1.
Food energy
–
Food energy is chemical energy that animals derive from food and molecular oxygen through the process of cellular respiration. Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of energy to sustain their metabolism. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, water, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as organic acids, polyols. Some diet components that provide little or no energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down, fiber, a type of carbohydrate, cannot be completely digested by the human body. Ruminants can extract energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens. Using the International System of Units, researchers measure energy in joules or in its multiples, the kilojoule is most often used for food-related quantities. An older metric system unit of energy, still used in food-related contexts, is the calorie, more precisely. Within the European Union, both the kilocalorie and kilojoule appear on nutrition labels, in many countries, only one of the units is displayed, in the US and Canada labels spell out the unit as calorie or as Calorie. Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of energy per gram,37 and 29 kJ/g. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ/g, carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fiber, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g and 13 kJ/g respectively, the amount of water, fat, and fiber in foods determines those foods energy density. Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using the Gibbs free energy of combustion, however, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction producing liquid water. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century, based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids. The system was improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA. Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, in the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In Australia and New Zealand, the energy must be stated in kilojoules
Food energy
–
The nutritional information label on a pack of
Basmati rice in the United Kingdom
2.
Carbohydrate
–
A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2,1, in other words, with the empirical formula Cmn. This formula holds true for monosaccharides, some exceptions exist, for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula C5H10O4. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon, structurally it is accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide, a group that includes sugars, starch, the saccharides are divided into four chemical groups, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest carbohydrates, are referred to as sugars. The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον, meaning sugar, while the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, grape sugar is the glucose, cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose. Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms, polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy and as structural components. The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA, the related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting. In food science and in informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch or simple carbohydrates. Often in lists of information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term carbohydrate is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash. This will include chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, carbohydrates are found in wide variety of foods. The important sources are cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, fruits, table sugar, bread, milk, starch and sugar are the important carbohydrates in our diet. Starch is abundant in potatoes, maize, rice and other cereals, sugar appears in our diet mainly as sucrose which is added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Glucose and fructose are found naturally in fruits and some vegetables. Glycogen is carbohydrate found in the liver and muscles, cellulose in the cell wall of all plant tissue is a carbohydrate. It is important in our diet as fibre which helps to maintain a healthy digestive system, formerly the name carbohydrate was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula Cm n
Carbohydrate
–
Grain products: rich sources of carbohydrates
Carbohydrate
3.
Sugar
–
Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
Sugar
–
Closeup of raw (unrefined, unbleached) sugar
Sugar
–
Ant feeding on sugar crystals.
Sugar
–
Sugar cane plantation
Sugar
–
Still-Life with Bread and Confectionary, by
George Flegel, first half of 17th century
4.
Fat
–
Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
Fat
–
The
obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.
Fat
–
A fat, or
triglyceride, molecule. Note the three fatty acid chains attached to the central glycerol portion of the molecule.
5.
Protein (nutrient)
–
Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body. They are one of the blocks of body tissue. As a fuel, proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates,4 kcal per gram, in contrast, the most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition. Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds, during human digestion, proteins are broken down in the stomach to smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the synthesis of the amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body. There are nine amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order to prevent protein-energy malnutrition. They are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, there are five dispensable amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and these six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline and tyrosine. Humans need the essential amino acids in certain ratios, some protein sources contain amino acids in a more or less complete sense. This has given rise to various ranking systems for protein sources, Dietary sources of protein include both animals and plants, meats, dairy products, fish and eggs as well as grains, legumes and nuts. Vegetarians and vegans can get enough essential amino acids by eating a variety of plant proteins and it is commonly believed that athletes should consume a higher-than-normal protein intake to maintain optimal physical performance. Protein is a nutrient needed by the body for growth. Aside from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body, Protein can be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and skin, proteins are also used in membranes, such as glycoproteins. When broken down into amino acids, they are used as precursors to acid, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, cellular repair. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells, proteins are believed to increase performance in terms of athletics. Amino acids, the blocks of proteins, are used for building muscle tissue. Protein is only used as fuel when carbohydrates are low
Protein (nutrient)
–
Protein milkshakes, made from protein powder (center) and milk (left), are a common
bodybuilding supplement.
Protein (nutrient)
–
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein.
Protein (nutrient)
–
An education campaign launched by the United States Department of Agriculture about 100 years ago, on cottage cheese as a lower-cost protein substitute for meat.
Protein (nutrient)
–
A child in Nigeria during the
Biafra War suffering from
kwashiorkor – one of the
three protein energy malnutrition ailments afflicting over 10 million children in developing countries.
6.
Dietary element
–
In the context of nutrition, a mineral is a chemical element required as an essential nutrient by organisms to perform functions necessary for life. Minerals originate in the earth and cannot be made by living organisms, most of the minerals in a human diet come from eating plants and animals or from drinking water. As a group, minerals are one of the four groups of essential nutrients, the others of which are vitamins, essential fatty acids, the five major minerals in the human body are calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, and magnesium. All of the elements in a human body are called trace elements. The trace elements that have a specific function in the human body are iron, cobalt, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, iodine. Most chemical elements that are ingested by organisms are in the form of simple compounds, plants absorb dissolved elements in soils, which are subsequently ingested by the herbivores that eat them, and the elements move up the food chain. Larger organisms may also consume soil or use mineral resources, such as salt licks, one element, cobalt, is available for use by animals only after having been processed into complex molecules by bacteria. Minerals are used by animals and microorganisms for the process of mineralizing structures, called biomineralization, used to construct bones, seashells, eggshells, exoskeletons and mollusc shells. At least twenty chemical elements are known to be required to support human biochemical processes by serving structural and functional roles as well as electrolytes, however, as many as twenty-nine elements in total are suggested to be used by mammals, as inferred by biochemical and uptake studies. Phosphorus makes up about 1% of a body weight. The last four major minerals make up only about 0. 85% of the weight of the body, together these eleven chemical elements make up 99. 85% of the body. Minerals are present in a human beings blood at certain mass. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the elements discussed in this article. Depending on the concentrations, some are in part of the picture. The figure includes the values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, minerals are color highlighted in purple, dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element of interest. The elements may be present in the food or added to the food. The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the elemental components
Dietary element
–
Reference ranges for blood tests, sorted logarithmically by
mass above the scale and by
molarity below.
7.
Calcium
–
Calcium is a chemical element with symbol Ca and atomic number 20. Calcium is a soft grayish-yellow alkaline earth metal, fifth-most-abundant element by mass in the Earths crust, the ion Ca2+ is also the fifth-most-abundant dissolved ion in seawater by both molarity and mass, after sodium, chloride, magnesium, and sulfate. Free calcium metal is too reactive to occur in nature, Calcium is produced in supernova nucleosynthesis. Calcium is a trace element in living organisms. It is the most abundant metal by mass in animals, and it is an important constituent of bone, teeth. In cell biology, the movement of the calcium ion into, Calcium carbonate and calcium citrate are often taken as dietary supplements. Calcium is on the World Health Organizations List of Essential Medicines, Calcium has a wide variety of applications, almost all of which are associated with calcium compounds and salts. Calcium metal is used as a deoxidizer, desulfurizer, and decarbonizer for production of ferrous and nonferrous alloys. In steelmaking and production of iron, Ca reacts with oxygen, Calcium carbonate is used in manufacturing cement and mortar, lime, limestone and aids in production in the glass industry. It also has chemical and optical uses as mineral specimens in toothpastes, Calcium hydroxide solution is used to detect the presence of carbon dioxide in a gas sample bubbled through a solution. The solution turns cloudy where CO2 is present, Calcium arsenate is used in insecticides. Calcium carbide is used to make acetylene gas and various plastics, Calcium chloride is used in ice removal and dust control on dirt roads, as a conditioner for concrete, as an additive in canned tomatoes, and to provide body for automobile tires. Calcium citrate is used as a food preservative, Calcium cyclamate is used as a sweetening agent in several countries. In the United States, it has been outlawed as a suspected carcinogen, Calcium gluconate is used as a food additive and in vitamin pills. Calcium hypochlorite is used as a swimming pool disinfectant, as an agent, as an ingredient in deodorant. Calcium permanganate is used in rocket propellant, textile production, as a water sterilizing agent. Calcium phosphate is used as a supplement for animal feed, fertilizer, in production for dough and yeast products, in the manufacture of glass. Calcium phosphide is used in fireworks, rodenticide, torpedoes, Calcium sulfate is used as common blackboard chalk, as well as, in its hemihydrate form, Plaster of Paris
Calcium
–
Calcium, 20 Ca
Calcium
–
Travertine terraces
Pamukkale, Turkey
Calcium
–
'Ain Ghazal figure
Calcium
–
500 milligram calcium supplements made from
calcium carbonate
8.
Milligram
–
The kilogram or kilogramme is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units and is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram. The avoirdupois pound, used in both the imperial and US customary systems, is defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg, making one kilogram approximately equal to 2.2046 avoirdupois pounds. Other traditional units of weight and mass around the world are also defined in terms of the kilogram, the gram, 1/1000 of a kilogram, was provisionally defined in 1795 as the mass of one cubic centimetre of water at the melting point of ice. The final kilogram, manufactured as a prototype in 1799 and from which the IPK was derived in 1875, had an equal to the mass of 1 dm3 of water at its maximum density. The kilogram is the only SI base unit with an SI prefix as part of its name and it is also the only SI unit that is still directly defined by an artifact rather than a fundamental physical property that can be reproduced in different laboratories. Three other base units and 17 derived units in the SI system are defined relative to the kilogram, only 8 other units do not require the kilogram in their definition, temperature, time and frequency, length, and angle. At its 2011 meeting, the CGPM agreed in principle that the kilogram should be redefined in terms of the Planck constant, the decision was originally deferred until 2014, in 2014 it was deferred again until the next meeting. There are currently several different proposals for the redefinition, these are described in the Proposed Future Definitions section below, the International Prototype Kilogram is rarely used or handled. In the decree of 1795, the term gramme thus replaced gravet, the French spelling was adopted in the United Kingdom when the word was used for the first time in English in 1797, with the spelling kilogram being adopted in the United States. In the United Kingdom both spellings are used, with kilogram having become by far the more common, UK law regulating the units to be used when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the use of either spelling. In the 19th century the French word kilo, a shortening of kilogramme, was imported into the English language where it has used to mean both kilogram and kilometre. In 1935 this was adopted by the IEC as the Giorgi system, now known as MKS system. In 1948 the CGPM commissioned the CIPM to make recommendations for a practical system of units of measurement. This led to the launch of SI in 1960 and the subsequent publication of the SI Brochure, the kilogram is a unit of mass, a property which corresponds to the common perception of how heavy an object is. Mass is a property, that is, it is related to the tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest, or if in motion to remain in motion at a constant velocity. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor, they are weightless. However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, the ratio of the force of gravity on the two objects, measured by the scale, is equal to the ratio of their masses. On April 7,1795, the gram was decreed in France to be the weight of a volume of pure water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of the metre
Milligram
–
A domestic-quality one-kilogram weight made of
cast iron (the
credit card is for scale). The shape follows
OIML recommendation R52 for cast-iron hexagonal weights
Milligram
–
Measurement of weight – gravitational attraction of the measurand causes a distortion of the spring
Milligram
–
Measurement of mass – the gravitational force on the measurand is balanced against the gravitational force on the weights.
