can be seen in Castle Street, where it runs down the centre of the road, and at Coggans Well, in Fore Street. Tiverton owes its growth and prosperity to the wool trade. Many wealthy wool merchants added to the towns heritage, peter Blundell, another wealthy merchant, who died in 1601, bequeathed the funds and land for Blundells School to educate local children. It was founded in Tiverton in 1604, and relocated to its present location on the outskirts of town in 1882, john Waldron founded Waldrons Almshouses, on Wellbrook Street, and his elaborate chest tomb survives in St Peters Church. In about 1600 there were two fires in the town, the first in 1596, allegedly started in a frying pan. The second, in 1612, was known as the fire because a dog fight had distracted people who were supposed to be looking after a furnace. During the English Civil War in 1645 Tiverton Castle, held by the Royalists, was the scene of a brief siege by Thomas Fairfaxs Parliamentarian forces. The Parliamentarian forces entered Tiverton under Major General Massey on 15 October and they left a defending force in the castle and church. Fairfax arrived from Cullompton on 17 October, set up his artillery, on Sunday Fairfax had several great pieces of artillery brought up, ready for a renewed barrage on Monday, which commenced at 7 a. m. The siege was ended when a shot broke one of the drawbridge chains. Fairfax then set up his quarters in Tiverton due to the inclement weather. He was joined there in December 1645 by Oliver Cromwell and they left to lay siege to Exeter in January 1646
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Dunster
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Dunster is a village, civil parish and former manor within the English county of Somerset, today just within the north-eastern boundary of the Exmoor National Park. It lies on the Bristol Channel coast 2.5 miles south-southeast of Minehead and 20 miles northwest of Taunton, the United Kingdom Census of 2011 recorded a parish population of 817. Iron Age hillforts testify to occupation of the area for thousands of years, the village grew up around Dunster Castle which was built on the Tor by the Norman warrior William I de Moyon shortly after the Norman Conquest of 1066. The Castle is mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086, from that time it was the caput of the Feudal barony of Dunster. The Castle was remodelled on several occasions by the Luttrell family who were lords of the manor from the 14th to 20th centuries, the benedictine Dunster Priory was established in about 1100. The Priory Church of St George, dovecote and tithe barn are all relics from the Priory, the village became a centre for wool and cloth production and trade, of which the Yarn Market, built by George Luttrell, is a relic. The village lies on the route of the Macmillan Way West, Somerset Way, the name Dunster derives from an earlier name Torre, recorded in the Domesday Book written twenty years after the Norman conquest. The origin of the prefix is uncertain, although it may refer to Dunn. The historian David Nash Ford proposed Dunster as a location of the Cair Draitou listed by the History of the Britons as one of the 28 cities of Britain. Within 2 miles of the village itself are several Iron Age hillforts showing evidence of human occupation. These include Bats Castle and Black Ball Camp on Gallox Hill, Long Wood Enclosure, Dunster is mentioned as a manor and Dunster Castle as belonging to William I de Moyon in the 1086 Domesday Book. After the Norman conquest of England in the 11th century, he constructed a castle on the site as part of the pacification of Somerset. A stone shell keep was built on the motte by the start of the 12th century, at the end of the 14th century the de Mohuns sold the castle to the Luttrell family, who continued to occupy the property until the late 20th century. During the English Civil War, Dunster was initially held as a garrison for the Royalists and it fell to the Parliamentarians in 1645 and orders were sent out for the castle to be demolished. However, these were not carried out, and the remained the garrison for Parliamentarian troops until 1650. Dunster is regularly home to Taunton Garrison who re-enact plays, battles, major alterations to the castle were undertaken by Henry Fownes Luttrell who had acquired it through marriage to Margaret Fownes-Luttrell in 1747. Following the death of Alexander Luttrell in 1944, the family was unable to afford the death duties on his estate, the castle and surrounding lands were sold off to a property firm, the family continuing to live in the castle as tenants. The Luttrells bought back the castle in 1954, but in 1976 Colonel Walter Luttrell gave Dunster Castle and most of its contents to the National Trust and it is a Grade I listed building and scheduled monument
36.
