1.
Indonesian language
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Indonesian is the official language of Indonesia. It is a register of Malay, an Austronesian language that has been used as a lingua franca in the multilingual Indonesian archipelago for centuries. Indonesia is the fourth most populous nation in the world, of its large population, the majority speak Indonesian, making it one of the most widely spoken languages in the world. However, most formal education, and nearly all national mass media, governance, administration, judiciary, the Indonesian name for the language is Bahasa Indonesia or sometimes simplified as Bahasa. This term is occasionally found in English and other languages. Indonesian is a register of Riau Malay, which despite its common name is not the Malay dialect native to Riau. Originally spoken in Northeast Sumatra, Malay has been used as a lingua franca in the Indonesian archipelago for half a millennium and it might be attributed to its ancestor, the Old Malay language. The Kedukan Bukit Inscription is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, trade contacts carried on by various ethnic peoples at the time were the main vehicle for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main communications medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a lingua franca and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago, Indonesian is essentially the same language as the official Malaysian, Singaporean and Brunei standards of Malay. However, it does differ from Malaysian in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and these differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the Melayu pasar, which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands. Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax. The question of whether High Malay or Low Malay was the parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language, however, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the bankruptcy of the VOC the Dutch crown took control of the colony in 1799 and it was then that education in. Even then, Dutch administrators were reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a elite, in 1940
2.
Indonesia
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Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a unitary sovereign state and transcontinental country located mainly in Southeast Asia with some territories in Oceania. Situated between the Indian and Pacific oceans, it is the worlds largest island country, with more than seventeen thousand islands. At 1,904,569 square kilometres, Indonesia is the worlds 14th-largest country in terms of area and worlds 7th-largest country in terms of combined sea. It has an population of over 260 million people and is the worlds fourth most populous country. The worlds most populous island, Java, contains more than half of the countrys population, Indonesias republican form of government includes an elected legislature and president. Indonesia has 34 provinces, of which five have Special Administrative status and its capital and countrys most populous city is Jakarta, which is also the most populous city in Southeast Asia and the second in Asia. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, other neighbouring countries include Singapore, Vietnam, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support the second highest level of biodiversity. The country has abundant natural resources like oil and natural gas, tin, copper, agriculture mainly produces rice, palm oil, tea, coffee, cacao, medicinal plants, spices and rubber. Indonesias major trading partners are Japan, United States, China, the Indonesian archipelago has been an important region for trade since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Indonesia consists of hundreds of native ethnic and linguistic groups. The largest – and politically dominant – ethnic group are the Javanese, a shared identity has developed, defined by a national language, ethnic diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. Indonesias national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, articulates the diversity that shapes the country, Indonesias economy is the worlds 16th largest by nominal GDP and the 8th largest by GDP at PPP, the largest in Southeast Asia, and is considered an emerging market and newly industrialised country. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950, Indonesia is a member of the G20 major economies and World Trade Organization. The name Indonesia derives from the Greek name of the Indós, the name dates to the 18th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, in the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. However, Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia, they preferred Malay Archipelago, the Netherlands East Indies, popularly Indië, the East, and Insulinde
3.
Timor
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Timor is an island at the southern end of Maritime Southeast Asia, north of the Timor Sea. The island is divided between the states of East Timor, on the eastern part, and Indonesia, on the western part. The Indonesian part, also known as West Timor, constitutes part of the province of East Nusa Tenggara, within West Timor lies an exclave of East Timor called Oecusse District. The island covers an area of 30,777 square kilometres, the name is a variant of timur, Malay for east, it is so called because it lies at the eastern end of the Lesser Sunda Islands. Anthropologists identify eleven distinct ethno-linguistic groups in Timor, the largest are the Atoni of western Timor, and the Tetum of central and eastern Timor. Most indigenous Timorese languages belong to the Timor–Babar branch of the Austronesian languages spoken throughout the Indonesian archipelago, the non-Austronesian languages are thought to be related to languages spoken on Halmahera and in Western New Guinea. Some are so mixed it is difficult to tell which family they descend from, the official languages of East Timor are Tetum and Portuguese, while in West Timor it is Indonesian. Indonesian is also spoken and understood in East Timor. Islam and Animism make up most of the remainder at about 5% each across the island, Timor is located north of Australia, and is one of the easternmost Sunda Islands. Timor is the island of the Outer Banda Arc, which has been upthrust by collision with the Australian continent. Timor has older geology and lacks the volcanic nature of the northern Lesser Sunda Islands, the orientation of the main axis of the island also differs from its neighbors. These features have been explained as the result of being on the edge of the Indo-Australian Plate as it meets the Eurasian Plate. The climate includes a dry season with hot winds blowing over from Australia. Rivers on the island include the Southern and Northern Laclo Rivers in East Timor, the largest towns on the island are the provincial capital of Kupang in West Timor, Indonesia and the Portuguese colonial towns of Dili the capital, and Baucau in East Timor. Poor roads make transport to inland areas difficult, in East Timor especially, East Timor is a poor country, with health issues including malaria and dengue fever. Sources of revenue include gas and oil in the Timor Sea, coffee growing, the natural vegetation was tropical dry broadleaf forests with an undergrowth of shrubs and grasses supporting a rich wildlife. However much of the original forest has been cleared for farming, especially on the coasts of Timor, apart from one large block in the centre of Timor only patches remain. This ecoregion is part of the Wallacea area with a mixture of plants and animals of Asian and Australasian origin, it lies in the part of Wallacea
4.
East Timor
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East Timor or Timor-Leste, officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is a sovereign state in Maritime Southeast Asia. It comprises the half of the island of Timor, the nearby islands of Atauro and Jaco, and Oecusse. The countrys size is about 15,410 km2, nine days later, it was invaded and occupied by Indonesia and was declared Indonesias 27th province the following year. The Indonesian occupation of East Timor was characterised by a highly violent decades-long conflict between separatist groups and the Indonesian military, in 1999, following the United Nations-sponsored act of self-determination, Indonesia relinquished control of the territory. East Timor became the first new state of the 21st century on 20 May 2002 and joined the United Nations. In 2011, East Timor announced its intention to gain status in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations by applying to become its eleventh member. It is one of two predominantly Christian nations in Southeast Asia, the other being the Philippines. In Indonesian, the country is called Timor Timur, thus using the Portuguese name for the island followed by the word for east, the official names under the Constitution are Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste in English, República Democrática de Timor-Leste in Portuguese and Repúblika Demokrátika Timór-Leste in Tetum. Humans first settled in East Timor 42,000 years ago, descendants of at least three waves of migration are believed still to live in East Timor. The first is described by anthropologists as people of the Veddo-Australoid type, around 3000 BC, a second migration brought Melanesians. The earlier Veddo-Australoid peoples withdrew at this time to the mountainous interior, finally, proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina. Hakka traders are among those descended from this final group, Timorese origin myths tell of ancestors that sailed around the eastern end of Timor arriving on land in the south. Some stories recount Timorese ancestors journeying from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau highlands of Sumatra, austronesians migrated to Timor, and are thought to be associated with the development of agriculture on the island. Thirdly, Proto-Malays arrived from south China and north Indochina, before European colonialism, Timor was included in Chinese and Indian trading networks, and in the 14th century was an exporter of aromatic sandalwood, slaves, honey, and wax. It was the abundance of sandalwood in Timor that attracted European explorers to the island in the early 16th century. During that time, European explorers reported that the island had a number of small chiefdoms or princedoms, the Portuguese established outposts in Timor and Maluku. Effective European occupation of a part of the territory began in 1769, when the city of Dili was founded. For the Portuguese, East Timor remained little more than a trading post until the late nineteenth century, with minimal investment in infrastructure, health
5.
Indonesian National Revolution
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It took place between Indonesias declaration of independence in 1945 and the Dutch recognition of Indonesias independence at the end of 1949. The Indonesian independence movement began in May 1908, which is commemorated as the Year of National Awakening, the struggle lasted for over four years and involved sporadic but bloody armed conflict, internal Indonesian political and communal upheavals, and two major international diplomatic interventions. Dutch military forces were able to control the towns, cities and industrial assets in Republican heartlands on Java and Sumatra. In 1949 international pressure on the Netherlands became such that, together with the existing partial military stalemate, the revolution marked the end of the colonial administration of the Dutch East Indies, except for Netherlands New Guinea. It also significantly changed ethnic castes, as well as reducing the power of many of the local rulers and it did not significantly improve the economic or political fortune of the majority of the population, although a few Indonesians were able to gain a larger role in commerce. Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam and others pursued strategies of co-operation by joining the Dutch initiated Volksraad in the hope that Indonesia would be granted self-rule, others chose a non-cooperative strategy demanding the freedom of self-government from the Dutch East Indies colony. The most notable of these leaders were Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, the occupation of Indonesia by Japan for three and a half years during World War II was a crucial factor in the subsequent revolution. The Netherlands had little ability to defend its colony against the Japanese army, in Java, and to a lesser extent in Sumatra, the Japanese spread and encouraged nationalist sentiment. Just as significantly for the subsequent revolution, the Japanese destroyed and replaced much of the Dutch-created economic, administrative, on 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, Prime Minister Koiso promised independence for Indonesia, but no date was set. For supporters of Sukarno, this announcement was seen as vindication for his collaboration with the Japanese, under pressure from radical and politicised pemuda groups, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian independence, on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese Emperor’s surrender in the Pacific. The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee elected Sukarno as President, PROCLAMATION We, the people of Indonesia, hereby declare the independence of Indonesia. Matters which concern the transfer of power and other things will be executed by careful means, as the news spread, most Indonesians came to regard themselves as pro-Republican, and a mood of revolution swept across the country. External power had shifted, it would be weeks before Allied Forces entered Indonesia, the resulting power vacuums in the weeks following the Japanese surrender, created an atmosphere of uncertainty, but also one of opportunity for the Republicans. Many pemuda joined pro-Republic struggle groups, the most disciplined were soldiers from the Japanese-formed but disbanded Giyugun and Heiho groups. Many groups were undisciplined, due to both the circumstances of their formation and what they perceived as revolutionary spirit, in the first weeks, Japanese troops often withdrew from urban areas to avoid confrontations. To spread the message, pemuda set up their own radio stations and newspapers. On most islands, struggle committees and militia were set up, Republican leaders struggled to come to terms with popular sentiment, some wanted passionate armed struggle, others a more reasoned approach. Some leaders, such as the leftist Tan Malaka, spread the idea that this was a struggle to be led
6.