Milligram
–
The Arago kilogram, an exact copy of the "Kilogramme des Archives" commissioned in 1821 by the US under supervision of French physicist
François Arago that served as the US's first kilogram standard of mass until 1889, when the US converted to primary metric standards and received its current kilogram prototypes, K4 and K20.
9.
Milk
–
Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mothers antibodies to its young and it contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy, Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011, from 260 million dairy cows. India is the worlds largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, the ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. The United States, India, China and Brazil are the worlds largest exporters of milk and milk products, China and Russia were the worlds largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk. Throughout the world, there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products, over 750 million people live in dairy farming households. The term milk comes from Old English meoluc, milc, from Proto-Germanic *meluks milk, there are two distinct types of milk consumption, a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food product for humans of all ages that is derived from other animals. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, the early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the baby as well as nutrients. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species, for humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for at least two years. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer, fresh goats milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk. This introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, in many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood and this allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturated fat. The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestine after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly
Milk
–
A glass of
pasteurized cow's milk
Milk
–
A human baby feeding on its mother's milk
Milk
–
A
goat kid feeding on its mother's milk
Milk
–
Holstein cattle, the dominant breed in industrialized dairying today
10.
Curd
–
Curds are a dairy product obtained by coagulating milk in a process called curdling. The coagulation can be caused by adding rennet or any edible acidic substance such as lemon juice or vinegar, the increased acidity causes the milk proteins to tangle into solid masses, or curds. Milk that has left to sour will also naturally produce curds. The remaining liquid, which contains only whey proteins, is the whey, in cows milk,80 percent of the proteins are caseins. Curd products vary by region and include cottage cheese, curd cheese, farmer cheese, pot cheese, queso blanco, the word can also refer to a non-dairy substance of similar appearance or consistency, though in these cases a modifier or the word curdled is generally used. In England, curds produced from the use of rennet are referred to as junket, with true curds and whey only occurring from the natural separation of milk due to its environment. Cheese curds, drained of the whey and served without further processing or aging, are popular in some French-speaking regions of Canada, such as Quebec, parts of Ontario, and Atlantic Canada. In Quebec, eastern Ontario and the provinces such as New Brunswick, cheese curds are popularly served with french fries. In some parts of the Midwestern U. S. especially in Wisconsin, they are breaded and fried, or are eaten straight. In Turkey, curds are called keş and are commonly used as an aphrodisiac and for breakfast served on fried bread and are also eaten with macaroni in the provinces of Bolu. In Mexico, the chongos zamoranos is a dessert prepared with milk curdled with sugar, albanian gjiza is made by boiling whey for about 15 minutes and adding vinegar or lemon. The derivative is drained 3 to 4 times with a napkin or piece of cloth, gjiza can be served immediately or refrigerated for a couple of days. Lactobacillus is a genus of bacteria which can convert sugars into acid by means of fermentation. Milk contains a sugar called lactose, a made by the glycosidic bonding between glucose and galactose. These convert the lactose into lactic acid, which imparts the sour taste to curd, curds are mentioned in the Middle Irish parodic tale Aislinge Meic Con Glinne, the relevant portion of which reads, Stately, pleasantly it sat, A compact house and strong. Then I went in, The door of it was dry meat, The threshold was bare bread, smooth pillars of old cheese, And sappy bacon props Alternate ranged, Fine beams of mellow cream, White rafters - real curds, Kept up the house. Curds also appear in the nursery rhyme Little Miss Muffet, food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations A fresh look at fine cheese, audio tour of Canada’s best cheese curds
Curd
–
Lithuanian
curd cheese
Curd
–
Cheese curds
Curd
–
Old Dutch Cheese press
11.
Cheese
–
Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, during production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form, Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature, hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk, whether they have been pasteurized, the content, the bacteria and mold, the processing. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents, the yellow to red color of many cheeses, such as Red Leicester, is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as pepper, garlic. For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice, most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available, most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs. Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, generally speaking, hard cheeses, such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goats milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese, but some experts say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results. Cheese paper is coated in a plastic on the inside. A specialist seller of cheese is known as a cheesemonger. Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience, the cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory, selecting the cheese menu, purchasing, receiving, storage, and ripening. The word cheese comes from Latin caseus, from which the modern word casein is also derived, the earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means to ferment, become sour. The word cheese comes from chese and cīese or cēse, the Online Etymological Dictionary states that cheese comes from Old English cyse, cese. from West Germanic *kasjus, from Latin caseus cheese. The Online Etymological Dictionary states that the word is of. unknown origin, perhaps from a PIE root *kwat- to ferment, Old Norse ostr, Danish ost, Swedish ost are related to Latin ius broth, sauce, juice. When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries supplies and it is from this word that the French fromage, proper Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj, and Provençal furmo are derived
Cheese
–
Coulommiers cheese
Cheese
–
A platter with cheese and garnishes
Cheese
–
A variety of cheeses for sale in Amsterdam
Cheese
–
Cheese on market stand in
Basel,
Switzerland
12.
Casein
–
Casein is the name for a family of related phosphoproteins. These proteins are found in mammalian milk, making up 80% of the proteins in cows milk. Casein has a variety of uses, from being a major component of cheese, to use as a food additive. As a food source, casein supplies amino acids, carbohydrates, casein contains a high number of proline residues, which do not interact. There are also no disulfide bridges, as a result, it has relatively little tertiary structure. It is relatively hydrophobic, making it soluble in water. However, in sharp contrast to surfactant micelles, the interior of a micelle is highly hydrated. The caseins in the micelles are held together by calcium ions, any of several molecular models could account for the special conformation of casein in the micelles. One of them proposes the micellar nucleus is formed by several submicelles, another model suggests the nucleus is formed by casein-interlinked fibrils. Finally, the most recent model proposes a link among the caseins for gelling to take place. All three models consider micelles as colloidal particles formed by casein aggregates wrapped up in soluble κ-casein molecules, the isoelectric point of casein is 4.6. Since milks pH is 6.6, casein has a charge in milk. While it is insoluble in neutral salt solutions, it is readily dispersible in dilute alkalis and in salt solutions such as aqueous sodium oxalate. The enzyme trypsin can hydrolyze a phosphate-containing peptone and it is used to form a type of organic adhesive. Casein paint is a fast-drying, water-soluble medium used by artists and it is still widely used by scene painters, although acrylic has made inroads in that field as well. Casein-based glues, formulated from casein, water, hydrated lime and sodium hydroxide were popular for woodworking, including for aircraft, casein glue is also used in transformer manufacturing due to its oil permeability. While largely replaced with synthetic resins, casein-based glues still have a use in niche applications, such as laminating fireproof doors. Cheese consists of proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats and it is produced by coagulation of casein
Casein
–
Casein preparation in an old etching operation in Müllheim
Casein
–
Cheesemaking
13.
Cheddar cheese
–
Cheddar cheese is a relatively hard, off-white, sometimes sharp-tasting, natural cheese. Originating in the British village of Cheddar in Somerset, cheeses of this style are produced beyond this region, Cheddar is the most popular type of cheese in the UK, accounting for 51% of the countrys £1.9 billion annual cheese market. It is also the second-most-popular cheese in the US, with an annual consumption of 10 lb per capita. The US produced approximately 3,000,000,000 lb in 2014, the term Cheddar cheese is widely used, but has no Protected Designation of Origin within the European Union. The cheese originates from the village of Cheddar in Somerset, south west England, Cheddar Gorge on the edge of the village contains a number of caves, which provided the ideal humidity and steady temperature for maturing the cheese. Cheddar cheese traditionally had to be made within 30 mi of Wells Cathedral, Cheddar has been produced since at least the 12th century. A pipe roll of King Henry II from 1170 records the purchase of 10,240 lb at a farthing per pound, charles I also bought cheese from the village. Romans may have brought the recipe to Britain from the Cantal region of France, central to the modernisation and standardisation of Cheddar cheese was the 19th-century Somerset dairyman Joseph Harding. For his technical innovations, promotion of hygiene, and volunteer dissemination of modern cheese-making techniques. Harding introduced new equipment to the process of cheese-making, including his revolving breaker for curd cutting, saving much manual effort, the Joseph Harding method was the first modern system for Cheddar production based upon scientific principles. Harding stated that Cheddar cheese is not made in the field, nor in the byre, nor even in the cow and his wife and he were behind the introduction of the cheese into Scotland and North America. His sons, Henry and William Harding, were responsible for introducing Cheddar cheese production to Australia and facilitating the establishment of the industry in New Zealand. This almost resulted in wiping out all other production in the country. Before the First World War, more than 3,500 cheese producers were in Britain, according to a United States Department of Agriculture researcher, Cheddar cheese is the worlds most popular variety of cheese, and the most studied type of cheese in scientific publications. The curds and whey are separated using rennet, an enzyme complex normally produced from the stomachs of newborn calves. Cheddaring refers to a step in the production of Cheddar cheese where, after heating, the curd is kneaded with salt, cut into cubes to drain the whey. Strong, extra-mature Cheddar, sometimes called vintage, needs to be matured for up to 15 months, the cheese is kept at a constant temperature, often requiring special facilities. Additionally, some versions of Cheddar cheese are smoked, Cheddar made in the classical way tends to have a sharp, pungent flavour, often slightly earthy
Cheddar cheese
–
A block of Cheddar cheese
Cheddar cheese
–
A bowl of
cheese curds
Cheddar cheese
–
Cheddar cheese maturing in the caves at
Cheddar Gorge
Cheddar cheese
–
Cheddar cheeses on display at the Mid Somerset Show
14.
Swiss cheese
–
Some types of Swiss cheese have a distinctive appearance, as the blocks of the cheese are riddled with holes known as eyes. Swiss cheese without eyes is known as blind, three types of bacteria are used in the production of Emmental cheese, Streptococcus salivarius subspecies thermophilus, Lactobacillus, and Propionibacterium. In a late stage of production, the propionibacteria consume the lactic acid excreted by the other bacteria and release acetate, propionic acid. The carbon dioxide slowly forms the bubbles that develop the eyes, the acetate and propionic acid give Swiss its nutty and sweet flavor. Historically, the holes were seen as a sign of imperfection, in modern times, the holes have become an identifier of the cheese. In general, the larger the eyes in a Swiss cheese and this poses a problem, however, because cheese with large eyes does not slice well and comes apart in mechanical slicers. As a result, industry regulators have limited the eye size by which Swiss cheese receives the Grade A stamp, in 2014,297.8 million pounds of Swiss cheese was reportedly produced in the United States. Baby Swiss and Lacy Swiss are two varieties of American Swiss cheeses, both have small holes and a mild flavor. Baby Swiss is made from milk, and Lacy Swiss is made from low fat milk. Baby Swiss was developed in the mid-1960s outside of Charm, Ohio, by the Guggisberg Cheese Company, ch. Source, Nutritiondata. self. com Swiss Cheese Niche microbewiki. kenyon. edu Making Swiss Cheese biology. clc. uc. edu
Swiss cheese
–
Swiss cheese
15.
