1.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
2.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
3.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
4.
New Zealand
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New Zealand /njuːˈziːlənd/ is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island, or Te Ika-a-Māui, and the South Island, or Te Waipounamu—and around 600 smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, the countrys varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealands capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland, sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE, Polynesians settled in the islands that later were named New Zealand and developed a distinctive Māori culture. In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first European to sight New Zealand, in 1840, representatives of Britain and Māori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, which declared British sovereignty over the islands. In 1841, New Zealand became a colony within the British Empire, today, the majority of New Zealands population of 4.7 million is of European descent, the indigenous Māori are the largest minority, followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders. Reflecting this, New Zealands culture is derived from Māori and early British settlers. The official languages are English, Māori and New Zealand Sign Language, New Zealand is a developed country and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance, such as health, education, economic freedom and quality of life. Since the 1980s, New Zealand has transformed from an agrarian, Queen Elizabeth II is the countrys head of state and is represented by a governor-general. In addition, New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes, the Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau, the Cook Islands and Niue, and the Ross Dependency, which is New Zealands territorial claim in Antarctica. New Zealand is a member of the United Nations, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Pacific Islands Forum, and Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt, in 1645, Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland. British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand, Aotearoa is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the country before the arrival of Europeans. Māori had several names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui for the North Island and Te Waipounamu or Te Waka o Aoraki for the South Island. Early European maps labelled the islands North, Middle and South, in 1830, maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907, this was the accepted norm. The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised and this set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu
5.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
Blue-collar worker
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In English-speaking countries, a blue-collar worker is a working class person who performs non-agricultural manual labour. Often something is physically being built or maintained, in contrast, the white-collar worker typically performs work in an office environment and may involve sitting at a computer or desk. A third type of work is a worker whose labour is related to customer interaction, entertainment. Many occupations blend blue, white or pink industry categorizations, blue-collar work is often paid hourly wage-labor, although some professionals may be paid by the project or salaried. There is a range of payscales for such work depending upon field of specialty. Industrial and manual workers wear durable canvas or cotton clothing that may be soiled during the course of their work. Navy and light blue colors conceal potential dirt or grease on the clothing, helping him or her to appear cleaner. For the same reason, blue is a color for boilersuits which protect a workers clothing. Some blue collar workers have uniforms with the name of the business or the name embroidered or printed on it. Historically the popularity of the color blue among manual labourers contrasts with the popularity of white shirts worn by people in office environments. The blue collar/white collar color scheme has socio-economic class connotations, however, this distinction has become blurred with the increasing importance of skilled labour, and the relative increase in low-paying white-collar jobs. The term blue collar was first used in reference to trades jobs in 1924, Alden, a higher level academic education is often not required for many blue-collar jobs. However, certain fields may require specialized training, licensing or certification as well as a school diploma or GED. With the information revolution, Western nations have moved towards a service, many manufacturing jobs have been offshored to developing nations which pay their workers lower wages. This offshoring has pushed formerly agrarian nations to industrialized economies and concurrently decreased the number of jobs in developed countries. Due to this economic osmosis, the rust belt has experienced high unemployment, poverty, blue-collar can be used as an adjective to describe the environment of the blue-collar worker such as a blue-collar neighborhood, restaurant, or bar
8.
Manual labour
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Manual labour or manual work is physical work done by people, most especially in contrast to that done by machines, and to that done by working animals. It is most literally work done with the hands, and, by figurative extension, for most of human prehistory and history, manual labour and its close cousin, animal labour, have been the primary ways that physical work has been accomplished. To be implemented, they require that sufficient technology exist and that its capital costs be justified by the amount of wages that they will obviate. Thus there is a partial but significant correlation between manual labour and unskilled or semiskilled workers, throughout human existence the latter has involved a spectrum of variants, from slavery, to caste or caste-like systems, to subtler forms of inequality. Economic competition often results in trying to buy labour at the lowest possible cost or to obviate it entirely. It has always been the case for humans that many workers begin their working lives lacking any special level of skill or experience and these conditions have assured the correlations strength and persistence. The phrase hard labour has become a legal euphemism for penal labour. Throughout human existence, but most especially since the Age of Enlightenment, humans have not yet succeeded in instantiating any such utopia, but some social systems have been designed that go far enough toward the goal that hope yet remains for further improvement. Concepts such as the Three-fifths compromise and the Untermensch defined slaves as less than human, one interesting historical trend that is true of all of the systems above is that they began crumbling in the 20th century and have continued crumbling since. Todays forms of them are mostly greatly weakened compared to past generations versions, at the lowest extreme, such distortion produces subtler forms of racism and de facto inequality of opportunity. The more plausible the deniability, the easier the rationalisation and perpetuation, at such areas of the spectrum, it becomes ever harder to justify efforts that use de jure methods to fight de facto imbalances, because valid instances can be highlighted by all sides. A willingness to recognise that manual labour can involve skill and intelligence can take a variety of forms, in its healthier forms, it recognises the dignity and intelligence of blue-collar workers, and it recognises their civil equality with white-collar workers. Yet it simultaneously leaves room in society for meritocracy, allowing both upward and downward social mobility. In its more pathological forms, it may admit that there can be a science of manual labour. Some people would have only the first, others, only the second, therefore, players usually should not be their own coaches. Whether Taylor was capable of predicting and preventing that problem is unclear, an example of the second pathology are 20th-century variants of communism, such as Leninism and Stalinism. Mechanisation and automation strive to reduce the amount of labour required for production. Automation helps to bring mechanisation to more complicated tasks that require dexterity, decision making based on visual input
9.