Resident (title)
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A Resident, or in full Resident Minister, is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are seen as a form of indirect rule. Residents could also be posted with shadowy governments, even after the Congress of Vienna restored the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in 1815, the British posted a mere Resident to Florence. Some official representatives of European colonial powers, while in theory diplomats, a trusted Resident could even become the de facto prime minister to a native ruler. In other respects they acted as an ambassador of their own government, instead of being a representative to a single ruler, a Resident could be posted to more than one native state, or to a grouping of states which the European power decided for its convenience. This could create a geographical unit, as in Residency X in some parts of the British Indian Empire. Similar positions could carry alternative titles, such as Political Agent and Resident Commissioner, a Residents real role varied enormously, depending upon the underlying relationship between the two parties and even upon the personalities of the Resident and the ruler. In French protectorates, such as those of Morocco and Tunisia, the Residents of the governments of the United Kingdom and the dominions to a variety of protectorates include, In the Sultanate of Zanzibar, the second homeland of the Omani dynasty, since 1913. From 1913 to 1961 the Residents were also the Sultans vizier, there were Consuls and Consuls-general until 1963. In present-day Kenya, in the Sultanate of Witu, after the British took over the protectorate from the German Empire, which had itself posted a Resident. In British Cameroon, since 1916, in 1949 restyled Special Resident for Edward John Gibbons, in kwaZulu, which since 1843 was under a British protectorate, after it became the Zulu Native Reserve or Zululand Province on 1 September 1879, two British Residents. In the Dutch East Indies, Dutch residents and lower ranks such as assistant residents were posted alongside a number of the native princes in present Indonesia. For example, on Sumatra, there were Dutch Residents at Palembang, at Medan in Deli sultanate, another was posted with the Sultan of and on Ternate, france also maintained Residents, the French word being Résident. However the Jacobine tradition of state authority didnt agree well with indirect rule. Many were part of a white colonial hierarchy, rather than truly posted with a ruler or chieftain. A single post of Resident was also created in Côte dIvoire, the Resident-Superior of Cambodia answered to the Governor-General of Indochina, however. In the German colonies, the title was also Resident, the post was called Residentur. e, such function could also be performed under another title, such as Commissioner or High Commissioner. John Bridger Philby August 1924 – March 1939 Henry Cox March 1939 –17 June 1946 Alec Seath Kirkbride Also after World War II, in the colony of Western Australia regional administration was conducted under instruction of the Governor in Council by Government Residents
7.
Portuguese Empire
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The Portuguese Empire, also known as the Portuguese Overseas, was one of the largest and longest-lived empires in world history and the first colonial empire. It existed for almost six centuries from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the grant of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002, the first era of the Portuguese empire originated at the beginning of the Age of Discovery. Initiated by the Kingdom of Portugal, it would eventually expand across the globe, in 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the secret design. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts, by 1571, a string of naval outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India and South Asia. This commercial network and the trade had a substantial positive impact on Portuguese economic growth. Though the realms continued to be administered separately, the Council of Portugal ruled the country and its empire from Madrid. As the King of Spain was also King of Portugal, Portuguese colonies became the subject of attacks by three rival European powers hostile to Spain, the Dutch Republic, England, and France. With its smaller population, Portugal was unable to defend its overstretched network of trading posts. Eventually, Brazil became the most valuable colony of the era until, as part of the wave of independence movements that swept the Americas during the early 19th century. The third era represents the stage of Portuguese colonialism after the decolonization of the Americas of the 1820s. The colonial possessions had been reduced to the African coastline, Portuguese Timor, the disastrous 1890 British Ultimatum led to the contraction of Portuguese ambitions in Africa. Macau was returned to China in 1999, the origin of the Kingdom of Portugal lay in the reconquista, the gradual reconquest of the Iberian peninsula from the Moors. There were several motives for their first attack, on the Marinid Sultanate. In 1415 an attack was made on Ceuta, a strategically located North African Muslim enclave along the Mediterranean Sea, although Ceuta proved to be a disappointment for the Portuguese, the decision was taken to hold it while exploring along the Atlantic African coast. At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Bojador on the African coast, under his sponsorship, soon the Atlantic islands of Madeira and Azores were reached and started to be settled producing wheat to export to Portugal. Fears of what lay beyond Cape Bojador, and whether it was possible to return once it was passed, were assuaged in 1434 when it was rounded by one of Infante Henrys captains, Gil Eanes. Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to further along the coast
8.
Dutch Empire
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The Dutch Empire comprised the overseas colonies, enclaves, and outposts controlled and administered by Dutch chartered companies and subsequently, the Dutch Republic and the modern Netherlands. This was reflective of the fact that the network of the Dutch Empire was commercial exchange as opposed to sovereignty over a homogeneous landmass. The companies brief domination of global commerce contributed greatly to a commercial revolution, in their search for new trade passages between Asia and Europe Dutch navigators explored and charted vast regions such as New Zealand, Tasmania, and parts of the eastern coast of North America. Shortly after reaching its zenith, the Dutch Empire began to decline as a result of the Anglo-Dutch Wars, in which it lost many of its colonial possessions and trade monopolies to the British Empire. Nevertheless, some portions of the empire survived until the advent of global decolonisation following World War II, namely the East Indies, three former colonial territories—Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten—are retained as constituent countries within the Netherlands. In 1566, a Protestant Dutch revolt broke out against rule by Roman Catholic Spain, led by William of Orange, independence was declared in the 1581 Act of Abjuration. The revolt resulted in the establishment of an de facto independent Protestant republic in the north by Treaty of Antwerp, the coastal provinces of Holland and Zeeland had for centuries prior to Spanish rule been important hubs of the European maritime trade network. Their geographical location provided convenient access to the markets of France, Scotland, Germany, England, efficient access to capital enabled the Dutch in the 1580s to extend their trade routes beyond northern Europe to new markets in the Mediterranean and the Levant. In the 1590s, Dutch ships began to trade with Brazil and the Dutch Gold Coast of Africa, and towards the Indian Ocean, by attacking Portuguese overseas possessions, the Dutch forced Spain to divert financial and military resources away from its attempt to quell Dutch independence. Thus began the several decade-long Dutch-Portuguese War, in 1594, the Compagnie van Verre was founded in Amsterdam, with the aim of sending two fleets to the spice islands of Maluku. The first fleet sailed in 1596 and returned in 1597 with a cargo of pepper, the second voyage, returned its investors a 400% profit. The success of these led to the founding of a number of companies competing for the trade. The competition was counterproductive to the interests as it threatened to drive up the price of spices at their source in Indonesia whilst driving them down in Europe. As a result of the caused by inter-company rivalry, the Dutch East India Company was founded in 1602. The directors of the company, the Heeren XVII, were given the authority to establish fortresses and strongholds, to sign treaties. The company itself was founded as a joint stock company, similarly to its English rival that had founded two years earlier, the English East India Company. The Spanish-Dutch War was for the Dutch part of their struggle for independence and religious freedom, the Netherlands became part of the domains of the Spanish branch of the Habsburg dynasty when Emperor Charles V divided the holdings of the Habsburg Empire following his abdication in 1555. From 1517, the port of Lisbon in Portugal was the main European market for products from India that was attended by other nations to purchase their needs
9.
Dutch East India Company
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It is often considered to be the worlds first truly transnational corporation and the first company in history to actually issue bonds and shares of stock to the general public. In other words, the VOC was officially the first publicly traded company of the world, the company was also considered by many to be the very first major and the greatest corporation in history. Statistically, the VOC eclipsed all of its rivals in international trade for almost 200 years of existence. Between 1602 and 1796 the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships, the VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century. Having been set up in 1602, to profit from the Malukan spice trade, in 1619 the VOC established a capital in the city of Jayakarta. Over the next two centuries the Company acquired additional ports as trading bases and safeguarded their interests by taking over surrounding territory and it remained an important trading concern and paid an 18% annual dividend for almost 200 years. Around the world and especially in English-speaking countries, the VOC is widely known as the Dutch East India Company, the name ‘Dutch East India Company’ is used to make a distinction with the East India Company and other East Indian companies. The abbreviation VOC stands for Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie in Dutch, the VOC monogram was possibly the first globally-recognized corporate logo. The logo of the VOC consisted of a large capital V with an O on the left and it appeared on various corporate items, such as cannon and coins. The first letter of the hometown of the conducting the operation was placed on top. An Australian vintner has used the VOC logo since the late 20th century, the flag of the company was orange, white, and blue, with the company logo embroidered on it. Before the Dutch Revolt, Antwerp had played an important role as a centre in northern Europe. At the same time, the Portuguese trade system was unable to supply to satisfy growing demand. Demand for spices was relatively inelastic, and therefore each lag in the supply of pepper caused a rise in pepper prices. These three factors motivated Dutch merchants to enter the spice trade themselves. Further, a number of Dutchmen like Jan Huyghen van Linschoten and Cornelis de Houtman obtained first hand knowledge of the secret Portuguese trade routes and practices, thereby providing opportunity. The stage was set for Houtmans 1595 four-ship exploratory expedition to Banten, the main pepper port of West Java. Houtmans expedition then sailed east along the north coast of Java, losing twelve crew to a Javanese attack at Sidayu, half the crew were lost before the expedition made it back to the Netherlands the following year, but with enough spices to make a considerable profit
10.
