1.
Western Desert (Egypt)
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The Western Desert of Egypt is an area of the Sahara which lies west of the river Nile, up to the Libyan border, and south from the Mediterranean sea to the border with Sudan. It is named in contrast to the Eastern Desert which extends east from the Nile to Red Sea, the Western Desert is mostly rocky desert, though an area of sandy desert, known as the Great Sand Sea, lies to the west against the Libyan border. The desert covers an area of 262,800 sq miles which is two-thirds of the area of the country. Its highest elevation is 3,300 ft in the Gilf Kebir plateau to the far south-west of the country, the Western Desert is barren and uninhabited save for a chain of oases which extend in an arc from Siwa, in the north-west, to Kharga in the south. However it has been the scene of conflict in modern times and he also states that little of the area conforms to the romantic view. These lie in an arc from Siwa in the north-west near the Libyan border, to Bahariya, Farafra, Dakhla, east of Siwa lies the Qattara Depression, a low-lying area dotted with salt marsh and extending 190 miles west to east and 84 miles north to south. Further to the east, near the Nile, another depression gives rise to the Fayyum Oasis, to the south, beyond the Bahariya oasis lies the Black Desert, an area of black volcanic hills and dolerite deposits. Beyond this, north of Farafra, lies the White Desert, an area of wind-sculpted chalk rock formations, which give the area its name. To the south of Kharga the plateau rises towards the Gilf Kebir, an upland region lying astride the Egypt-Sudan border and home to pre-historic sites such as the Cave of Swimmers. In the south-west, near the point where the borders of Libya, Sudan and Egypt meet, is an area of glass, thought to have been formed by a meteorite strike at Kebira. The Great Sand Sea is a roughly lung-shaped area of sandy desert lying astride the border with Libya,200 miles inland from the Mediterranean. The sea is divided by a peninsula of rocky desert along the border, leaving the eastern lobe in Egypt and the western in Libya. On the Egyptian side it extends from a point south of Siwa for 400 miles into the interior, the Western Desert was known historically as the Libyan Desert, taking its name from Ancient Libya, which lay between the Nile and Cyrenaica. With the formation of the state of Libya, the term Western Desert has come to describe part of the Sahara in Egypt. To the Ancient Greeks, the term Libya described the whole Saharan littoral west of the Nile to the Atlas mountains. During Roman times the term Libya was limited to Cyrenaica and the region between there and Egypt, which were organized as the provinces of Libya Superior and Libya Inferior, the term Libyan Desert then applied to the area to the south of these. Playfair described the Western Desert of 1940 as being 240 miles wide and 150 miles wide, the contemporary use of the term refers to the entire desert in Egypt west of the Nile. It is thought over-grazing and climate led to desertification and the current geography
2.
Action of Agagia
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The Action of Agagia took place east of Sidi Barrani in Egypt on 26 February 1916, during the Senussi Campaign between German- and Ottoman-instigated Senussi forces and British forces. On 11 December 1915, a British column had been attacked at Duwwar Hussein along the Matruh–Sollum track, in the Affair of Wadi Senba, the Senussi were defeated and two days later a Senussi attack at Wadi Hasheifiat was repulsed. The British returned to Matruh until 25 December, then surprised the Senussi at the Affair of Wadi Majid, at the Affair of Halazin on 23 January, the Senussi were defeated and again slipped away. On 26 February, the column attacked the Senussi at Agagiya and captured Jaafar Pasha, Sollum was re-occupied by the British on 14 March 1916, which ended the coastal campaign. The Senussi were a religious sect mainly of Libyan nomads, who had fought the Italians in Libya during the Italo-Turkish War, by late 1915, many of the British forces in Egypt had been sent to Gallipoli and Mesopotamia, leaving western Egypt garrisoned by the Egyptian coastguard. The Ottomans and Germans delivered modern weapons by submarine to the Senussi, german and Turkish officers were also transported by submarine and landed on 19 May 1915 to the west of Sollum and set up headquarters at Siwa. The Senussi crossed the Libyan–Egyptian border on 21 November 1915, to begin the coastal campaign, wallace suffered from an old wound and was relieved by Major-General William Peyton and the WFF was reinforced with the 1st South African Brigade and a detachment of Egyptian engineers on 4 February. The WFF eventually received 2,000 camels, which made the force capable of advancing a greater distance, on 6 November 1915, U-35 sank the HMS Tara and the coastguard gun-boat Abbas, and badly damaged Nur el Bahr in the Bay of Sollum. On 14 November, the Senussi attacked Sollum and an Egyptian post was attacked 30 miles east of Sollum on 20 November, the British withdrew from Sollum to Mersa Matruh,120 miles east, which had better facilities for a base and the Western Frontier Force was created. On 11 December, a