1.
Food energy
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Food energy is chemical energy that animals derive from food and molecular oxygen through the process of cellular respiration. Humans and other animals need a minimum intake of energy to sustain their metabolism. Foods are composed chiefly of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, water, vitamins, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, alcohol, and water represent virtually all the weight of food, with vitamins and minerals making up only a small percentage of the weight. Organisms derive food energy from carbohydrates, fats and proteins as well as organic acids, polyols. Some diet components that provide little or no energy, such as water, minerals, vitamins, cholesterol. Water, minerals, vitamins, and cholesterol are not broken down, fiber, a type of carbohydrate, cannot be completely digested by the human body. Ruminants can extract energy from the respiration of cellulose because of bacteria in their rumens. Using the International System of Units, researchers measure energy in joules or in its multiples, the kilojoule is most often used for food-related quantities. An older metric system unit of energy, still used in food-related contexts, is the calorie, more precisely. Within the European Union, both the kilocalorie and kilojoule appear on nutrition labels, in many countries, only one of the units is displayed, in the US and Canada labels spell out the unit as calorie or as Calorie. Fats and ethanol have the greatest amount of energy per gram,37 and 29 kJ/g. Proteins and most carbohydrates have about 17 kJ/g, carbohydrates that are not easily absorbed, such as fiber, or lactose in lactose-intolerant individuals, contribute less food energy. Polyols and organic acids contribute 10 kJ/g and 13 kJ/g respectively, the amount of water, fat, and fiber in foods determines those foods energy density. Theoretically, one could measure food energy in different ways, using the Gibbs free energy of combustion, however, the convention is to use the heat of the oxidation reaction, with the water substance produced being in the liquid phase. The American chemist Wilbur Atwater worked these corrections out in the late 19th century, based on the work of Atwater, it became common practice to calculate energy content of foods using 4 kcal/g for carbohydrates and proteins and 9 kcal/g for lipids. The system was improved by Annabel Merrill and Bernice Watt of the USDA. Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, in the European Union, manufacturers of packaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories and kilojoules, when required. In Australia and New Zealand, the energy must be stated in kilojoules
2.
Carbohydrate
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A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, usually with a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2,1, in other words, with the empirical formula Cmn. This formula holds true for monosaccharides, some exceptions exist, for example, deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula C5H10O4. Carbohydrates are technically hydrates of carbon, structurally it is accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide, a group that includes sugars, starch, the saccharides are divided into four chemical groups, monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest carbohydrates, are referred to as sugars. The word saccharide comes from the Greek word σάκχαρον, meaning sugar, while the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, grape sugar is the glucose, cane sugar is the disaccharide sucrose. Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms, polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy and as structural components. The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA, the related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting. In food science and in informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch or simple carbohydrates. Often in lists of information, such as the USDA National Nutrient Database, the term carbohydrate is used for everything other than water, protein, fat, ash. This will include chemical compounds such as acetic or lactic acid, carbohydrates are found in wide variety of foods. The important sources are cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, fruits, table sugar, bread, milk, starch and sugar are the important carbohydrates in our diet. Starch is abundant in potatoes, maize, rice and other cereals, sugar appears in our diet mainly as sucrose which is added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam, biscuits and cakes. Glucose and fructose are found naturally in fruits and some vegetables. Glycogen is carbohydrate found in the liver and muscles, cellulose in the cell wall of all plant tissue is a carbohydrate. It is important in our diet as fibre which helps to maintain a healthy digestive system, formerly the name carbohydrate was used in chemistry for any compound with the formula Cm n
3.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
4.
Fat
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Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
5.
Protein (nutrient)
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Proteins are essential nutrients for the human body. They are one of the blocks of body tissue. As a fuel, proteins provide as much energy density as carbohydrates,4 kcal per gram, in contrast, the most important aspect and defining characteristic of protein from a nutritional standpoint is its amino acid composition. Proteins are polymer chains made of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds, during human digestion, proteins are broken down in the stomach to smaller polypeptide chains via hydrochloric acid and protease actions. This is crucial for the synthesis of the amino acids that cannot be biosynthesized by the body. There are nine amino acids which humans must obtain from their diet in order to prevent protein-energy malnutrition. They are phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, there are five dispensable amino acids which humans are able to synthesize in the body. These five are alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, glutamic acid and these six are arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamine, proline and tyrosine. Humans need the essential amino acids in certain ratios, some protein sources contain amino acids in a more or less complete sense. This has given rise to various ranking systems for protein sources, Dietary sources of protein include both animals and plants, meats, dairy products, fish and eggs as well as grains, legumes and nuts. Vegetarians and vegans can get enough essential amino acids by eating a variety of plant proteins and it is commonly believed that athletes should consume a higher-than-normal protein intake to maintain optimal physical performance. Protein is a nutrient needed by the body for growth. Aside from water, proteins are the most abundant kind of molecules in the body, Protein can be found in all cells of the body and is the major structural component of all cells in the body, especially muscle. This also includes body organs, hair and skin, proteins are also used in membranes, such as glycoproteins. When broken down into amino acids, they are used as precursors to acid, co-enzymes, hormones, immune response, cellular repair. Additionally, protein is needed to form blood cells, proteins are believed to increase performance in terms of athletics. Amino acids, the blocks of proteins, are used for building muscle tissue. Protein is only used as fuel when carbohydrates are low
6.
Calcium in biology
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Calcium ions play a vital role in the physiology and biochemistry of organisms and the cell. Many enzymes require calcium ions as a cofactor, those of the blood-clotting cascade being notable examples, extracellular calcium is also important for maintaining the potential difference across excitable cell membranes, as well as proper bone formation. Calcium levels in mammals are tightly regulated, with acting as the major mineral storage site. Calcium ions, Ca2+, are released from bone into the bloodstream under controlled conditions, calcium is transported through the bloodstream as dissolved ions or bound to proteins such as serum albumin. Calcitriol, the form of vitamin D3, promotes absorption of calcium from the intestines. Calcitonin secreted from the cells of the thyroid gland also affects calcium levels by opposing parathyroid hormone, however. Calcium storages are intracellular organelles, that constantly accumulate Ca2+ ions, intracellular Ca2+ storages include mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum. Characteristic concentrations of calcium in model organisms are, in E. coli 3mM, 100nM, in budding yeast 2mM, in mammalian cell 10-100nM and this is evidenced by human plasma calcium, which is one of the most closely regulated physiological variables in the human body. Normal plasma levels vary between 1 and 2% over any given time, different tissues contain calcium in different concentrations. For instance, Ca2+ is the most important element of bone, in humans, the total body content of calcium is present mostly in the form of bone mineral. In this state, it is unavailable for exchange/bioavailability. The way to overcome this is through the process of bone resorption, the remainder of calcium is present within the extracellular and intracellular fluids. Within a typical cell, the concentration of ionized calcium is roughly 100 nM. The intracellular calcium level is relatively low with respect to the extracellular fluid, by an approximate magnitude of 12. This gradient is maintained through various plasma membrane calcium pumps that utilize ATP for energy, in electrically excitable cells, such as skeletal and cardiac muscles and neurons, membrane depolarization leads to a Ca2+ transient with cytosolic Ca2+ concentration reaching 400 nM and above. Mitochondria are capable of sequestering and storing some of that Ca2+ and it has been estimated that mitochondrial matrix free calcium concentration rises to the tens of micromolar levels in situ during neuronal activity. The effects of calcium on human cells are specific, meaning that different types of cells respond in different ways, however, in certain circumstances, its action may be more general. Ca2+ ions are one of the most widespread second messengers used in signal transduction, levels of intracellular calcium are regulated by transport proteins that remove it from the cell
7.
Kilogram
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The kilogram or kilogramme is the base unit of mass in the International System of Units and is defined as being equal to the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram. The avoirdupois pound, used in both the imperial and US customary systems, is defined as exactly 0.45359237 kg, making one kilogram approximately equal to 2.2046 avoirdupois pounds. Other traditional units of weight and mass around the world are also defined in terms of the kilogram, the gram, 1/1000 of a kilogram, was provisionally defined in 1795 as the mass of one cubic centimeter of water at the melting point of ice. The final kilogram, manufactured as a prototype in 1799 and from which the IPK was derived in 1875, had an equal to the mass of 1 dm3 of water at its maximum density. The kilogram is the only SI base unit with an SI prefix as part of its name and it is also the only SI unit that is still directly defined by an artifact rather than a fundamental physical property that can be reproduced in different laboratories. Three other base units and 17 derived units in the SI system are defined relative to the kilogram, only 8 other units do not require the kilogram in their definition, temperature, time and frequency, length, and angle. At its 2011 meeting, the CGPM agreed in principle that the kilogram should be redefined in terms of the Planck constant, the decision was originally deferred until 2014, in 2014 it was deferred again until the next meeting. There are currently several different proposals for the redefinition, these are described in the Proposed Future Definitions section below, the International Prototype Kilogram is rarely used or handled. In the decree of 1795, the term gramme thus replaced gravet, the French spelling was adopted in the United Kingdom when the word was used for the first time in English in 1797, with the spelling kilogram being adopted in the United States. In the United Kingdom both spellings are used, with kilogram having become by far the more common, UK law regulating the units to be used when trading by weight or measure does not prevent the use of either spelling. In the 19th century the French word kilo, a shortening of kilogramme, was imported into the English language where it has used to mean both kilogram and kilometer. In 1935 this was adopted by the IEC as the Giorgi system, now known as MKS system. In 1948 the CGPM commissioned the CIPM to make recommendations for a practical system of units of measurement. This led to the launch of SI in 1960 and the subsequent publication of the SI Brochure, the kilogram is a unit of mass, a property which corresponds to the common perception of how heavy an object is. Mass is a property, that is, it is related to the tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest, or if in motion to remain in motion at a constant velocity. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor, they are weightless. However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, the ratio of the force of gravity on the two objects, measured by the scale, is equal to the ratio of their masses. On April 7,1795, the gram was decreed in France to be the weight of a volume of pure water equal to the cube of the hundredth part of the metre
8.