Pink-collar worker
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In the United States, a pink-collar worker performs jobs in the service industry. Companies may sometimes blend blue, white, and pink industry categorizations, the term pink-collar was popularized in the late 1970s by writer and social critic Louise Kapp Howe to denote women working as nurses, secretaries, and elementary school teachers. Its origins, however, go back to the early 1970s, to when the equal rights amendment, at that time, the term was used to denote secretarial and steno-pool staff as well as non-professional office staff, all of which were largely held by women. De rigueur, these positions were not white-collar jobs, but neither were they blue-collar manual labor, hence, the creation of the term pink collar, which indicated it was not white-collar but was nonetheless an office job, one that was overwhelmingly filled by women. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that, as of May 2008, furthermore, the World Health Organizations 2011 World Health Statistics Report states that there are 19.3 million nurses in the world today. In the United States, women comprise 92. 1% of the nurses that are currently employed. Pink-collar occupations include, Historically, women were responsible for the running of a household and their financial security was often dependent upon a male patriarch. Widowed or divorced women struggled to support themselves and their children, Women began to develop more opportunities when they moved into the paid workplace, formerly of the male domain. In the 20th century women aimed to be treated like the equals of their male counterparts, in 1920 American women won the right to vote, marking a turning point in their roles in life. Many single women traveled to cities like New York where they work in factories and sweatshops, working for low pay operating sewing machines, sorting feathers, rolling tobacco. These factories were dirty, noisy, dark and dangerous, Workers frequently breathed dangerous fumes and worked with flammable materials. Women lost fingers and hands in accidents because in order to save money they were required to clean, unfortunately, most women who worked in the factories did not earn enough money to live on and lived in poverty. Throughout the 20th century certain women helped change womens roles in America, emily Balch, Jane Addams, and Lillian Wald are among the most notable. They created settlement houses and launched missions in crowded, unsanitary neighborhoods where immigrants lived, Balch, Addams, and Wald offered social services to the women and children, often inviting them into their homes and classrooms. Women took on leadership roles starting in the church, Women became involved with the church activities, a few went on to become president of the societies. The Association for the Sociology of Religion was the first to elect a president in 1938. World War I was the beginning of pink-collar jobs as the military needed personnel to type letters, answer phones, one thousand women worked for the U. S. Navy as stenographers, clerks, and telephone operators. The field of nursing also became feminized and was a profession for women
10.
Dress shirt
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A dress shirt, button shirt, button-front, button-front shirt, or button-up shirt is a garment with a collar and a full-length opening at the front, which is fastened using buttons or shirt studs. A button-down or button-down shirt is a shirt which has a button-down collar – a collar having the ends fastened to the shirt with buttons. Dress shirts are made from woven cloth, and are often accompanied by a jacket, collar sleeve, and tie, for example with a suit or formalwear. In British English, dress shirt means specifically the more formal evening garment worn with black- or white-tie, some of these formal shirts have stiff fronts and detachable collars attached with collar studs. Traditionally dress shirts were worn by men and boys, whereas women and girls wore blouses or, sometimes. However, in the mid-1800s, they became an item of womens clothing and are worn by both sexes today. There are various styles of collar, which is the indicator of the formality of a shirt. Those discussed here are all attached collars, not styles specific to detachable collars, the very top button is number 1. Spread collars measure from around 3 1⁄2 to 8 1⁄2 inches between the points, and the wider collars are often referred to as cutaway or Windsor collars after the Duke of Windsor. This city style is formal, though it is common in Europe. Point, straight, or small collars are narrow, with 2 1⁄2 to 4 inches between the points of the collar, button-down collars, or sport collars have points fastened down by buttons on the front of the shirt. Introduced by Brooks Brothers in 1896, they were patterned after the shirts of players and were used exclusively on sports shirts until the 1950s in America. It is still considered a more sporting style, and, particularly outside America, the less-common styles below were all once common, but have waned in popularity. Eyelet collars require a barbell-style collar bar to join the small stitched hole on each point, tab collars are point collars with two strips of fabric extending from the middle of the collar and joined behind the tie. These lift the tie, giving an arc similar to a pinned collar. The tabs can be closed with a snap, button or stud. Club collars have rounded edges, and were popular in the first few decades of the twentieth century. They have recently received a surge in popularity due to television shows like Mad Men, the varsity is a type of spread collar in which the points curve outward from the placket of the shirt
11.