Cottage cheese
–
Cottage cheese is a fresh cheese curd product with a mild flavor. Cottage cheese is drained, but not pressed, so some whey remains, the curd is usually washed to remove acidity, giving sweet curd cheese. It is not aged or colored, different styles of cottage cheese are made from milks with different fat levels and in small-curd or large-curd preparations. Cottage cheese which is pressed becomes hoop cheese, farmer cheese, pot cheese, curd size is the size of the chunks in the cottage cheese. The two major types of cheese are small-curd, high-acid cheese made without rennet, and large-curd. Rennet is a complex of enzymes that speeds curdling and keeps the curd that forms from breaking up. Adding rennet shortens the cheese-making process, resulting in an acid and larger curd cheese. Sometimes large-curd cottage cheese is called chunk style, cottage cheese with fruit such as pears, peaches, or mandarin oranges is a standard side dish in many home cooking or meat-and-three restaurants menus in the United States. A 113-g serving of 4% fat product has about 120 calories,5 g fat,3 g carbohydrates and it also contains about 500 mg sodium,70 mg calcium, and 20 mg cholesterol. Some manufacturers also produce low-fat and nonfat varieties, a fat-free kind of a similar serving size has 80 calories,0 g fat,6 g carbohydrates, and 14 g protein. Cottage cheese is popular among dieters and some health food devotees and it is a favorite food among bodybuilders, runners, swimmers and weightlifters for its high content of casein protein while being relatively low in fat. Pregnant women are advised that cottage cheese is safe to eat, whereas some cheese products are not recommended during pregnancy
Cottage cheese
–
A tub of cottage cheese
Cottage cheese
–
Homemade cottage cheese.
Cottage cheese
–
World War I poster encouraging U.S. citizens to consume cottage cheese as an alternative to meat products.
16.
Strained yogurt
–
Like many types of yogurt, strained yogurt is often made from milk that has been enriched by boiling off some of its water content, or by adding extra butterfat and powdered milk. In Europe and North America, it is made with low-fat or fat-free yogurt. In Scandinavia, particularly Iceland, a product, skyr is produced. Such dishes may be cooked or raw, savory or sweet, due to the straining process to remove excess whey, even non-fat varieties of strained yogurt are much thicker, richer, and creamier than yogurts that have not been strained. In western Europe and the US, strained yogurt has increased in popularity compared to unstrained yogurt, since the straining process removes some of the lactose, strained yogurt is lower in sugar than unstrained yogurt. It was reported in 2012 that most of the growth in the $4.1 billion US yogurt industry came from the strained yogurt sub-segment, in the US there is no legal definition of Greek yogurt, and yogurt thickened with thickening agents may also be sold as Greek yogurt. Strained yogurt contains a higher density than regular yogurt. The protein in strained yogurt is largely casein protein, in Armenia, strained yogurt is called kamats matzoon. Traditionally, it was produced for long-term preservation by draining matzoon in cloth sacks, afterwards it was stored in leather sacks or clay pots for a month or more depending on the degree of salting. In Albania, strained yogurt is called salcë kosi, after preparing yogurt from micro-cultured milk, it is drained in a cloth sack from few hours, to overnight. The water released from this process is called hir and can be used to preserve cheese or as a drink. Meanwhile the strained yogurt is used in many variation in the Albanian cuisine and is either plain or with added elements such as dill, garlic, cucumber, nuts. In the countries of the former Yugoslavia, strained yogurt made of milk has become very popular in recent years. It is usually labeled grčki tip jogurta and eaten on its own as a snack or dessert, in Macedonia its widely known as „павлака. In Bulgaria, where yogurt is considered to be a part of the national cuisine, strained yogurt is called tsedeno kiselo mlyako. Another similar product is katak, which is made from sheep or goat milk. In the cuisines of many Iranian, Baloch, and Turkic peoples and it is obtained by draining qatiq, a local yogurt variety. By further drying it, one obtains qurut, a kind of dry fresh cheese, Strained yogurt in Balochistan is called Sheelanch and is a vital part of the nomadic diet
Strained yogurt
–
Strained yogurt with
olive oil
Strained yogurt
–
Yogurt being strained through a
cheesecloth
Strained yogurt
–
A disposable clay pot with "
dahi "
Strained yogurt
–
Unstirred Turkish Süzme Yoğurt (strained yogurt), with a 10% fat content
17.
Proteins
–
Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar
Proteins
–
Proteins in different
cellular compartments and structures tagged with
green fluorescent protein (here, white)
Proteins
–
A representation of the 3D structure of the protein
myoglobin showing turquoise
alpha helices. This protein was the first to have its structure solved by
X-ray crystallography. Towards the right-center among the coils, a
prosthetic group called a
heme group (shown in gray) with a bound oxygen molecule (red).
Proteins
–
Constituent amino-acids can be analyzed to predict secondary, tertiary and quaternary protein structure, in this case hemoglobin containing
heme units
Proteins
–
John Kendrew with model of myoglobin in progress
18.
Alpha-lactalbumin
–
Lactalbumin, alpha-, also known as LALBA, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the LALBA gene. α-Lactalbumin is a present in the milk of almost all mammalian species. In primates, alpha-lactalbumin expression is upregulated in response to the hormone prolactin, α-Lactalbumin forms the regulatory subunit of the lactose synthase heterodimer and β-1, 4-galactosyltransferase forms the catalytic component. Together, these proteins enable LS to produce lactose by transferring galactose moieties to glucose, as a multimer, alpha-lactalbumin strongly binds calcium and zinc ions and may possess bactericidal or antitumor activity. A folding variant of human alpha-lactalbumin that may form in environments such as the stomach, called HAMLET, probably induces apoptosis in tumor. The corresponding folding dynamics of alpha-lactalbumin is thus highly unusual and this gives rise to a pathway for forming lactose by converting Gal-TI to Lactose synthase. The structure of alpha-lactalbumin is well known and is composed of 123 amino acids and 4 disulfide bridges, the molecular weight is 14178 Da, and the isoelectric point is between 4.2 and 4.5. One of the structural differences with beta-lactoglobulin is that it does not have any free thiol group that can serve as the starting-point for a covalent aggregation reaction. As a result, pure α-lactalbumin will not form gels upon denaturation and acidification, the sequence comparison of α-lactalbumin shows a strong similarity to that of lysozymes, specifically the Ca2+-binding c-lysozyme. So the expected evolutionary history is that gene duplication of the c-lysozyme was followed by mutation
Alpha-lactalbumin
Alpha-lactalbumin
–
PDB rendering based on 1a4v.
Alpha-lactalbumin
Alpha-lactalbumin
19.
Beta-lactoglobulin
–
β-Lactoglobulin is the major whey protein of cow and sheeps milk, and is also present in many other mammalian species, a notable exception being humans. Its structure, properties and biological role have been reviewed many times, unlike the other main whey protein, α-lactalbumin, no clear function has been identified for β-lactoglobulin. β-lactoglobulin is a protein, and can bind many hydrophobic molecules. β-lactoglobulin has also shown to be able to bind iron via siderophores. A homologue of β-lactoglobulin is lacking in human breast milk, several genetic variants have been identified, the main ones in the cow being labelled A and B. Because of its abundance and ease of purification, it has been subjected to a range of biophysical studies. Its structure has been determined several times by X-ray crystallography and NMR, one such structure is shown on the right.4 kDa molecular weight. In physiological conditions it is dimeric, but dissociates to a monomer below about pH3. Conversely, β-lactoglobulin also occurs in tetrameric, octameric and other multimeric aggregation forms under a variety of natural conditions, β-Lactoglobulin solutions form gels in various conditions, when the native structure is sufficiently destabilised to allow aggregation. Under prolonged heating at low pH and low strength, a transparent fine-stranded gel is formed. Folding intermediates for this protein can be studied using light spectroscopy, such experiments interestingly show an unusual but important intermediate composed purely of alpha helices, despite the fact that the native structure is beta sheet. Evolution has probably selected for the intermediate to avoid aggregation during the folding process. As milk is an allergen, manufacturers need to prove the presence or absence of β-lactoglobulin to ensure their labelling satisfies the requirements of the aforementioned directive. Food testing laboratories can use ELISA methods to identify and quantify β-lactoglobulin in food products, laboratory polymerization of β-lactoglobulin by microbial transglutaminase reduces its allergenicity in children and adults with an IgE-mediated cow’s milk allergy
Beta-lactoglobulin
–
Structure of a β-lactoglobulin subunit (PDB entry 3BLG) Ribbons denote the
secondary structure, with arrows for beta strands and spirals for alpha-helices. Rendered with
Kinemage
20.
Serum albumin
–
This is most abundant class of the plasma protein. Serum albumin, often referred to simply as blood albumin, is a found in vertebrate blood. Human serum albumin is encoded by the ALB gene, other mammalian forms, such as bovine serum albumin, are chemically similar. Serum albumin is produced by the liver, occurs dissolved in plasma and is the most abundant blood protein in mammals. It also acts as a carrier by non-specifically binding several hydrophobic steroid hormones and as a transport protein for hemin. Too much or too little circulating serum albumin may be harmful, albumin in the urine usually denotes the presence of kidney disease. Occasionally albumin appears in the urine of normal persons following long standing, because smaller animals function at a lower blood pressure, they need less oncotic pressure to balance this, and thus need less albumin to maintain proper fluid distribution. Albumin is synthesized in the liver as preproalbumin which has an N-terminal peptide that is removed before the nascent protein is released from the endoplasmic reticulum. The product, proalbumin, is in turn cleaved in the Golgi vesicles to produce the secreted albumin, albumin is a globular, water-soluble, un-glycosylated serum protein of approximate molecular weight of 65,000 Daltons. The glomerular basement membrane is negatively charged in the body. According to this theory, that plays a major role in the selective exclusion of albumin from the glomerular filtrate. A defect in this property results in nephrotic syndrome leading to loss in the urine. Nephrotic syndrome patients are sometimes given albumin to replace the lost albumin, the general structure of albumin is characterized by several long α helices allowing it to maintain a relatively static shape, which is essential for regulating blood pressure. Serum albumin contains eleven distinct binding domains for hydrophobic compounds, one hemin and six long-chain fatty acids can bind to serum albumin at the same time. Serum albumin is widely distributed in mammals, the human version is human serum albumin. Bovine serum albumin, or BSA, is used in immunodiagnostic procedures, clinical chemistry reagents, cell culture media, protein chemistry research
Serum albumin
–
Structure of human serum albumin.
Serum albumin
–
PDB rendering based on 1e7h.
Serum albumin
Serum albumin
21.
Immunoglobulins
–
An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a large, Y-shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. The antibody recognizes a molecule of the harmful agent, called an antigen. Each tip of the Y of an antibody contains a paratope that is specific for one particular epitope on an antigen, allowing these two structures to bind together with precision. Using this binding mechanism, an antibody can tag a microbe or a cell for attack by other parts of the immune system. Depending on the antigen, the binding may impede the process causing the disease or may activate macrophages to destroy the foreign substance. The ability of an antibody to communicate with the components of the immune system is mediated via its Fc region. The production of antibodies is the function of the humoral immune system. Antibodies are secreted by B cells of the immune system. In most cases, interaction of the B cell with a T helper cell is necessary to produce full activation of the B cell and, therefore, soluble antibodies are released into the blood and tissue fluids, as well as many secretions to continue to survey for invading microorganisms. Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily and they constitute most of the gamma globulin fraction of the blood proteins. They are typically made of basic structural units—each with two heavy chains and two small light chains. There are several different types of heavy chains that define the five different types of crystallisable fragments that may be attached to the antigen-binding fragments. The five different types of Fc regions allow antibodies to be grouped into five isotypes, each Fc region of a particular antibody isotype is able to bind to its specific Fc Receptor, thus allowing the antigen-antibody complex to mediate different roles depending on which FcR it binds. The ability of an antibody to bind to its corresponding FcR is further modulated by the structure of the present at conserved sites within its Fc region. The ability of antibodies to bind to FcRs helps to direct the immune response for each different type of foreign object they encounter. For example, IgE is responsible for an allergic response consisting of mast cell degranulation, igEs Fab paratope binds to allergic antigen, for example house dust mite particles, while its Fc region binds to Fc receptor ε. The allergen-IgE-FcRε interaction mediates allergic signal transduction to induce conditions such as asthma and this region is known as the hypervariable region. Each of these variants can bind to a different antigen and this enormous diversity of antibody paratopes on the antigen-binding fragments allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide variety of antigens
Immunoglobulins
–
Immunofluorescence image of the eukaryotic
cytoskeleton.