Milk
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Milk is a pale liquid produced by the mammary glands of mammals. It is the source of nutrition for infant mammals before they are able to digest other types of food. Early-lactation milk contains colostrum, which carries the mothers antibodies to its young and it contains many other nutrients including protein and lactose. As an agricultural product, milk is extracted from non-human mammals during or soon after pregnancy, Dairy farms produced about 730 million tonnes of milk in 2011, from 260 million dairy cows. India is the worlds largest producer of milk, and is the leading exporter of skimmed milk powder, the ever increasing rise in domestic demand for dairy products and a large demand-supply gap could lead to India being a net importer of dairy products in the future. The United States, India, China and Brazil are the worlds largest exporters of milk and milk products, China and Russia were the worlds largest importers of milk and milk products until 2016 when both countries became self-sufficient, contributing to a worldwide glut of milk. Throughout the world, there are more than six billion consumers of milk and milk products, over 750 million people live in dairy farming households. The term milk comes from Old English meoluc, milc, from Proto-Germanic *meluks milk, there are two distinct types of milk consumption, a natural source of nutrition for all infant mammals and a food product for humans of all ages that is derived from other animals. In almost all mammals, milk is fed to infants through breastfeeding, the early milk from mammals is called colostrum. Colostrum contains antibodies that provide protection to the baby as well as nutrients. The makeup of the colostrum and the period of secretion varies from species to species, for humans, the World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for six months and breastfeeding in addition to other food for at least two years. In some cultures it is common to breastfeed children for three to five years, and the period may be longer, fresh goats milk is sometimes substituted for breast milk. This introduces the risk of the child developing electrolyte imbalances, metabolic acidosis, megaloblastic anemia, in many cultures of the world, especially the West, humans continue to consume milk beyond infancy, using the milk of other animals as a food product. Initially, the ability to digest milk was limited to children as adults did not produce lactase, Milk was therefore converted to curd, cheese and other products to reduce the levels of lactose. Thousands of years ago, a chance mutation spread in human populations in Europe that enabled the production of lactase in adulthood and this allowed milk to be used as a new source of nutrition which could sustain populations when other food sources failed. Milk is processed into a variety of products such as cream, butter, yogurt, kefir, ice cream. Modern industrial processes use milk to produce casein, whey protein, lactose, condensed milk, powdered milk, whole milk, butter and cream have high levels of saturated fat. The sugar lactose is found only in milk, forsythia flowers, the enzyme needed to digest lactose, lactase, reaches its highest levels in the small intestine after birth and then begins a slow decline unless milk is consumed regularly
9.
Curd
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Curds are a dairy product obtained by coagulating milk in a process called curdling. The coagulation can be caused by adding rennet or any edible acidic substance such as lemon juice or vinegar, the increased acidity causes the milk proteins to tangle into solid masses, or curds. Milk that has left to sour will also naturally produce curds. The remaining liquid, which contains only whey proteins, is the whey, in cows milk,80 percent of the proteins are caseins. Curd products vary by region and include cottage cheese, curd cheese, farmer cheese, pot cheese, queso blanco, the word can also refer to a non-dairy substance of similar appearance or consistency, though in these cases a modifier or the word curdled is generally used. In England, curds produced from the use of rennet are referred to as junket, with true curds and whey only occurring from the natural separation of milk due to its environment. Cheese curds, drained of the whey and served without further processing or aging, are popular in some French-speaking regions of Canada, such as Quebec, parts of Ontario, and Atlantic Canada. In Quebec, eastern Ontario and the provinces such as New Brunswick, cheese curds are popularly served with french fries. In some parts of the Midwestern U. S. especially in Wisconsin, they are breaded and fried, or are eaten straight. In Turkey, curds are called keş and are commonly used as an aphrodisiac and for breakfast served on fried bread and are also eaten with macaroni in the provinces of Bolu. In Mexico, the chongos zamoranos is a dessert prepared with milk curdled with sugar, albanian gjiza is made by boiling whey for about 15 minutes and adding vinegar or lemon. The derivative is drained 3 to 4 times with a napkin or piece of cloth, gjiza can be served immediately or refrigerated for a couple of days. Lactobacillus is a genus of bacteria which can convert sugars into acid by means of fermentation. Milk contains a sugar called lactose, a made by the glycosidic bonding between glucose and galactose. These convert the lactose into lactic acid, which imparts the sour taste to curd, curds are mentioned in the Middle Irish parodic tale Aislinge Meic Con Glinne, the relevant portion of which reads, Stately, pleasantly it sat, A compact house and strong. Then I went in, The door of it was dry meat, The threshold was bare bread, smooth pillars of old cheese, And sappy bacon props Alternate ranged, Fine beams of mellow cream, White rafters - real curds, Kept up the house. Curds also appear in the nursery rhyme Little Miss Muffet, food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations A fresh look at fine cheese, audio tour of Canada’s best cheese curds
10.
Cheese
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Cheese is a food derived from milk that is produced in a wide range of flavors, textures, and forms by coagulation of the milk protein casein. It comprises proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats, during production, the milk is usually acidified, and adding the enzyme rennet causes coagulation. The solids are separated and pressed into final form, Some cheeses have molds on the rind, the outer layer, or throughout. Most cheeses melt at cooking temperature, hundreds of types of cheese from various countries are produced. Their styles, textures and flavors depend on the origin of the milk, whether they have been pasteurized, the content, the bacteria and mold, the processing. Herbs, spices, or wood smoke may be used as flavoring agents, the yellow to red color of many cheeses, such as Red Leicester, is produced by adding annatto. Other ingredients may be added to some cheeses, such as pepper, garlic. For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding acids such as vinegar or lemon juice, most cheeses are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn milk sugars into lactic acid, then the addition of rennet completes the curdling. Vegetarian alternatives to rennet are available, most are produced by fermentation of the fungus Mucor miehei, cheesemakers near a dairy region may benefit from fresher, lower-priced milk, and lower shipping costs. Cheese is valued for its portability, long life, and high content of fat, protein, calcium, generally speaking, hard cheeses, such as parmesan last longer than soft cheeses, such as Brie or goats milk cheese. The long storage life of some cheeses, especially when encased in a protective rind, There is some debate as to the best way to store cheese, but some experts say that wrapping it in cheese paper provides optimal results. Cheese paper is coated in a plastic on the inside. A specialist seller of cheese is known as a cheesemonger. Becoming an expert in this field requires some formal education and years of tasting and hands-on experience, the cheesemonger is responsible for all aspects of the cheese inventory, selecting the cheese menu, purchasing, receiving, storage, and ripening. The word cheese comes from Latin caseus, from which the modern word casein is also derived, the earliest source is from the proto-Indo-European root *kwat-, which means to ferment, become sour. The word cheese comes from chese and cīese or cēse, the Online Etymological Dictionary states that cheese comes from Old English cyse, cese. from West Germanic *kasjus, from Latin caseus cheese. The Online Etymological Dictionary states that the word is of. unknown origin, perhaps from a PIE root *kwat- to ferment, Old Norse ostr, Danish ost, Swedish ost are related to Latin ius broth, sauce, juice. When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries supplies and it is from this word that the French fromage, proper Italian formaggio, Catalan formatge, Breton fourmaj, and Provençal furmo are derived
11.
Casein
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Casein is the name for a family of related phosphoproteins. These proteins are found in mammalian milk, making up 80% of the proteins in cows milk. Casein has a variety of uses, from being a major component of cheese, to use as a food additive. As a food source, casein supplies amino acids, carbohydrates, casein contains a high number of proline residues, which do not interact. There are also no disulfide bridges, as a result, it has relatively little tertiary structure. It is relatively hydrophobic, making it soluble in water. However, in sharp contrast to surfactant micelles, the interior of a micelle is highly hydrated. The caseins in the micelles are held together by calcium ions, any of several molecular models could account for the special conformation of casein in the micelles. One of them proposes the micellar nucleus is formed by several submicelles, another model suggests the nucleus is formed by casein-interlinked fibrils. Finally, the most recent model proposes a link among the caseins for gelling to take place. All three models consider micelles as colloidal particles formed by casein aggregates wrapped up in soluble κ-casein molecules, the isoelectric point of casein is 4.6. Since milks pH is 6.6, casein has a charge in milk. While it is insoluble in neutral salt solutions, it is readily dispersible in dilute alkalis and in salt solutions such as aqueous sodium oxalate. The enzyme trypsin can hydrolyze a phosphate-containing peptone and it is used to form a type of organic adhesive. Casein paint is a fast-drying, water-soluble medium used by artists and it is still widely used by scene painters, although acrylic has made inroads in that field as well. Casein-based glues, formulated from casein, water, hydrated lime and sodium hydroxide were popular for woodworking, including for aircraft, casein glue is also used in transformer manufacturing due to its oil permeability. While largely replaced with synthetic resins, casein-based glues still have a use in niche applications, such as laminating fireproof doors. Cheese consists of proteins and fat from milk, usually the milk of cows, buffalo, goats and it is produced by coagulation of casein
12.