Ilfracombe
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Ilfracombe /ˈɪlfrəkum/ is a seaside resort and civil parish on the North Devon coast, England, with a small harbour surrounded by cliffs. The parish stretches along the coast from the Coastguard Cottages in Hele Bay toward the east and 4 miles along the Torrs to Lee Bay toward the west. The resort is hilly and the highest point within the boundary is at Hore Down Gate,2 miles inland and 860 feet above sea level. The landmark of Hillsborough Hill dominates the harbour and is the site of an Iron Age fortified settlement, in the built environment, the architectural-award-winning Landmark Theatre is either loved or hated for its unusual double-conical design. The 13th century parish church, Trinity, and the St Nicholass Chapel on Lantern Hill, have been joined by the Damien Hirst owned statue, Verity, Ilfracombe has been settled since the Iron Age, when the Dumnonii established a hill fort on the dominant hill, Hillsborough. The origin of the name has two possible sources. The first is that it is a derivative of the Anglo-Saxon Alfreinscoma - by which name it was noted in the Liber Exoniensis of 1086, the translation of this name means the Valley of the sons of Alfred. The second origin is that the name Ilfracombe was derived from Norse illf, Anglo-Saxon yfel and Anglo-Saxon cumb perhaps from a Celtic source, thus The valley with the bad ford. The manor house at Chambercombe in east Ilfracombe was recorded in the 1086 Domesday Book as being built by a Norman knight Champernon who landed with William of Normandy and it is also said to be haunted. It is recorded that the lands by the church were part of the owned by Champernowne family, while those by the harbour belonged to the Bouchier family. Because of the layout of the harbour, Ilfracombe became a significant safe port on the Bristol Channel. It also had trade routes between Kinsale and Tenby, which made the port stronger, Ilfracombe was the last disembarkation point for two large forces sent to subdue the Irish. The building which sits on Lantern Hill by the harbour, known as St Nicholass Chapel is reputed to be the oldest working lighthouse in the UK, the town was also home to the Bowen family. James Bowen was sailing master of HMS Queen Charlotte, the flagship of Richard, James Bowen was commissioned by Howe for his leadership in the battle. He rose through the levels - commander of HMS Argo, Dreadnought and he retired as a Rear Admiral and Commissioner of the Royal Navy. Captain Richard Bowen James Bowens younger brother, a commander on HMS Terpsichore, John Bowen, son of James Bowen and a naval officer and colonial administrator, founded the first settlement of Tasmania at Risdon Cove in 1803 - the settlement that later became known as Hobart. Lieutenant A E Down was initially posted to Ilfracombe to lead a ship for the customs. He married a girl and rose through the levels to retire as vice Admiral
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Acland baronets
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The Acland Baronetcy, of Colum John in the County of Devon, was created in the Baronetage of England on 24 June 1644 for John Acland, a supporter of Charles I. However, the patent were lost in the confusion of the Civil War. He was succeeded by his son, the second Baronet and he died as a minor and was succeeded by his younger brother, the third Baronet. On his death the title passed to his son, the fourth Baronet and he also died young and was succeeded by his uncle, the fifth Baronet. On 21 January 1678 he was granted new letters patent, confirming him in the title, Acland later represented Barnstaple and Tiverton in the House of Commons. He was succeeded by his grandson, the sixth Baronet and he sat as Member of Parliament for Barnstaple. When he died the title passed to his son, the seventh Baronet and he represented Devon and Somerset in Parliament. He was succeeded by his grandson, the eighth Baronet and he died as a child and was succeeded by his uncle, the ninth Baronet. When he died the title passed to his eldest son, the tenth Baronet and he was succeeded by his eldest son, the eleventh Baronet. He was also a prominent politician as well as an advocate of educational reforms, on his death the title passed to his eldest son, the twelfth Baronet. He was a Liberal politician and held ministerial office under William Ewart Gladstone. He died childless and was succeeded by his brother, the thirteenth Baronet. He was also a Liberal politician and like his brother held minor ministerial office. His eldest son, the fourteenth Baronet, was also a Liberal politician and notably served as Financial Secretary to the Treasury, on his death the title passed to his eldest son, the fifteenth Baronet. He was one of the members of the socialist Common Wealth Party. As of 2013 the title is held by his grandson, the seventeenth Baronet, as at 31 March 2013, the baronetcy is listed as vacant on the Official Roll of the Baronetage as the 17th Baronet has not yet proved his succession. Several other members of branch of the family gained distinction. Sir Wroth Palmer Acland, son of Arthur Palmer Acland, younger son of the sixth Baronet, was a lieutenant-general in the Army, John Acland, younger son of the sixth Baronet, was a clergyman and writer on social issues
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Fairfield, Stogursey