Proclamation of Indonesian Independence
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The Proclamation of Indonesian Independence was read at 10.00 a. m. on Friday,17 August 1945. In 2005, the Netherlands declared that they had decided to accept de facto 17 August 1945 as Indonesias independence date, in a 2013 interview the Indonesian historian Sukotjo, amongst others, asked the Dutch government to formally acknowledge the date of independence as 17 August 1945. The United Nations, who mediated in the conflict, formally acknowledge the date of independence as 27 December 1949, the document was signed by Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, who were appointed president and vice-president respectively the following day. The draft was prepared only a few hours earlier, on the night of 16 August, by Sukarno, Hatta, the original Indonesian Declaration of Independence was typed by Sayuti Melik. Maeda himself was sleeping in his room upstairs and he was agreeable to the idea of Indonesias independence, and had lent his house for the drafting of the declaration. Marshal Terauchi, the highest-ranking Japanese leader in South East Asia and son of Prime Minister Terauchi Masatake, was however against Indonesias independence, the declaration was to be signed by the 27 members of the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence symbolically representing the new nations diversity. The particular act was inspired by a similar spirit of the United States Declaration of Independence. Instead, the radical activists demanded that the signatures of six of them were to be put on the document. All parties involved in the moment finally agreed on a compromise solution which only included Sukarno. There was no evidence for the growing suspicions, as the Japanese had already surrendered to the Allies. An English translation of the proclamation was broadcast overseas, proklamasi Kami, bangsa Indonesia, dengan ini menjatakan kemerdekaan Indonesia. Hal2 jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d. l. l, 17-8-45, changed to hari 17, boelan 8, tahoen 05, Wakil-Wakil Bangsa Indonesia, changed to Atas nama bangsa Indonesia. P R O K L A M A S I Kami, bangsa Indonesia, hal-hal jang mengenai pemindahan kekoeasaan d. l. l. Diselenggarakan dengan tjara saksama dan dalam tempo jang sesingkat-singkatnja, djakarta, hari 17 boelan 8 tahoen 05 Atas nama bangsa Indonesia, Soekarno/Hatta. An English translation published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs as of October 1948 included the speech as read by Sukarno. It incorporated remarks made immediately prior to and after the actual proclamation, PROCLAMATION WE THE PEOPLE OF INDONESIA HEREBY DECLARE THE INDEPENDENCE OF INDONESIA. MATTERS WHICH CONCERN THE TRANSFER OF POWER AND OTHER THINGS WILL BE EXECUTED BY CAREFUL MEANS AND IN THE SHORTEST POSSIBLE TIME. DJAKARTA,17 AUGUST1945 IN THE NAME OF THE PEOPLE OF INDONESIA SOEKARNO/HATTA This proclamation is printed in the front of the Rp.100,000 Indonesian banknote of the year 1999 and 2004 series, java in a Time of Revolution, Occupation and Resistance, 1944-1946
11.
Oecusse District
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Oecusse, formerly Ambeno and Oecussi-Ambeno, is a district of East Timor. The capital of the district is Pante Macassar, also called Oecussi Town, or formerly, in Portuguese Timor, originally Ambeno was the name of the district and Oecussi its capital. The district has an area of 814 km², Oecusse and Ambeno are the names of the two original kingdoms, of which Ambeno existed before the colonial period. Oecusse was among the first parts of the island of Timor on which the Portuguese established themselves, in about 1556, the Dominican friar António Taveiro, operating from a base on Solor, started missionary work on the north coast of Timor. Shortly after this, in 1569, the village of Alifao is mentioned on a European map and it was situated five kilometres to the west of modern Pante Macassar. For the Portuguese traders in sandalwood, Lifau was a convenient place to land since it was situated to the south of their base in the Solor Archipelago, the area was dominated by the Ambeno kingdom, which was sometimes referred as the kingdom of Lifau. In 1641 the Dominican priests baptised the royal families of the Ambeno, Mena and Amanuban kingdoms, migration of Topasses rose in the 1650s from Larantuka on Flores, a Eurasian population. After 1664 they were governed by officers belonging to the Hornay and Da Costa families, the Topass leaders used Lifau as their main stronghold on Timor, but still resided much of their time in Larantuka. In the second half of the century they made great profits through the sandalwood trade, attracting merchants from Siam, Batavia, Macao. The precious wood was brought to Lifau and sold to external traders under Topass supervision, in 1702, Lifau became the authorised capital of the colony when it received the first governor from Goa. The following period saw frequent clashes between the governor and the independent-minded Topasses, who had their strongholds in Tulicão west of Lifau, the capital of the governor was transferred from Lifau to Dili in 1769, because of the frequent attacks from the Topass leader Francisco Hornay III. Most of West Timor was left to Dutch forces, who were conquering what is today Indonesia, the Eurasian leadership of Oecusse by and by turned into a Timorese kingship, and members of the Hornay and Da Costa families reigned as Liurai until modern times. They regularly intermarried with the Ambeno royalty, in the 1780s a reconciliation took place between the governor in Dili and the Topasses, who henceforth usually supported the Portuguese government. In 1859, with the Treaty of Lisbon, Portugal and the Netherlands divided the island between them, West Timor became Dutch, with its colonial seat at Kupang, and East Timor became Portuguese, with its seat in Dili. This left Oecusse and Noimuti as enclaves surrounded by Dutch territory, in 1912 the Liurai of Ambeno, João da Cruz, staged a revolt against the Portuguese. It was quickly put down, after which the Ambeno kingdom lapsed, the Liurai of Oecusse became dominant in the entire Oecusse exclave. The definitive border was drawn by the Hague in 1916, apart from Japanese occupation during World War II, the border remained the same until the end of the colonial period. The region was given the status of county, named Oecússi, by the Portuguese government in August 1973, Indonesian forces invaded Oecusse on 6 June 1975
12.
Rote Island
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Rote Island is an island of Indonesia, part of the East Nusa Tenggara province of the Lesser Sunda Islands. According to legend, this island got its name accidentally when a lost Portuguese sailor arrived and asked a farmer where he was, the surprised farmer, who could not speak Portuguese, introduced himself, Rote. Rote lies 500 km northwest of the Australian coast and 170 km north of the Ashmore, the island is situated to the southwest of the larger island of Timor. To the north is the Savu Sea, and to the south is the Timor Sea, to the west is Savu and Sumba. The uninhabited Ndana island, just south of Rote, with an area of 14 km2, is the southernmost island of Indonesia. Along with some nearby small islands, such as Ndao island, it forms the kabupaten of Rote Ndao Regency. Rote island has an area of 1,200 km2, the main town, Baa, is located on the northern side of the island. Rote has a good area in the south around the village of Nemberala. There is a ferry to the island from Kupang, the provincial capital on West Timor. The trip between Kupang and Baa takes around two hours, wings Air Operates daily flights between Rote and Kupang. Flight time is about 30 minutes, Rote consists of rolling hills, terraced plantations, acacia palm, savanna and some forests. The Rotinese depend, like the Savunese, on the palm for basic survival but also as a supplement to their income from fishing. Agriculture is the form of employment. Fishing is also important, especially in the village of Papela. Rote has many historical relics including fine antique Chinese porcelain, as well as ancient arts, several prominent Indonesian figures were born in Rote. A popular music instrument, Sasando, is made of palm leaves, in the eastern part of the island is a pond in Landu Village that has non-poisonous jellyfish. The pond also has a sandy beach. The critically endangered Rote Island snake-necked turtle is endemic to Rote Island, the US-born Australian scholar, Prof James J Fox, has written extensively about Rotinese culture
13.