Cheddar cheese
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Cheddar cheese is a relatively hard, off-white, sometimes sharp-tasting, natural cheese. Originating in the British village of Cheddar in Somerset, cheeses of this style are produced beyond this region, Cheddar is the most popular type of cheese in the UK, accounting for 51% of the countrys £1.9 billion annual cheese market. It is also the second-most-popular cheese in the US, with an annual consumption of 10 lb per capita. The US produced approximately 3,000,000,000 lb in 2014, the term Cheddar cheese is widely used, but has no Protected Designation of Origin within the European Union. The cheese originates from the village of Cheddar in Somerset, south west England, Cheddar Gorge on the edge of the village contains a number of caves, which provided the ideal humidity and steady temperature for maturing the cheese. Cheddar cheese traditionally had to be made within 30 mi of Wells Cathedral, Cheddar has been produced since at least the 12th century. A pipe roll of King Henry II from 1170 records the purchase of 10,240 lb at a farthing per pound, charles I also bought cheese from the village. Romans may have brought the recipe to Britain from the Cantal region of France, central to the modernisation and standardisation of Cheddar cheese was the 19th-century Somerset dairyman Joseph Harding. For his technical innovations, promotion of hygiene, and volunteer dissemination of modern cheese-making techniques. Harding introduced new equipment to the process of cheese-making, including his revolving breaker for curd cutting, saving much manual effort, the Joseph Harding method was the first modern system for Cheddar production based upon scientific principles. Harding stated that Cheddar cheese is not made in the field, nor in the byre, nor even in the cow and his wife and he were behind the introduction of the cheese into Scotland and North America. His sons, Henry and William Harding, were responsible for introducing Cheddar cheese production to Australia and facilitating the establishment of the industry in New Zealand. This almost resulted in wiping out all other production in the country. Before the First World War, more than 3,500 cheese producers were in Britain, according to a United States Department of Agriculture researcher, Cheddar cheese is the worlds most popular variety of cheese, and the most studied type of cheese in scientific publications. The curds and whey are separated using rennet, an enzyme complex normally produced from the stomachs of newborn calves. Cheddaring refers to a step in the production of Cheddar cheese where, after heating, the curd is kneaded with salt, cut into cubes to drain the whey. Strong, extra-mature Cheddar, sometimes called vintage, needs to be matured for up to 15 months, the cheese is kept at a constant temperature, often requiring special facilities. Additionally, some versions of Cheddar cheese are smoked, Cheddar made in the classical way tends to have a sharp, pungent flavour, often slightly earthy
13.
Swiss cheese
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Some types of Swiss cheese have a distinctive appearance, as the blocks of the cheese are riddled with holes known as eyes. Swiss cheese without eyes is known as blind, three types of bacteria are used in the production of Emmental cheese, Streptococcus salivarius subspecies thermophilus, Lactobacillus, and Propionibacterium. In a late stage of production, the propionibacteria consume the lactic acid excreted by the other bacteria and release acetate, propionic acid. The carbon dioxide slowly forms the bubbles that develop the eyes, the acetate and propionic acid give Swiss its nutty and sweet flavor. Historically, the holes were seen as a sign of imperfection, in modern times, the holes have become an identifier of the cheese. In general, the larger the eyes in a Swiss cheese and this poses a problem, however, because cheese with large eyes does not slice well and comes apart in mechanical slicers. As a result, industry regulators have limited the eye size by which Swiss cheese receives the Grade A stamp, in 2014,297.8 million pounds of Swiss cheese was reportedly produced in the United States. Baby Swiss and Lacy Swiss are two varieties of American Swiss cheeses, both have small holes and a mild flavor. Baby Swiss is made from milk, and Lacy Swiss is made from low fat milk. Baby Swiss was developed in the mid-1960s outside of Charm, Ohio, by the Guggisberg Cheese Company, ch. Source, Nutritiondata. self. com Swiss Cheese Niche microbewiki. kenyon. edu Making Swiss Cheese biology. clc. uc. edu
14.
Cottage cheese
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Cottage cheese is a fresh cheese curd product with a mild flavor. Cottage cheese is drained, but not pressed, so some whey remains, the curd is usually washed to remove acidity, giving sweet curd cheese. It is not aged or colored, different styles of cottage cheese are made from milks with different fat levels and in small-curd or large-curd preparations. Cottage cheese which is pressed becomes hoop cheese, farmer cheese, pot cheese, curd size is the size of the chunks in the cottage cheese. The two major types of cheese are small-curd, high-acid cheese made without rennet, and large-curd. Rennet is a complex of enzymes that speeds curdling and keeps the curd that forms from breaking up. Adding rennet shortens the cheese-making process, resulting in an acid and larger curd cheese. Sometimes large-curd cottage cheese is called chunk style, cottage cheese with fruit such as pears, peaches, or mandarin oranges is a standard side dish in many home cooking or meat-and-three restaurants menus in the United States. A 113-g serving of 4% fat product has about 120 calories,5 g fat,3 g carbohydrates and it also contains about 500 mg sodium,70 mg calcium, and 20 mg cholesterol. Some manufacturers also produce low-fat and nonfat varieties, a fat-free kind of a similar serving size has 80 calories,0 g fat,6 g carbohydrates, and 14 g protein. Cottage cheese is popular among dieters and some health food devotees and it is a favorite food among bodybuilders, runners, swimmers and weightlifters for its high content of casein protein while being relatively low in fat. Pregnant women are advised that cottage cheese is safe to eat, whereas some cheese products are not recommended during pregnancy
15.
Strained yogurt
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Like many types of yogurt, strained yogurt is often made from milk that has been enriched by boiling off some of its water content, or by adding extra butterfat and powdered milk. In Europe and North America, it is made with low-fat or fat-free yogurt. In Scandinavia, particularly Iceland, a product, skyr is produced. Such dishes may be cooked or raw, savory or sweet, due to the straining process to remove excess whey, even non-fat varieties of strained yogurt are much thicker, richer, and creamier than yogurts that have not been strained. In western Europe and the US, strained yogurt has increased in popularity compared to unstrained yogurt, since the straining process removes some of the lactose, strained yogurt is lower in sugar than unstrained yogurt. It was reported in 2012 that most of the growth in the $4.1 billion US yogurt industry came from the strained yogurt sub-segment, in the US there is no legal definition of Greek yogurt, and yogurt thickened with thickening agents may also be sold as Greek yogurt. Strained yogurt contains a higher density than regular yogurt. The protein in strained yogurt is largely casein protein, in Armenia, strained yogurt is called kamats matzoon. Traditionally, it was produced for long-term preservation by draining matzoon in cloth sacks, afterwards it was stored in leather sacks or clay pots for a month or more depending on the degree of salting. In Albania, strained yogurt is called salcë kosi, after preparing yogurt from micro-cultured milk, it is drained in a cloth sack from few hours, to overnight. The water released from this process is called hir and can be used to preserve cheese or as a drink. Meanwhile the strained yogurt is used in many variation in the Albanian cuisine and is either plain or with added elements such as dill, garlic, cucumber, nuts. In the countries of the former Yugoslavia, strained yogurt made of milk has become very popular in recent years. It is usually labeled grčki tip jogurta and eaten on its own as a snack or dessert, in Macedonia its widely known as „павлака. In Bulgaria, where yogurt is considered to be a part of the national cuisine, strained yogurt is called tsedeno kiselo mlyako. Another similar product is katak, which is made from sheep or goat milk. In the cuisines of many Iranian, Baloch, and Turkic peoples and it is obtained by draining qatiq, a local yogurt variety. By further drying it, one obtains qurut, a kind of dry fresh cheese, Strained yogurt in Balochistan is called Sheelanch and is a vital part of the nomadic diet
16.
Whey protein
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Whey protein is a mixture of globular proteins isolated from whey, the liquid material created as a by-product of cheese production. Whey protein is commonly marketed as a supplement, and various health claims have been attributed to it in the alternative medicine community. Although whey proteins are responsible for some milk allergies, the major allergens in milk are the caseins. Whey is left over when milk is coagulated during the process of cheese production and it is a 5% solution of lactose in water, with some minerals and lactalbumin. The fat is removed and then processed for human foods, processing can be done by simple drying, or the protein content can be increased by removing lipids and other non-protein materials. For example, spray drying after membrane filtration separates the proteins from whey, Whey can be denatured by heat. Heat-denatured whey can still cause allergies in some people, Whey protein is the collection of globular proteins isolated from whey. The protein in milk is 20% whey protein and 80% casein protein, whereas the protein in human milk is 60% whey. The protein fraction in whey constitutes approximately 10% of the dry solids in whey. This protein is typically a mixture of beta-lactoglobulin, alpha-lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin and these are soluble in their native forms, independent of pH. There are, however, specialty producers of vegetarian-approved whey protein products produced using non-animal rennet and these products are often also labeled as kosher and halal approved. Whey protein typically comes in four forms, concentrate, isolate, hydrolysate. Isolates are processed to remove the fat and lactose, but are lower in bioactivated compounds as well — they are 90%+ protein by weight. Like whey protein concentrates, whey protein isolates are mild to slightly milky in taste, hydrolysates are whey proteins that are predigested and partially hydrolyzed for the purpose of easier metabolizing, but their cost is generally higher. Highly hydrolysed whey may be less allergenic than other forms of whey, Native whey protein is extracted from skim milk, not a byproduct of cheese production, and produced as a concentrate and isolate. The use of protein as a source of amino acids and its effect on reducing the risks of diseases such as heart disease, cancer. Whey is an abundant source of amino acids, which are used to stimulate protein synthesis. When leucine is ingested in high amounts, such as with whey protein supplementation, there is greater stimulation of protein synthesis, Whey has approximately three grams of leucine per serving and the threshold for optimal protein synthesis is three grams
17.
Alpha-lactalbumin
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Lactalbumin, alpha-, also known as LALBA, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the LALBA gene. α-Lactalbumin is a present in the milk of almost all mammalian species. In primates, alpha-lactalbumin expression is upregulated in response to the hormone prolactin, α-Lactalbumin forms the regulatory subunit of the lactose synthase heterodimer and β-1, 4-galactosyltransferase forms the catalytic component. Together, these proteins enable LS to produce lactose by transferring galactose moieties to glucose, as a multimer, alpha-lactalbumin strongly binds calcium and zinc ions and may possess bactericidal or antitumor activity. A folding variant of human alpha-lactalbumin that may form in environments such as the stomach, called HAMLET, probably induces apoptosis in tumor. The corresponding folding dynamics of alpha-lactalbumin is thus highly unusual and this gives rise to a pathway for forming lactose by converting Gal-TI to Lactose synthase. The structure of alpha-lactalbumin is well known and is composed of 123 amino acids and 4 disulfide bridges, the molecular weight is 14178 Da, and the isoelectric point is between 4.2 and 4.5. One of the structural differences with beta-lactoglobulin is that it does not have any free thiol group that can serve as the starting-point for a covalent aggregation reaction. As a result, pure α-lactalbumin will not form gels upon denaturation and acidification, the sequence comparison of α-lactalbumin shows a strong similarity to that of lysozymes, specifically the Ca2+-binding c-lysozyme. So the expected evolutionary history is that gene duplication of the c-lysozyme was followed by mutation
18.