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Fairfield House is a historic house in Stogursey, Somerset, England. A house existed on the site from the 12th century and it has been owned by the family since that time. The current building is largely 16th-century, but has undergone various remodellings since then and it is designated as a Grade II* listed building. The house was surrounded by a Medieval deer park covering approximately 200 acres, part of this was converted into an Elizabethan garden around 1580, and now includes a walled garden. The current owner is Elizabeth Gass who has some of the surrounding parkland to Hinkley Point Power station. A manor house existed on the site in 1166, little is known about the original house, but the ownership is given as lying with the Russel family by 1216. The house was considered to be in the Lilstock parish in 1498 when John Verney, the house has remained in the ownership of their descendants ever since. Around 1473 a licence was granted by the king to William Verney to surround the house with a wall, three of the towers were still surviving in the 18th century, however none remain today. There was a chapel from 1288 until the 17th century. In the 16th century it was remodelled by Elizabeth Verney including a porch which dates from 1589, however and this may have been because parts of the earlier house built around a courtyard were in the process of being demolished. In the 18th century the interior was remodeled with the addition of new staircases in each main wing, in the late 18th and early 19th century Sir John Acland made further changes which are believed to have been designed by Richard Carver. By 1870 Alexander Acland-Hood controlled the estate, in 1967 Elizabeth Gass inherited from an uncle the familys ancestral seat, and gave up her teaching career to concentrate on managing the estate which came with it. She has been the Lord Lieutenant of Somerset since 1998, in 1994, Lady Gass, sold some 230 acres of her land on the coast beneath the Quantock Hills for about £50 million. The land was the part of her Fairfield estate lying immediately to the west of the Hinkley Point power station and was earmarked for the development of a wind farm, the site may now be used for the construction of two new nuclear reactors at Hinkley Point C. Parts of the house still have fabric from the 12th-century building. Like many Elizabethan mansions, is built in an E shape, the stone work has lime rendering with Bath Stone dressings, topped by a hipped slate roof. The house and gardens are opened to the public. The house is set in parkland laid out in the 18th century which had been a park in the 15th century
39.
Act of Parliament
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Acts of Parliament, also called primary legislation, are statutes passed by a parliament. Act of the Oireachtas is an equivalent term used in the Republic of Ireland where the legislature is known by its Irish name. It is also comparable to an Act of Congress in the United States, a draft Act of Parliament is known as a bill. In territories with a Westminster system, most bills that have any possibility of becoming law are introduced into parliament by the government. This will usually happen following the publication of a paper, setting out the issues. A bill may also be introduced into parliament without formal government backing, in territories with a multicameral parliament, most bills may be first introduced in any chamber. However, certain types of legislation are required, either by convention or by law. For example, bills imposing a tax, or involving public expenditure, are introduced into the House of Commons in the United Kingdom, Canadas House of Commons, conversely, bills proposed by the Law Commission and consolidation bills traditionally start in the House of Lords. Once introduced, a bill must go through a number of stages before it can become law, in theory, this allows the bills provisions to be debated in detail, and for amendments to the original bill to also be introduced, debated, and agreed to. In bicameral parliaments, a bill that has been approved by the chamber into which it was introduced then sends the bill to the other chamber, broadly speaking, each chamber must separately agree to the same version of the bill. Finally, the bill receives assent, in most territories this is merely a formality. In some countries, such as in Spain and Portugal, the term for a bill differs depending on whether it is initiated by the government, again, the second reading of a Government bill is usually approved. A defeat for a Government bill on this reading signifies a major loss, if the bill is read a second time, it is then considered in detail Consideration in detail, This usually takes place on the floor of the House. Generally, committees sit on the floor of the House and consider the bill in detail, third reading, A debate on the final text of the bill, as amended. Very rarely do debates occur during this stage, passage, The bill is then sent to the other House, which may amend it. If the other House amends the bill, the bill and amendments are posted back to the original House for a further stage, the State of Queenslands Parliament is unicameral and skips this and the rest of the stages. Consideration of Senate/Representatives amendments, The House in which the bill originated considers the amendments made in the other House and it may agree to them, amend them, propose other amendments in lieu, or reject them. However, the Senate may not amend money bills, though it can request the House to make amendments, a bill may pass backwards and forwards several times at this stage, as each House amends or rejects changes proposed by the other
40.