Actin filaments are shown in red,
microtubules in green, and the
nuclei in blue.
Immunoglobulins
–
Each antibody binds to a specific
antigen; an interaction similar to a lock and key.
Immunoglobulins
–
Example of tissue cross-reactivity on human
tissue microarray
Immunoglobulins
–
Angel of the West (2008) by
Julian Voss-Andreae is a sculpture based on the antibody structure published by E. Padlan. Created for the Florida campus of
the Scripps Research Institute, the antibody is placed into a ring referencing
Leonardo da Vinci's Vitruvian Man thus highlighting the similarity of the antibody and the human body.
22.
Acid
–
An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron, or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair. The first category of acids is the donors or Brønsted acids. In the special case of solutions, proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O+ and are known as Arrhenius acids. Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents, acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals to form salts. The word acid is derived from the Latin acidus/acēre meaning sour, an aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as acid, while the strict definition refers only to the solute. A lower pH means a higher acidity, and thus a higher concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic, common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, sulfuric acid, and citric acid. As these examples show, acids can be solutions or pure substances, strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid. The second category of acids are Lewis acids, which form a covalent bond with an electron pair, however, hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted-Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids. Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted-Lowry acids, in modern terminology, an acid is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as a Lewis acid. Modern definitions are concerned with the chemical reactions common to all acids. Most acids encountered in life are aqueous solutions, or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius. The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition, unless otherwise specified, hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Interestingly, although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted-Lowry acids, they can function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms. The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions or protons in 1884, an Arrhenius acid is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H+ ions in the water. Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as HCl and acetic acid, an Arrhenius base, on the other hand, is a substance which increases the concentration of hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, in an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10−7 moles per liter
Acid
–
Zinc, a typical metal, reacting with
hydrochloric acid, a typical acid
Acid
–
Svante Arrhenius
Acid
–
Hydrochloric acid (in
beaker) reacting with
ammonia fumes to produce
ammonium chloride (white smoke).
23.
PH
–
In chemistry, pH is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the concentration, measured in units of moles per liter. More precisely it is the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the activity of the hydrogen ion, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water is neutral, at pH7, being neither an acid nor a base, contrary to popular belief, the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively. The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement, the pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or an indicator. In the first papers, the notation had the H as a subscript to the p, as so. The exact meaning of the p in pH is disputed, but according to the Carlsberg Foundation and it has also been suggested that the p stands for the German Potenz, others refer to French puissance. Another suggestion is that the p stands for the Latin terms pondus hydrogenii, potentia hydrogenii and it is also suggested that Sørensen used the letters p and q simply to label the test solution and the reference solution. Currently in chemistry, the p stands for decimal cologarithm of, PH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aH+, in a solution. P H = − log 10 = log 10 For example and this definition was adopted because ion-selective electrodes, which are used to measure pH, respond to activity. For H+ number of electrons transferred is one and it follows that electrode potential is proportional to pH when pH is defined in terms of activity. The reference electrode may be a silver chloride electrode or a calomel electrode, the hydrogen-ion selective electrode is a standard hydrogen electrode. Reference electrode | concentrated solution of KCl || test solution | H2 | Pt Firstly, the cell is filled with a solution of hydrogen ion activity. Then the emf, EX, of the cell containing the solution of unknown pH is measured. PH = pH + E S − E X z The difference between the two measured emf values is proportional to pH and this method of calibration avoids the need to know the standard electrode potential. The proportionality constant, 1/z is ideally equal to 12.303 R T / F the Nernstian slope, to apply this process in practice, a glass electrode is used rather than the cumbersome hydrogen electrode. A combined glass electrode has a reference electrode. It is calibrated against buffer solutions of hydrogen ion activity
PH
–
Lemon juice tastes sour because it contains 5% to 6%
citric acid, which has a pH of 2.2.
PH
–
Chart showing the variation of color of universal indicator paper with pH
PH
–
pH values of some common substances
24.
Ricotta
–
Ricotta is an Italian whey cheese made from sheep, cow, goat, or Italian water buffalo milk whey left over from the production of cheese. Like other whey cheeses, it is made by coagulating the proteins that remain after the casein has been used to make cheese, Ricotta protein can be harvested if the whey is first allowed to become more acidic by additional fermentation. Then the acidified whey is heated to near boiling, the combination of low pH and high temperature denatures the protein and causes it to precipitate, forming a fine curd. Once cooled, it is separated by passing the liquid through a fine cloth, Ricotta curds are creamy white in appearance, and slightly sweet in taste. The fat content changes depending on the brand and the type of milk used, in this form, it is somewhat similar in texture to some cottage cheese variants, though considerably lighter. However, ricotta also is made in aged varieties which are preservable for much longer, the production of ricotta in the Italian peninsula is old, dating back to the Bronze Age. In the second millennium BC, ceramic vessels called milk boilers started to appear frequently and were unique to the peninsula. These were designed to boil milk at temperatures and prevent the milk from boiling over. The fresh acid-coagulated cheeses produced with these boilers were made with whole milk. However, the production of rennet-coagulated cheese overtook the production of fresh whole-milk cheeses during the first millennium BC, Bronze cheese graters found in the graves of the Etruscan elite prove that hard-grating cheeses were popular with the aristocracy. Cheese graters were also used in ancient Roman kitchens. Unlike the fresh acid-coagulated cheese, aged rennet-coagulated cheese could be preserved for much longer, the increased production of rennet-coagulated cheese led to a large supply of sweet whey as a byproduct. Cheesemakers then started using a new recipe which used a mixture of whey, the ancient Romans made ricotta, but writers on agriculture such as Cato the Elder, Marcus Terentius Varro, and Columella do not mention it. They described the production of rennet-coagulated cheese, but did not write about milk boilers or acid-coagulated cheese, a likely reason is that ricotta was not profitable, because its very short shelf life did not allow distribution to urban markets. Ricotta was most likely consumed by the shepherds who made it, even so, evidence from paintings and literature indicates that ricotta was known and likely eaten by Roman aristocrats, as well. Ceramic milk boilers were used by Apennine shepherds to make ricotta in the 19th century AD. Today, metal milk boilers are used, but production methods have changed little since ancient times and this means ricotta production is a low-yield process, considering the amount of whey required to produce it. The whey is heated, sometimes with additional acid such as vinegar or lemon juice to catalyze the coagulation through heat of albumin and globulin in the whey
Ricotta
–
Ricotta
Ricotta
–
Ricotta salata is a firm, salted variety of ricotta.
Ricotta
–
Ricotta affumicata, a
smoked variety from the
Sila in
Calabria
Ricotta
–
Ricotta forte is a very soft variety from
Puglia which is sold in jars.
25.
Brunost
–
Brunost is a common, Norwegian name for mysost, a family of cheese-related foods made with whey, milk, and/or cream. It is often used to just refer to the Gudbrandsdalsost type, Brunost is primarily produced and consumed in Norway. It is regarded as one of the countrys most iconic foodstuffs, boiling down whey to create a soft, brown spread probably has been common in the Scandinavian countries since time immemorial. An archeological find from September 2016 in central Jutland has determined that a residue on pottery from circa 650 B. C. is a type of cheese probably brunost. However, the creation of the modern, firm, fatty brunost is commonly attributed to the milkmaid Anne Hov from the Gudbrand Valley. In the second half of the 1800s, the Gudbrand Valley, the name later changed into fløtemysost, and this variety is currently the second most popular type. The product immediately caught on, and was soon produced and consumed in the area. When Anne Hov married and moved to Rusthågå farm in Sør-Fron, she started larger-scale production, the local trader Ole Kongsli liked it so much he thought there might be a market for the product in the capital, Oslo. In 1933, aged 87, Anne Hov received the Kings Medal of Merit for her contributions to Norwegian cuisine and economy. In modern times, the worlds largest producer of brunost is the Norwegian dairy co-operative Tine, the second-largest is Norwegian dairy company Synnøve Finden, who market two varieties of brunost, as well as two varieties of prim. There are also a number of smaller, artisanal producers, mainly in Norway, mysost are a family of cheese-related foods made with whey and milk and/or cream. Because the main ingredient, whey, is a byproduct of the making process, brunost is not technically cheese. However, it is produced by cheese makers, and is sold, therefore it is generally regarded as a cheese. The texture is firm, but slightly softer than, e. g. Gouda cheese and it does not crumble like hard cheeses. The taste is sweet, and best described as caramel-like, the variant Ekte Geitost contains only whey and goats milk, and has an intense, Chèvre-like taste that cuts the sweetness. Brunost is made by boiling a mixture of milk, cream, the heat turns the milk sugars into caramel, which gives the cheese its characteristic brown colour and sweetness. It is ready for consumption as soon as it is packed and refrigerated, low-fat varieties are made by increasing the proportion of whey to milk and cream. In Norway Brunost is commonly divided into two types, those that contain only cows cream and/or milk, and the ones that contain some proportion of goats milk, the latter type is commonly called Geitost or Gjetost
Brunost
–
Brunost is usually sliced very thinly using a metal
cheese slicer
Brunost
–
Messmör
26.
Whey butter
–
Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
Whey butter
–
Butter at the Borough Market,
London
Whey butter
–
Butter is often served for spreading on bread with a
butter knife.
Whey butter
–
Churning cream into butter using a hand-held mixer.
Whey butter
–
Liquid
clarified butter
27.
Compound feed
–
Animal feed is food given to domestic animals in the course of animal husbandry. There are two types, fodder and forage. Used alone, the word feed more often refers to fodder, fodder refers particularly to foods or forages given to the animals, rather than that which they forage for themselves. It includes hay, straw, silage, compressed and pelleted feeds, oils and mixed rations, Feed grains are the most important source of animal feed globally. The amount of used to produce the same unit of meat varies substantially. According to an estimate reported by the BBC in 2008, Cows and sheep need 8kg of grain for every 1kg of meat they produce, the most efficient poultry units need a mere 1. 6kg of feed to produce 1kg of chicken. Farmed fish can also be fed on grain, and use less than poultry. Other feed grains include wheat, oats, barley, and rice, traditional sources of animal feed include household food scraps and the byproducts of food processing industries such as milling and brewing. Material remaining from milling oil crops like peanuts, soy, scraps fed to pigs are called slop, and those fed to chicken are called chicken scratch. Brewers spent grain is a byproduct of beer making that is used as animal feed. Compound feed is fodder that is blended from various raw materials and these blends are formulated according to the specific requirements of the target animal. They are manufactured by feed compounders as meal type, pellets or crumbles, the main ingredients used in commercially prepared feed are the feed grains, which include corn, soybeans, sorghum, oats, and barley. Compound feed may also include premixes, which may also be sold separately, because of the availability of these products, a farmer who uses his own grain can formulate his own rations and be assured his animals are getting the recommended levels of minerals and vitamins. According to the American Feed Industry Association, as much as $20 billion worth of feed ingredients are purchased each year and these products range from grain mixes to orange rinds to beet pulps. The feed industry is one of the most competitive businesses in the sector, and is by far the largest purchaser of U. S. corn, feed grains. Tens of thousands of farmers with feed mills on their own farms are able to compete with huge conglomerates with national distribution, Feed crops generated $23.2 billion in cash receipts on U. S. farms in 2001. At the same time, farmers spent a total of $24.5 billion on feed that year, in 2011, around 734.5 million tons of feed were produced annually around the world. Corn gluten feed was first manufactured in 1882, while leading world feed producer Purina Feeds was established in 1894 by William Hollington Danforth, Cargill, which was mainly dealing in grains from its beginnings in 1865, started to deal in feed at about 1884
Compound feed
–
A photo of a
feedlot in Texas, USA, where cattle are "
finished " (fattened on grains) prior to slaughter.