Beta-lactoglobulin
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β-Lactoglobulin is the major whey protein of cow and sheeps milk, and is also present in many other mammalian species, a notable exception being humans. Its structure, properties and biological role have been reviewed many times, unlike the other main whey protein, α-lactalbumin, no clear function has been identified for β-lactoglobulin. β-lactoglobulin is a protein, and can bind many hydrophobic molecules. β-lactoglobulin has also shown to be able to bind iron via siderophores. A homologue of β-lactoglobulin is lacking in human breast milk, several genetic variants have been identified, the main ones in the cow being labelled A and B. Because of its abundance and ease of purification, it has been subjected to a range of biophysical studies. Its structure has been determined several times by X-ray crystallography and NMR, one such structure is shown on the right.4 kDa molecular weight. In physiological conditions it is dimeric, but dissociates to a monomer below about pH3. Conversely, β-lactoglobulin also occurs in tetrameric, octameric and other multimeric aggregation forms under a variety of natural conditions, β-Lactoglobulin solutions form gels in various conditions, when the native structure is sufficiently destabilised to allow aggregation. Under prolonged heating at low pH and low strength, a transparent fine-stranded gel is formed. Folding intermediates for this protein can be studied using light spectroscopy, such experiments interestingly show an unusual but important intermediate composed purely of alpha helices, despite the fact that the native structure is beta sheet. Evolution has probably selected for the intermediate to avoid aggregation during the folding process. As milk is an allergen, manufacturers need to prove the presence or absence of β-lactoglobulin to ensure their labelling satisfies the requirements of the aforementioned directive. Food testing laboratories can use ELISA methods to identify and quantify β-lactoglobulin in food products, laboratory polymerization of β-lactoglobulin by microbial transglutaminase reduces its allergenicity in children and adults with an IgE-mediated cow’s milk allergy
19.
Serum albumin
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This is most abundant class of the plasma protein. Serum albumin, often referred to simply as blood albumin, is a found in vertebrate blood. Human serum albumin is encoded by the ALB gene, other mammalian forms, such as bovine serum albumin, are chemically similar. Serum albumin is produced by the liver, occurs dissolved in plasma and is the most abundant blood protein in mammals. It also acts as a carrier by non-specifically binding several hydrophobic steroid hormones and as a transport protein for hemin. Too much or too little circulating serum albumin may be harmful, albumin in the urine usually denotes the presence of kidney disease. Occasionally albumin appears in the urine of normal persons following long standing, because smaller animals function at a lower blood pressure, they need less oncotic pressure to balance this, and thus need less albumin to maintain proper fluid distribution. Albumin is synthesized in the liver as preproalbumin which has an N-terminal peptide that is removed before the nascent protein is released from the endoplasmic reticulum. The product, proalbumin, is in turn cleaved in the Golgi vesicles to produce the secreted albumin, albumin is a globular, water-soluble, un-glycosylated serum protein of approximate molecular weight of 65,000 Daltons. The glomerular basement membrane is negatively charged in the body. According to this theory, that plays a major role in the selective exclusion of albumin from the glomerular filtrate. A defect in this property results in nephrotic syndrome leading to loss in the urine. Nephrotic syndrome patients are sometimes given albumin to replace the lost albumin, the general structure of albumin is characterized by several long α helices allowing it to maintain a relatively static shape, which is essential for regulating blood pressure. Serum albumin contains eleven distinct binding domains for hydrophobic compounds, one hemin and six long-chain fatty acids can bind to serum albumin at the same time. Serum albumin is widely distributed in mammals, the human version is human serum albumin. Bovine serum albumin, or BSA, is used in immunodiagnostic procedures, clinical chemistry reagents, cell culture media, protein chemistry research
20.
Antibody
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An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a large, Y-shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as bacteria and viruses. The antibody recognizes a molecule of the harmful agent, called an antigen. Each tip of the Y of an antibody contains a paratope that is specific for one particular epitope on an antigen, allowing these two structures to bind together with precision. Using this binding mechanism, an antibody can tag a microbe or a cell for attack by other parts of the immune system. Depending on the antigen, the binding may impede the process causing the disease or may activate macrophages to destroy the foreign substance. The ability of an antibody to communicate with the components of the immune system is mediated via its Fc region. The production of antibodies is the function of the humoral immune system. Antibodies are secreted by B cells of the immune system. In most cases, interaction of the B cell with a T helper cell is necessary to produce full activation of the B cell and, therefore, soluble antibodies are released into the blood and tissue fluids, as well as many secretions to continue to survey for invading microorganisms. Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily and they constitute most of the gamma globulin fraction of the blood proteins. They are typically made of basic structural units—each with two heavy chains and two small light chains. There are several different types of heavy chains that define the five different types of crystallisable fragments that may be attached to the antigen-binding fragments. The five different types of Fc regions allow antibodies to be grouped into five isotypes, each Fc region of a particular antibody isotype is able to bind to its specific Fc Receptor, thus allowing the antigen-antibody complex to mediate different roles depending on which FcR it binds. The ability of an antibody to bind to its corresponding FcR is further modulated by the structure of the present at conserved sites within its Fc region. The ability of antibodies to bind to FcRs helps to direct the immune response for each different type of foreign object they encounter. For example, IgE is responsible for an allergic response consisting of mast cell degranulation, igEs Fab paratope binds to allergic antigen, for example house dust mite particles, while its Fc region binds to Fc receptor ε. The allergen-IgE-FcRε interaction mediates allergic signal transduction to induce conditions such as asthma and this region is known as the hypervariable region. Each of these variants can bind to a different antigen and this enormous diversity of antibody paratopes on the antigen-binding fragments allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide variety of antigens
21.
Globular protein
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Globular proteins or spheroproteins are spherical proteins and are one of the common protein types. Globular proteins are somewhat water-soluble, unlike the fibrous or membrane proteins, there are multiple fold classes of globular proteins, since there are many different architectures that can fold into a roughly spherical shape. The term globin can refer specifically to proteins including the globin fold. The term globular protein is quite old and is now somewhat archaic given the hundreds of thousands of proteins and more elegant, the globular nature of these proteins can be determined without the means of modern techniques, but only by using ultracentrifuges or dynamic light scattering techniques. The spherical structure is induced by the tertiary structure. Globular proteins are only marginally stable because the energy released when the protein folded into its native conformation is relatively small. This is because protein folding requires entropic cost, as a primary sequence of a polypeptide chain can form numerous conformations, native globular structure restricts its conformation to a few only. It results in a decrease in randomness, although non-covalent interactions such as hydrophobic interactions stabilize the structure, although it is still unknown how proteins fold up naturally, new evidence has helped advance understanding. Part of the protein folding problem is that several non-covalent, weak interactions are formed, such as hydrogen bonds, via several techniques, the mechanism of protein folding is currently being studied. Even in the denatured state, it can be folded into the correct structure. These new findings have shown that the states of proteins may affect the way they fold. The folding of proteins has also recently been connected to treatment of diseases. These studies have shown that the folding of globular proteins affects its function, by the second law of thermodynamics, the free energy difference between unfolded and folded states is contributed by enthalpy and entropy changes. Messengers, by transmitting messages to regulate biological processes and this function is done by hormones, i. e. insulin etc. Transporters of other molecules through membranes Stocks of amino acids, regulatory roles are also performed by globular proteins rather than fibrous proteins. Other globular proteins are the immunoglobulins, and alpha, beta, see protein electrophoresis for more information on the different globulins. Nearly all enzymes with major metabolic functions are globular in shape, albumins are also globular proteins, although, unlike all of the other globular proteins, they are completely soluble in water
22.
Bovine serum albumin
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Bovine serum albumin is a serum albumin protein derived from cows. It is often used as a protein concentration standard in lab experiments, the nickname Fraction V refers to albumin being the fifth fraction of the original Edwin Cohn purification methodology that made use of differential solubility characteristics of plasma proteins. By manipulating solvent concentrations, pH, salt levels, and temperature, the process was first commercialized with human albumin for medical use and later adopted for production of BSA. The full-length BSA precursor protein is 607 amino acids in length, an N-terminal 18-residue signal peptide is cut off from the precursor protein upon secretion, hence the initial protein product contains 589 amino acid residues. An additional four amino acids are cleaved to yield the mature BSA protein that contains 583 amino acids, because BSA is a small, stable, moderately non-reactive protein, it is often used as a blocker in immunohistochemistry. During immunohistochemistry, which is the process that uses antibodies to antigens in cells. This binding of BSA to nonspecific binding sites increases the chance that the antibodies will bind only to the antigens of interest, the BSA blocker improves sensitivity by decreasing background noise as the sites are covered with the moderately non-reactive protein. During this process, minimization of nonspecific binding of antibodies is essential in order to acquire the highest signal to noise ratio, BSA is also used as a nutrient in cell and microbial culture. In restriction digests, BSA is used to stabilize some enzymes during the digestion of DNA and to prevent adhesion of the enzyme to reaction tubes, pipet tips and this protein does not affect other enzymes that do not need it for stabilization. BSA is also used to determine the quantity of other proteins. Acceptable daily intake Protein allergy Human serum albumin Serum albumin Serum Albumin, Bovine at the US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings
23.