Kupang
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Not to be confused with Tanjung Kupang in Johore Kupang is the capital of the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara, and has an estimated population in 2011 of 349,344. It is the biggest city and port on the island of Timor, Kupang was an important port and trading point during the Portuguese and Dutch colonial eras. There are ruins and remnant signs of the presence in the city. Representatives of the Dutch East India Company approached Kupang in 1613 after having conquered the Portuguese fort on Solor, at this time the place and its hinterland was governed by a raja of the Helong tribe which claimed descent from Ceram in Maluku. Kupang was well situated for strategic control over parts of Timor, moreover, the Koinino River provided fresh water for the inhabitants. A VOC-Helong agreement was made, but due to the lack of VOC commitment on Timor, Kupang was later influenced by the Portuguese mestizo population of Flores, a Portuguese stronghold was established by the 1640s. However, the VOC was firmly established on Solor in 1646, in January 1653 a Dutch fortification, Fort Concordia, was built on a height to the left of the river estuary. Kupang became the base of the Dutch struggle against the Portuguese and they were followed by two other groups, Amfoan and Taebenu. The Helong raja remained the lord of the land but was dependent on the VOC authorities. Apart from the old Helong territory, Timor was largely dominated by the Portuguese up to 1749, the Dutch set up a European administration with a chief executive and a council. Affairs with the populations were regulated through regular meetings. The Kupang administration handled affairs with the VOC-allied islands Rote, Savu, Chinese traders and artisans settled by the early 18th century and soon became indispensable for the economic life. The town area was settled by various indigenous groups from the region. In 1752 the population was 827 Christians and an number of non-Christians. Nevertheless, some of this influence contracted after 1761 due to incompetence, Kupang was the final destination of William Bligh who was set adrift in an open boat during the Mutiny on the Bounty. The Mutiny on the Bounty took place about 30 nautical miles from Tofua in the Tonga islands and he recorded the distance as 3,618 nautical miles. He passed through the difficult Torres Strait along the way and landed on 14 June, the only casualty of his voyage was a crewman named John Norton who was stoned to death by the natives of Tofua, the first island they tried to land on. News of the journey of Captain Bligh inspired the escape of a party of convicts from the colony at Sydney Cove
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East Nusa Tenggara
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East Nusa Tenggara is the southernmost province of Indonesia. It is located in the part of the Lesser Sunda Islands. It has an area of 48,718.1 km2, and the population at the 2010 Census was 4,683,827. The provincial capital is Kupang on West Timor, the province consists of more than 500 islands, the three largest being Flores, Sumba, and the western half of Timor. The eastern part of Timor is the independent country of East Timor, East Nusa Tenggara is the only province in Indonesia where Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion. Nusa Tenggara Timur, in Indonesian, means eastern southeastern islands, compare to Nusa Tenggara Barat, after the declaration of Indonesian independence in 1945, the eastern part of Indonesia declared the State of East Indonesia. The state was included in the United States of Indonesia as part of the agreement with the Dutch contained in the transfer its sovereignty to Indonesia in 1949. In 1950, United States of Indonesia dissolved itself into a unitary state, in 1958, by Indonesian law No. 64/1958, three provinces were established in the Lesser Sunda Islands, namely Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, the area of East Nusa Tenggara province included the western part of Timor island, Flores, Sumba and other several small islands in the region. The province was sub-divided into twelve regencies and the City of Kupang, following the fall of the Suharto regime in 1998 and the passage of a new regional autonomy law, there was a dramatic proliferation of regional governments across Indonesia. Several new regencies were created in East Nusa Tenggara by the division of existing regencies, In 1999, in 2002, Rote and Ndao Islands were split off from Kupang Regency, to form a new Rote Ndao Regency. In 2003, Manggarai Regency was split into two and a new West Manggarai Regency was established, in 2007, the administration of East Nusa Tenggara province was expanded by the establishment of four new regencies - Central Sumba and Southwest Sumba, Nagekeo and East Manggarai. In October 2008 a further regency - Sabu Raijua - was formed part of the remaining Kupang Regency. In December 2012 yet another regency - Malaka - was created out of the half of Belu Regency. Therefore, as of early 2013, there were twenty-one regencies plus the one city in the province. Located in the east of Lesser Sunda Islands, East Nusa Tenggara faces the Indian Ocean in the south, the province is bordered by other provinces, West Nusa Tenggara in the west. In the east, the province is bordered by East Timor, the province consists of about 566 islands, the largest and most dominant are Flores, Sumba, and the western part of Timor. The other is smaller islands include Adonara, Alor, Komodo, Lembata, Menipo, Raijua, Rincah, Rote Island, Savu, Semau, the highest point in the province is Mount Mutis in the South Central Timor Regency,2,427 meters above sea level
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Regencies of Indonesia
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This is the list of regencies and cities of Indonesia. Both regencies and cities are second-level administrative subdivision in Indonesia, immediately below the provinces, in Indonesia, both regency and city are at the same administration level, each having their own local government and legislative body. The difference between a regency and a city lies in demography, size and economy, generally, a regency comprises a rural, larger area than a city. A city usually has non-agricultural economic activities, a regency is headed by a regent, known locally as bupati, while a city is headed by a mayor. All regents, mayors and members of legislatures are elected via elections to serve for a five year term which can be renewed once. Each regency or city is divided further into districts more commonly known as kecamatan, an administrative city is a city without its own local legislatures. The mayor of a city is directly appointed by the Governor. This type of city in Indonesia is only found in Jakarta which consisted of 5 administrative cities and 1 administrative regency, following the implementation of decentralization beginning on 1 January 2001, regencies and municipalities became the key administrative units responsible for providing most governmental services. The list below groups regencies and cities in Indonesia by provinces, each regency has an administrative centre, the regency seat. The Indonesian title of bupati is originally a loanword from Sanskrit originating in India, related titles which were also used in precolonial Indonesia are adipati and senapati. A regency is a subdivision of a province in Indonesia. The Indonesian term kabupaten is also translated as municipality. Regencies and cities are divided into Districts, the English name regency comes from the Dutch colonial period, when regencies were ruled by bupati and were known as regentschap. Bupati had been regional lords under the pre-colonial monarchies of Java, when the Dutch abolished or curtailed those monarchies, the bupati were left as the most senior indigenous authority. They were not strictly speaking native rulers because the Dutch claimed full sovereignty over their territory, regencies in Java territorial units were grouped together into Residencies headed by exclusively European Residents. After the independence of Indonesia in 1945, the terms bupati, since the start of Reformasi in 1998 a remarkable secession of district governments has arisen in Indonesia. This process has become known as pemekaran, following the surge of support for decentralisation across Indonesia which occurred following the end of the Soeharto era in 1998, key new decentralisation laws were passed in 1999. Subsequently, there was a jump in the number of regencies from around 300 at the end of 1998 to over 490 in 2008 ten years later, the agreement will be forwarded on for government approval
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Kupang Regency
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Kupang Regency is a regency in East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia. It occupies the far end of Timor Island, together with the small offshore island of Semau. Other islands to the southwest and west which were part of Kupang Regency have been separated administratively - the Rote Islands Group in 2002. The capital of Kupang Regency is at Oelamasi, the regency is divided into 24 districts, tabulated below with their 2010 Census population
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South Central Timor Regency
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South Central Timor Regency is a regency in East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia. Established in 1958, the regency has its seat in Soe, Mount Mutis, the highest mountain in the province of East Nusa Tenggara, is in the northern part of the regency. International visitors have noted that the rich in bird life. The local economy in the area is poor and underdeveloped, subsistence agriculture is the main economic activity in many villages. In addition, when opportunities are available, some local village communities sometimes undertake unregulated mining or other resource-based activities, for example, in the Kolbano Beach area south of Soe, there is a local industry in the collection of coloured stones. The stones, which come in a range of shapes and sizes, are sold to local companies. The companies in turn export the stones to countries such as Australia, China, Malaysia, sacks of stones sell for between Rp 10,000 to Rp 25,000. Local villagers are reported to be able to earn around Rp 50,000 per day collecting stones although there are complaints that the prices paid to workers who collect the stones are too low. However, there are concerns amongst some local community groups, such as the Molo people in the Mount Mutis Sanctuary, there has been social resistance, for example, to the activities of mining firms conducting marble quarrying. Partly as a result of the resistance, marble mining firms abandoned their work in the area in 2010. The regency is divided into 32 districts, tabulated below with their 2010 Census population
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North Central Timor Regency
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North Central Timor Regency is a regency in East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia. Established in 1958, the regency has its seat in Kefamenanu, the regional economy is underdeveloped with the main activity in many village areas being subsistence agriculture. Infrastructure, particularly, is underdeveloped with local inhabitants noting that infrastructure in the nearby Oecussi enclave, there are high rates of poverty in the region. There are acute shortages of water for household use in the dry season in rural areas. The shortages exacerbate other factors contribute to poor health, such as diarrhea and skin diseases. Stunting and undernourishment of children is common as well, one conducted by an international NGO reported that 57% of children were stunted. The regency is divided into 24 districts, tabulated below with their 2010 Census population
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Belu Regency
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Belu Regency is a regency in East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia. Established in December 20,1958, Belu Regency has its seat in Atambua, in December 2012 a separate Regency - Malaka Regency - was created from the southern half of Belu Regency. This regency is served with 2 TV Channel, which are, TVRI Nasional Belu TV. The Belu Regency was until 2013 divided into 24 districts, tabulated below with their 2010 Census population, in 2013, the 12 southern kecamatan were removed to form the new Malaka Regency, leaving the 12 northern kecamatan in Belu Regency