Devon and Somerset Railway
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The Devon and Somerset Railway was a cross-country line that connected Barnstaple in Devon, England to the network of the Bristol and Exeter Railway near Taunton. It was opened in stages between 1871 and 1873 and closed in 1966 and it served a mostly rural area although it carried some through services from east of Taunton to the seaside resort of Ilfracombe. The Act of Parliament that authorised the D&SR received assent on 29 July 1864, eugenius Birch was appointed as Engineer, but he was replaced by Richard Hassard in 1870. The first 7¼ mile section of the line was opened on 8 June 1871, the remaining 35¾ miles to Barnstaple opened on 1 November 1873. The line used its own station at Barnstaple, some distance from the station at Barnstaple Quay The line was built as 7 ft broad gauge. The last broad gauge train ran on 14 May 1881, after which the line was converted to 4 ft 8 1⁄2 in standard gauge, in 1884 the Tiverton and North Devon Railway opened from a junction on the D&SR to Tiverton. The Tiverton services started from Dulverton and ran over the D&SR as far as Morebath Junction where they diverged southwards, in 1890 the GWR appointed a Mrs Towns as signalwoman at Morebath Junction. She is the only recorded example of a signalwoman on any railway in Britain in the 19th century, in October 1913 the Railway Magazine reported that she was very proud of her job after 23 years service and hoped to continue indefinitely. Conversion to standard gauge enabled a connection to the London and South Western Railway at Barnstaple and this was opened on 1 June 1887, after which GWR trains ran through to Ilfracombe via Barnstaple and the LSWR. The GWR acquired the Devon and Somerset Railway in 1901, on 1 July 1905 an avoiding line was opened at Barnstaple, which allowed through trains to Ilfracombe to run directly to the LSWR station without having to reverse in the D&SR terminus. During the 1930s the line carried traffic on summer weekends. In 1937 the junction at Norton Fitwarren was modified to allow an easier route from the line. On 1 January 1948 the GWR was nationalised to become part of British Railways, the D&SR station was named Barnstaple Victoria Road from 26 September 1949 to distinguish it from Barnstaple Junction and Barnstaple Town railway stations, the former Southern Railway stations. Victoria Road station closed to passengers on 12 June 1960, after all through trains ran directly to Barnstaple Junction. On 1 October 1966 the last train ran on the line, Victoria Road remained open for traffic, served from Barnstaple Junction. The line featured steep gradients,16.75 miles were at 1 in 60 or steeper, the pillars have been reused for the North Devon Link road. A station was opened at the junction on the line on 1 June 1873. The section from Wiveliscombe to Barnstaple opened on 1 November 1873 with nine new stations, the stations are described here from east to west
41.
West Somerset Mineral Railway
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The West Somerset Mineral Railway was a standard gauge line in Somerset, England. Originally expected to be 13 miles 420 yards long its length as built was 11 1⁄2 miles, the lines core purpose was to carry iron ore northwards from mines on the Brendon Hills to Watchet harbour on the Bristol Channel. From there the ore was shipped northwards to Newport where it was unloaded onto railway wagons, the line opened as intended in 1861. The mines and lines period of prosperity ended in 1875 and by 1883 all mining had ceased, the line lingered on for passengers and small goods until 1898, when it closed. A new mineral venture was attempted in 1907, for much of the line was re-opened and a 2 ft extension was added, but this failed. A section of the track was used to test and demonstrate an automatic signal warning device in 1911, the tracks were lifted for scrap in 1917, after which a light railway was laid on part of the trackbed in 1918 to carry timber. This ended in 1920 and the company was wound up in 1925, the line included a massive rope-worked inclined plane 3,272 feet long to bring the ore down a 770 feet vertical interval on a 1 in 4 gradient. There were stations on the sections of the line below the plane at Watchet, Washford, Roadwater and Comberow, trains also called by request at stopping places at Torre. Three stations were built above the incline but they never carried fare paying passengers, further extensions were proposed but not built. Several different locomotives were used during the operation of the line including 0-4-0ST Box tanks built by Neilson and Company and larger Sharp, a section of the inclined plane has been scheduled as an ancient monument. It can still be seen, along with the remains of some of the buildings, in the mid-nineteenth century, the proprietors of the Ebbw Vale Iron Works acquired an interest in iron ore deposits in the Brendon Hills on the north side of Exmoor. Iron ore had been there for centuries but not exploited industrially until the Brendon Hills Iron Ore Company was formed in 1853. At an altitude of over 1,000 feet and remote from usable roads, thomas Brown, managing partner of the Ebbw Vale company, realised that a railway to the quay at Watchet was the solution. The line was designed by Rice Hopkins, the first sod was cut at Roughmoor on 29 May 1856 and a locomotive was obtained in the following November, however it was put out of action in January 1857 by serious damage to the boiler. The line was ready for traffic from Watchet to Roadwater by April 1857, and for the time being that acted as the railhead for the minerals, in the interim, however, another accident occurred when two locomotives collided, killing three men. An Act was obtained on 27 July 1857 to extend the line to Minehead, with a branch to Cleeve, an additional £35,000 capital was authorised, the incline is sometimes referred to as the Brendon Hill Incline and occasionally as the Brendon Hills Incline. The rise in altitude to reach the mines was accomplished by a gravity worked incline,0.75 miles long, to achieve the constant gradient, formidable earthworks were necessary, and construction took four years with a Mr Gunn as the contractor. While this was going on mining had been proceeding apace and large stocks of ore were waiting at the head to be conveyed to the harbour
42.