Cysteine
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Cysteine is a semi-essential proteinogenic amino acid with the formula HO2CCHCH2SH. It is encoded by the codons UGU and UGC, the thiol side chain in cysteine often participates in enzymatic reactions, as a nucleophile. The thiol is susceptible to oxidization to give the disulfide derivative cystine, when used as a food additive, it has the E number E920. It can be seen as serine, but with one of the oxygen replaced with sulfur. Cysteine can usually be synthesized by the body under normal physiological conditions if a sufficient quantity of methionine is available. Cysteine is catabolized in the tract and blood plasma. In contrast, cystine travels safely through the GI tract and blood plasma and is reduced to the two cysteine molecules upon cell entry. Like other amino acids, cysteine has an amphoteric character, the majority of L-cysteine is obtained industrially by hydrolysis of animal materials, such as poultry feathers or hog hair. Despite widespread belief otherwise, there is evidence that human hair is used as a source material. Synthetically produced L-cysteine, compliant with Jewish kosher and Muslim halal laws, is also available, the synthetic route involves fermentation using a mutant of E. coli. Degussa introduced a route from substituted thiazolines, following this technology, L-cysteine is produced by the hydrolysis of racemic 2-amino-Δ2-thiazoline-4-carboxylic acid using Pseudomonas thiazolinophilum. In animals, biosynthesis begins with the amino acid serine, the sulfur is derived from methionine, which is converted to homocysteine through the intermediate S-adenosylmethionine. Cystathionine beta-synthase then combines homocysteine and serine to form the asymmetrical thioether cystathionine, the enzyme cystathionine gamma-lyase converts the cystathionine into cysteine and alpha-ketobutyrate. In plants and bacteria, cysteine biosynthesis also starts from serine, the enzyme O-acetylserine -lyase, using sulfide sources, converts this ester into cysteine, releasing acetate. The cysteine thiol group is nucleophilic and easily oxidized, the reactivity is enhanced when the thiol is ionized, and cysteine residues in proteins have pKa values close to neutrality, so are often in their reactive thiolate form in the cell. Because of its reactivity, the thiol group of cysteine has numerous biological functions. Due to the ability of thiols to undergo reactions, cysteine has antioxidant properties. Cysteines antioxidant properties are typically expressed in the tripeptide glutathione, which occurs in humans as well as other organisms, the systemic availability of oral glutathione is negligible, so it must be biosynthesized from its constituent amino acids, cysteine, glycine, and glutamic acid
24.
Antioxidant
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An antioxidant is a molecule that inhibits the oxidation of other molecules. Oxidation is a reaction that can produce free radicals, leading to chain reactions that may damage cells. Antioxidants such as thiols or ascorbic acid terminate these chain reactions, supplementation with selenium or vitamin E does not reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Oxidative stress can be considered as either a cause or consequence of some diseases, industrial antioxidants have diverse uses, such as food and cosmetics preservatives and inhibitors of rubber or gasoline deterioration. Although certain levels of antioxidant vitamins in the diet are required for good health, moreover, if they are actually beneficial, it is unknown which antioxidant are needed from the diet and in what amounts beyond typical dietary intake. Some authors dispute the hypothesis that antioxidant vitamins could prevent chronic diseases, polyphenols, which often have antioxidant properties in vitro, are not necessarily antioxidants in vivo due to extensive metabolism. In many polyphenols, the group acts as electron acceptor and is therefore responsible for the antioxidant activity. However, this catechol group undergoes extensive metabolism upon uptake in the body, for example by catechol-O-methyl transferase. Many polyphenols may have non-antioxidant roles in minute concentrations that affect cell-to-cell signaling, receptor sensitivity, tirilazad is an antioxidant steroid derivative that inhibits the lipid peroxidation that is believed to play a key role in neuronal death in stroke and head injury. It demonstrated activity in animal models of stroke, but human trials demonstrated no effect on mortality or other outcomes in subarachnoid haemorrhage, similarly, the designed antioxidant NXY-059 exhibited efficacy in animal models, but failed to improve stroke outcomes in a clinical trial. As of November 2014, other antioxidants are being studied as potential neuroprotectants, common pharmaceuticals with antioxidant properties may interfere with the efficacy of certain anticancer medication and radiation. During exercise, oxygen consumption can increase by a factor of more than 10, however, no benefits for physical performance to athletes are seen with vitamin E supplementation and 6 weeks of vitamin E supplementation had no effect on muscle damage in ultramarathon runners. Some research suggests that supplementation with amounts as high as 1000 mg of vitamin C inhibits recovery, other studies indicated that antioxidant supplementation may attenuate the cardiovascular benefits of exercise. Relatively strong reducing acids can have antinutrient effects by binding to dietary minerals such as iron and zinc in the gastrointestinal tract, notable examples are oxalic acid, tannins and phytic acid, which are high in plant-based diets. Calcium and iron deficiencies are not uncommon in diets in developing countries where meat is eaten and there is high consumption of phytic acid from beans. Nonpolar antioxidants such as major component of oil of cloves—have toxicity limits that can be exceeded with the misuse of undiluted essential oils. Toxicity associated with high doses of water-soluble antioxidants such as ascorbic acid are less of a concern, more seriously, very high doses of some antioxidants may have harmful long-term effects. The beta-carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial study of cancer patients found that smokers given supplements containing beta-carotene
25.
Acid
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An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron, or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair. The first category of acids is the donors or Brønsted acids. In the special case of solutions, proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O+ and are known as Arrhenius acids. Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents, acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals to form salts. The word acid is derived from the Latin acidus/acēre meaning sour, an aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as acid, while the strict definition refers only to the solute. A lower pH means a higher acidity, and thus a higher concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic, common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, sulfuric acid, and citric acid. As these examples show, acids can be solutions or pure substances, strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid. The second category of acids are Lewis acids, which form a covalent bond with an electron pair, however, hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted-Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids. Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted-Lowry acids, in modern terminology, an acid is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as a Lewis acid. Modern definitions are concerned with the chemical reactions common to all acids. Most acids encountered in life are aqueous solutions, or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius. The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition, unless otherwise specified, hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Interestingly, although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted-Lowry acids, they can function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms. The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions or protons in 1884, an Arrhenius acid is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H+ ions in the water. Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as HCl and acetic acid, an Arrhenius base, on the other hand, is a substance which increases the concentration of hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, in an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10−7 moles per liter
26.
PH
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In chemistry, pH is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the concentration, measured in units of moles per liter. More precisely it is the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the activity of the hydrogen ion, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water is neutral, at pH7, being neither an acid nor a base, contrary to popular belief, the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively. The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement, the pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or an indicator. In the first papers, the notation had the H as a subscript to the p, as so. The exact meaning of the p in pH is disputed, but according to the Carlsberg Foundation and it has also been suggested that the p stands for the German Potenz, others refer to French puissance. Another suggestion is that the p stands for the Latin terms pondus hydrogenii, potentia hydrogenii and it is also suggested that Sørensen used the letters p and q simply to label the test solution and the reference solution. Currently in chemistry, the p stands for decimal cologarithm of, PH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aH+, in a solution. P H = − log 10 = log 10 For example and this definition was adopted because ion-selective electrodes, which are used to measure pH, respond to activity. For H+ number of electrons transferred is one and it follows that electrode potential is proportional to pH when pH is defined in terms of activity. The reference electrode may be a silver chloride electrode or a calomel electrode, the hydrogen-ion selective electrode is a standard hydrogen electrode. Reference electrode | concentrated solution of KCl || test solution | H2 | Pt Firstly, the cell is filled with a solution of hydrogen ion activity. Then the emf, EX, of the cell containing the solution of unknown pH is measured. PH = pH + E S − E X z The difference between the two measured emf values is proportional to pH and this method of calibration avoids the need to know the standard electrode potential. The proportionality constant, 1/z is ideally equal to 12.303 R T / F the Nernstian slope, to apply this process in practice, a glass electrode is used rather than the cumbersome hydrogen electrode. A combined glass electrode has a reference electrode. It is calibrated against buffer solutions of hydrogen ion activity
27.
Lactose
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Lactose is a disaccharide sugar composed of galactose and glucose that is found in milk. Lactose makes up around 2–8% of milk, although the amount varies among species and individuals and it is extracted from sweet or sour whey. The name comes from lac, the Latin word for milk and it has a formula of C12H22O11 and the hydrate formula C12H22O11·H2O, making it an isomer of sucrose. The first crude isolation of lactose, by Italian physician Fabrizio Bartoletti, was published in 1633, in 1700, the Venetian pharmacist Lodovico Testi published a booklet of testimonials to the power of milk sugar to relieve, among other ailments, the symptoms of arthritis. In 1715, Testis procedure for making milk sugar was published by Antonio Vallisneri, lactose was identified as a sugar in 1780 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele. In 1812, Heinrich Vogel recognized that glucose was a product of hydrolyzing lactose, in 1856, Louis Pasteur crystallized the other component of lactose, galactose. By 1894, Emil Fischer had established the configurations of the component sugars, lactose was named by the French chemist Jean Baptiste André Dumas in 1843. Lactose is a derived from the condensation of galactose and glucose. Lactose is hydrolysed to glucose and galactose, isomerised in alkaline solution to lactulose, lactose monohydrate crystals have a characteristic tomahawk shape that can be observed with a light microscope. Several million tons are produced annually as a by-product of the dairy industry, whey is made up of 6. 5% solids of which 4. 8% is lactose that may be purified by crystallisation. Whey or milk plasma is the liquid remaining after milk is curdled and strained, lactose makes up about 2–8% of milk by weight. Industrially, lactose is produced from whey permeate – that is whey filtrated for all major proteins, the protein fraction is used in infant nutrition and sport nutrition while the permeate can be evaporated to 60–65% solids and crystallized while cooling. Lactose can also be precipitated from whey using ethanol, since it is insoluble in ethanol, lactose precipitates, in about 65% yield. Infant mammals nurse on their mothers to drink milk, which is rich in lactose, the intestinal villi secrete the enzyme called lactase to digest it. This enzyme cleaves the molecule into its two subunits, the simple sugars glucose and galactose, which can be absorbed. Since lactose occurs mostly in milk, in most mammals, the production of lactase gradually decreases with maturity due to a lack of continuing consumption. Many people with ancestry in Europe, West Asia, South Asia, the Sahel belt in West Africa, East Africa, in many of these areas, milk from mammals such as cattle, goats, and sheep is used as a large source of food. Hence, it was in these regions that genes for lifelong lactase production first evolved, the genes of adult lactose tolerance have evolved independently in various ethnic groups
28.