British column at Duwwar Hussein was attacked along the Matruh–Sollum track and in the Affair of Wadi Senba, the reconnaissance continued and on 13 December, at Wadi Hasheifiat the British were attacked again and after a delay, forced the Senussi to retreat. The British returned to Matruh until 25 December, then made an advance to surprise the Senussi. At the Affair of Wadi Majid, the Senussi were defeated again but were able to withdraw to the west, air reconnaissance found more Senussi encampments at Halazin, which was attacked on 23 January, in the Affair of Halazin. During the march, air reconnaissance discovered a Senussi encampment at Agagia,24 kilometres south-east of Sidi Barrani, the force arrived on 22 February and local Bedouin reported that Nuri and Jaafar were at Agagia. On 23 February, a contingent of guards was left at Unjeila, Lukin planned to rest the force on 25 February and then make a night advance, to attack the Senussi encampment at dawn. Jaafar attempted to forestall the British and at 5,30 p. m. on 25 February, the guns were silenced by the British artillery and the Senussi were driven off, expecting more attacks, Lukin abandoned the night march. Next day, the Yeomanry reconnoitred at 5,00 a. m. and discovered that the Senussi were still at Agagia with no outposts, occupying sand hills with about 1,500 men, three guns and five machine-guns. The defensive position had an area of about 1.6 by 3.2 kilometres and was entrenched among sand dunes on a low plateau, an attack from the north would have to advance over ground offering no cover. The Yeomanry dismounted and assisted by covering fire from two armoured cars, which inhibited Senussi machine-gun fire, advanced to pin down the Senussi, the infantry advanced with the 3rd South African Battalion forward and the 1st South African Battalion in support
3.
Zaian War
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The Zaian War was fought between France and the Zaian confederation of Berber tribes in Morocco between 1914 and 1921. Morocco had become a French protectorate in 1912, and Resident-General Louis-Hubert Lyautey sought to extend French influence eastwards through the Middle Atlas mountains towards French Algeria and this was opposed by the Zaians, led by Mouha ou Hammou Zayani. The war began well for the French, who took the key towns of Taza. The outbreak of the First World War proved significant, with the withdrawal of troops for service in France compounded by the loss of more than 600 French killed at the Battle of El Herri. After the signing of the Armistice with Germany in November 1918, the French resumed their offensive in the Khénifra area in 1920, establishing a series of blockhouses to limit the Zaians freedom of movement. They opened negotiations with Hammous sons, persuading three of them, along many of their followers, to submit to French rule. A split in the Zaian Confederation between those who supported submission and those still opposed led to infighting and the death of Hammou in Spring 1921, the French responded with a strong, three-pronged attack into the Middle Atlas that pacified the area. Some tribesmen, led by Moha ou Said, fled to the High Atlas, the signing of the Treaty of Fez in 1912 established a French protectorate over Morocco. The treaty had been prompted by the Agadir Crisis of 1911, during which French, the new French protectorate was led by a resident-general, Louis-Hubert Lyautey, and adopted the traditional Moroccan way of governing through the tribal system. Upon taking up his post Lyautey replaced Abdelhafid with his brother, the tribes took offence at this, installing their own Sultan, Ahmed al-Hiba, in Marrakesh and taking eight Europeans captive. Lyautey acted quickly against the revolt, dispatching General Charles Mangin and 5,000 troops to retake the town, mangins men were highly successful, rescuing the captives and inflicting heavy casualties on vastly superior numbers of tribesmen for the loss of 2 men killed and 23 wounded. Al-Hiba escaped to the Atlas mountains with a number of his followers. A popular idea among the public in France was to possess a stretch of territory from Tunis to the Atlantic Ocean. Lyautey was in favour of this and advocated French occupation of the Middle Atlas mountains near Taza, Hammou commanded between 4,000 and 4,200 tents of people and had led the Zaians since 1877, opposing the French since the start of their involvement in Morocco. Despite initially being open to negotiations with the French, pressure from pro-war chiefs, the French had attempted to persuade the Zaians to submit since 1913 with little success, most tribes in the confederation remained opposed to French rule. Lyauteys plans for taking Taza also extended to capturing Khénifra, Hammous headquarters and he had been advised by his political officer, Maurice Le Glay that doing so would finish him off definitively and cut the Zaians off from support of other tribes. The French outpost at nearby Kasbah Tadla had recently attacked by Said and subsequent peace negotiations led by Lyauteys head of intelligence. Henrys captured Taza within a few days using units drawn from garrisons in Fez, Meknes, Rabat and Marrakesh, Henrys took overall command, directing the forces from an armoured car within the Claudel column
4.