Passing loop
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A passing loop or passing siding is a place on a single line railway or tramway, often located at a station, where trains or trams travelling in opposite directions can pass each other. Trains/trams going in the direction can also overtake, providing that the signalling arrangement allows it. A passing loop is double ended and connected to the track at both ends, though a dead end siding known as a refuge siding, which is much less convenient. A similar arrangement is used on the track of cable railways and funiculars. Ideally, the loop should be longer than all trains needing to cross at that point, if one train is too long for the loop it must wait for the opposing train to enter the loop before proceeding, taking a few minutes. Ideally, the train should arrive first and leave second. If both trains are too long for the loop, time-consuming see-sawing operations are required for the trains to cross, the main line has straight track, while the loop line has low speed turnouts at either end. If the station has one platform, then it is usually located on the main line. If passenger trains are few in number, and the likelihood of two passenger trains crossing each other low, the platform on the loop line may be omitted. The through road has straight track, while the road has low speed turnouts at either end. A possible advantage of this layout is that trains scheduled to pass straight through the station can do so uninterrupted and this layout is mostly used at local stations where many passenger trains do not stop. Since there is one passenger platform, it is not convenient to cross two passenger trains if both stop. An example is Scone railway station, but the end was later rearranged to resemble a main. A disadvantage of the platform and through arrangement is the speed limits through the turnouts at each end, in the example layout shown, trains take the left-hand track in their direction of running. Low-speed turnouts restrict the speed in one direction, two platform faces are needed, and they can be provided either at a single island platform or two side platforms. Overtaking is not normally possible at this kind of up and down loop as some of the signals are absent. Crossing loops using up and down working are very common in British practice and it is possible to cross trains at stations equipped with only a siding. At Bombo, Australia, the loop had no platform
43.
Consolidation (business)
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In business, consolidation or amalgamation is the merger and acquisition of many smaller companies into much larger ones. In the context of accounting, consolidation refers to the aggregation of financial statements of a group company as consolidated financial statements. The taxation term of consolidation refers to the treatment of a group of companies, there may be amalgamations, either by transfer of two or more undertakings to a new company, or to the transfer of one or more companies to an existing company. Consolidation is the practice, in business, of combining two or more organizations into a single new one. Upon consolidation, the original organizations cease to exist and are supplanted by a new entity, statutory Consolidation, a business combination that creates a new company in which none of the previous companies survive. Stock Acquisition, a combination in which the purchasing company acquires the majority, more than 50%, of the Common stock of the acquired company. Variable interest entity Parent-subsidiary relationship, the result of a stock acquisition where the parent is the acquiring company, controlling Interest, When the parent company owns a majority of the common stock. Non-Controlling Interest or Minority Interest, the rest of the stock that the other shareholders own. Wholly owned subsidiary, when the parent owns all the common stock of the subsidiary. In an amalgamation, the companies which merge into a new or existing company are referred to as companies or amalgamating companies. The resultant company is referred to as the transferee company, a parent company can acquire another company by purchasing its net assets or by purchasing a majority share of its common stock. Costs of issuing securities, these reduce the issuing price of the stock. Treatment to the company, The acquired company records in its books the elimination of its net assets. If the acquired company is liquidated then the needs a additional entry to distribute the remaining assets to its shareholders. Treatment to the company, The acquired company records in its books the receipt of the payment from the acquiring company. FASB141 Disclosure Requirements, FASB141 requires disclosures in the notes of the financial statements when business combinations occur, such disclosures are, The name and description of the acquired entity and the percentage of the voting equity interest acquired. The primary reasons for acquisition and descriptions of factors contributed to recognition of goodwill. The period for which results of operations of acquired entity are included in the statement of the combining entity
44.