Mineral
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A mineral is a naturally occurring chemical compound, usually of crystalline form and abiogenic in origin. A mineral has one specific chemical composition, whereas a rock can be an aggregate of different minerals or mineraloids, the study of minerals is called mineralogy. There are over 5,300 known mineral species, over 5,070 of these have been approved by the International Mineralogical Association, the silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earths crust. The diversity and abundance of species is controlled by the Earths chemistry. Silicon and oxygen constitute approximately 75% of the Earths crust, which translates directly into the predominance of silicate minerals, minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical composition and crystal structure distinguish the various species, changes in the temperature, pressure, or bulk composition of a rock mass cause changes in its minerals. Minerals can be described by their various properties, which are related to their chemical structure. Common distinguishing characteristics include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour, streak, tenacity, cleavage, fracture, parting, more specific tests for describing minerals include magnetism, taste or smell, radioactivity and reaction to acid. Minerals are classified by key chemical constituents, the two dominant systems are the Dana classification and the Strunz classification, the silicate class of minerals is subdivided into six subclasses by the degree of polymerization in the chemical structure. All silicate minerals have a unit of a 4− silica tetrahedron—that is, a silicon cation coordinated by four oxygen anions. These tetrahedra can be polymerized to give the subclasses, orthosilicates, disilicates, cyclosilicates, inosilicates, phyllosilicates, other important mineral groups include the native elements, sulfides, oxides, halides, carbonates, sulfates, and phosphates. The first criterion means that a mineral has to form by a natural process, stability at room temperature, in the simplest sense, is synonymous to the mineral being solid. More specifically, a compound has to be stable or metastable at 25 °C, modern advances have included extensive study of liquid crystals, which also extensively involve mineralogy. Minerals are chemical compounds, and as such they can be described by fixed or a variable formula, many mineral groups and species are composed of a solid solution, pure substances are not usually found because of contamination or chemical substitution. Finally, the requirement of an ordered atomic arrangement is usually synonymous with crystallinity, however, crystals are also periodic, an ordered atomic arrangement gives rise to a variety of macroscopic physical properties, such as crystal form, hardness, and cleavage. There have been recent proposals to amend the definition to consider biogenic or amorphous substances as minerals. The formal definition of an approved by the IMA in 1995, A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline. However, if geological processes were involved in the genesis of the compound, Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in mineral science
29.
Lipid
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In biology, lipids comprise a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins, monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology. Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two types of biochemical subunits or building-blocks, ketoacyl and isoprene groups. Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides, lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives, as well as other sterol-containing metabolites such as cholesterol. Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways both to break down and to synthesize lipids, some essential lipids cannot be made this way, the word lipid stems etymologically from the Greek lipos. The fatty acid structure is one of the most fundamental categories of biological lipids, the carbon chain, typically between four and 24 carbons long, may be saturated or unsaturated, and may be attached to functional groups containing oxygen, halogens, nitrogen, and sulfur. If a fatty acid contains a double bond, there is the possibility of either a cis or trans geometric isomerism, cis-double bonds cause the fatty acid chain to bend, an effect that is compounded with more double bonds in the chain. This in turn plays an important role in the structure and function of cell membranes, most naturally occurring fatty acids are of the cis configuration, although the trans form does exist in some natural and partially hydrogenated fats and oils. Examples of biologically important fatty acids include the eicosanoids, derived primarily from arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid, that include prostaglandins, leukotrienes, docosahexaenoic acid is also important in biological systems, particularly with respect to sight. Other major lipid classes in the fatty acid category are the fatty esters, fatty esters include important biochemical intermediates such as wax esters, fatty acid thioester coenzyme A derivatives, fatty acid thioester ACP derivatives and fatty acid carnitines. The fatty amides include N-acyl ethanolamines, such as the cannabinoid neurotransmitter anandamide, glycerolipids are composed of mono-, di-, and tri-substituted glycerols, the best-known being the fatty acid triesters of glycerol, called triglycerides. The word triacylglycerol is sometimes used synonymously with triglyceride, in these compounds, the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol are each esterified, typically by different fatty acids. Because they function as a store, these lipids comprise the bulk of storage fat in animal tissues. The hydrolysis of the bonds of triglycerides and the release of glycerol. Additional subclasses of glycerolipids are represented by glycosylglycerols, which are characterized by the presence of one or more sugar residues attached to glycerol via a glycosidic linkage, examples of structures in this category are the digalactosyldiacylglycerols found in plant membranes and seminolipid from mammalian sperm cells. Glycerophospholipids, usually referred to as phospholipids, are ubiquitous in nature and are key components of the bilayer of cells, as well as being involved in metabolism. Neural tissue contains high amounts of glycerophospholipids, and alterations in their composition has been implicated in various neurological disorders. Examples of glycerophospholipids found in biological membranes are phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylserine, the major sphingoid base of mammals is commonly referred to as sphingosine
30.
Spray drying
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Spray drying is a method of producing a dry powder from a liquid or slurry by rapidly drying with a hot gas. This is the method of drying of many thermally-sensitive materials such as foods. A consistent particle size distribution is a reason for spray drying some industrial products such as catalysts, air is the heated drying medium, however, if the liquid is a flammable solvent such as ethanol or the product is oxygen-sensitive then nitrogen is used. All spray dryers use some type of atomizer or spray nozzle to disperse the liquid or slurry into a drop size spray. The most common of these are rotary disk and single-fluid high pressure swirl nozzles, atomizer wheels are known to provide broader particle size distribution, but both methods allow for consistent distribution of particle size. Alternatively, for some applications two-fluid or ultrasonic nozzles are used, depending on the process needs, drop sizes from 10 to 500 µm can be achieved with the appropriate choices. The most common applications are in the 100 to 200 µm diameter range, the dry powder is often free-flowing. The most common type of spray dryers are called single effect, there is a single source of drying air at the top of the chamber. In most cases the air is blown in the direction as the sprayed liquid. A fine powder is produced, but it can have poor flow, to overcome the dust and poor flow of the powder, a new generation of spray dryers called multiple effect spray dryers have been produced. Instead of drying the liquid in one stage, drying is done through two steps, the first at the top and the second with an integrated static bed at the bottom of the chamber. The bed provides an environment which causes smaller particles to clump, producing more uniform particle sizes. These powders are free-flowing due to the particle size. The fine powders generated by the first stage drying can be recycled in continuous flow either at the top of the chamber or at the bottom, the drying of the powder can be finalized on an external vibrating fluidized bed. The hot drying gas can be passed in as a co-current, same direction as sprayed liquid atomizer, or counter-current, with co-current flow, particles spend less time in the system and the particle separator. With counter-current flow, particles spend more time in the system and is paired with a fluidized bed system. Co-current flow generally allows the system to more efficiently. Alternatives to spray dryers are, Freeze dryer, a batch process for products that degrade in spray drying
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Denaturation (biochemistry)
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If proteins in a living cell are denatured, this results in disruption of cell activity and possibly cell death. Protein denaturation is also a consequence of cell death, denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from conformational change and loss of solubility to aggregation due to the exposure of hydrophobic groups. Protein folding is key to whether a protein or a membrane protein can do its job correctly. It must be folded into the shape to function. This is one reason why tight homeostasis is physiologically necessary in life forms. This concept is unrelated to denatured alcohol, which is alcohol that has mixed with additives to make it unsuitable for human consumption. When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured and this is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm. A classic example of denaturing in proteins comes from egg whites, fresh from the eggs, egg whites are transparent and liquid. Cooking the thermally unstable whites turns them opaque, forming a solid mass. The same transformation can be effected with a denaturing chemical, pouring egg whites into a beaker of acetone will also turn egg whites translucent and solid. The skin that forms on curdled milk is another example of denatured protein. The cold appetizer known as ceviche is prepared by cooking raw fish and shellfish in an acidic citrus marinade. Denatured proteins can exhibit a range of characteristics, from loss of solubility to protein aggregation. The newly created protein strand then undergoes posttranslational modification, in which additional atoms or molecules are added, for copper, zinc. The final shape of a protein determines how it interacts with its environment, when a protein is denatured, secondary and tertiary structures are altered but the peptide bonds of the primary structure between the amino acids are left intact. Since all structural levels of the protein determine its function, the protein can no longer perform its function once it has been denatured and this is in contrast to intrinsically unstructured proteins, which are unfolded in their native state, but still functionally active. In quaternary structure denaturation, protein sub-units are dissociated and/or the spatial arrangement of protein subunits is disrupted, in secondary structure denaturation, proteins lose all regular repeating patterns such as alpha-helices and beta-pleated sheets, and adopt a random coil configuration. Primary structure, such as the sequence of amino acids held together by covalent peptide bonds, is not disrupted by denaturation, most biological substrates lose their biological function when denatured
32.