Upton Sinclair
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Upton Sinclair Jr. was an American writer who wrote nearly 100 books and other works in several genres. Sinclairs work was well-known and popular in the first half of the twentieth century, in 1919, he published The Brass Check, a muckraking exposé of American journalism that publicized the issue of yellow journalism and the limitations of the “free press” in the United States. Four years after publication of The Brass Check, the first code of ethics for journalists was created, Time magazine called him a man with every gift except humor and silence. He is also remembered for the line, It is difficult to get a man to understand something. Many of his novels can be read as historical works, writing during the Progressive Era, Sinclair describes the world of industrialized America from both the working mans point of view and the industrialist. Novels like King Coal, The Coal War, Oil. and The Flivver King describe the conditions of the coal, oil. He attacked J. P. Morgan, whom many regarded as a hero for ending the Panic of 1907, the Flivver King describes the rise of Henry Ford, his wage reform, and the companys Sociological Department to his decline into antisemitism as publisher of The Dearborn Independent. King Coal confronts John D. Rockefeller Jr. and his role in the 1913 Ludlow Massacre in the fields of Colorado. Sinclair was an outspoken socialist and ran unsuccessfully for Congress as a nominee from the Socialist Party, Sinclair was born in Baltimore, Maryland, to Upton Beall Sinclair and Priscilla Harden. His father was a salesman whose alcoholism shadowed his sons childhood. Priscilla Harden Sinclair was a strict Episcopalian who disliked alcohol, tea, as a child, Sinclair slept either on sofas or cross-ways on his parents bed. When his father was out for the night, he would sleep alone in the bed with his mother, Sinclair did not get along with her when he became older because of her strict rules and refusal to allow him independence. His mothers family was affluent, her parents were very prosperous in Baltimore. Sinclair had wealthy maternal grandparents with whom he often stayed and this gave him insight into how both the rich and the poor lived during the late nineteenth century. Living in two social settings affected him and greatly influenced his books, as he was growing up, Uptons family moved frequently as his father was not successful in his career. He developed a love for reading when he was five years old and he read every book his mother owned for a deeper understanding of the world. He did not start school until he was ten years old and he was deficient in math and worked hard to catch up quickly because of his embarrassment. In 1888, the Sinclair family moved to Queens, New York, Upton entered the City College of New York five days before his 14th birthday, on September 15,1892
12.
Agrarian society
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An agrarian society is any society whose economy is based on producing and maintaining crops and farmland. Another way to define an agrarian society is by seeing how much of a total production is in agriculture. In an agrarian society cultivating the land is the source of wealth. Such a society may acknowledge other means of livelihood and work habits but stresses the importance of agriculture, Agrarian societies have existed in various parts of the world as far back as 10,000 years ago and continue to exist today. They have been the most common form of organization for most of recorded human history. Agrarian societies were preceded by hunter and gatherer societies and horticultural societies, the transition to agriculture, called the Neolithic Revolution, has taken place independently multiple times. Horticulture and agriculture as types of subsistence developed among humans somewhere between 10,000 and 8,000 years ago in the Fertile Crescent region of the Middle East. The reasons for the development of agriculture are debated but may have included climate change and the accumulation of food surplus for competitive gift-giving. In addition to the emergence of farming in the Fertile Crescent, agriculture appeared in, by at least 6,800 B. C. E. in East Asia and, later, in Central and South America. Small-scale agriculture also likely arose independently in early Neolithic contexts in India, however, full dependency on domestic crops and animals, when wild resources contributed a nutritionally insignificant component to the diet, did not occur until the Bronze Age. Agriculture allows a greater density of population than can be supported by hunting and gathering. Agrarian societies thus support the emergence of a complex social structure. In agrarian societies, some of the correlations between social complexity and environment begin to disappear. But environmental factors may play a strong role as variables that affect the internal structure. It is now clear that agriculture was adopted despite certain disadvantages of that lifestyle, archeological studies show that health deteriorated in populations that adopted cereal agriculture, returning to pre-agricultural levels only in modem times. This is in part attributable to the spread of infection in crowded cities, people in many parts of the world remained hunter-gatherers until quite recently, though they were quite aware of the existence and methods of agriculture, they declined to undertake it. Many explanations have been offered, usually centered around a factor that forced the adoption of agriculture. Agrarian societies transition into industrial societies when less than half of their population is engaged in agricultural production
13.
Industrial society
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In sociology, industrial society refers to a society driven by the use of technology to enable mass production, supporting a large population with a high capacity for division of labour. Such a structure developed in the west in the period of following the Industrial Revolution. Industrial societies are generally mass societies, and may be succeeded by an Information society and they are often contrasted to with the traditional societies. Industrial society is characterized by the use of energy sources, such as fossil fuels, to increase the rate. No longer needed for the production of food, excess labor is moved into these factories where mechanization is utilized to increase efficiency. As populations grow, and mechanization is further refined, often to the level of automation and this leads to the rise of very large cities and surrounding suburban areas with a high rate of economic activity. This makes the reliable availability of the energy resources high priority in industrial government policies. The triggering technology for the change from an agricultural to an organisation was steam power, allowing mass production. Thus many industrial cities are built around rivers, identified as catalyst or trigger for the transition to post-modern or informational society is global information technology. Post-industrial society Food industry Grinin, L. Periodization of History, tonkiss, Fran Contemporary Economic Sociology, Globalisation, production, inequality, Routledge, ISBN0415300940
14.