Great Western Railway
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The Great Western Railway was a British railway company that linked London with the south-west and west of England, the Midlands, and most of Wales. It was founded in 1833, received its enabling Act of Parliament on 31 August 1835, Goods wagons were painted red but this was later changed to mid-grey. Great Western trains included long-distance express services such as the Flying Dutchman, the Cornish Riviera Express and it also operated many suburban and rural services, some operated by steam railmotors or autotrains. The company pioneered the use of larger, more economic goods wagons than were usual in Britain and it operated a network of road motor routes, was a part of the Railway Air Services, and owned ships, docks and hotels. The Great Western Railway originated from the desire of Bristol merchants to maintain their city as the port of the country. The company was founded at a meeting in Bristol in 1833 and was incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1835. Isambard Kingdom Brunel, then aged twenty-nine, was appointed engineer and this was by far Brunels largest contract to date. Firstly, he chose to use a gauge of 7 ft to allow for the possibility of large wheels outside the bodies of the rolling stock which could give smoother running at high speeds. Secondly, he selected a route, north of the Marlborough Downs and this meant the line was not direct from to London to Bristol. From Reading heading west, the line would curve in a northerly sweep back to Bath, the first 22.5 miles of line, from Paddington station in London to Maidenhead Bridge station, opened on 4 June 1838. When Maidenhead Railway Bridge was ready the line was extended to Twyford on 1 July 1839, the cutting was the scene of a railway disaster two years later when a goods train ran into a landslip, ten passengers who were travelling in open trucks were killed. This accident prompted Parliament to pass the 1844 Railway Regulation Act requiring railway companies to provide carriages for passengers. The next section, from Reading to Steventon crossed the Thames twice, a 7. 25-mile extension took the line to Faringdon Road on 20 July 1840. Meanwhile, work had started at the Bristol end of the line, on 17 December 1840, the line from London reached a temporary terminus at Wootton Bassett Road west of Swindon and 80.25 miles from Paddington. The section from Wootton Bassett Road to Chippenham was opened on 31 May 1841, as was Swindon Junction station where the Cheltenham and Great Western Union Railway to Cirencester connected. That was an independent line worked by the GWR, as was the Bristol and Exeter Railway, in 1851, the GWR purchased the Kennet and Avon Canal, which was a competing carrier between London, Reading, Bath and Bristol. The GWR was closely involved with the C&GWUR and the B&ER, the South Wales Railway had opened between Chepstow and Swansea in 1850 and became connected to the GWR by Brunels Chepstow Bridge in 1852. It was completed to Neyland in 1856, where a port was established
45.
Crowcombe Heathfield railway station
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Crowcombe Heathfield railway station is a station on the West Somerset Railway, a heritage railway in Somerset, England. It is situated 2 miles from the village of Crowcombe, Crowcombe Heathfield station was first opened on 31 March 1862 when the West Somerset Railway was opened from Norton Junction to Watchet. When the station first opened there was just one platform, on the east side of the line, a down loop line and second platform were opened in 1879, together with an accompanying signal box at its north eastern end. The developments also included an extension of the goods siding west of the station, accessed via the western throat. On 1 December 1889 the station was renamed as plain “Crowcombe” to avoid confusion with Heathfield on the Moretonhampstead branch in Devon, nationalisation in 1948 saw it become a part of the Western Region of British Railways. British Rail closed the railway on 4 January 1971, during which they demolished a number of buildings on the stations platforms, the station reopened on 9 June 1979, the West Somerset Railway was now a heritage railway operating steam and diesel trains from Minehead to and Bishops Lydeard. The WSR removed the goods siding, and left the down side loop out of action, the station was still known as Crowcombe for a while, but the name was returned to Crowcombe Heathfield in 1991. Located in a small valley, the station stands at the highest point on the line. The station has been designated by English Heritage as a grade II listed building, the railway workers cottages and station masters house, together with the main station building, are the only original structures left. A display of permanent way can be found on the western platform, the station stands at the highest point on the line, just under 400 feet above sea level, approached by a 1,86 gradient either side. This has always slowed the operating time on the section between Bishops Lydeard and Williton, resulting in total capacity restrictions on the whole line to Minehead. Increasing seasonal passenger traffic to Minehead, was the driver behind the B&ER installing a loop at the station in 1879, when the WSR reopened the line only the eastern up platform line was certified for operation. The stations loop was reinstated in May 1994 so a new box was required. This has access steps on the side rather than the northern side as before. The 34 lever tappet-locking frame was first installed at Marsh Junction, Bristol and it was bought directly by the WSR after that signal box closed in 1984, and reinstalled in its current location, with 29 operating levers. The two loops were installed with linked-operated catch-points, which allows full two-train operations. The signalling design allows the signal box to be switched-out of operation at times when trains do not need to pass here. Three token boxes are provided at the signal boxes at Bishops Lydeard and Williton
46.