Senussi Campaign
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The Senussi Campaign took place in North Africa, from November 1915 to February 1917, during the First World War between the British Empire and the Kingdom of Italy against the Senussi. The Senussi were a religious sect resident in Libya and Egypt, who were courted by the Ottoman Empire, before 1906, when the Senussi became involved in resistance against the French, they had been a relatively peaceful religious sect of the Sahara Desert, opposed to fanaticism. In the Italo-Turkish War Italian forces occupied enclaves along the Libyan coast, in 1913, the Italians had been defeated at the Action of Etangi but in 1914 Italian reinforcements led to a revival and by January the Senussi were in south-east Cyrenaica. The Senussi had about 10,000 men armed with modern rifles, intermittent fighting continued between the Italians in fortified towns and the Senussi ranging through the desert. The British declared war on the Ottoman Empire on 5 November, Nuri eventually gained command of Senussi military forces and began training the recruits of Aulad Ali. The Ottoman envoys negotiated an agreement with the Grand Senussi, in which his followers were to attack the British in Egypt from the west, the Ottomans provided machine-guns and artillery using ships and German submarines, to deliver weapons, equipment and money. By November 1915, the size of the British garrison in Egypt was much reduced by the expeditions to Gallipoli, the Western Frontier of Egypt was protected by the Egyptian Coastguard, whose commander was responsible for maintaining good relations with the local Bedouin and the Senussi. The earth is dusty in summer and glutinous in the season from December to March, when the days are relatively cool. South of the strip is a bare limestone plateau, about 50 mi wide at Dabaa and 150 mi broad at Sollum. To the south lies the desert, with sand dunes for several hundred miles, the western frontier of Egypt had not been defined in 1914, since negotiations with the Ottomans had been interrupted by the Italo-Turkish War and then negated by the cession of Tripoli to Italy. Bedouin lived a life between the oases, traded with the inhabitants and took refuge at them when wells ran dry. Sir John Maxwell, the commander of British troops in Egypt, pretended to believe the excuse, the British continued to appease the Senussi, being in negotiations with the Sherif of Mecca and reluctant to inflame Muslim opinion. On 30 September, Snow met with the Grand Senussi and Jaafar Pasha, soon afterwards, news arrived of another Senussi victory over the Italians near Tripoli and the capture of much weaponry and money. On 6 November, Egyptian coastguard boats in Sollum bay were attacked by SM U-35, Abbas was sunk, on the night of 17 November, Senussi fired into the camp at Sollum, two Bedouin were murdered and the coast telegraph was cut. Next night a Zawiet at Sidi Barrani 48 mi east of Sollum, was occupied by 300 Muhafizia, Sayed Ahmed ordered his followers to cross the Egyptian frontier by 21 November, to conduct the coastal campaign. On the night of 19/20 November, the barracks at Sollum was fired on, next day, a post 30 mi south-east of Sollum was attacked and when the news arrived civil unrest began at Alexandria. The British commanders adopted a policy of avoiding reverses, before attempting to defeat the Senussi, Sollum was 280 mi from Alexandria, too far west for a base and too exposed to German submarines, with the lack of fast patrol boats to guard ships in the bay. Mersa Matruh was 120 mi closer to Alexandria and had a water supply
5.
Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition
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The Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition of 1916 was a military operation by British Empire and the Sultanate of Egypt, launched as a preemptive invasion of the Sultanate of Darfur. Ali Dinar had already fled to the mountains and his attempts to negotiate a surrender were eventually broken off by the British and his location becoming known, a small force was sent after him and the sultan was killed in action in November 1916. Subsequently, Darfur was fully annexed to the British administration of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and remained part of Sudan upon its independence. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries Darfur, which means land of the Fur, was an independent country, located to the west of Sudan, the Sultanate of Darfur was one of the kingdoms that stretched across the centre of Africa. In 1874, it was invaded by its Islamic neighbours from the south, in 1899, Ali Dinar became the Sultan of Darfur with the approval of the then Sirdar Lord Kitchener, on the condition that he paid an annual tribute to the British. Relations between Dinar and the Anglo-Egyptians were assisted by the Inspector-General Rudolf Carl von Slatin who had knowledge of the Darfur region, the status quo remained until disputes started over what was Darfurs exact western boundary and who had overlordship over its frontier districts. The British believed the delay in resolving disputes, along with anti-government propaganda. Their beliefs were not helped by Dinars refusal to allow any Europeans to enter Darfur, at the time, Darfur had a population of just under 1,000,000 controlled by what was described as a slave army of about 10,000 men. Dinar instead countered the deployment of the Camel Corps detachment by moving his own troops – forty cavalry, however, by then the British believed he was preparing for an invasion of Sudan. To counter the threat to Sudan, Sirdar Reginald Wingate gathered a force together at Nahud. The commander was British Lieutenant Colonel Philip James Vandeleur Kelly, of the 3rd The Kings Own Hussars, with medical and other non combat units, the force totalled around 2,000 men. Intelligence gathered supported the theory that Dinar was going to invade Sudan, so in March 1916 Wingate ordered Kelly to cross the border and occupy Jebel el Hella, the two villages offered the only permanent water supplies that were on the road to El Fasher, Dinars capital. Their only opposition was from an observation post which was forced to withdraw. Unexpectedly, upon arrival the Anglo-Egyptian force found the supply at Um Shanga scarce. With the main body of his force expected to arrive that evening, having only two days supply of water with them, Kelly considered withdrawing back to Sudan, Kellys flying column faced only slight opposition from Fur scouts until they reached a position 4 miles from Jebel el Hella. There a force of 800 Fur horsemen tried to surround them, advancing a further 2 miles the flying column located a large concentration of Fur troops in a wooded valley, which they engaged with artillery and machine guns. Having forced the Fur troops to disperse, the column reached Jebel el Hella at 14,15, and secured its wells without any further opposition. A small reconnaissance party was dispatched by Kelly to check on the wells at Lugud 2 miles away, which were occupied in strength, during their advance, the Anglo-Egyptian casualties were described as insignificant while the Fur forces had lost twenty men dead and wounded
6.
Kaocen revolt
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The Kaocen revolt was a Tuareg rebellion against French colonial rule of the area around the Aïr Mountains of northern Niger during 1916–17. Ag Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen was the Tuareg leader of the rising against the French, an adherent to the militantly anti-French Sanusiya Sufi religious order, Kaocen was the Amenokal of the Ikazkazan Tuareg confederation. Kaocen had engaged in numerous, mostly indecisive, attacks on French colonial forces from at least 1909, when the Sanusiya leadership in the Fezzan oasis town of Kufra declared a Jihad against the French colonialists in October 1914, Kaocen rallied his forces. Tagama, the Sultan of Agadez had convinced the French military that the Tuareg confederations remained loyal and they seized all the major towns of the Aïr, including Ingall, Assodé, and Aouderas, placing what is today northern Niger under rebel control for over three months. Finally on 3 March 1917, a large French force dispatched from Zinder relieved the Agadez garrison, large scale French reprisals were taken against these towns, especially against local marabouts, even though many were neither Tuareg or supported the rebellion. Summary public executions by the French in Agadez and Ingal alone totaled 130, Tuareg rebels also carried out a number of atrocities. The revolt led by Kaocen was just one episode in a history of recurring conflict between some Tuareg confederations and the French. In 1911 a rising of Firhoun, Amenokal of Ikazkazan was crushed in Ménaka, many Tuareg groups had continually fought the French since their arrival in the last decade of the 19th century. Les révoltes des Touaregs du Niger, in Cahiers détudes africaines -049, pp. 82–121, Paris, Mouton - Ecole des hautes études en sciences sociales. Ali Salifou, Kawousan ou la révolte sénoussiste, Études nigériennes n°33 Samuel Decalo, scarecrow Press, London and New Jersey. Bradt London and Globe Pequot New York, J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver
7.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
8.