Compound feed
–
A pelleted ration designed for horses
Compound feed
–
Feed production facility in
en:Oneonta, New York
Compound feed
–
In this photo a
herdsman from the Masaai people watches as his cattle graze in the
Ngorongoro crater,
Tanzania.
28.
Joseph Priestley
–
He is usually credited with the discovery of oxygen, having isolated it in its gaseous state, although Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Antoine Lavoisier also have a claim to the discovery. However, Priestleys determination to defend phlogiston theory and to reject what would become the chemical revolution eventually left him isolated within the scientific community, Priestleys science was integral to his theology, and he consistently tried to fuse Enlightenment rationalism with Christian theism. In his metaphysical texts, Priestley attempted to combine theism, materialism, and determinism and he believed that a proper understanding of the natural world would promote human progress and eventually bring about the Christian Millennium. Priestley, who believed in the free and open exchange of ideas, advocated toleration and equal rights for religious Dissenters. He spent his last ten years in Northumberland County, Pennsylvania and these educational writings were among Priestleys most popular works. Priestley was born to an established English Dissenting family in Birstall and he was the oldest of six children born to Mary Swift and Jonas Priestley, a finisher of cloth. To ease his mothers burdens, Priestley was sent to live with his grandfather around the age of one and he returned home, five years later, after his mother died. When his father remarried in 1741, Priestley went to live with his aunt and uncle, during his youth, Priestley attended local schools where he learned Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Around 1749, Priestley became seriously ill and believed he was dying, raised as a devout Calvinist, he believed a conversion experience was necessary for salvation, but doubted he had had one. This emotional distress eventually led him to question his upbringing, causing him to reject election. As a result, the elders of his church, the Independent Upper Chapel of Heckmondwike. Priestleys illness left him with a permanent stutter and he gave up any thoughts of entering the ministry at that time, in preparation for joining a relative in trade in Lisbon, he studied French, Italian, and German in addition to Aramaic, and Arabic. Priestley eventually decided to return to his studies and, in 1752, matriculated at Daventry. Because he had read widely, Priestley was allowed to skip the first two years of coursework. He continued his study, this, together with the liberal atmosphere of the school, shifted his theology further leftward. Abhorring dogma and religious mysticism, Rational Dissenters emphasised the rational analysis of the natural world, Priestley later wrote that the book that influenced him the most, save the Bible, was David Hartleys Observations on Man. Hartleys psychological, philosophical, and theological treatise postulated a theory of mind. Hartley aimed to construct a Christian philosophy in both religious and moral facts could be scientifically proven, a goal that would occupy Priestley for his entire life
Joseph Priestley
–
Priestley by
Ellen Sharples (1794)
Joseph Priestley
–
Priestley's birthplace (since demolished) in Fieldhead,
Birstall, West Yorkshire (about six miles (10 km) southwest of
Leeds)
Joseph Priestley
–
Mary Priestley, by
Carl F. von Breda (1793); daughter of
ironmaster Isaac Wilkinson, sister of industrialist
John Wilkinson
Joseph Priestley
–
A redacted version of
A New Chart of History (1765); Priestley believed this chart would "impress" upon students "a just image of the rise, progress, extent, duration, and contemporary state of all the considerable empires that have ever existed in the world".
29.
Whey protein
–
Whey protein is a mixture of globular proteins isolated from whey, the liquid material created as a by-product of cheese production. Whey protein is commonly marketed as a supplement, and various health claims have been attributed to it in the alternative medicine community. Although whey proteins are responsible for some milk allergies, the major allergens in milk are the caseins. Whey is left over when milk is coagulated during the process of cheese production and it is a 5% solution of lactose in water, with some minerals and lactalbumin. The fat is removed and then processed for human foods, processing can be done by simple drying, or the protein content can be increased by removing lipids and other non-protein materials. For example, spray drying after membrane filtration separates the proteins from whey, Whey can be denatured by heat. Heat-denatured whey can still cause allergies in some people, Whey protein is the collection of globular proteins isolated from whey. The protein in milk is 20% whey protein and 80% casein protein, whereas the protein in human milk is 60% whey. The protein fraction in whey constitutes approximately 10% of the dry solids in whey. This protein is typically a mixture of beta-lactoglobulin, alpha-lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin and these are soluble in their native forms, independent of pH. There are, however, specialty producers of vegetarian-approved whey protein products produced using non-animal rennet and these products are often also labeled as kosher and halal approved. Whey protein typically comes in four forms, concentrate, isolate, hydrolysate. Isolates are processed to remove the fat and lactose, but are lower in bioactivated compounds as well — they are 90%+ protein by weight. Like whey protein concentrates, whey protein isolates are mild to slightly milky in taste, hydrolysates are whey proteins that are predigested and partially hydrolyzed for the purpose of easier metabolizing, but their cost is generally higher. Highly hydrolysed whey may be less allergenic than other forms of whey, Native whey protein is extracted from skim milk, not a byproduct of cheese production, and produced as a concentrate and isolate. The use of protein as a source of amino acids and its effect on reducing the risks of diseases such as heart disease, cancer. Whey is an abundant source of amino acids, which are used to stimulate protein synthesis. When leucine is ingested in high amounts, such as with whey protein supplementation, there is greater stimulation of protein synthesis, Whey has approximately three grams of leucine per serving and the threshold for optimal protein synthesis is three grams
Whey protein
–
Containers of whey protein being sold at a
health food store.
30.
Nutritional supplement
–
A dietary supplement is intended to provide nutrients that may otherwise not be consumed in sufficient quantities. Supplements as generally understood include vitamins, minerals, fiber, fatty acids, or amino acids, U. S. authorities define dietary supplements as foods, while elsewhere they may be classified as drugs or other products. There are more than 50,000 dietary supplements available, more than half of the U. S. adult population consume dietary supplements with most common ones being multivitamins. These products are not intended to prevent or treat any disease and in some circumstances are dangerous, for those who fail to consume a balanced diet, the agency says that certain supplements may have value. Most supplements should be avoided, and usually people should not eat micronutrients except people with clearly shown deficiency and those people should first consult a doctor. An exception is vitamin D, which is recommended in Nordic countries due to weak sunlight, the product is labeled as a dietary supplement. In the United States, the FDA has different monitoring procedures for substances depending on whether they are presented as drugs, food additives, food, or dietary supplements. Dietary supplements are eaten or taken by mouth, and are regulated in United States law as a type of rather than a type of drug. The intended use of dietary supplements is to ensure that a person gets enough essential nutrients, Dietary supplements should not be used to treat any disease or as preventive healthcare. An exception to this recommendation is the use of vitamins. Supplements may create harm in several ways, including over-consumption, particularly of minerals, the products may also cause harm related to their rapid absorption in a short period of time, quality issues such as contamination, or by adverse interactions with other foods and medications. There are many types of dietary supplements, Vitamin is an organic compound required by an organism as a vital nutrient in limited amounts. An organic chemical compound is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, thus, the term is conditional both on the circumstances and on the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid is a vitamin for humans, supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems but there is little evidence of benefit when used by those who are otherwise healthy. Amino acids are biologically important organic compounds composed of amine and carboxylic acid functional groups, the key elements of an amino acid are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, though other elements are found in the side-chains of certain amino acids. Amino acids can be divided into three categories, essential amino acids, non-essential amino acids, and conditional amino acids, essential amino acids cannot be made by the body, and must be supplied by food. Non-essential amino acids are made by the body from essential amino acids or in the breakdown of proteins. Conditional amino acids are not essential, except in times of illness, stress
Nutritional supplement
–
Dietary supplements being mixed into food for pigs.
Nutritional supplement
–
Some products make extraordinary claims and contain active ingredients which may not have been
proven effective.
31.
Bodybuilding
–
Bodybuilding is the use of progressive resistance exercise to control and develop ones musculature. An individual who engages in this activity is referred to as a bodybuilder, the winner of the annual IFBB Mr. Olympia contest is generally recognized as the worlds top male professional bodybuilder. The title is held by Phil Heath, who has won every year from 2011 to 2016. The winner of the Womens Physique portion of the competition is widely regarded as the top female professional bodybuilder. The title is held by Juliana Malacarne, who has won every year since 2014. Since 1950, the NABBA Universe Championships have been considered the top amateur bodybuilding contests, with notable winners such as Reg Park, Lee Priest, Steve Reeves, stone-lifting traditions were practised in ancient Egypt and Greece. Western weightlifting developed in Europe from 1880 to 1953, with strongmen displaying feats of strength for the public, the focus was not on their physique, and they often had large bellies and fatty limbs. Bodybuilding developed in the late 19th century, promoted in England by German Eugen Sandow, now called the Father of Modern Bodybuilding and he allowed audiences to enjoy viewing his physique in muscle display performances. Although audiences were thrilled to see a well-developed physique, the men simply displayed their bodies as part of demonstrations or wrestling matches. Sandow had a stage show built around these displays through his manager, the Oscar-winning 1936 musical film The Great Ziegfeld depicts this beginning of modern bodybuilding, when Sandow began to display his body for carnivals. Sandow was so successful at flexing and posing his physique that he created several businesses around his fame. He was credited with inventing and selling the first exercise equipment for the masses, machined dumbbells, spring pulleys, even his image was sold by the thousands in cabinet cards and other prints. Sandow was a perfect gracilian, a standard of ideal body proportions close to those of ancient Greek, men were judged by how closely they matched these proportions. Sandow organised the first bodybuilding contest on September 14,1901 and it was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London. Judged by Sandow, Sir Charles Lawes, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, the trophy presented to the winner was a gold statue of Sandow sculpted by Frederick Pomeroy. The winner was William L. Murray of Nottingham, the silver Sandow trophy was presented to second-place winner D. Cooper. The bronze Sandow trophy, now the most famous of all, was presented to third-place winner A. C. Smythe, in 1950, this same bronze trophy was presented to Steve Reeves for winning the inaugural NABBA Mr. Universe. It would not resurface again until 1977, when the winner of the IFBB Mr. Olympia contest, Frank Zane, was presented with the bronze trophy, since then, Mr. Olympia winners have been awarded a replica of the bronze trophy
Bodybuilding
–
Eugen Sandow, the "Father of Modern Bodybuilding".
Bodybuilding
Bodybuilding
–
Model Jackie Coey with Mr. Los Angeles contestant Ed Holovchik (also known as
Ed Fury), 1953
Bodybuilding
–
Frank Zane, a former professional bodybuilder and three-time Mr. Olympia.
32.