Pasteurization
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Pasteurization or pasteurisation is a process that kills microbes in food and drink, such as milk, juice, canned food, and others. It was invented by French scientist Louis Pasteur during the nineteenth century, in 1864 Pasteur discovered that heating beer and wine was enough to kill most of the bacteria that caused spoilage, preventing these beverages from turning sour. The process achieves this by eliminating pathogenic microbes and lowering microbial numbers to prolong the quality of the beverage, today, pasteurization is used widely in the dairy industry and other food processing industries to achieve food preservation and food safety. Unlike sterilization, pasteurization is not intended to kill all microorganisms in the food, instead, it aims to reduce the number of viable pathogens so they are unlikely to cause disease. Commercial-scale sterilization of food is not common because it affects the taste. Certain foods, such as products, may be superheated to ensure pathogenic microbes are destroyed. The process of heating wine for preservation purposes has been known in China since 1117, much later, in 1768, an Italian priest and scientist Lazzaro Spallanzani proved experimentally that heat killed bacteria, and that they do not reappear if the product is hermetically sealed. He placed the food in glass jars, sealed them with cork and sealing wax, in that same year, the French military offered a cash prize of 12,000 francs for a new method to preserve food. After some 14 or 15 years of experimenting, Appert submitted his invention and won the prize in January 1810, later that year, Appert published LArt de conserver les substances animales et végétales. This was the first cookbook of its kind on modern food preservation methods, la Maison Appert, in the town of Massy, near Paris, became the first food-bottling factory in the world, preserving a variety of food in sealed bottles. Apperts method was to fill thick, large-mouthed glass bottles with produce of every description, ranging from beef and fowl to eggs, milk and his greatest success for publicity was an entire sheep. He left air space at the top of the bottle, the bottle was then wrapped in canvas to protect it, while it was dunked into boiling water and then boiled for as much time as Appert deemed appropriate for cooking the contents thoroughly. Appert patented his method, sometimes called appertisation, in his honor, Apperts method was so simple and workable that it quickly became widespread. In 1810, British inventor and merchant Peter Durand, also of French origin, patented his own method, in 1812, Englishmen Bryan Donkin and John Hall purchased both patents and began producing preserves. Just a decade later, Apperts method of canning had made its way to America, Apperts preservation by boiling involved heating the food to an unnecessarily high temperature, and for an unnecessarily long time, which could destroy some of the flavor of the preserved food. A less aggressive method was developed by the French chemist Louis Pasteur during an 1864 summer holiday in Arbois, in honour of Pasteur, the process became known as pasteurization. Pasteurization was originally used as a way of preventing wine and beer from souring, in the United States in the 1870s, it was common for milk to contain substances intended to mask spoilage before milk was regulated. Milk is an excellent medium for growth, and when stored at ambient temperature bacteria
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Hydrophobe
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In chemistry, hydrophobicity is the physical property of a molecule that is seemingly repelled from a mass of water. In contrast, hydrophiles are attracted to water, Hydrophobic molecules tend to be nonpolar and, thus, prefer other neutral molecules and nonpolar solvents. Because water molecules are polar, hydrophobes do not dissolve well among them, Hydrophobic molecules in water often cluster together, forming micelles. Water on hydrophobic surfaces will exhibit a high contact angle, examples of hydrophobic molecules include the alkanes, oils, fats, and greasy substances in general. Hydrophobic materials are used for oil removal from water, the management of oil spills, Hydrophobic is often used interchangeably with lipophilic, fat-loving. However, the two terms are not synonymous, while hydrophobic substances are usually lipophilic, there are exceptions—such as the silicones and fluorocarbons. The term hydrophobe comes from the Ancient Greek ὑδρόφοβος, having a horror of water, constructed from ὕδωρ, water, thus, the two immiscible phases will change so that their corresponding interfacial area will be minimal. This effect can be visualized in the phenomenon called phase separation, Superhydrophobic surfaces, such as the leaves of the lotus plant, are those that are extremely difficult to wet. The contact angles of a water droplet exceeds 150° and the angle is less than 10°. This is referred to as the Lotus effect, and is primarily a physical property related to interfacial tension, in 1805, Thomas Young defined the contact angle θ by analyzing the forces acting on a fluid droplet resting on a solid surface surrounded by a gas. Wenzels equation shows that microstructuring a surface amplifies the natural tendency of the surface, a hydrophobic surface becomes more hydrophobic when microstructured – its new contact angle becomes greater than the original. However, a hydrophilic surface becomes more hydrophilic when microstructured – its new contact angle less than the original. Liquid in the Cassie–Baxter state is more mobile than in the Wenzel state and we can predict whether the Wenzel or Cassie–Baxter state should exist by calculating the new contact angle with both equations. By a minimization of free energy argument, the relation that predicted the new contact angle is the state most likely to exist. Stated in mathematical terms, for the Cassie–Baxter state to exist, a new criterion for the switch between Wenzel and Cassie-Baxter states has been developed recently based on surface roughness and surface energy. Contact angle is a measure of static hydrophobicity, and contact angle hysteresis, contact angle hysteresis is a phenomenon that characterizes surface heterogeneity. When a pipette injects a liquid onto a solid, the liquid will form some contact angle, as the pipette injects more liquid, the droplet will increase in volume, the contact angle will increase, but its three-phase boundary will remain stationary until it suddenly advances outward. The contact angle the droplet had immediately before advancing outward is termed the advancing contact angle, the receding contact angle is now measured by pumping the liquid back out of the droplet
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Gel
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A gel is a solid jelly-like material that can have properties ranging from soft and weak to hard and tough. Gels are defined as a substantially dilute cross-linked system, which exhibits no flow when in the steady-state, by weight, gels are mostly liquid, yet they behave like solids due to a three-dimensional cross-linked network within the liquid. It is the crosslinking within the fluid that gives a gel its structure, in this way gels are a dispersion of molecules of a liquid within a solid in which the solid is the continuous phase and the liquid is the discontinuous phase. The word gel was coined by 19th-century Scottish chemist Thomas Graham by clipping from gelatine, gels consist of a solid three-dimensional network that spans the volume of a liquid medium and ensnares it through surface tension effects. This internal network structure may result from physical bonds or chemical bonds, virtually any fluid can be used as an extender including water, oil, and air. Both by weight and volume, gels are mostly fluid in composition, edible jelly is a common example of a hydrogel and has approximately the density of water. Polyionic polymers are polymers with a functional group. The ionic charges prevent the formation of tightly coiled polymer chains and this allows them to contribute more to viscosity in their stretched state, because the stretched-out polymer takes up more space. A hydrogel is a network of polymer chains that are hydrophilic, hydrogels are highly absorbent natural or synthetic polymeric networks. Hydrogels also possess a degree of flexibility very similar to tissue, due to their significant water content. The first appearance of the term hydrogel in the literature was in 1894, common uses for hydrogels include, Scaffolds in tissue engineering. When used as scaffolds, hydrogels may contain human cells to repair tissue and they mimic 3D microenvironment of cells. Hydrogel-coated wells have been used for cell culture Environmentally sensitive hydrogels and these hydrogels have the ability to sense changes of pH, temperature, or the concentration of metabolite and release their load as result of such a change. Wound gels are excellent for helping to create or maintain a moist environment, reservoirs in topical drug delivery, particularly ionic drugs, delivered by iontophoresis. Natural hydrogel materials are being investigated for tissue engineering, these materials include agarose, methylcellulose, hyaluronan, an organogel is a non-crystalline, non-glassy thermoreversible solid material composed of a liquid organic phase entrapped in a three-dimensionally cross-linked network. The liquid can be, for example, a solvent, mineral oil. The solubility and particle dimensions of the structurant are important characteristics for the elastic properties, often, these systems are based on self-assembly of the structurant molecules. Organogels have potential for use in a number of applications, such as in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, art conservation, a xerogel /ˈzɪəroʊˌdʒɛl/ is a solid formed from a gel by drying with unhindered shrinkage
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Ricotta
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Ricotta is an Italian whey cheese made from sheep, cow, goat, or Italian water buffalo milk whey left over from the production of cheese. Like other whey cheeses, it is made by coagulating the proteins that remain after the casein has been used to make cheese, Ricotta protein can be harvested if the whey is first allowed to become more acidic by additional fermentation. Then the acidified whey is heated to near boiling, the combination of low pH and high temperature denatures the protein and causes it to precipitate, forming a fine curd. Once cooled, it is separated by passing the liquid through a fine cloth, Ricotta curds are creamy white in appearance, and slightly sweet in taste. The fat content changes depending on the brand and the type of milk used, in this form, it is somewhat similar in texture to some cottage cheese variants, though considerably lighter. However, ricotta also is made in aged varieties which are preservable for much longer, the production of ricotta in the Italian peninsula is old, dating back to the Bronze Age. In the second millennium BC, ceramic vessels called milk boilers started to appear frequently and were unique to the peninsula. These were designed to boil milk at temperatures and prevent the milk from boiling over. The fresh acid-coagulated cheeses produced with these boilers were made with whole milk. However, the production of rennet-coagulated cheese overtook the production of fresh whole-milk cheeses during the first millennium BC, Bronze cheese graters found in the graves of the Etruscan elite prove that hard-grating cheeses were popular with the aristocracy. Cheese graters were also used in ancient Roman kitchens. Unlike the fresh acid-coagulated cheese, aged rennet-coagulated cheese could be preserved for much longer, the increased production of rennet-coagulated cheese led to a large supply of sweet whey as a byproduct. Cheesemakers then started using a new recipe which used a mixture of whey, the ancient Romans made ricotta, but writers on agriculture such as Cato the Elder, Marcus Terentius Varro, and Columella do not mention it. They described the production of rennet-coagulated cheese, but did not write about milk boilers or acid-coagulated cheese, a likely reason is that ricotta was not profitable, because its very short shelf life did not allow distribution to urban markets. Ricotta was most likely consumed by the shepherds who made it, even so, evidence from paintings and literature indicates that ricotta was known and likely eaten by Roman aristocrats, as well. Ceramic milk boilers were used by Apennine shepherds to make ricotta in the 19th century AD. Today, metal milk boilers are used, but production methods have changed little since ancient times and this means ricotta production is a low-yield process, considering the amount of whey required to produce it. The whey is heated, sometimes with additional acid such as vinegar or lemon juice to catalyze the coagulation through heat of albumin and globulin in the whey
36.