Developed country
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Which criteria are to be used and which countries can be classified as being developed are subjects of debate. Developed countries have post-industrial economies, meaning the sector provides more wealth than the industrial sector. They are contrasted with developing countries, which are in the process of industrialization, or undeveloped countries, which are pre-industrial and almost entirely agrarian. As of 2015, advanced economies comprise 60. 8% of global GDP based on values and 42. 9% of global GDP based on purchasing-power parity according to the International Monetary Fund. In 2015, the ten largest advanced economies by GDP in both nominal and PPP terms were Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The term industrialized country may be ambiguous, as industrialization is an ongoing process that is hard to define. The first industrialized country was the United Kingdom, followed by Belgium, later it spread further to Germany, United States, France and other Western European countries. According to some such as Jeffrey Sachs, however, the current divide between the developed and developing world is largely a phenomenon of the 20th century. Economic criteria have tended to dominate discussions, one such criterion is income per capita, countries with high gross domestic product per capita would thus be described as developed countries. Another economic criterion is industrialization, countries in which the tertiary and quaternary sectors of industry dominate would thus be described as developed. More recently another measure, the Human Development Index, which combines an economic measure, national income, with other measures, indices for life expectancy and this criterion would define developed countries as those with a very high rating. According to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the UN HDI is a statistical measure that gauges a countrys level of human development. While there is a correlation between having a high HDI score and a prosperous economy, the UN points out that the HDI accounts for more than income or productivity. Unlike GDP per capita or per capita income, the HDI takes into account how income is turned into education and health opportunities, since 1990, Norway, Japan, Canada and Iceland have had the highest HDI score. The top 47 countries have scores ranging from 0.793 in Barbados to 0.955 in Norway, many countries listed by IMF or CIA as advanced, possess an HDI over 0.788. Many countries possessing an HDI of 0.788 and over are also listed by IMF or CIA as advanced, thus, many advanced economies are characterized by an HDI score of 0.9 or higher. Since April 2016, the IMF classifies Macau as an advanced economy, the latest index was released on 14 December 2015 and covers the period up to 2014. The following are the 49 countries in the top quartile - having an HDI above 0.8, = Increase = No increase or decrease = Decrease The number in parentheses represents the number of ranks the country has climbed relative to the ranking in 2014 report
15.
Outsourcing
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In business, outsourcing involves the contracting out of a business process and operational, and/or non-core functions to another party. The concept outsourcing came from the American Glossary outside resourcing and it dates back to at least 1981, Outsourcing sometimes involves transferring employees and assets from one firm to another, but not always. Outsourcing is also the practice of handing control of public services to private enterprise. Outsourcing includes both foreign and domestic contracting, and sometimes includes offshoring or nearshoring, many people confuse outsourcing and offshoring – however they are different. A company can outsource and not offshore to a distant country, for example, in 2003 Procter and Gamble outsourced their facilities management support, but it did not involve offshoring. Financial savings from lower international labor rates can provide a major motivation for outsourcing or offshoring, there can be tremendous savings from lower international labor rates when offshoring. The opposite of outsourcing, insourcing, entails bringing processes handled by third-party firms in-house, however, a business can provide a contract service to another organization without necessarily insourcing that business process. Two organizations may enter into an agreement involving an exchange of services, expertise. Outsourcing is said to help firms to perform well in their core competencies, fuel innovation, in the early 21st century, businesses increasingly outsourced to suppliers outside their own country, sometimes referred to as offshoring or offshore outsourcing. and Vested outsourcing. Outsourcing can offer greater flexibility and control. Outsourcing allows organizations to pay for the services and business functions they need and it also reduces the need to hire and train specialized staff, brings in fresh engineering expertise, and can reduce capital and operating expenses and risk. Do what you do best and outsource the rest has become an internationally recognized business tagline first coined and developed in the 1990s by the management consultant Peter Drucker. The slogan was used to advocate outsourcing as a viable business strategy. It has been said that Mr. Drucker began explaining the concept of Outsourcing as early as 1989 in his Wall Street Journal article entitled Sell the Mailroom, from Druckers perspective, a company should only seek to subcontract in those areas in which it demonstrated no special ability. In 2009 by way of recognition, Peter Drucker posthumously received a significant honor, recently, innovative business models have been developed to help reduce the cost for outsourcing. In particular, these models may leverage on group bargaining power by aggregating similar outsourcing demands from various organizations when negotiating with external contractors. The incentive to outsource may be greater for U. S. companies due to unusually high taxes and mandated benefits, like social security, Medicare. At the same time, it appears U. S. companies do not outsource to reduce executive or managerial costs, for instance, executive pay in the United States in 2007 was more than 400 times more than average workers—a gap 20 times bigger than it was in 1965
16.