Switzerland
–
Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a federal republic in Europe. It consists of 26 cantons, and the city of Bern is the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western-Central Europe, and is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland is a country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2. The establishment of the Old Swiss Confederacy dates to the medieval period, resulting from a series of military successes against Austria. Swiss independence from the Holy Roman Empire was formally recognized in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The country has a history of armed neutrality going back to the Reformation, it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815, nevertheless, it pursues an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. In addition to being the birthplace of the Red Cross, Switzerland is home to international organisations. On the European level, it is a member of the European Free Trade Association. However, it participates in the Schengen Area and the European Single Market through bilateral treaties, spanning the intersection of Germanic and Romance Europe, Switzerland comprises four main linguistic and cultural regions, German, French, Italian and Romansh. Due to its diversity, Switzerland is known by a variety of native names, Schweiz, Suisse, Svizzera. On coins and stamps, Latin is used instead of the four living languages, Switzerland is one of the most developed countries in the world, with the highest nominal wealth per adult and the eighth-highest per capita gross domestic product according to the IMF. Zürich and Geneva have each been ranked among the top cities in the world in terms of quality of life, with the former ranked second globally, according to Mercer. The English name Switzerland is a compound containing Switzer, a term for the Swiss. The English adjective Swiss is a loan from French Suisse, also in use since the 16th century. The name Switzer is from the Alemannic Schwiizer, in origin an inhabitant of Schwyz and its associated territory, the Swiss began to adopt the name for themselves after the Swabian War of 1499, used alongside the term for Confederates, Eidgenossen, used since the 14th century. The data code for Switzerland, CH, is derived from Latin Confoederatio Helvetica. The toponym Schwyz itself was first attested in 972, as Old High German Suittes, ultimately related to swedan ‘to burn’
Switzerland
–
Founded in 44 BC by
Lucius Munatius Plancus,
Augusta Raurica was the first Roman settlement on the Rhine and is now among the most important archaeological sites in Switzerland.
Switzerland
–
Flag
Switzerland
–
The 1291 Bundesbrief (Federal charter)
Switzerland
–
The Old Swiss Confederacy from 1291 (dark green) to the sixteenth century (light green) and its associates (blue). In the other colors are shown the subject territories.
33.
Carbonated
–
Carbonation can refer to two chemical processes involving carbon dioxide, The dissolution in a liquid, also known as fizz or effervescence. The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure, when the pressure is reduced, the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles, which causes the solution to become effervescent, or fizzy. A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water, carbon dioxide is weakly soluble in water, therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released. Carbonation also describes the incorporation of carbon dioxide into chemical compounds and this occurs in the following cases, In biochemistry Our carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO. So important is this process that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme. In reinforced concrete construction Also known as neutralisation, it is a reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete. Carbonation and Acidity Dissolution of Marble in Hydrochloric Acid Demonstration Robert OLeary, ATR Infrared Spectroscopy method for measuring CO2 concentration in Beer. Describes in detail the theory and practice of measuring dissolved CO2 content in soft drinks and beer
Carbonated
–
Bubbles of carbon dioxide float to the surface of a
carbonated soft drink.
34.
Soft drinks
–
A soft drink is a drink that typically contains carbonated water, a sweetener, and a natural or artificial flavoring. The sweetener may be sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, sugar substitutes, Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives, and other ingredients. Soft drinks are called soft in contrast to hard drinks, small amounts of alcohol may be present in a soft drink, but the alcohol content must be less than 0. 5% of the total volume if the drink is to be considered non-alcoholic. Fruit punch, tea, and other such non-alcoholic beverages are technically soft drinks by this definition but are not generally referred to as such, Soft drinks may be served chilled, over ice cubes or at room temperature. In rare cases, some drinks, such as Dr Pepper. Soft drinks are available in formats, including cans, glass bottles. Soft drinks are widely available at fast food restaurants, movie theaters, convenience stores, casual dining restaurants, dedicated soda stores. Soda fountain drinks are served in paper or plastic disposable cups in the first three venues. In casual dining restaurants and bars, soft drinks are served in glasses. Soft drinks may be drunk with straws or sipped directly from the cups, Soft drinks are mixed with other ingredients in several contexts. In Western countries, in bars and other places where alcohol is served many mixed drinks are made by blending a soft drink with hard liquor, one well-known example is the rum and coke, which may also contain lime juice. Some homemade fruit punch recipes, which may or may not contain alcohol, contain a mixture of fruit juices. At ice cream parlours and 1950s-themed diners, ice cream floats are often sold, two popular ice cream floats are the coke float and the root beer float, which consist of a scoop of ice cream placed in a tall glass of the respectively named soft drinks. Due to the sugar content in typical soft drinks, they may also be called sugary drinks. In Spanish, they use the English equivalent of refreshment, or also commonly called gaseosa. In the United States, the 2003 Harvard Dialect Survey tracked the usage of the nine most common names, over half of the survey respondents preferred the term soda, which was dominant in the Northeastern United States, California, and the areas surrounding Milwaukee and St. Louis. The term tonic is hyperlocal to eastern Massachusetts, although usage is declining, in the English-speaking parts of Canada, the term pop is prevalent, but soft drink is the most common English term used in Montreal. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the terms fizzy drink, pop and fizzy pop are used in northern England, while mineral is used in Ireland
Soft drinks
–
A glass of
cola served with
ice cubes
Soft drinks
–
Equipment used by
Joseph Priestley in his experiments on gases and the carbonization of water
Soft drinks
–
An 1883 advertisement for
Schweppes Mineral-Waters
Soft drinks
–
The
Codd-neck bottle provided an effective seal for soft drinks in the late 19th century
35.
Rivella
–
Rivella is a soft drink from Switzerland, created by Robert Barth in 1952, which is produced from milk whey, and therefore includes ingredients such as lactose, lactic acid and minerals. The name Rivella was inspired by the municipality of Riva San Vitale in Canton Ticino,1950 Robert Barth or his brother purchase the recipe for a beverage based on whey, this is destined to become Rivella. 2015 Relaunch of Rivella Green with a new recipe and logo, Rivella Blue contains 14 grams of lactose and artificial sweeteners instead of refined sugar. This reduces the content to 30 kJ per 100 ml. Rivella Green also contains green tea extracts. Its energy content is 90 kJ per 100 ml. Rivella CLIQ combines the classic Rivella taste with rhubarb or peach flavourings, the energy content of both varieties is 160 kJ per 100 ml. Rivella is seen as Switzerlands national beverage. The share by value of Rivella AG in the Swiss soft drinks market was 15.3 per cent in 2013, Rivella is a long-established brand in the Principality of Liechtenstein, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. Rivella Light was launched as a beverage in the Netherlands in 1958. It appeared on the Swiss market one year later as Rivella Blue, the Netherlands remain the largest foreign market for Rivella. Rivella is also available in the regions bordering Switzerland in Germany, France, culinary Heritage of Switzerland Rivella Official website
Rivella
–
Rivella Red Timeline
Rivella
–
Rivella Blue, Red and Green 50cl PET
36.
Iceland
–
Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 332,529 and an area of 103,000 km2, the capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active, the interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate. According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, emigrated to Iceland, the island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing, one of the worlds oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, Iceland thus followed Norways integration to that Union and came under Danish rule after Swedens secession from that union in 1523. In the wake of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars, Icelands struggle for independence took form and culminated in independence in 1918, until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture, and was among the poorest in Europe. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, in 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing. Iceland has an economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality, in 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy, some bankers were jailed, and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism. Icelandic culture is founded upon the nations Scandinavian heritage, most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is related to Faroese
Iceland
–
Norsemen Landing in Iceland – a 19th Century depiction by
Oscar Wergeland.
Iceland
–
Flag
Iceland
–
Ingólfr Arnarson (modern Icelandic: Ingólfur Arnarson), the first permanent Scandinavian settler in Iceland
Iceland
–
Ósvör, a replica of an old fishing outpost outside
Bolungarvík
37.
Protein
–
Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar
Protein
–
Proteins in different
cellular compartments and structures tagged with
green fluorescent protein (here, white)
Protein
–
A representation of the 3D structure of the protein
myoglobin showing turquoise
alpha helices. This protein was the first to have its structure solved by
X-ray crystallography. Towards the right-center among the coils, a
prosthetic group called a
heme group (shown in gray) with a bound oxygen molecule (red).
Protein
–
Constituent amino-acids can be analyzed to predict secondary, tertiary and quaternary protein structure, in this case hemoglobin containing
heme units
Protein
–
John Kendrew with model of myoglobin in progress
38.
Leucine
–
Leucine is an α-amino acid used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains a group, an α-carboxylic acid group. It is essential in humans—meaning the body cannot synthesize it and thus must obtain from the diet, leucine is a major component of the subunits in ferritin, astacin, and other buffer proteins. Leucine is used in the liver, adipose tissue, and muscle tissue, adipose and muscle tissue use leucine in the formation of sterols. Combined leucine use in these two tissues is seven times greater than in the liver, leucine is an essential amino acid in the diet of animals because they lack the complete enzyme pathway to synthesize it de novo from potential precursor compounds. Consequently, they must ingest it, usually as a component of proteins, in healthy individuals, approximately 60% of dietary L-leucine is metabolized after several hours, with roughly 5% of dietary L-leucine being converted to β-hydroxy β-methylbutyric acid. Around 40% of dietary L-leucine is converted to acetyl-CoA, which is used in the synthesis of other compounds. The vast majority of L-leucine metabolism is initially catalyzed by the amino acid aminotransferase enzyme. α-Ketoisocaproate is mostly metabolized by the mitochondrial enzyme branched-chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase, isovaleryl-CoA is subsequently metabolized by isovaleryl-CoA dehydrogenase and converted to β-methylcrotonoyl-CoA, which is used in the synthesis of acetyl-CoA and other compounds. A relatively small amount of α-KIC is metabolized in the liver by the cytosolic enzyme 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase, in healthy individuals, this minor pathway – which involves the conversion of L-leucine to α-KIC and then HMB – is the predominant route of HMB synthesis. HMB could be produced via certain metabolites that are generated along this pathway, the metabolism of HMB is initially catalyzed by an uncharacterized enzyme which converts it to HMB-CoA. HMB-CoA is metabolized by either enoyl-CoA hydratase or another uncharacterized enzyme, MC-CoA is then converted by the enzyme methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase to methylglutaconyl-CoA, which is subsequently converted to HMG-CoA by methylglutaconyl-CoA hydratase. HMG-CoA is then cleaved into to acetyl-CoA and acetoacetate by HMG-CoA lyase or used in the production of cholesterol via the mevalonate pathway and it is a dietary amino acid with the capacity to directly stimulate muscle protein synthesis. As a dietary supplement, leucine has been found to slow the degradation of tissue by increasing the synthesis of muscle proteins in aged rats. However, results of studies are conflicted. Long-term leucine supplementation does not increase muscle mass or strength in healthy elderly men, more studies are needed, preferably ones based on an objective, random sample of society. Until then, dietary supplemental leucine cannot be associated as the reason for muscular growth or optimal maintenance for the entire population. Leucine potently activates the mammalian target of rapamycin kinase that regulates cell growth, infusion of leucine into the rat brain has been shown to decrease food intake and body weight via activation of the mTOR pathway
Leucine
39.