Egyptian Expeditionary Force
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Formed in the British protectorate of the Sultanate of Egypt, the initially small force was raised to guard the Suez Canal and Egypt. On 31 October two corps captured Beersheba defended by the Turkish III Corps, which weakened their defences stretching almost continually from Gaza to Beersheba, serious losses on the Western Front in March 1918 during the German Spring Offensive, forced the British Empire to send reinforcements from the EEF. The British Mandate of Palestine, and the French Mandate for Syria, L Squadron, A. F. C. and No.14 Squadron, R. F. C. were the sole flying units east of the Suez Canal. General Headquarters General Headquarters Troops No.1 Section No.2 Section No.3 Section Western Frontier Force Northwestern Section Southwestern Section L. of C, palin 23rd Pioneers 57th Rifles Patiala Infantry No.10 Co. The force was commanded by Lieutenant General C. M. Dobell, by January 1917 there were three smaller commands directly under GHQ EEF. Supply Depot No.303 Company ASC Camel Transport H and O Companies, G. H.12 Pack W/T Sections ASC Mechanical transport HQ, ASC Motor Boat Company Two Advanced M. T. C. de S. Barrow 6th Mounted Brigade 8th Mounted Brigade 22nd Mounted Brigade 20th Brigade, at the end of June 1917 General Allenby took command. The air component was the Palestine Brigade of the Royal Flying Corps, on establishment in 1916 and 1917, the first two mounted divisions had been supplied with 18–pounder artillery guns. In September 1917 these guns were replaced with 13-pounders, making the divisions even more capable, General Headquarters Troops Army Cavalry Imperial Service Cavalry Brigade Jodhpur Lancers Mysore Lancers 1st Hyderabad Lancers Kathiwar Signal Troop 124th Indian Cavalry Field Ambulance. 40th Wing Headquarters at Deir el Belah No.11 Squadron RFC at Deir el Belah No.67 Squadron at Shiekh Nuran, Aircraft Park – X Aircraft Park at Abbassia with an advanced stores section at Kantara was responsible for the supplies to the RFC in Palestine. Also in General Headquarters Troops were the VIII Mountain Brigade RGA IX Mountain Brigade RGA of A and B Batteries of 2.75 inch howitzers and the 12th Battery of 3.7 inch howitzers. The force initially consisted mostly of British and Egyptian troops, in the meantime, new troops were then dispatched from India, Australia, and New Zealand, in particular who made up a large portion of the army. The force also included a contingent of French and Italian troops. The forces of the Arab Revolt, led by Prince Feisal of Mecca, were also unofficially attached during Allenbys Damascus offensive, the forces successes ultimately led to Turkeys exit from the war and the creation of the British Mandate of Palestine. Deiran Anzac Mounted Division at Richon le Zion Australian Mounted Division at Deir el Belah Yeomanry Mounted Division at Deir el Belah XX Corps at Mount of Olives 10th Division at O99, P.20. d. 53rd Division at Ram Allah 60th Division at Jerusalem 74th Division at Latron XXI Corps at Jaffa 52nd Division at Jaffa, 4/11th Gurkhas, 3/153rd and 154th Indian Inf. 159th Brigade 4/5th Welsh Regt. 3/152nd, 1/153rd and 2/153rd Indian Inf. 160th Brigade 1/7th R. Welsh Fus, 1/21st Punjabis, 1st Cape Corps 265th, 266th, 267th Brigades RFA each with three batteries of twelve 18-pdrs. and four 4. 5-inch hows. 39th Indian Mountain Battery Troop Corps Cavalry Regiment 10th Division 29th Brigade 1st Leinsters, 1/101st Grenadiers, 1/54th Sikhs, Rifles, 38th Dogras, 46th Punjabis 31st Brigade 2nd Royal Irish Fus
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