Knowledge worker
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Knowledge workers are workers whose main capital is knowledge. Examples include software engineers, physicians, pharmacists, architects, engineers, scientists, public accountants, lawyers, Knowledge work can be differentiated from other forms of work by its emphasis on non-routine problem solving that requires a combination of convergent, divergent, and creative thinking. But despite the amount of research and literature on knowledge work, mosco and McKercher outline various viewpoints on the matter. It should thus be acknowledged that the knowledge worker can be quite broad in its meaning. Knowledge workers spend 38% of their time searching for information and they are also often displaced from their bosses, working in various departments and time zones or from remote sites such as home offices and airport lounges. As businesses increase their dependence on technology, the number of fields in which knowledge workers must operate has expanded dramatically. Managing knowledge workers can be a difficult task, most knowledge workers prefer some level of autonomy, and do not like being overseen or managed. Those who manage knowledge workers are often knowledge workers themselves, or have been in the past, projects must be carefully considered before assigning to a knowledge worker, as their interest and goals will affect the quality of the completed project. Knowledge workers must be treated as individuals, the manner in which each of the creative applications is applied is dependent on the role of the creative workers. This type of work includes a combination of skill sets or ‘creative knowledge work capacities. Other sector-related creative applications include a connection in the advertising sector. Creative workers also require abilities and aptitudes, linking these abilities and capacities are collaborative ways of working, which the findings from this study have identified. The two modes of working ranged from individual to collaborative where a worker might be doing either or both depending on the specific activity, the abilities to traverse between these two work modes alongside the relevant creative application are part of the complexity of this style of working. Creative workers also require an understanding of forms of knowledge. These are related to such as those from the humanities. Creative knowledge workers also require technical-related knowledge such as mathematics and computer sciences, in the IT software sector, technical knowledge of software languages is especially significant for programmers as ascertained in the findings. The technical know-how for a creative director relates only to the understanding of the possibilities of technologies in order to capitalise on the technical wizardry, the technical specialists are then required to execute the creative directors vision. As ascertained in the findings, there was other non-disciplinary knowledge, interviewees mentioned tacit experiences from their past work and life experiences, which they used to draw upon in performing their creative knowledge work
17.
White-collar crime
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White-collar crime refers to financially motivated nonviolent crime committed by business and government professionals. Within criminology, it was first defined by sociologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939 as a crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the course of his occupation. Some crime is only possible because of the identity of the offender, Shover and Wright point to the essential neutrality of a crime as enacted in a statute. It almost inevitably describes conduct in the abstract, not by reference to the character of the persons performing it, thus, the only way that one crime differs from another is in the backgrounds and characteristics of its perpetrators. By organizational culture rather than the offender or offense which overlaps with organized crime, organizational or corporate crime which occurs when corporate executives commit criminal acts to benefit their company by overcharging or price fixing, false advertising, etc. The types of crime committed are a function of what is available to the potential offender, blue-collar crime tends to be more obvious and thus attracts more active police attention such as vandalism or shoplifting. In contrast, white-collar employees can incorporate legitimate and criminal behavior and it is estimated that a great deal of white-collar crime is undetected or, if detected, it is not reported. Corporate crime deals with the company as a whole, the crime benefits the investors or the individuals who are in high positions in the company or corporation. The relationship white-collar crime has with corporate crime is that they are similar because both are involved within the business world. Their difference is that white-collar crime benefits the individual involved, one well-known insider trading case in the United States is the ImClone stock trading case. In December 2001, top-level executives sold their shares in ImClone Systems, the SEC reached a settlement in 2005. Although law enforcement claims to have prioritized white-collar crime, evidence shows that it continues to be a low priority, when senior levels of a corporation engage in criminal activity using the company this is sometimes called control fraud. Some examples include human trafficking, money laundering, drug smuggling, illegal arms dealing, terrorism, the two most common forms are theft and fraud. Theft can be of varying degrees, from a pencil to furnishings to a car, insider trading, the trading of stock by someone with access to publicly unavailable information, is a type of fraud. In the modern world, there are a lot of nations which divide the crimes into some laws, crimes Related to Inducement of Foreign Aggression is the crime of communicating with aliens secretly to cause foreign aggression or menace. Crimes Related to Foreign Aggression is the treason of cooperating with foreign aggression positively regardless of the national inside and outside, crimes Related to Insurrection is the internal treason. Depending on a country, conspiracy is added to these, in the United States, sentences for white-collar crimes may include a combination of imprisonment, fines, restitution, community service, disgorgement, probation, or other alternative punishment. In other countries, such as China, white-collar criminals can be given the death penalty, certain countries like Canada consider the relationship between the parties to be a significant feature on sentence when there is a breach of trust component involved
18.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
19.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
20.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
21.