Broad-gauge railway
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Broad-gauge railways use a track gauge greater than the 1,435 mm standard gauge. In Britain the Great Western Railway, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, pioneered broad gauge in 1838 with a gauge of 7 ft 1⁄4 in, some harbours also used railways of this gauge for construction and maintenance. These included Portland Harbour and Holyhead Breakwater, which used a locomotive for working sidings, as it was not connected to the national network, this broad-gauge operation continued until the locomotive wore out in 1913. The gauge initially proposed by Brunel was 7 ft exactly but this was increased by 1⁄4 in to accommodate clearance problems identified during early testing. It became apparent that standardization on a gauge throughout a rail transport system was advantageous. Rolling stock did not need to match the gauge exactly, a difference of a few millimetres could be coped with, the value of interoperability was initially not obvious to the industry. The standardization movement was gradual, over time the value of a proprietary gauge diminished, being replaced by the idea of charging money for equipment used on other railway lines. Ireland, using the criteria, was allocated a different standard gauge. Broad-gauge lines in Britain were gradually converted to dual gauge or standard gauge from 1864, Ireland and some states in Australia and Brazil have a gauge of 5 ft 3 in, but Luas, the Dublin light rail system, is built to standard gauge. Russia and the other former Soviet Republics use a 1,520 mm gauge while Finland continues to use the 5 ft gauge inherited from Imperial Russia, in 1839 the Netherlands started its railway system with two broad-gauge railways. But the neighbouring countries Prussia and Belgium already used standard gauge, in 1855, NRS regauged its line and shortly afterwards connected to the Prussian railways. There are replicas of one broad-gauge 2-2-2 locomotive and three carriages in the Dutch Railway Museum in Utrecht and these replicas were built for the 100th anniversary of the Dutch Railways in 1938–39. Portugal and the Spanish Renfe system use a gauge of 1,668 mm called Ancho Ibérico in Spanish or Bitola Ibérica in Portuguese, in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh, a gauge of 5 ft 6 in is widespread. This is also used by the Bay Area Rapid Transit system of the San Francisco Bay Area. In Toronto, Canada the gauge for TTC subways and streetcars was chosen in 1861, years after the establishment of gauge in Britain. In 1861, the province was supplying subsidies only to broad gauge railways. The use of a non-standard gauge precludes interoperability of rolling stock on railway networks. On the 5 ft 3 in and 5 ft 6 in gauges, the extra width allowed bigger inside cylinders and greater power, in the event, the most powerful engines on standard gauge in North America and Scandinavia far exceeded the power of any broad-gauge locomotive
47.
Gauge conversion
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In rail transport, gauge conversion is the process of converting a railway from one rail gauge to another, through the alteration of the railway tracks. An alternative to gauge conversion is dual gauge track, or gauge conversion of the vehicles themselves. Rails may be too light for the loads imposed by broader-gauge railcars, in some cases, gauge-convertible sleepers are installed before the conversion of the track itself. The sleepers must be enough to take the wider of the two gauges, and must be able to accommodate the fittings for both the existing and the new gauges. In cases where the difference between the two gauges is small, such as 1,000 mm and 1,067 mm track, or 1,435 mm and 1,524 mm track, in those cases, gauntlet track is required. Timber sleepers are always gauge convertible, provided that they are long enough, if the new gauge is wider than the old, a shorter sleeper than would normally be used can be tolerated, provided it still allows for secure fastening of the wider track. Concrete sleepers cannot be converted as an afterthought, but must have the future fittings cast in place when manufactured, steel sleepers should have the extra fitting incorporated when manufactured, though it is theoretically possible to drill or weld new fittings to the sleeper after installation. A special gauge-convertible sleeper, with a chair for the Pandrol clip. In June 2008, the South Australian government announced that by 2012 the Adelaide metropolitan network would be converted from 1,600 mm broad gauge to standard gauge, consequently, broad-gauge timber sleepers are progressively being replaced with gauge-convertible concrete sleepers on the metropolitan rail network. As of 2016, however, gauge conversion had not commenced, narrow-gauge railways often have a significantly smaller structure gauge, and therefore the rolling stock used has a smaller loading gauge in both height and width. Conversion to a track gauge will often require enlargement of the structure gauge on bridges, under road overpasses. Embankments and cuts could need widening as well, the minimum curve radius of narrow-gauge railways is often less than on tracks with a wider gauge, so route deviations might be required to allow the radius of curves to be increased. Track centres at stations with multiple tracks may also have to be increased, in this instance, the loading gauge of the broad gauge and standard gauge lines are essentially the same. Where vehicles cross a change of gauge, they must either be equipped for a change of bogie or have adjustable gauge axles. For example passenger trains crossing between the 1,435 mm system in France and the 1,668 mm in Spain pass through an installation which adjusts their variable gauge axles. This temporary alteration to allow through working is generally referred to as gauge change, in the event, few have been so converted, but one such is Victorian Railways R class R766. Because boilers and fireboxes are in the way locomotives can be converted only to a wider gauge, about 1860, the Bristol and Exeter Railway converted five 1,435 mm gauge locomotives to 7 ft gauge, and later converted them back again. In the 19th century, in the US, some broad 1,524 mm gauge locomotives were designed for conversion to 1,435 mm gauge
48.