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Rote Ndao Regency
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Rote Ndao Regency is a regency in East Nusa Tenggara province of Indonesia, consisting primarily of the island of Rote, situated south-west of the western tip of West Timor. Established in 2002 formerly part of Kupang Regency, the regency has its seat in Baa, the population was 119,711 as of the 2010 census. Many Beluga Whales are known to breed in this regency, the regency is surrounded by water, bordering the Savu Sea to the north, the Indian Ocean to the south and west, and the Pukuafu Strait to the east. The sasando and the Tii Langga are well-known symbols of Rote Ndao Regency, the sasando is a Rotenese string musical instrument, found nowhere else outside East Nusa Tenggara. The instrument of 28 strings has unique resonance and it is made from a lontar palm leaf. Originally, the sasando was called the gong and consisted of fewer strings. It was later developed into the sasando biola that sounds more like a harp, performers such as Berto Pah in Indonesia Mencari Bakat usually play the sasando biola as a solo player. The sasando gong has become popular recently. However, the sasando is less likely to be found crafted in Rote Ndao Regency, than Timor. In Rote Ndao there are still a few places where the sasando is taught, the Tii Langga on the other hand, is a traditionally crafted lontar leaf hat resembling a Mexican sombrero hat. The hat is worn by male Rotenese, more so in past years and it is made up of lontar leaf webbings and constructed without the aid of glue, sometimes even ornamented with coloured straps that complement the Rotenese tastes of rather simple artistry
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Sabu Raijua Regency
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Sabu Raijua Regency is one of the regencies in the province of East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. It comprises the three Savu Islands, lying between Sumba and Rote Island in the Savu Sea, the regency was established by Indonesias Minister of Home Affairs, Mardiyanto, on 29 October 2008, having formerly been part of Kupang Regency. The population was 72,960 at the 2010 census, the regency is divided into six districts, tabulated below with their 2010 Census population
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Atambua
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Atambua is the regency seat of Belu Regency, East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Atambua is the second largest city in Timor Island, also the fourth largest city in East Nusa Tenggara. Most citizens speak Tetun and Dawan L. Atambua is a town with most citizens are Timor, Rote, Sabu. But in spite of diversity, the still live in harmony. The town stretches as far as 8.5 km from North to South and 5 km from East to West, the town is located at an altitude of about 350 m above sea level with temperatures ranging between 23-35 degrees Celsius making this area feel quite warm. The town is home to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Atambua, the Dioceses population is over 95% Catholic, among the highest percentages of Catholics in all of Indonesia. In September 1999, more than 250,000 refugees arrived here from East Timor, after their vote for independence, as late as 2002, there was an estimated 60,000 refugees left in camps. The motorcycles are usually called ojek, there are only four routes in the town served by the Mikrolets that connect Atambuas main points. The ojeks do not have a fixed route, inter-city buses connect Atambua with other towns in West Timor. Atambua is a gateway to East Timor by land. To go to East Timor, the usually used by road to Indonesia-East Timor Immigration checks in Motaain near Batugade are mostly with Bus and Car, such as SUVs and MPVs. The distance between Atambua and Motaain is 36 km, there is an airport in Atambua, A. A. Bere Tallo Airport, about 5 kilometers from the town centre. The airports runway is 1600m long and can therefore be used by a big aircraft. Daily flights to the airport is used by the Susi Air plane, Wings Air plane, all these flights are mainly on the Atambua - Kupang route. Atambua also has two sea ports, Atapupu for cargo and oil, and Teluk Gurita for passengers, ferry routes are Atambua-Kalabahi, once a week
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1999 East Timorese crisis
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The 1999 East Timorese crisis began with attacks by anti-independence militants on civilians, and expanded to general violence throughout the country, centred in the capital Dili. The violence erupted after a majority of voters in the population of East Timor chose independence from Indonesia. Some 1,400 civilians are believed to have died, a UN-authorized force consisting mainly of Australian Defence Force personnel was deployed to East Timor to establish and maintain peace. Independence for East Timor, or even limited regional autonomy, was never going to be allowed under Suhartos New Order, renewed United Nations-brokered mediation efforts between Indonesia and Portugal began in early 1997. The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, however, caused tremendous upheaval in Indonesia and led to Suhartos resignation in May 1998, the subsequent reformasi period of relative political openness and transition, included unprecedented debate about Indonesias relationship with East Timor. For the remainder of 1998, discussion took place throughout Dili working towards a referendum. Indonesian Foreign Minister Alatas described plans for phased autonomy leading to independence as all pain. On 8 June 1998, three weeks after taking office, Suhartos successor B. J. Habibie announced that Indonesia would soon offer East Timor a special plan for autonomy. In late 1998, the Australian Government of John Howard drafted a letter to Indonesia advising of a change in Australian policy, President Habibie saw such an arrangement as implying colonial rule by Indonesia and he decided to call a snap referendum on the issue. Indonesia and Portugal announced on 5 May 1999 that a vote would be allowing the people of East Timor to choose between the autonomy plan or independence. The vote, to be administered by the United Nations Mission in East Timor, was scheduled for 8 August. Alleging pro-independence bias on the part of UNAMET, the groups were working with. Before the May agreement was announced, an April paramilitary attack in Liquiça left dozens of East Timorese dead, on 16 May 1999, a gang accompanied by Indonesian troops attacked suspected independence activists in the village of Atara, in June another group attacked a UNAMET office in Maliana. Indonesian authorities claimed to be helpless to stop the violence between rival factions among the East Timorese, but Ramos-Horta joined many others in scoffing at such notions, in February 1999 he said, Before withdraws it wants to wreak major havoc and destabilization, as it has always promised. We have consistently heard that over the years from the Indonesian military in Timor, as militia leaders warned of a bloodbath, Indonesian roving ambassador Francisco Lopes da Cruz declared, If people reject autonomy there is the possibility blood will flow in East Timor. One paramilitary leader announced that a sea of fire would result in the event of a vote for independence, as the date of the vote drew near, reports of anti-independence violence continued to accumulate. The day of the vote,30 August 1999, was generally calm,98.6 percent of registered voters cast ballots, and on 4 September UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan announced that 78.5 percent of the votes had been cast for independence. Many accepted media stories blaming the supervising United Nations and Australia who had pressured Habibie for a resolution, within hours of the results, paramilitary groups had begun attacking people and setting fires around the capital Dili
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Austronesian
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The Austronesian languages are a language family that is widely dispersed throughout Maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific Ocean, with a few members in continental Asia. It is on par with Indo-European, Niger–Congo, and Afroasiatic as one of the language families. Major Austronesian languages with the highest number of speakers are Malay, Javanese, the family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family. Otto Dempwolff was the first researcher to extensively explore Austronesian using the comparative method, another German, Wilhelm Schmidt, coined the German word austronesisch which comes from Latin auster south wind plus Greek nêsos island. The name Austronesian was formed from the same roots, the family is aptly named, as the vast majority of Austronesian languages are spoken on islands, only a few languages, such as Malay and the Chamic languages, are indigenous to mainland Asia. Twenty or so Austronesian languages are official in their respective countries, hawaiian, Rapa Nui, and Malagasy are the geographic outliers of the Austronesian family. According to Robert Blust, Austronesian is divided in several branches, all. The Formosan languages of Taiwan are grouped into as many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian, all Austronesian languages spoken outside Taiwan belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch, sometimes called Extra-Formosan. Most Austronesian languages lack a long history of attestation, making the feat of reconstructing earlier stages – up to distant Proto-Austronesian – all the more remarkable. The oldest inscription in the Cham language, the Đông Yên Châu inscription and it is difficult to make generalizations about the languages that make up a family as diverse as Austronesian. The phenomenon has frequently referred to as focus. Furthermore, the choice of voice is influenced by the definiteness of the participants, the word order has a strong tendency to be verb-initial. They are also characterized by the presence of preposed clitic pronouns, unlike the Philippine type, these languages mostly tend towards verb-second word-orders. A number of languages, such as the Batak languages, Old Javanese, Balinese, Sasak, finally, in some languages, which Ross calls post-Indonesian, the original voice system has broken down completely and the voice-marking affixes no longer preserve their functions. The Austronesian languages tend to use reduplication, like many East and Southeast Asian languages, most Austronesian languages have highly restrictive phonotactics, with generally small numbers of phonemes and predominantly consonant–vowel syllables. Some cognate sets are very stable, the word for eye in many Austronesian languages is mata. Other words are harder to reconstruct, the word for two is also stable, in that it appears over the entire range of the Austronesian family, but the forms require some linguistic expertise to recognise. The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database gives word lists for approximately 1000 Austronesian languages, the internal structure of the Austronesian languages is complex
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Tetum