Brunost
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Brunost is a common, Norwegian name for mysost, a family of cheese-related foods made with whey, milk, and/or cream. It is often used to just refer to the Gudbrandsdalsost type, Brunost is primarily produced and consumed in Norway. It is regarded as one of the countrys most iconic foodstuffs, boiling down whey to create a soft, brown spread probably has been common in the Scandinavian countries since time immemorial. An archeological find from September 2016 in central Jutland has determined that a residue on pottery from circa 650 B. C. is a type of cheese probably brunost. However, the creation of the modern, firm, fatty brunost is commonly attributed to the milkmaid Anne Hov from the Gudbrand Valley. In the second half of the 1800s, the Gudbrand Valley, the name later changed into fløtemysost, and this variety is currently the second most popular type. The product immediately caught on, and was soon produced and consumed in the area. When Anne Hov married and moved to Rusthågå farm in Sør-Fron, she started larger-scale production, the local trader Ole Kongsli liked it so much he thought there might be a market for the product in the capital, Oslo. In 1933, aged 87, Anne Hov received the Kings Medal of Merit for her contributions to Norwegian cuisine and economy. In modern times, the worlds largest producer of brunost is the Norwegian dairy co-operative Tine, the second-largest is Norwegian dairy company Synnøve Finden, who market two varieties of brunost, as well as two varieties of prim. There are also a number of smaller, artisanal producers, mainly in Norway, mysost are a family of cheese-related foods made with whey and milk and/or cream. Because the main ingredient, whey, is a byproduct of the making process, brunost is not technically cheese. However, it is produced by cheese makers, and is sold, therefore it is generally regarded as a cheese. The texture is firm, but slightly softer than, e. g. Gouda cheese and it does not crumble like hard cheeses. The taste is sweet, and best described as caramel-like, the variant Ekte Geitost contains only whey and goats milk, and has an intense, Chèvre-like taste that cuts the sweetness. Brunost is made by boiling a mixture of milk, cream, the heat turns the milk sugars into caramel, which gives the cheese its characteristic brown colour and sweetness. It is ready for consumption as soon as it is packed and refrigerated, low-fat varieties are made by increasing the proportion of whey to milk and cream. In Norway Brunost is commonly divided into two types, those that contain only cows cream and/or milk, and the ones that contain some proportion of goats milk, the latter type is commonly called Geitost or Gjetost
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Butter
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Butter is a dairy product containing up to 80% butterfat which is solid when chilled and at room temperature in some regions and liquid when warmed. It is made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk to separate the butterfat from the buttermilk. It is generally used as a spread on plain or toasted bread products and a condiment on cooked vegetables, as well as in cooking, such as baking, sauce making, Butter consists of butterfat, milk proteins and water, and in some types, added salt. Butter may also be sold with added flavourings, such as garlic butter, most frequently made from cows milk, butter can also be manufactured from the milk of other mammals, including sheep, goats, buffalo, and yaks. Salt such as salt, flavorings and preservatives are sometimes added to butter. Rendering butter produces clarified butter or ghee, which is almost entirely butterfat, Butter is a water-in-oil emulsion resulting from an inversion of the cream, in a water-in-oil emulsion, the milk proteins are the emulsifiers. Butter remains a solid when refrigerated, but softens to a spreadable consistency at room temperature, the density of butter is 911 g/L. It generally has a yellow color, but varies from deep yellow to nearly white. Its unmodified color is dependent on the feed and genetics but is commonly manipulated with food colorings in the commercial manufacturing process. The word butter derives from the Latin butyrum, which is the latinisation of the Greek βούτυρον and this may have been a construction meaning cow-cheese, from βοῦς, ox, cow + τυρός, cheese. Nevertheless, the earliest attested form of the stem, turos, is the Mycenaean Greek tu-ro. The root word persists in the name butyric acid, a found in rancid butter. In general use, the term refers to the spread dairy product when unqualified by other descriptors. The word commonly is used to describe puréed vegetable or seed and nut products such as peanut butter and it is often applied to spread fruit products such as apple butter. Fats such as butter and shea butter that remain solid at room temperature are also known as butters. Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules and these globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three forms, free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules
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Animal feed
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Animal feed is food given to domestic animals in the course of animal husbandry. There are two types, fodder and forage. Used alone, the word feed more often refers to fodder, fodder refers particularly to foods or forages given to the animals, rather than that which they forage for themselves. It includes hay, straw, silage, compressed and pelleted feeds, oils and mixed rations, Feed grains are the most important source of animal feed globally. The amount of used to produce the same unit of meat varies substantially. According to an estimate reported by the BBC in 2008, Cows and sheep need 8kg of grain for every 1kg of meat they produce, the most efficient poultry units need a mere 1. 6kg of feed to produce 1kg of chicken. Farmed fish can also be fed on grain, and use less than poultry. Other feed grains include wheat, oats, barley, and rice, traditional sources of animal feed include household food scraps and the byproducts of food processing industries such as milling and brewing. Material remaining from milling oil crops like peanuts, soy, scraps fed to pigs are called slop, and those fed to chicken are called chicken scratch. Brewers spent grain is a byproduct of beer making that is used as animal feed. Compound feed is fodder that is blended from various raw materials and these blends are formulated according to the specific requirements of the target animal. They are manufactured by feed compounders as meal type, pellets or crumbles, the main ingredients used in commercially prepared feed are the feed grains, which include corn, soybeans, sorghum, oats, and barley. Compound feed may also include premixes, which may also be sold separately, because of the availability of these products, a farmer who uses his own grain can formulate his own rations and be assured his animals are getting the recommended levels of minerals and vitamins. According to the American Feed Industry Association, as much as $20 billion worth of feed ingredients are purchased each year and these products range from grain mixes to orange rinds to beet pulps. The feed industry is one of the most competitive businesses in the sector, and is by far the largest purchaser of U. S. corn, feed grains. Tens of thousands of farmers with feed mills on their own farms are able to compete with huge conglomerates with national distribution, Feed crops generated $23.2 billion in cash receipts on U. S. farms in 2001. At the same time, farmers spent a total of $24.5 billion on feed that year, in 2011, around 734.5 million tons of feed were produced annually around the world. Corn gluten feed was first manufactured in 1882, while leading world feed producer Purina Feeds was established in 1894 by William Hollington Danforth, Cargill, which was mainly dealing in grains from its beginnings in 1865, started to deal in feed at about 1884
39.
Protein
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Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar
40.
Coffee
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Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted coffee beans, which are the seeds of berries from the Coffea plant. The genus Coffea is native to tropical Africa, and Madagascar, the two most commonly grown are the highly regarded arabica, and the less sophisticated but stronger and more hardy robusta. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried, dried coffee seeds are roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. Roasted beans are ground and brewed with boiling water to produce coffee as a beverage. Coffee is slightly acidic and can have an effect on humans because of its caffeine content. Coffee is one of the most popular drinks in the world and it can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. It is usually served hot, although iced coffee is also served, the earliest credible evidence of coffee-drinking appears in the middle of the 15th century in the Sufi shrines of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee seeds were first roasted and brewed in a way to how it is now prepared. Coffee seeds were first exported from East Africa to Yemen, as the coffea arabica plant is thought to have been indigenous to the former, yemeni traders took coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the seed. By the 16th century, it had reached Persia, Turkey, from there, it spread to Europe and the rest of the world. Coffee is an export commodity, it is the top agricultural export for numerous countries and is among the worlds largest legal agricultural exports. It is one of the most valuable commodities exported by developing countries, green coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Consequently, the markets for fair trade coffee and organic coffee are expanding. The first reference to coffee in the English language is in the form chaona, dated to 1598 and understood to be a misprint of chaoua, equivalent, in the orthography of the time, to chaova. This term and coffee both derive from the Ottoman Turkish kahve, by way of the Italian caffè and it has also been proposed that the source may be the Proto-Central Semitic root q-h-h meaning dark. Alternatively, the word Khat, a plant widely used as stimulant in Yemen and Ethiopia before being supplanted by coffee has been suggested as a possible origin, the expression coffee break was first attested in 1952. The term coffee pot dates from 1705, other accounts attribute the discovery of coffee to Sheikh Omar. According to the ancient chronicle, Omar, who was known for his ability to cure the sick through prayer, was exiled from Mocha in Yemen to a desert cave near Ousab
41.
Joseph Priestley
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He is usually credited with the discovery of oxygen, having isolated it in its gaseous state, although Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Antoine Lavoisier also have a claim to the discovery. However, Priestleys determination to defend phlogiston theory and to reject what would become the chemical revolution eventually left him isolated within the scientific community, Priestleys science was integral to his theology, and he consistently tried to fuse Enlightenment rationalism with Christian theism. In his metaphysical texts, Priestley attempted to combine theism, materialism, and determinism and he believed that a proper understanding of the natural world would promote human progress and eventually bring about the Christian Millennium. Priestley, who believed in the free and open exchange of ideas, advocated toleration and equal rights for religious Dissenters. He spent his last ten years in Northumberland County, Pennsylvania and these educational writings were among Priestleys most popular works. Priestley was born to an established English Dissenting family in Birstall and he was the oldest of six children born to Mary Swift and Jonas Priestley, a finisher of cloth. To ease his mothers burdens, Priestley was sent to live with his grandfather around the age of one and he returned home, five years later, after his mother died. When his father remarried in 1741, Priestley went to live with his aunt and uncle, during his youth, Priestley attended local schools where he learned Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Around 1749, Priestley became seriously ill and believed he was dying, raised as a devout Calvinist, he believed a conversion experience was necessary for salvation, but doubted he had had one. This emotional distress eventually led him to question his upbringing, causing him to reject election. As a result, the elders of his church, the Independent Upper Chapel of Heckmondwike. Priestleys illness left him with a permanent stutter and he gave up any thoughts of entering the ministry at that time, in preparation for joining a relative in trade in Lisbon, he studied French, Italian, and German in addition to Aramaic, and Arabic. Priestley eventually decided to return to his studies and, in 1752, matriculated at Daventry. Because he had read widely, Priestley was allowed to skip the first two years of coursework. He continued his study, this, together with the liberal atmosphere of the school, shifted his theology further leftward. Abhorring dogma and religious mysticism, Rational Dissenters emphasised the rational analysis of the natural world, Priestley later wrote that the book that influenced him the most, save the Bible, was David Hartleys Observations on Man. Hartleys psychological, philosophical, and theological treatise postulated a theory of mind. Hartley aimed to construct a Christian philosophy in both religious and moral facts could be scientifically proven, a goal that would occupy Priestley for his entire life
. PMID 17894873.