Social class
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Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, anthropologists, and social historians. However, there is not a consensus on the best definition of the class, the precise measurements of what determines social class in society has varied over time. According to philosopher Karl Marx, class is determined entirely by ones relationship to the means of production, the term class is etymologically derived from the Latin classis, which was used by census takers to categorize citizens by wealth, in order to determine military service obligations. In the late 18th century, the class began to replace classifications such as estates, rank. Historically social class and behavior was sometimes laid down in law, definitions of social classes reflect a number of sociological perspectives, informed by anthropology, economics, psychology, and sociology. The major perspectives historically have been Marxism and Structural functionalism, the common stratum model of class divides society into a simple hierarchy of working class, middle class and upper class. For Marx, class is a combination of objective and subjective factors, objectively, a class shares a common relationship to the means of production. Subjectively, the members will necessarily have some perception of their similarity, Class consciousness is not simply an awareness of ones own class interest but is also a set of shared views regarding how society should be organized legally, culturally, socially and politically. These class relations are reproduced through time and this is the fundamental economic structure of work and property, a state of inequality that is normalized and reproduced through cultural ideology. Marxists explain the history of civilized societies in terms of a war of classes between those who control production and those who produce the goods or services in society, in the Marxist view of capitalism, this is a conflict between capitalists and wage-workers. Furthermore, in countries where modern civilisation has become fully developed, an industrial army of workmen, under the command of a capitalist, requires, like a real army, officers and sergeants who, while the work is being done, command in the name of the capitalist. This would mark the beginning of a society in which human needs rather than profit would be motive for production. In a society with democratic control and production for use, there would be no class, no state and no need for financial and banking institutions and money. Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, that saw social class as emerging from an interplay between class, status and power. Weber believed that class position was determined by a relationship to the means of production. Weber derived many of his key concepts on social stratification by examining the structure of many countries. He noted that contrary to Marxs theories, stratification was based on more than simply ownership of capital, Weber pointed out that some members of the aristocracy lack economic wealth yet might nevertheless have political power. Likewise in Europe, many wealthy Jewish families in lack prestige and honor, Class, A persons economic position in a society
22.
Social status
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Social status is the position or rank of a person or group, within the society. Status can be determined in two ways, one can earn their social status by their own achievements, which is known as achieved status. Alternatively, one can be placed in the system by their inherited position. An embodied status is one that is generated by physical characteristics located within our physical selves, the status that is the most important for an individual at a given time is called master status. Ascribed statuses can also be defined as those that are fixed for an individual at birth, ascribed statuses that exist in all societies include those based upon sex, race, ethnic group and family background. For example, a born into a wealthy family characterized by traits such as popularity, talents. Therefore, they are given and taught many social roles as they are positioned into a family becoming equipped with all these traits. Achieved status means also what the individual acquires during his or her lifetime as a result of the exercise of knowledge, ability, Social status is used in many parts of the world. Hierarchy can be conveyed and detected through voice, Status refers to the relative rank that an individual holds, this includes attendant rights, duties, and lifestyle, in a social hierarchy based upon honor or prestige. Status has two different types that come along with it, achieved, and ascribed, the word status refers to social stratification on a vertical scale. In society, pariah status groups are regarded with disdain or treated as outcasts by the majority of the population, the term derives from the Paraiyar, members of which are treated as outcasts in Hindu society. In modern societies, occupation is thought of as the main determinant of status. Achieved status is when people are placed in the structure based on their individual merits or achievements. This status can be achieved through education, occupation, and marital status and their place within the stratification structure is determined by societys bar, which often judges them on success, success being financial, academic, political and so on. America most commonly uses this form of status with jobs, the higher you are in rank the better off you are and the more control you have over your co-workers. In pre-modern societies, status differentiation is widely varied, in some cases it can be quite rigid and class based, such as with the Indian caste system. In other cases, status exists without class and/or informally, as is true with some Hunter-Gatherer societies such as the Khoisan, in these cases, status is limited to specific personal relationships. For example, a Khoisan man is expected to take his wifes mother quite seriously, all societies have a form of social status
23.
Mudsill theory
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Mudsill theory is a sociological term indicating the proposition that there must be, and always has been, a lower class for the upper classes to rest upon. The term derives from a mudsill, the lowest threshold that supports the foundation for a building, efforts to reduce class or racial inequality, under this theory, inevitably run counter to civilization itself. Many saw the argument as a justification for exploitation. It was directly used to advocate slavery in the rhetoric of others pre-Civil War Democrats, abraham Lincoln argued forcefully against the mudsill theory, particularly in a speech in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in 1859, where he delineated its incompatibility with Free Soil. In his view, mudsill advocates conclude that all laborers are necessarily either hired laborers, or slaves, since to them, nobody labors unless somebody else, further, mudsillers believed that these laborers were fatally fixed in their status. Northern soldiers fighting in the Western Theater of the Civil War turned this derogatory term into one of self pride, as in Western Mudsill
24.
Three-component theory of stratification
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Weber developed a multidimensional approach to social stratification that reflects the interplay among wealth, prestige and power. Weber argued that power can take a variety of forms, a person’s power can be shown in the social order through their status, in the economic order through their class, and in the political order through their party. Thus, class, status and party are each aspects of the distribution of power within a community, Class, status and party have not only a great deal of effect within their individual areas but also a great deal of influence over the other areas. This essay was shortly before World War I and was published posthumously in 1922 as part of Webers Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft. It was translated into English in the 1940s as Class, Status, Party and has been re-translated as The distribution of power within the community, Classes, Stände, according to Weber, the ability to possess power derives from the individuals ability to control various social resources. These resources can be anything and everything, they might include land, capital, social respect, physical strength, and intellectual knowledge. The ability to exercise power takes a number of different forms, “Class, at its core, is an economic concept, it is the position of individuals in the market that determines their class position. And it is how one is situated in the marketplace that directly affects one’s life chances. ” and this was theorized by Weber on the basis of unequal access to material resources. For example, if someone possesses something that you want or need then this makes him more powerful than you. He is in a dominant position and you are in a position because he controls access to a desired social resource. A classic illustration here is the relationship between an employer and employee, if you respect someone or view him as your social superior, then he will potentially be able to exercise power over you. In this respect, social status is a social resource simply because he may have it while you may not, not all power, however entails social honor, The Typical American Boss, as well as the typical big speculator, deliberately relinquishes social honor. Quite generally, mere economic power, and especially naked money power, is by no means a recognized basis or social honor. Parties are associations that aim at securing “power within an organization for its leaders in order to attain ideal or material advantages for its active members. ”This form of power can be related to the way in which the State is organized in social systems. If you can influence this process of law creation then you will be in a powerful position. Thus, by your ability to influence a decision-making process you possess power, Social action is in direct relation to political or party power in combination with the class situation. The influence of laws is based on the action of members of the classes. It is also likened to the extent of the contrasts that have already evolved. ”, class-conscious action is most likely if, first, the connection between the causes and consequences of the class situation are transparent, or clear
25.