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Tetum /ˈtɛtʊm/, also Tetun, is an Austronesian language spoken on the island of Timor. It is spoken in Belu Regency in Indonesian West Timor, and across the border in East Timor, in East Timor a creolized form, Tetun Dili, is widely spoken fluently as a second language, without previous contact, Tetum and Tetun Dili are not mutually intelligible. Besides the grammatical simplification involved in creolization, Tetun Dili has been influenced by the vocabulary of Portuguese. Tetum has four dialects, Tetun-Dili, or Tetun-Prasa, is spoken in the capital, Dili, ethnologue classifies it as a Tetun-based creole. Tetun-Terik is spoken in the south and southwestern coastal regions, the Nanaek dialect is spoken in the village of Metinaro, on the coastal road between Dili and Manatuto. Tetun-Belu and Tetun-Terik are not spoken or well understood outside their home territories, Tetun-Prasa is the form of Tetum that is spoken throughout East Timor. Although Portuguese was the language of Portuguese Timor until 1975. When East Timor gained its independence on 20 May 2002, Tetum, in addition to regional varieties of Tetum in East Timor, there are variations in vocabulary and pronunciation, partly due to Portuguese and Indonesian influence. The Tetum spoken by East Timorese migrants in Portugal and Australia is more Portuguese-influenced, as many of those speakers were not educated in Indonesian. The Tetum name for East Timor is Timór Lorosae, which means Timor of the sun, or, less poetically, East Timor, lorosae comes from loro sun and sae to rise. The noun for word is liafuan, from lia voice and fuan fruit, Tetum has many hybrid words, which are combinations of indigenous and Portuguese words. These often include an indigenous Tetum verb, with a Portuguese suffix -dór, for example, han handór – glutton. Hateten hatetendór – chatterbox, talkative person, obrigadu/Obrigada – Thank you, said by a male/female. Examples, A common occurrence is to use such as Senhora for a woman or names rather than pronouns when addressing people. Example, The second person singular pronoun Ó is used generously with children or if the speaker intends to address someone of high social status, example, The plural is not normally marked on nouns, but the word sira they can express it when necessary. Feto woman/women → feto sira women However, the plural ending -s of nouns of Portuguese origin is retained. g. g, I and they, and ita, which is inclusive, e. g. you, I, and they. Ami-nia karreta – our car ita-nia rain – our country Nouns derived from verbs or adjectives are formed with affixes, for example the suffix -nain. Hakerek write → hakerek-nain writer The suffix -nain can also be used with nouns, uma house → uma-nain householder In more traditional forms of Tetum, the circumfix ma- -k is used instead of -nain
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Roman Catholic Diocese of Atambua
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Its cathedral episcopal see is Katedral Santa Maria Imakulata located in the city of Atambua. Promoted January 3,1961 as Diocese of Atambua, yet still missionary, lost territory on 13 April 1967 to establish the then Diocese of Kupang, now its Metropolitan. Apostolic Vicar of Dutch Timor Jacques Pessers, Divine Word Missionaries, Titular Bishop of Candyba Apostolic Vicars of Atambua Jacques Pessers, Titular Bishop of Mulia Suffragan Bishops of Atambua Jacques Pessers, S. V. D. Previously Titular Bishop of Zaba & Auxiliary Bishop of Atambua Dominikus Saku GCatholic. org, with incumbent biography links Catholic Hierarchy
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Slash-and-burn
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Slash-and-burn agriculture, or fire–fallow cultivation, is a farming method that involves the cutting and burning of plants in a forest or woodland to create a field called a swidden. In subsistence agriculture, slash-and-burn typically uses little technology and it is often applied in shifting cultivation agriculture and in transhumance livestock herding. Slash-and-burn is used by 200–500 million people worldwide, in 2004 it was estimated that in Brazil alone,500,000 small farmers each cleared an average of one hectare of forest per year. The technique is not scalable or sustainable for large human populations, methods such as Inga alley farming have been proposed as alternatives which would cause less environmental degradation. Historically, slash-and-burn cultivation has been practiced throughout much of the world and this happened in the river valleys of Egypt and Mesopotamia. Due to this decrease in food hunting, as human populations increased. Some groups could easily plant their crops in fields along river valleys. In this context, humans used slash-and-burn agriculture to more land to make it suitable for plants. Thus, since Neolithic times, slash-and-burn techniques have been used for converting forests into crop fields. Fire was used before the Neolithic as well, and by hunter-gatherers up to present times, clearings created by fire were made for many reasons, such as to draw game animals and to promote certain kinds of edible plants such as berries. Slash-and-burn fields are used and owned by a family until the soil is exhausted. At this point the ownership rights are abandoned, the family clears a new field, after a few decades, another family or clan may then use the land and claim usufructuary rights. In such a system there is no market in farmland, so land is not bought or sold in the open market. In slash-and-burn agriculture, forests are typically cut months before a dry season, the slash is permitted to dry, and then burned in the following dry season. The resulting ash fertilizes the soil and the field is then planted at the beginning of the next rainy season with crops such as upland rice, maize, cassava. Most of this work is typically done by hand, using basic tools as machetes, axes, hoes. Large families or clans wandering in the lush woodlands long continued to be the most common form of life through human prehistory, axes to fell trees and sickles for harvesting grain were the only tools people might bring with them. All other tools were made from materials found at the site, such as fire stakes of birch, long rods
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The Canberra Times
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The Canberra Times is a daily newspaper, published by Fairfax Media in Canberra. The Canberra Times was launched in 1926 by Thomas Shakespeare along with his oldest son Arthur Shakespeare, the newspapers first issue was published on 3 September 1926. It was the paper to be printed in the city. Between September 1926 and February 1928, the newspaper was a weekly issue, the first daily issue was 28 February 1928. In June 1956, The Canberra Times converted from broadsheet to tabloid format, Arthur Shakespeare sold the paper to John Fairfax Ltd in 1964, on the condition that it continue to advocate for Canberra. Soon after, in July 1964, the format was switched back to broadsheet, offices remained open in the civic retail precinct until April 1987 when The Canberra Times moved its entire operation to the new office of The Federal Capital Press of Australia, also in Fyshwick. The paper was sold to Publishing and Broadcasting Limited, which in turn sold it to Kerry Stokes in 1989 for $110 million. Rural Press Limited bought the paper from Stokes in 1998 for $160 million, the Times rejoined the Fairfax stable in 2007 when Rural Press merged with Fairfax. The paper first went online on 31 March 1997, on 17 October 2008, The Canberra Times was distributed with a sticker advertising the ACT Labor Party on the front page. Complaints about the sticker prompted the manager, Ken Nichols. A new editorial team was appointed in November 2015, with Grant Newton as editor of the newspaper and Scott Hannaford as deputy editor. In March 2016, staff at the newspaper were told there would be a restructure at The Canberra Times, Fairfax Media also announced they would be cutting 12 jobs from the newspapers staff. The papers editors have included Jack Waterford and Michelle Grattan, the first female editor of a daily newspaper in Australia. A recent editor-in-chief, Peter Fray, left in January 2009 to edit The Sydney Morning Herald and he was succeeded by Rod Quinn, who announced the formation of a new senior editorial team in 2012. Editorial cartoonists have included Geoff Pryor, David Pope and Pat Campbell, list of newspapers in Australia The Canberra Times Digitised historic Canberra Times from the National Library of Australia
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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Batavia, Dutch East Indies
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Batavia was the name of the capital city of the Dutch East Indies and corresponds to the present-day city of Jakarta. The establishment of Batavia at the site of the city of Jayakarta by the Dutch in 1619 led to the Dutch colony that became modern Indonesia following World War II. Batavia became the center of the Dutch East India Companys trading network in Asia, monopolies on nutmeg, black pepper, cloves and cinnamon were augmented by non-indigenous cash crops like coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco, rubber, sugar and opium. To safeguard their commercial interests, the company and the colonial administration, Batavia lies on the north coast of Java, in a sheltered bay, over a flat land consisting of marshland and hills, and crisscrossed with canals. Batavia was a city for about 320 years until 1942 when the Dutch East Indies fell under Japanese occupation during World War II. During the Japanese occupation and again after Indonesian nationalists declared independence on August 17,1945, the period started with the founding of the walled city of Batavia by the Dutch East India Company following the destruction of the port city of Jayakarta. The period ends with the dissolution of the Dutch East India Company, in 1595, merchants from Amsterdam embarked upon an expedition to the East Indies archipelago. Under the command of Cornelis de Houtman, the expedition reached Bantam, capital of the Sultanate of Banten, in 1602, the English East India Companys first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and sailed on to Bantam. There he was allowed to build a trading post that became the center of English trade in Indonesia until 1682, in 1602, the Dutch government granted a monopoly on Asian trade to the Dutch East India Company. In 1603, the first permanent Dutch trading post in Indonesia was established in Bantam, in 1610, Prince Jayawikarta granted permission to Dutch merchants to build a wooden godown and houses on the east bank of the Ciliwung River, opposite to Jayakarta. This outpost was established in 1611, as Dutch power increased, Jayawikarta allowed the British to erect houses on the west bank of the Ciliwung River, as well as a fort close to his customs office post, to keep the forces balanced. In December 1618, the relationship between Prince Jayawikarta and the Dutch escalated, and Jayawikartas soldiers besieged the Dutch fortress, containing the godowns Nassau. A British fleet of 15 ships arrived under the leadership of Sir Thomas Dale, after a sea battle, the newly appointed Dutch governor, Jan Pieterszoon Coen, escaped to the Moluccas to seek support. Meanwhile, the commander of the Dutch garrison, Pieter van den Broecke, along with five men, was arrested during negotiations. Later, Jayawikarta and the British entered into a friendship agreement, the Dutch army was on the verge of surrendering to the British when, in 1619, Banten sent a group of soldiers to summon Prince Jayawikarta. Jayawikartas friendship agreement with the British was without approval from the Bantenese authorities. The conflict between Banten and Prince Jayawikarta, as well as the relationship between Banten and the British, presented a new opportunity for the Dutch. Coen returned from the Moluccas with reinforcements on 28 May 1619 and razed Jayakarta to the ground on 30 May 1619, only the Padrão of Sunda Kelapa remained
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Governorate of Ambon
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Ambon was a governorate of the Dutch East India Company, consisting of Ambon Island and ten neighbouring islands. Steven van der Hagen captured Fort Victoria on 22 February 1605 from the Portuguese in the name of the Dutch East India Company, until 1619, Ambon served as the capital of the Dutch possessions in East Asia. In that year Batavia was founded to function as the port for the Dutch East India Company in Asia. The island was the center of clove production until the 19th century. The Dutch prohibited the rearing of the clove-tree in all the islands subject to their rule. In 1513, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to land on Ambon Island and they established a factory in 1521, but did not obtain peaceable possession of it until 1580. Indeed, the Portuguese never managed to control the trade in spices, and failed in attempts to establish their authority over the Banda Islands. The creole trade language Portugis however was well into the 19th century and many families still have Portuguese names. The Portuguese were dispossessed by the Dutch on 22 February 1605, Ambon was the headquarters of the Dutch East India Company from 1610 to 1619 until the founding of Batavia, now Jakarta, by the Dutch. Around 1615, the English founded a settlement on the island at Cambello, in 1623, the Dutch uncovered a plot by VOC-employed Japanese mercenary soldiers to seize Fort Victoria and assassinate the governor, purportedly in conspiracy with the English merchants. During questioning most suspects were waterboarded, among those who confessed,10 VOC mercenary soldiers and 10 English East India Company employees were found guilty of treason and were executed by a local Dutch court. On request of England, the judges were recalled to the Netherlands and put on trial. The 17th-century propaganda of a deliberate and gruesome slaughter of innocent merchants surfaces even in popular historical narratives. In 1795, the Batavian Republic was established with the help of French forces in the territory of the Dutch Republic, the latest stadtholder, William V, Prince of Orange asked the British in the Kew Letters to temporarily occupy the Dutch colonies. Indeed, in 1796, British Admiral Rainier sailed to Ambon to take the colony, Ambon was retaken by the British in 1810, but once more restored to the Dutch by virtue of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814. A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300