Blue Anchor railway station
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Blue Anchor railway station is situated in the seaside village of Blue Anchor, Somerset, England and close to the larger village of Carhampton. It is on the West Somerset Railway, a heritage railway, the station was first opened on 16 July 1874 by the Minehead Railway as Blue Anchor. Suggestions that it was called Blue Anchor Excursion Platform or Bradley Gate have been shown to be incorrect. In 1874 it had one platform which faced the beach. At the same time the box was opened to control new gates on the level crossing which carries the Carhampton road across the line at the west end of the platforms. A goods yard was opened west of the level crossing in 1913. In 1934, as part of upgrading of the Minehead branch. A camp coach was stabled here from the summer of 1934, goods traffic was withdrawn in 1963 and passenger services ceased from 4 January 1971. The line from Minehead was reopened by the West Somerset Railway on 28 March 1976, camp coaches once again grace the goods yard where they provide overnight accommodation for volunteers working on the railway. The station buildings have restored and the waiting room on the westbound platform was converted to a railway museum in 1985. It opened in 1986 under the auspices of the West Somerset Railway Steam Trust, staffing is provided by the Friends of Blue Anchor Railway Museum, who also undertake fundraising activities. The museum now contains around 550 items, mainly related to the Great Western Railway or other West Country lines, the station is situated on a passing loop on the single track line and has two platforms. The one on the side of the line and nearest the beach dates from 1874. The second platform, added in 1904, has a museum situated in its waiting room. Trains run between Minehead and Bishops Lydeard at weekends and on other days from March to October, daily during the late spring and summer. West Somerset railway - Blue Anchor Station Blue Anchor Railway Museum
49.
Railways Act 1921
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The provisions of the Act took effect from the start of 1923. The British railway system had been built up by more than 100 railway companies, large and small, and often, particularly locally, in competition with each other. The parallel railways of the East Midlands and the rivalry between the South Eastern Railway and the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway at Hastings were two examples of local competition. During World War I the railways were under State control, which continued until 1921, the form of the Act was developed by former North Eastern Railway executive, the Minister of Transport, Eric Campbell Geddes. Geddes favoured privately owned regional monopolies through amalgamations, and suggested increased worker participation from pre-war levels, in his 9 March 1920 Cabinet paper Future Transport Policy, he proposed five English groups, a London passenger group, and separate single groupings for Scotland and Ireland. Geddes proposals became the 1920 white paper Outline of Proposals as to the Future Organisation of Transport Undertakings in Great Britain and this suggested the formation of six or seven regional companies, additionally it suggested worker participation on the board of directors of the company. The white paper was opposed by the Railway Companies Association and MPs representing railway companies interests, the move to greater worker participation was strongly opposed by the RCA, but supported by the Labour Party. Worker-directors were not included in the act, being replaced by agreed negotiating mechanisms. The regional groups initially proposed were five in England, and a Scottish regional group, Railways serving London were intended to form a separate regional group, but this amalgamation was delayed and took place in 1933. In 1921 the white paper Memorandum on Railways Bill, suggested four English regional groups, Scottish railway companies wished to be incorporated into British groupings, and the RCA proposed five British regional monopolies including the Scottish businesses. Part 1 of the act dealt with the terms and procedure of the amalgamations of railway companies, the constituents and subsidiaries of the four groups were set out in the first schedule of the act. Companies that had not formed a scheme by 1923 would be amalgamated under terms decided by a tribunal. The state control of the railways which began under war conditions during World War I were to continue under the Ministry of Transport Act 1919 for a two years. The Act took effect on 1 January 1923, on that date most of the mergers took place, some had taken place during the previous year. The February 1923 issue of The Railway Magazine dubbed the new companies as The Big Four of the New Railway Era, a number of joint lines remained outside the Big Four, continuing to be operated as jointly by successor companies. The London suburban railway companies, such as the Underground Electric Railways Company of London, later legislation under the London Passenger Transport Act 1933 amalgamated these and London area bus and tram operations into the London Passenger Transport Board. Other exempted railways were light railways authorised under the Light Railways Act 1896, and similar lines, although some such lines still chose to join the Groups
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