Caste
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Its paradigmatic ethnographic example is the division of Indian society into rigid social groups, with roots in Indias ancient history and persisting until today. However, the significance of the caste system in India has been declining as a result of urbanization. The term is applied to non-human populations like ants and bees. The English word caste derives from the Spanish and Portuguese casta, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they used the word to mean a clan or lineage. The use of the caste, with this latter meaning, is first attested to in English in 1613. Modern Indias caste system is based on the social groupings called jāti, the system of varnas appears in Hindu texts dating back to 1000 BCE and envisages the society divided into four classes, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The texts do not mention any separate, untouchable category in varna classification, scholars believe that the system of varnas was a theoretical classification envisioned by the Brahmins, but never truly operational in the society. The practical division of the society had always been in terms of jātis, which are not based on any specific principle, but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations. The jātis have been endogamous groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle, starting with the British colonial Census of 1901 led by Herbert Hope Risley, all the jātis were grouped under the theoretical varnas categories. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the varnas, as it provided a convenient shorthand, upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 castes across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination. The Untouchable communities are sometimes called Scheduled Castes, Dalit or Harijan in contemporary literature, in 2001, Dalits were 16. 2% of Indias population. Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes, independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. Indias National Crime Records Bureau records crimes against scheduled castes and scheduled tribes – the most disadvantaged groups - in a separate category, the socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanization and affirmative action. Nevertheless, the system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and thrives in the politics of democracy. The globalization and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of Indias middle-class population, some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. The co-existence of the middle-class and traditional members in the CPCC has created intersectionality between caste and class, there is persistence of caste in Indian politics. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties, political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilization of people and policy development. It is not politics that gets caste-ridden, it is caste that gets politicized, the Nepalese caste system resembles that of the Indian jāti system with numerous jāti divisions with a varna system superimposed for a rough equivalence
26.
Class conflict
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The view that the class struggle provides the lever for radical social change for the majority is central to the work of Karl Marx and the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin. In the past the term Class conflict was a term used mostly by socialists, from this point of view, the social control of production and labor is a contest between classes, and the division of these resources necessarily involves conflict and inflicts harm. It can involve ongoing low-level clashes, escalate into massive confrontations, however, in more contemporary times this term is striking chords and finding new definition amongst capitalistic societies in the United States and other Westernized countries. This was only a potential, and class struggle was, he argued, not always the only or decisive factor in society, by contrast, Marxists argue that class conflict always plays the decisive and pivotal role in the history of class-based hierarchical systems such as capitalism and feudalism. Marxists refer to its overt manifestations as class war, a struggle whose resolution in favor of the class is viewed by them as inevitable under plutocratic capitalism. Where societies are socially divided based on status, wealth, or control of production and distribution. It is well documented since at least European Classical Antiquity and the popular uprisings in late medieval Europe. One of the earliest analysis of these conflicts is Friedrich Engels The Peasant War in Germany, one of the earliest analyses of the development of class as the development of conflicts between emergent classes is available in Peter Kropotkins Mutual Aid. In this work, Kropotkin analyzes the disposal of goods after death in pre-class or hunter-gatherer societies, chris Hedges wrote a column for Truthdig called Lets Get This Class War Started, which was a play on Pinks song Lets Get This Party Started. And I think that can go on for so long without there being more and more outbreaks of what used to be called class struggle. The particular implementation of government programs which may seem purely humanitarian, such as disaster relief, in the USA class conflict is often noted in labor/management disputes. Although Thomas Jefferson led the United States as president from 1801–1809 and is considered one of the founding fathers, among the former, public opinion is in the place of law, & restrains morals as powerfully as laws ever did anywhere. Among the latter, under pretence of governing they have divided their nations into two classes, wolves & sheep and this is a true picture of Europe. Cherish therefore the spirit of our people, and keep alive their attention, do not be too severe upon their errors, but reclaim them by enlightening them. If once they become inattentive to the affairs, you & I, & Congress & Assemblies, judges & governors shall all become wolves. In 2005 Buffet said to CNN, Its class warfare, my class is winning, but they shouldnt be. In a November 2006 interview in The New York Times, Buffett stated that here’s class warfare all right, but it’s my class, the class, that’s making war. Later Warren gave away more than half of his fortune to charitable causes through a developed by himself
27.