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Governorate of the Banda Islands
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The Banda Islands were a governorate of the Dutch East India Company. The governorate comprised Banda Neira, Banda Besar, Pulau Ai, Run, Banda Api, the Banda Islands were the centre of nutmeg production. The Portuguese first sailed to the Banda Islands in 1512, a year after Afonso de Albuquerque had conquered Malacca, only in 1529 did the Portuguese return to the islands, when Captain Garcia attempted to build a fort on Banda Neira. The local Bandanese turned against Garcia and his crew, forcing him to abandon his plans, from that moment, the Portuguese preferred to buy nutmeg from traders in Malacca. The Dutch followed the Portuguese to Banda but were to have a more dominating and lasting presence. The Javanese, Arab and Indian, and Portuguese traders for example brought indispensable items along steel knives, copper, medicines and prized Chinese porcelain. As much as the Dutch disliked dealing with the Bandanese, the trade was a profitable one. This amply justified the expense and risk in shipping them to Europe, the allure of such profits saw an increasing number of Dutch expeditions. It was soon seen that in trade with the East Indies, thus in 1602, the competitors united to form the Dutch East India Company, which received a monopoly of trade with the East Indies from the States-General of the Dutch Republic. Until the early seventeenth century the Bandas were ruled by a group of leading citizens, a number of Banda’s orang kaya were persuaded by the Dutch to sign a treaty granting the Dutch a monopoly on spice purchases. The Bandanese soon grew tired of the Dutch actions, the low prices, the trade items. The end of the line for the Bandanese came in 1609 when the Dutch reinforced Fort Nassau on Bandanaira Island, the orang kaya called a meeting with the Dutch admiral and forty of his highest-ranking men and ambushed and killed them all. While Portuguese and Spanish activity in the region had weakened, the English had built fortified trading posts on tiny Ai and Run islands, with the British paying higher prices, they were significantly undermining Dutch aims for a monopoly. As Dutch-British tensions increased in 1611 the Dutch built the larger, in 1615, the Dutch invaded Ai with 900 men whereupon the British retreated to Run where they regrouped. That same night, the British launched a surprise counter-attack on Ai, retaking the island, a year later, a much stronger Dutch force attacked Ai. This time the defenders were able to hold off the attack with cannon fire, the Dutch slaughtered the defenders, and afterwards strengthened the fort, renaming it Fort Revenge. Newly appointed VOC governor-general Jan Pieterszoon Coen set about enforcing Dutch monopoly over the Banda’s spice trade, in 1621 well-armed soldiers were landed on Bandaneira Island and within a few days they had also occupied neighbouring and larger Lontar. The orang kaya were forced at gunpoint to sign an unfeasibly arduous treaty, one that was in fact impossible to keep, the Dutch quickly noted a number of alleged violations of the new treaty, in response to which Coen launched a punitive massacre
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Dutch Cape Colony
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The Cape Colony was between 1652 and 1691 a Commandment, and between 1691 and 1795 a Governorate of the Dutch East India Company. Jan van Riebeeck established the colony as a re-supply and layover port for vessels of the Dutch East India Company trading with Asia. As the only permanent settlement of the Dutch East India Company not serving as a trading post, as these farms were labour-intensive, Vryburghers imported slaves from Madagascar, Mozambique and Asia, which rapidly increased the number of inhabitants. Due to the rule of the Company some farmers tried to escape the rule of the company by moving further inland. In order to avoid collision with the Bantu peoples advancing south and west from east central Africa, in 1795, after the Battle of Muizenberg in present-day Cape Town, the British occupied the colony. Renewed Dutch control did not last long, however, as the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars invalidated the Peace of Amiens, in January 1806 the British occupied the colony for a second time after the Battle of Blaauwberg at present-day Bloubergstrand. The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 confirmed the transfer of sovereignty to Great Britain, traders of the Dutch East India Company, under the command of Jan van Riebeeck, were the first people to establish a European colony in South Africa. The support station gradually became a community, the forebears of the Afrikaners. At the time of first European settlement in the Cape, the southwest of Africa was inhabited by San people, the local Khoikhoi had neither a strong political organisation nor an economic base beyond their herds. They bartered livestock freely to Dutch ships, as Company employees established farms to supply the Cape station, they began to displace the Khoikhoi. Conflicts led to the consolidation of European landholdings and a breakdown of Khoikhoi society, military success led to even greater Dutch East India Company control of the Khoikhoi by the 1670s. The Khoikhoi became the source of colonial wage labour. There they contested still wider groups of Khoikhoi cattle herders for the best grazing lands, by 1700, the traditional Khoikhoi lifestyle of pastoralism had disappeared. The Cape society in this period was thus a diverse one, by the time of British rule after 1795, the sociopolitical foundations were firmly laid. In 1795, France occupied the Seven Provinces of the Netherlands and this prompted Great Britain to occupy the territory in 1795 as a way to better control the seas in order stop any potential French attempt to get to India. The British sent a fleet of nine warships which anchored at Simons Town and, following the defeat of the Dutch militia at the Battle of Muizenberg, the Dutch East India Company transferred its territories and claims to the Batavian Republic in 1798, and ceased to exist in 1799. Improving relations between Britain and Napoleonic France, and its state the Batavian Republic, led the British to hand the Cape Colony over to the Batavian Republic in 1803. In 1806, the Cape, now controlled by the Batavian Republic, was occupied again by the British after their victory in the Battle of Blaauwberg
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Dutch Celebes
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Dutch presence in the region started with the capture of Sulawesi from the Portuguese, and ended by the declaration of independence by Indonesia. Celebes is now referred to as Sulawesi, Makassar, the capital, was also referred to as, Macassar, Makassar, Macaçar, Mancaçar, or Goa, Gowa. Also Ujung Pandang is alternative name used, Sulawesi prior to Dutch governance had been a part of the Sultanate of Gowa. In 1660 a large fleet under Johan van Dam bombarded Makassar, from 1667 onward the VOC held Fort Rotterdam in the port of Makassar. The fortress was established in 1669, after four months of conflict to force Sultan Hassanudin to submit, on 18 November 1667 the Treaty of Bongaya was signed, by which Dutch governance was accepted. Celebes and Dependencies was the name of a government of 1847-1924 and from 1925 of a residence of the Dutch East Indies, the capital was Makassar, which before 1847 had been the name of the government. Johan Sautijn Adriaan Hendrik Smout Joan Gideon Loten Roelof Blok Charles Christiaan Tromp A. J
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Dutch Ceylon
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Dutch Ceylon was a governorate established in present-day Sri Lanka by the Dutch East India Company. It existed from 1640 until 1796, in the early 17th century, Sri Lanka was partly ruled by the Portuguese and Sri Lankan kingdoms, who were constantly battling each other. Although the Portuguese were not winning the war, their rule was burdensome to the people of those areas controlled by them. While the Dutch were engaged in a war of independence from Spanish rule. The Dutch interest in Ceylon was to have a battle front against the Iberians at that time. The Dutch were invited by the Sri Lankans to liberate the country from the Portuguese and they signed the Kandyan Treaty of 1638 with Rajasinghe II and soon embarked on a war against their common enemy. As such the Dutch were appointed as a protector of the country, meanwhile, however, Rajasinghe II approached the French and offered them the Trincomalee fort as a check against Dutch power. The Dutch captured Trinco from the French and controlled all the provinces of the island. Rajasinghe and the Dutch were both playing a game trying to outwit each other, and the treaty of 1638 was never implemented. The Dutch ruled all the Tamil provinces and brought Tanjore Tamil slaves to work in the Cinnamon gardens in the Western Province, the capital of Dutch Coromandel was in Pulicat and they brought needed manpower from the Indian colonies. Portuguese rule was always in the provinces and the people whom they converted were the coastal folk. They were the backbone of their power, many of the Princes they converted had either died or were no longer Catholic. The rest of the Ceylon remained in the Buddhist-Hindu religion, the Dutch were used by the Sinhala king to take revenge on the Portuguese who wanted to expand their rule. The war with Portugal was against their ruler the King of Spain, once Portugal obtained its freedom from Spain the Netherlands settled for peace with Portugal. Then they divided the areas of Ceylon amicably under a treaty signed in Goa. Slowly, the Dutch became the rulers of coastal and outer areas of Ceylon and Indonesia, and the Portuguese were left with smaller pieces of territory than those of the Dutch and the English. In the east, Portugal held territories not only in Ceylon but in India, in the Persian Gulf, from 1580 to 1640, the throne of Portugal was held by the Habsburg kings of Spain resulting in the biggest colonial empire until then. The Azores were the last part of Portugal to resist Philips reign over Portugal, the Netherlands meanwhile were in open revolt against their Habsburg overlord and declared themselves a Republic in 1581
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Dutch Coromandel