Branched-chain amino acid
–
A branched-chain amino acid is an amino acid having aliphatic side-chains with a branch. Among the proteinogenic amino acids, there are three BCAAs, leucine, isoleucine and valine, synthesis for BCAAs occurs in all location of plants, within the plastids of the cell, as determined by presence of mRNAs which encode for enzymes in the metabolic pathway. BCAAs provide several metabolic and physiologic roles, metabolically, BCAAs promote protein synthesis and turnover, signaling pathways, and metabolism of glucose. Oxidation of BCAAs may increase fatty acid oxidation and play a role in obesity, physiologically, BCAAs take on roles in the immune system and in brain function. BCAAs are broken down effectively by dehydrogenase and decarboxylase enzymes expressed by immune cells, lastly, BCAAs share the same transport protein into the brain with aromatic amino acids. Once in the brain BCAAs may have a role in protein synthesis, synthesis of neurotransmitters, dietary BCAA supplementation has been used clinically to aid in the recovery of burn victims. Dietary BCAAs have been used in an attempt to treat cases of hepatic encephalopathy. They can have the effect of alleviating symptoms, but there is no evidence they benefit mortality rates, nutrition, in mouse studies, BCAAs were shown to cause cell hyper-excitability resembling that usually observed in ALS patients. Yet any link between BCAAs and ALS remains to be fully established, bCAA-restricted diets improve glucose tolerance and promote leanness in mice, and promotes insulin sensitivity in obese rats. Threonine dehydrogenase catalyzes the deamination and dehydration of threonine to 2-ketobutyrate, isoleucine forms a negative feedback loop with threonine dehydrogenase. Next ketoacid reductisomerase reduces the accetohydroxy acids from the step to yield dihydroxyacids in both the valine and isoleucine pathways. Dihydroxyacid dehygrogenase converts the dihyroxyacids in the next step, the final step in the parallel pathway is conducted by amino transferase, which yields the final products of valine and isoleucine. Degradation of branched-chain amino acids involves the branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complex, a deficiency of this complex leads to a buildup of the branched-chain amino acids and their toxic by-products in the blood and urine, giving the condition the name maple syrup urine disease. Enzymes involved are branched chain aminotransferase and 3-methyl-2-oxobutanoate dehydrogenase, while most amino acids are oxidized in the liver, BCAAs are primarily oxidized in the skeletal muscle and other peripheral tissues. Administration of either isoleucine or valine alone had no effect on muscle growth, leucine indirectly activates p70 S6 kinase as well as stimulates assembly of the eIF4F complex, which are essential for mRNA binding in translational initiation. P70 S6 kinase is part of the target of rapamycin complex signaling pathway. At rest protein infusion stimulates protein synthesis 30 minutes after start of infusion, infusion of leucine at rest produces a six hour stimulatory effect and increased protein synthesis by phosphorylation of p70 S6 kinase in skeletal muscles. Following resistance exercise, without BCAA administration, an exercise session does not affect mTOR phosphorylation
Branched-chain amino acid
Branched-chain amino acid
–
Leucine
40.
Pasteurization
–
Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process that kills microbes in food and drink, such as milk, juice, canned food, and others. It was invented by French scientist Louis Pasteur during the nineteenth century, in 1864 Pasteur discovered that heating beer and wine was enough to kill most of the bacteria that caused spoilage, preventing these beverages from turning sour. The process achieves this by eliminating pathogenic microbes and lowering microbial numbers to prolong the quality of the beverage, today, pasteurization is used widely in the dairy industry and other food processing industries to achieve food preservation and food safety. Unlike sterilization, pasteurization is not intended to kill all microorganisms in the food, instead, it aims to reduce the number of viable pathogens so they are unlikely to cause disease. Commercial-scale sterilization of food is not common because it affects the taste. Certain foods, such as products, may be superheated to ensure pathogenic microbes are destroyed. The process of heating wine for preservation purposes has been known in China since 1117, much later, in 1768, an Italian priest and scientist Lazzaro Spallanzani proved experimentally that heat killed bacteria, and that they do not reappear if the product is hermetically sealed. He placed the food in glass jars, sealed them with cork and sealing wax, in that same year, the French military offered a cash prize of 12,000 francs for a new method to preserve food. After some 14 or 15 years of experimenting, Appert submitted his invention and won the prize in January 1810, later that year, Appert published LArt de conserver les substances animales et végétales. This was the first cookbook of its kind on modern food preservation methods, la Maison Appert, in the town of Massy, near Paris, became the first food-bottling factory in the world, preserving a variety of food in sealed bottles. Apperts method was to fill thick, large-mouthed glass bottles with produce of every description, ranging from beef and fowl to eggs, milk and his greatest success for publicity was an entire sheep. He left air space at the top of the bottle, the bottle was then wrapped in canvas to protect it, while it was dunked into boiling water and then boiled for as much time as Appert deemed appropriate for cooking the contents thoroughly. Appert patented his method, sometimes called appertisation, in his honor, Apperts method was so simple and workable that it quickly became widespread. In 1810, British inventor and merchant Peter Durand, also of French origin, patented his own method, in 1812, Englishmen Bryan Donkin and John Hall purchased both patents and began producing preserves. Just a decade later, Apperts method of canning had made its way to America, Apperts preservation by boiling involved heating the food to an unnecessarily high temperature, and for an unnecessarily long time, which could destroy some of the flavor of the preserved food. A less aggressive method was developed by the French chemist Louis Pasteur during an 1864 summer holiday in Arbois, in honour of Pasteur, the process became known as pasteurization. Pasteurization was originally used as a way of preventing wine and beer from souring, in the United States in the 1870s, it was common for milk to contain substances intended to mask spoilage before milk was regulated. Milk is an excellent medium for growth, and when stored at ambient temperature bacteria
Pasteurization
–
Cream pasteurizing and cooling coils at Murgon Butter Factory, 1939
Pasteurization
–
400 lbs of milk in cheese vat
41.
Bacteria
–
Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods, Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology, There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×1030 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants, Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of bodies and bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process. In March 2013, data reported by researchers in October 2012, was published and it was suggested that bacteria thrive in the Mariana Trench, which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest known part of the oceans. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, You can find microbes everywhere—theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, the vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, though many are beneficial particularly in the gut flora. However several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy. The most common fatal diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year. In developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. Once regarded as constituting the class Schizomycetes, bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and these evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea. The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, for about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life. In 2008, fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota, however, gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny, and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage. Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea, here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea
Bacteria
–
Had'n
Bacteria
Bacteria
–
A
biofilm of thermophilic bacteria in the outflow of
Mickey Hot Springs,
Oregon, approximately 20 mm thick.
Bacteria
–
Helicobacter pylori electron micrograph, showing multiple flagella on the cell surface
42.
Lactose
–
Lactose is a disaccharide sugar composed of galactose and glucose that is found in milk. Lactose makes up around 2–8% of milk, although the amount varies among species and individuals and it is extracted from sweet or sour whey. The name comes from lac, the Latin word for milk and it has a formula of C12H22O11 and the hydrate formula C12H22O11·H2O, making it an isomer of sucrose. The first crude isolation of lactose, by Italian physician Fabrizio Bartoletti, was published in 1633, in 1700, the Venetian pharmacist Lodovico Testi published a booklet of testimonials to the power of milk sugar to relieve, among other ailments, the symptoms of arthritis. In 1715, Testis procedure for making milk sugar was published by Antonio Vallisneri, lactose was identified as a sugar in 1780 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele. In 1812, Heinrich Vogel recognized that glucose was a product of hydrolyzing lactose, in 1856, Louis Pasteur crystallized the other component of lactose, galactose. By 1894, Emil Fischer had established the configurations of the component sugars, lactose was named by the French chemist Jean Baptiste André Dumas in 1843. Lactose is a derived from the condensation of galactose and glucose. Lactose is hydrolysed to glucose and galactose, isomerised in alkaline solution to lactulose, lactose monohydrate crystals have a characteristic tomahawk shape that can be observed with a light microscope. Several million tons are produced annually as a by-product of the dairy industry, whey is made up of 6. 5% solids of which 4. 8% is lactose that may be purified by crystallisation. Whey or milk plasma is the liquid remaining after milk is curdled and strained, lactose makes up about 2–8% of milk by weight. Industrially, lactose is produced from whey permeate – that is whey filtrated for all major proteins, the protein fraction is used in infant nutrition and sport nutrition while the permeate can be evaporated to 60–65% solids and crystallized while cooling. Lactose can also be precipitated from whey using ethanol, since it is insoluble in ethanol, lactose precipitates, in about 65% yield. Infant mammals nurse on their mothers to drink milk, which is rich in lactose, the intestinal villi secrete the enzyme called lactase to digest it. This enzyme cleaves the molecule into its two subunits, the simple sugars glucose and galactose, which can be absorbed. Since lactose occurs mostly in milk, in most mammals, the production of lactase gradually decreases with maturity due to a lack of continuing consumption. Many people with ancestry in Europe, West Asia, South Asia, the Sahel belt in West Africa, East Africa, in many of these areas, milk from mammals such as cattle, goats, and sheep is used as a large source of food. Hence, it was in these regions that genes for lifelong lactase production first evolved, the genes of adult lactose tolerance have evolved independently in various ethnic groups
Lactose
–
Chemistry
Lactose
–
Lactose (milk sugar)
43.
Cream
–
Cream is a dairy product composed of the higher-butterfat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, the fat, which is less dense, in the industrial production of cream, this process is accelerated by using centrifuges called separators. In many countries, cream is sold in several grades depending on the total butterfat content, Cream can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets. Cream has high levels of saturated fat, Cream skimmed from milk may be called sweet cream to distinguish it from whey cream skimmed from whey, a by-product of cheese-making. Whey cream has a fat content and tastes more salty, tangy. In many countries, cream is usually sold partially fermented, sour cream, crème fraîche, Cream has many culinary uses in sweet, bitter, salty and tangy dishes. This is also the origin of butters yellow color, Cream from goats milk, or from cows fed indoors on grain or grain-based pellets, is white. Cream is used as an ingredient in foods, including ice cream, many sauces, soups, stews, puddings, and some custard bases. Whipped cream is served as a topping on ice cream sundaes, milkshakes, egg nog, irish cream is an alcoholic liqueur which blends cream with whiskey, and often honey, wine, or coffee. Cream is also used in Indian curries such as masala dishes, Cream is often added to coffee in the US and Canada. Both single and double cream can be used in cooking, double cream or full-fat crème fraîche are often used when cream is added to a hot sauce, to prevent any problem with it separating or splitting. Double cream can be thinned with milk to make an approximation of single cream, the French word crème denotes not only dairy cream, but also other thick liquids such as sweet and savory custards, which are normally made with milk, not cream. Different grades of cream are distinguished by their fat content, whether they have been heat-treated, whipped, in many jurisdictions, there are regulations for each type. In the United States, cream is sold as, Most cream products sold in the United States at retail contain the minimum permissible fat content for their product type. Half and half almost always contains only 10. 5% butterfat, not all grades are defined by all jurisdictions, and the exact fat content ranges vary. Cream must contain no less than 350 g/kg of milk fat, in Canada, light cream is very low-fat cream, usually with 5% or 6% butterfat. Specific product characteristics are generally uniform throughout Canada, but names vary by geographic and linguistic area and by manufacturer. It can be confusing, coffee cream may be 10% or 18% and half-and-half may be 3%, 5%, 6% or 10%, all depending on location
Cream
–
A milk bottle showing cream risen to the top
Cream
–
Stewed
nectarines and heavy cream
Cream
–
Meiji whipping cream
44.
Butter
–
Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
Butter
–
Butter at the Borough Market,
London
Butter
–
Butter is often served for spreading on bread with a
butter knife.