Euthenics
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Euthenics /juːˈθɛnɪks/ is the study of the improvement of human functioning and well-being by improvement of living conditions. Rose Field notes of the definition in a May 23,1926 New York Times article, the Flynn effect has been often cited as an example of euthenics. Another example is the increase in body size in industrialized countries since the beginning of the 20th century. The term was derived in the late 19th century from the Greek verb eutheneo, also from the Greek Euthenia, Εὐθηνία. Good state of the body, prosperity, good fortune, abundance. —Herodotus, the opposite of Euthenia is Penia, Πενία the personification of poverty and need. Ellen H. Swallow Richards was one of the first writers to use the term, in The Cost of Shelter and it is unclear if any of the study programs of euthenics ever completely embraced Richards multidisciplinary concept, though several nuances remain today, especially that of interdisciplinarity. After Richards death in 1911, Julia Lathrop - one of Vassars most distinguished alumnae - continued to promote the development of a program in euthenics at the college. Lathrop soon teamed with alumna Minnie Cumnock Blodgett, who with her husband, John Wood Blodgett, curriculum planning, suggested by Vassar president Henry Noble MacCracken in 1922, began in earnest by 1923, under the direction of Professor Annie Louise Macleod. According to Vassars chronology entry for March 17,1924, the faculty recognized euthenics as a field for sequential study. With the new division came the first major in child study at an American liberal arts college, the Vassar Summer Institute of Euthenics accepted its first students in June 1926. Created to supplement the controversial euthenics major which began February 21,1925, some Vassar faculty members contentiously believed the entire concept of euthenics was vague and counter-productive to womens progress. Having overcome a lukewarm reception, Vassar College officially opened its Minnie Cumnock Blodgett Hall of Euthenics in 1929, Dr. Ruth Wheeler took over as director of euthenics studies in 1924. Wheeler remained director until Mary Shattuck Fisher Langmuir succeeded her in 1944, the college continued for the 1934–35 academic year its successful cooperative housing experiment in three residence halls. Intended to help meet their college costs by working in their residences. For example, in Main, students earned $40 a year by doing relatively light work such as cleaning their rooms. In 1951, Katharine Blodgett Hadley donated $400,000, through the Rubicon Foundation, to Vassar to help fund operating deficits in the current and succeeding years and to improve faculty salaries. Discontinued for financial reasons, the Vassar Summer Institute for Family and Community Living, founded in 1926 as the Vassar Summer Institute of Euthenics, held its last session and this was the first and last session for the institutes new director, Dr. Mervin Freedman. Elmira College is noted as the oldest college still in existence which granted degrees to women which were the equivalent of those given to men, Elmira College became coeducational in all of its programs in 1969
28.
Nouveau riche
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Tuhao is a Chinese term referring to people of wealth. The term has several related and differing definitions, the term in its original literary form refers to those of prominent & wealthy backgrounds. In the internet age, the term has also became a slang used to describe nouveau riche. Pejoratively, the slang can be understood to carry on the meaning of uncouth nouveau riche. The term ‘tuhao’ was originally used in ancient China, dating back to the Northern and Southern Dynasties around 1500 years ago, the term originally referred to those of prominent origin, especially people of influential and wealthy backgrounds. They won by their purchasing power rather than their online game techniques or tactics and its usage has now extended to daily life. People who purchase an amount of figures, models and luxury goods are also given the nickname ‘Tuhao’. The word ‘Tuhao’ has gone viral recently since its first appearance as a joke on the Chinese social platform Weibo in 2013, A young man asks a Buddhist monk, ‘Im wealthy, what should I do. ’ The Buddhist monk says, Define wealthy. The young man answers, ‘I have millions in the bank, is that wealthy. ’ The Buddhist monk silently holds out a hand. The joke implied that the wealth was so substantial that it even made a Buddhist monk greedy. The word tuhao comprises two Chinese characters, one meaning “soil or earth, ” the other meaning “grandeur. ”“Tuhao jin” is a derived from “tuhao”. On September 20,2013, Apple Inc. launched a new champagne gold iPhone 5s, the official price for the golden version of the iPhone 5s was 5,288 yuan. But in China, the price of a golden iPhone 5s was above 8,800 yuan and it had become a must-have item for many Chinese and soon sold out in China, prompting huge reactions on the Chinese internet. The media nicknamed the gold color as “tuhao jin”, denoting the lavish, garish. On the Chinese social network Weibo, one user mocked the building’s golden exterior, exclaiming, what a massive ‘tuhao jin’…” The fact is that Chinese has always had derogatory terms for the rich and unsophisticated. Tuhao is significant not because it is another term, but because it is a parody of such terms. Tuhao indicates fusions of rustic roots with material ambition and gaudy expressions, however, in taking this to the nth degree, the term also evinces a new capacity for Chinese to laugh at themselves. It also heralds a future where face-driven materialism will be less obviously paramount in consumption, related trends can be seen all over Chinas consumer economy today, not least in changes to the luxury sector
The dictionary definition of white-collar at Wiktionary