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Coromandel was a governorate of the Dutch East India Company on the Coromandel Coast between 1610 until the companys liquidation in 1798. It is part of what is today called Dutch India, in 1606, a Dutch ship stopped on the shores of the Karimanal Village near Pulicat, north of the mouth of the lake requesting water. Local Muslims offered food and help to the Dutch and they struck a trade partnership to procure and supply local merchandise to the Dutch for trade in the East Indies. Queen Eraivi, a wife of King Venkata II, ruled Prelaya Kaveri and during her reign in 1608 the Dutch East India Company was given permission to build a fort and do trading. Under pressure from the Dutch, an English trading post was established in 1619, the Dutch establishment met with stiff resistance from the Portuguese, who conducted several attacks on the harbor. In 1611, Venkatatapati turned against the Portuguese and the Jesuits were ordered to leave Chandragiri, the Portuguese tried unsuccessfully to recapture Pulicat in 1614,1623, and 1633, respectively, but never succeeded. From 1616 to 1690, Pulicat was the headquarters of Dutch Coromandel. In the 1620s, the Dutch East India Company established a factory in Pulicat. Its output was so substantial that for decades it was able to keep many of the major Dutch trading centers in the East Indies. In 1615, the first VOC mint in India was established in Fort Gelria where, initially, Kas copper coins with VOC monogram, the Pulicat mint operated till 1674, when a new mint was established at Nagapattinam. These coins were used in Ceylon. The headquarters of the colony shifted to Nagapattinam in 1690, after the Dutch had begun working on their Fort Vijf Sinnen three years earlier, the heavily armed fort in the end proved useless in the 1781 Siege of Negapatam, in which the British took the fort. In the Treaty of Paris of 1784 which ended the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War of which this siege was part, Nagapattinam was not restored to Dutch rule, the headquarters of the colony shifted back to Pulicat. By the early 18th century, Pulicats population has been estimated to have declined to just over 10,000, in 1746, the monsoon failed, resulting in a devastating famine. In the larger towns of Pulicat and Santhome alone the death toll was put at 15,000, cloth prices increased 15% and little was available even at that price. An even more significant cause of the Dutch decline was conquest of the area by the Golconda forces commanded by Mir Jumla. Owing to the Kew Letters written by Dutch stadtholder William V, Prince of Orange, the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 restored Dutch Malabar to Dutch rule in 1818, but seven years later the colony was again left to the British, owing to the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. Except for two breaks, Dutch rule of Pulicat lasted for 214 years between 1606 and 1825 till the King of Arcot acceded Chingleput District to the British in 1825
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Dutch Formosa
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Dutch colonial rule lasted in Taiwan from 1642 to 1662. At the time of Dutch settlement in Taiwan, the part of the island was still occupied by Spanish who had landed there in 1626. However, they showed no signs of expanding their settlement and in 1642 the Dutch drove them out, Taiwan was in a perfect place strategically to engage in trade within the region. The Chinese had refused to allow the Dutch to settle on the Chinese territory of Penghu, the subsequent settlement of the island was reflective of the strategic value of Taiwan. The settlement was systematic and planned, as the construction of the stronghold of Castle Zeelandia demonstrated. The settlers were clearly aiming to protect their position to engage in trade in the long-term. The Dutch approach towards the control and administration of Taiwan is best described as interventionist and they were the first settlers who seriously sought to develop the island. Aboriginals were allowed to continue their lives freely, but were required to make annual tribute to the Dutch in a manner similar to a feudal system. In addition, the Dutch introduced a number of taxes, including export duties, sales tax and they also laid down laws governing every aspect of life, including the organisation of markets, production of alcohol, construction of houses and observation of Sunday services. The clergy were involved in setting up schools, as well as serving as interpreters and tax collectors. This was largely due to the fact that they were involved with the aboriginal tribes, and understood their cultures. The Dutch presence in Taiwan also brought with it scientific and technological advances, the Dutch introduced well-digging, as well as bringing both oxen and cattle to the island. In terms of the trade being engaged in, the ultimate goal was to obtain the spices grown in Southeast Asia. To do this the Dutch exchanged Japanese and Chinese gold and silver for Indian cotton and those spices were eventually shipped back to Europe. In 1622, the first Dutch fleet arrived in Penghu for trade with China, in the early 1620s, there was no trade due to the Sino-Dutch conflict over Penghu. The trade resumed after Yu Zigao assembled the Fujianese armed forces and compelled the Dutch to leave Penghu, after that, Taiwan became part of the Dutch trade network in Asia. By exporting much sugar from Taiwan, the Dutch East India Company made a lot of profit from customs duties, the Dutch imposed a 10 per cent custom duty on all imports and exports from Taiwan. However, between 1625 and 1628, the cessation of the trade resulted from Zheng Zhilongs attack on Chinese, the trade resumed again after Zhengs surrender to Xiong Wen-zan in 1628
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Dutch Malacca
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Dutch Malacca was the longest period that Malacca was under foreign control. The Dutch ruled for almost 183 years with intermittent British occupation during the Napoleonic Wars and this era saw relative peace with little serious interruption from the Malay kingdoms due to the understanding earlier on forged between the Dutch and the Sultanate of Johor in 1606. This time also marked the decline of the importance of Malacca, in the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company began the campaign to destroy Portuguese power in the East. At that time, the Portuguese had transformed Malacca into a fortress, controlling access to the sea lanes of the Straits of Malacca. The Dutch started by launching small incursions and skirmishes against the Portuguese, the Dutch with their local allies assaulted and wrested Malacca from the Portuguese in January 1641. This combined Dutch-Johor effort effectively destroyed the last bastion of Portuguese power, as per the agreement with Johor in 1606, the Dutch took control of Malacca and agreed not to seek territories or wage war with the Malay kingdoms. Malacca was controlled as a colony of the VOC, all the chief administrators of Malacca were Dutch governors except for the brief period that the city was under British Residents during the Wars of Napoleon. The governors and residents list is as follows, The Dutch improved and expanded the Portuguese fortress and built walls to protect the harbour, during their rule the famous city hall or Stadthuys was also constructed, which still stands today. History of the Dutch in Malaysia
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Maluku Islands
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The Maluku Islands or the Moluccas are an archipelago within Indonesia. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone, geographically they are located east of Sulawesi, west of New Guinea, and north and east of Timor. The islands were also the core of the Spice Islands known to the Chinese and Europeans. The name was due to the nutmeg, mace and cloves that were originally found there. The Maluku Islands formed a province from Indonesian independence until 1999. A new province, North Maluku, incorporates the area between Morotai and Sula, with the arc of islands from Buru and Seram to Wetar remaining within the existing Maluku Province, North Maluku is predominantly Muslim, and its capital is Sofifi on Halmahera island. Maluku province has a larger Christian population, and its capital is Ambon, though originally Melanesian, many island populations, especially in the Banda Islands, were exterminated in the 17th century during the spice wars. A second influx of Austronesian immigrants began in the twentieth century under the Dutch. Between 1999 and 2002, conflict between Muslims and Christians killed thousands and displaced half a million people, the name Maluku is thought to have been derived from the term used by Arab traders for the region, Jazirat al-Muluk. The Maluku Islands were a single province from Indonesian independence until 1999 when they were split into North Maluku and Maluku, North Maluku province includes Ternate, Tidore, Bacan, Halmahera Morotai, the Obi Islands, and the Sula Islands. Evidence of increasingly long-distance trading relationships and of more frequent occupation of many islands, onyx beads and segments of silver plate used as currency on the Indian subcontinent around 200BC have been unearthed on some of the islands. Arab merchants began to arrive in the 14th century, bringing Islam, peaceful conversion to Islam occurred in many islands, especially in the centres of trade, while aboriginal animism persisted in the hinterlands and more isolated islands. Archaeological evidence here relies largely on the occurrence of pigs teeth, the Portuguese had conquered the city state of Malacca in the early 16th century and their influence was most strongly felt in Maluku and other parts of eastern Indonesia. On the return trip, Francisco Serrão was shipwrecked at Hitu island in 1512, there he established ties with the local ruler who was impressed with his martial skills. The spice trade soon revived but the Portuguese would not be able to fully monopolize nor disrupt this trade, both Serrão and Ferdinand Magellan, however, perished before they could meet one another. The Portuguese first landed in Ambon in 1513, but it became the new centre for their activities in Maluku following the expulsion from Ternate. European power in the region was weak and Ternate became an expanding, fiercely Islamic and anti-European state under the rule of Sultan Baab Ullah and his son Sultan Said. By the 1560s there were 10,000 Catholics in the area, mostly on Ambon, the Pela Gandong community relationship system is between various Christian and Muslim villages throughout the regions
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Semarang
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Semarang, is a city on the north coast of the island of Java, Indonesia. It is the capital and largest city of the province of Central Java, the built-up area had 3,183,516 inhabitants at the 2010 census spread on 2 cities and 26 districts. Greater Semarang has a population of close to 6 million, and is located at 6°58′S 110°25′E, a major port during the Dutch colonial era, and still an important regional center and port today, the city has a dominant Javanese population. In 1678, Sunan Amangkurat II promised to control of Semarang to the Dutch East India Company as a part of a debt payment. In 1682, the Semarang state was founded by the Dutch colonial power, the VOC, and later, the Dutch East Indies government, established tobacco plantations in the region and built roads and railroads, making Semarang an important colonial trading centre. The historic presence of a large Indo community in the area of Semarang is also reflected by the fact a creole mix language called Javindo existed there, Semarang was handed by the Sultan of Mataram to the Dutch East Indies in 1678. The city was pictured as a settlement with a pious Muslim area called Kauman, a Chinese quarter. In fact, the city of Semarang was only referred to the Dutch quarter while the ethnic settlement were considered as villages outside the city boundary. The city, known as de Europeesche Buurt, was built in classical European style with church located in the centre, wide boulevards and streets skirted by beautiful villas. According to Purwanto, the urban and architectural form of settlement is very similar to the design principles applied in many Dutch cities. Due to the long and costly Java War, there were not much of funding from the Dutch East Indies government, the majority of land was used for rice fields and the only small improvement was the development of surrounding fortress. The existence of the market, in the years, become a primary element. The project was followed by the development of the Netherlands Indies railway. Colombijn marked the development as the shift of urban functions, from the former river orientation to all facing the roads. Improved communication, as the result of the Mail and Railway projects, had brought an economic booming for the city in the 1870s, urban growth had made acutely dense the urban kampong, reaching the number of 1000 inhabitants per hectare and degrading the quality of living condition. In this early 20th century, mortality rate was high due to the overcrowding and lack of hygiene that triggered the invasion of cholera. In 1917, a housing project was implemented in the Southern part of Semarang called Candi Baru. Thomas Karsten, the advisor for city planning, transformed the concept of ethnic segregation that divided previous urban settlements into a new housing district plan based on economic classes