Butter
–
Churning cream into butter using a hand-held mixer.
Butter
–
Liquid
clarified butter
45.
Vitamin
–
A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts. For example, ascorbic acid is a vitamin for humans, supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems, but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people. Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present, Vitamins are classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each vitamin refers to a number of compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin generic descriptor title, such as vitamin A, which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the form of the vitamin in the body. Some, such as vitamin D, have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation. The largest number of vitamins, the B complex vitamins, function as cofactors or the precursors for them. In this role, vitamins may be bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups, For example. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, for example, folic acid may carry methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins best-known function, study of structural activity, function and their role in maintaining health is called vitaminology. Each vitamin is typically used in reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions. Vitamins are essential for the growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop from the nutrients it absorbs and it requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin, bone, if there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage, for the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume, examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin, from the amino acid tryptophan. In those who are healthy, there is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to cancer or heart disease
Vitamin
–
A bottle of high potency B-complex vitamin supplement pills.
Vitamin
–
500 mg calcium supplement tablets, with vitamin D, made from
calcium carbonate,
maltodextrin,
mineral oil,
hypromellose,
glycerin,
cholecalciferol,
polyethylene glycol, and
carnauba wax.
Vitamin
–
The
Ancient Egyptians knew that feeding a person
liver would help cure
night blindness.
46.
Mineral
–
A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound, usually of crystalline form and abiogenic in origin. A mineral has one specific chemical composition, whereas a rock can be an aggregate of different minerals or mineraloids, the study of minerals is called mineralogy. There are over 5,300 known mineral species, over 5,070 of these have been approved by the International Mineralogical Association, the silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earths crust. The diversity and abundance of species is controlled by the Earths chemistry. Silicon and oxygen constitute approximately 75% of the Earths crust, which translates directly into the predominance of silicate minerals, minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species, changes in the temperature, pressure, or bulk composition of a rock mass cause changes in its minerals. Minerals can be described by their various properties, which are related to their chemical structure. Common distinguishing characteristics include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting, more specific tests for describing minerals include magnetism, taste or smell, radioactivity and reaction to acid. Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents, the two dominant systems are the Dana classification and the Strunz classification, the silicate class of minerals is subdivided into six subclasses by the degree of polymerization in the chemical structure. All silicate minerals have a unit of a 4− silica tetrahedron—that is, a silicon cation coordinated by four oxygen anions. These tetrahedra can be polymerized to give the subclasses, orthosilicates, disilicates, cyclosilicates, inosilicates, phyllosilicates, other important mineral groups include the native elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates. The first criterion means that a mineral has to form by a natural process, stability at room temperature, in the simplest sense, is synonymous to the mineral being solid. More specifically, a compound has to be stable or metastable at 25 °C, modern advances have included extensive study of liquid crystals, which also extensively involve mineralogy. Minerals are chemical compounds, and as such they can be described by fixed or a variable formula, many mineral groups and species are composed of a solid solution, pure substances are not usually found because of contamination or chemical substitution. Finally, the requirement of an ordered atomic arrangement is usually synonymous with crystallinity, however, crystals are also periodic, an ordered atomic arrangement gives rise to a variety of macroscopic physical properties, such as crystal form, hardness, and cleavage. There have been recent proposals to amend the definition to consider biogenic or amorphous substances as minerals. The formal definition of an approved by the IMA in 1995, A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline. However, if geological processes were involved in the genesis of the compound, Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in mineral science
Mineral
–
Amethyst, a variety of
quartz
Mineral
–
Schist is a
metamorphic rock characterized by an abundance of platy minerals. In this example, the rock has prominent
sillimanite porphyroblasts as large as 3 cm (1.2 in).
Mineral
–
Hübnerite, the manganese-rich end-member of the
wolframite series, with minor quartz in the background
Mineral
–
When minerals react, the products will sometimes assume the shape of the reagent; the product mineral is termed to be a pseudomorph of (or after) the reagent. Illustrated here is a pseudomorph of
kaolinite after
orthoclase. Here, the pseudomorph preserved the Carlsbad
twinning common in orthoclase.
47.
Lund University
–
Lund University is one of northern Europes oldest, largest and most prestigious universities, consistently ranking among the worlds top 100 universities. After Sweden won Scania from Denmark in the 1658 Treaty of Roskilde, the studium generale had not survived the Lutheran Reformation of 1536. The university founded in 1666 was thus a new institution. Lund University has eight faculties, with campuses in the cities of Malmö and Helsingborg. The University has some 600 partner universities in over 70 countries, the city of Lund has a long history as a center for learning and was the ecclesiastical centre and seat of the archbishop of Denmark. A cathedral school for the training of clergy was established in 1085 and is today Scandinavias oldest school, a studium generale was founded in 1425, and in 1438 education was started by the Franciscan order for a baccalaureus degree. The university was named Academia Carolina after Charles X Gustav of Sweden until the late 19th century and it was the fifth university under the Swedish king, after Uppsala University, the University of Tartu, the Academy of Åbo, and the University of Greifswald. The university was at its founding granted four faculties, law, theological, medicine and they were the cornerstones, and for more than 200 years this system was in effect. Towards the end of the 17th century, the number of students hovered around 100, some notable professors in the early days were Samuel Pufendorf, a juridical historian, and Canutus Hahn and Kristian Papke in philosophy. The Scanian War in 1676 led to a shut-down, which lasted until 1682, the university was re-opened largely due to regional patriots, but the university was not to enjoy a high status until well into the 19th century. Lecturing rooms were few, and lectures were held in the Lund Cathedral, in 1713, Charles XII of Sweden entered Lund. He stayed in Lund for three years, in between his warlike expeditions, Lund and the university attracted a temporary attention boost. The most notable lecturer during this time was Andreas Rydelius, peace was finally restored with the death of Charles XII in 1718, and during the first half of the 18th century the university was granted added funds. The number of students was now well around 500, despite not being on par with Uppsala University, it had still built a solid reputation and managed to attract prominent professors. Around 1760 the university reputation dropped as the number of students fell below 200, however, by 1780 its reputation was largely restored, and continued to rise through the 1820s. This was largely owing to popular and well-educated lecturers particularly in philology and he, in turn, attracted others towards Lund. One of these was the young theological student C. G. Brunius, with time he was to devote himself to architectures and he redesigned several of Lunds buildings, as well as churches of the province. In 1845 and 1862 Lund co-hosted Nordic student meetings together with the University of Copenhagen, a student called Elsa Collin was the first woman in the whole of Sweden to take part in a spex
Lund University
–
Lund University main building, built in 1882, drawn by
Helgo Zettervall.
Lund University
–
Lund University
Lund University
–
View of the Historical Museum building in the 19th century.
Lund University
–
The University Square in the 1910s.
48.
Sweden
–
Sweden, officially the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and Finland to the east, at 450,295 square kilometres, Sweden is the third-largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of 10.0 million. Sweden consequently has a low density of 22 inhabitants per square kilometre. Approximately 85% of the lives in urban areas. Germanic peoples have inhabited Sweden since prehistoric times, emerging into history as the Geats/Götar and Swedes/Svear, Southern Sweden is predominantly agricultural, while the north is heavily forested. Sweden is part of the area of Fennoscandia. The climate is in very mild for its northerly latitude due to significant maritime influence. Today, Sweden is a monarchy and parliamentary democracy, with a monarch as head of state. The capital city is Stockholm, which is also the most populous city in the country, legislative power is vested in the 349-member unicameral Riksdag. Executive power is exercised by the government chaired by the prime minister, Sweden is a unitary state, currently divided into 21 counties and 290 municipalities. Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages, in the 17th century, it expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire, which became one of the great powers of Europe until the early 18th century. Swedish territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were gradually lost during the 18th and 19th centuries, the last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Norway was militarily forced into personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, maintaining a policy of neutrality in foreign affairs. The union with Norway was peacefully dissolved in 1905, leading to Swedens current borders, though Sweden was formally neutral through both world wars, Sweden engaged in humanitarian efforts, such as taking in refugees from German-occupied Europe. After the end of the Cold War, Sweden joined the European Union on 1 January 1995 and it is also a member of the United Nations, the Nordic Council, Council of Europe, the World Trade Organization and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Sweden maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. The modern name Sweden is derived through back-formation from Old English Swēoþēod and this word is derived from Sweon/Sweonas. The Swedish name Sverige literally means Realm of the Swedes, excluding the Geats in Götaland, the etymology of Swedes, and thus Sweden, is generally not agreed upon but may derive from Proto-Germanic Swihoniz meaning ones own, referring to ones own Germanic tribe
Sweden
–
A
Vendel-era helmet, at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.
Sweden
–
Flag
Sweden
–
A
romantic nationalist interpretation of
Valdemar IV taking control over
Gotland. The final battle outside the walls of Visby in 1361 ended with a massacre of 1,800 defenders of the city.
Sweden
–
Stockholm in mid-17th century
49.
Blood sugar
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The blood sugar concentration or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose present in the blood of a human or animal. The body naturally tightly regulates blood glucose levels as a part of metabolic homeostasis, with some exceptions, glucose is the primary source of energy for the bodys cells, and blood lipids are primarily a compact energy store. Glucose levels are usually lowest in the morning, before the first meal of the day, Blood sugar levels outside the normal range may be an indicator of a medical condition. A persistently high level is referred to as hyperglycemia, low levels are referred to as hypoglycemia, Diabetes mellitus is characterized by persistent hyperglycemia from any of several causes, and is the most prominent disease related to failure of blood sugar regulation. Intake of alcohol causes a surge in blood sugar. Also, certain drugs can increase or decrease glucose levels, the international standard way of measuring blood glucose levels are in terms of a molar concentration, measured in mmol/L. In the United States, West-Germany and other countries mass concentration is measured in mg/dL, since the molecular weight of glucose C6H12O6 is 180, the difference between the two units is a factor of 18, so that 1 mmol/L of glucose is equivalent to 18 mg/dL. Normal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories, many factors affect a persons blood sugar level. A bodys homeostatic mechanism, when operating normally, restores the blood sugar level to a range of about 4.4 to 6.1 mmol/L. The normal blood level for non-diabetics, should be between 3.9 and 5.5 mmol/L. The mean normal blood glucose level in humans is about 5.5 mmol/L, however, Blood sugar levels for those without diabetes and who are not fasting should be below 6.9 mmol/L. The blood glucose target range for diabetics, according to the American Diabetes Association, should be 5. 0–7.2 mmol/l before meals, and less than 10 mmol/L after meals. Despite widely variable intervals between meals or the consumption of meals with a substantial carbohydrate load, human blood glucose levels tend to remain within the normal range. However, shortly after eating, the glucose level may rise, in non-diabetics. The actual amount of glucose in the blood and body fluids is very small. In a healthy adult male of 75 kg with a volume of 5 liters. Part of the reason why this amount is so small is that, to maintain an influx of glucose into cells, in general, ranges of blood sugar in common domestic ruminants are lower than in many monogastric mammals. However this generalization does not extend to wild ruminants or camelids, a 90 percent reference interval for serum glucose of 26 to 181 mg/dL has been reported for captured mountain goats, where no effects of the pursuit and capture on measured levels were evident
Blood sugar
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The fluctuation of blood sugar (red) and the sugar-lowering hormone
insulin (blue) in humans during the course of a day with three meals. One of the effects of a
sugar -rich vs a
starch -rich meal is highlighted.
