1.
Mediterranean Sea
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The sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a separate body of water. The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning inland or in the middle of land and it covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km2, but its connection to the Atlantic is only 14 km wide. The Strait of Gibraltar is a strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Gibraltar. In oceanography, it is called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from mediterranean seas elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has a depth of 1,500 m. The sea is bordered on the north by Europe, the east by Asia and it is located between latitudes 30° and 46° N and longitudes 6° W and 36° E. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, the seas average north-south length, from Croatia’s southern shore to Libya, is approximately 800 km. The Mediterranean Sea, including the Sea of Marmara, has an area of approximately 2,510,000 square km. The sea was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that allowed for trade, the history of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. In addition, the Gaza Strip and the British Overseas Territories of Gibraltar and Akrotiri, the term Mediterranean derives from the Latin word mediterraneus, meaning amid the earth or between land, as it is between the continents of Africa, Asia and Europe. The Ancient Greek name Mesogeios, is similarly from μέσο, between + γη, land, earth) and it can be compared with the Ancient Greek name Mesopotamia, meaning between rivers. The Mediterranean Sea has historically had several names, for example, the Carthaginians called it the Syrian Sea and latter Romans commonly called it Mare Nostrum, and occasionally Mare Internum. Another name was the Sea of the Philistines, from the people inhabiting a large portion of its shores near the Israelites, the sea is also called the Great Sea in the General Prologue by Geoffrey Chaucer. In Ottoman Turkish, it has also been called Bahr-i Sefid, in Modern Hebrew, it has been called HaYam HaTikhon, the Middle Sea, reflecting the Seas name in ancient Greek, Latin, and modern languages in both Europe and the Middle East. Similarly, in Modern Arabic, it is known as al-Baḥr al-Mutawassiṭ, in Turkish, it is known as Akdeniz, the White Sea since among Turks the white colour represents the west. Several ancient civilisations were located around the Mediterranean shores, and were influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonisation, and war, as well as food for numerous communities throughout the ages, due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilisations in classical antiquity were the Greek city states, later, when Augustus founded the Roman Empire, the Romans referred to the Mediterranean as Mare Nostrum
2.
Aegean Sea
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The Aegean Sea is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the Greek and Anatolian peninsulas, i. e. between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles, the Aegean Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including Crete and Rhodes. The sea was known as Archipelago, but in English this words meaning has changed to refer to the Aegean Islands and, generally. In ancient times, there were various explanations for the name Aegean, a possible etymology is a derivation from the Greek word αἶγες – aiges = waves, hence wavy sea, cf. also αἰγιαλός, hence meaning sea-shore. The Venetians, who ruled many Greek islands in the High and Late Middle Ages, popularized the name Archipelago, in some South Slavic languages the Aegean is often called White Sea. The Aegean Sea covers about 214,000 square kilometres in area, the seas maximum depth is 3,543 metres, east of Crete. The Aegean Islands are found within its waters, with the following islands delimiting the sea on the south, Kythera, Antikythera, Crete, Kasos, Karpathos, many of the Aegean Islands, or chains of islands, are actually extensions of the mountains on the mainland. One chain extends across the sea to Chios, another extends across Euboea to Samos, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Aegean Sea as follows, On the South. In the Dardanelles. A line joining Kum Kale and Cape Helles, the dense Mediterranean water sinks below the Black Sea inflow to a depth of 23–30 metres, then flows through the Dardanelles Strait and into the Sea of Marmara at velocities of 5–15 cm/s. The Black Sea outflow moves westward along the northern Aegean Sea, Aegean Sea Intermediate Water – Aegean Sea Intermediate Water extends from 40–50 m to 200–300 metres with temperatures ranging from 11–18 °C. Aegean Sea Bottom Water – occurring at depths below 500–1000 m with a uniform temperature. The current coastline dates back to about 4000 BC, before that time, at the peak of the last ice age sea levels everywhere were 130 metres lower, and there were large well-watered coastal plains instead of much of the northern Aegean. When they were first occupied, the islands including Milos with its important obsidian production were probably still connected to the mainland. The present coastal arrangement appeared c.7000 BC, with post-ice age sea levels continuing to rise for another 3,000 years after that, the subsequent Bronze Age civilizations of Greece and the Aegean Sea have given rise to the general term Aegean civilization. In ancient times, the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations – the Minoans of Crete and the Mycenean Civilization of the Peloponnese, later arose the city-states of Athens and Sparta among many others that constituted the Athenian Empire and Hellenic Civilization. Plato described the Greeks living round the Aegean like frogs around a pond, the Aegean Sea was later invaded by the Persians and the Romans, and inhabited by the Byzantine Empire, the Bulgarians, the Venetians, the Genoese, the Seljuq Turks, and the Ottoman Empire. The Aegean was the site of the democracies, and its seaways were the means of contact among several diverse civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean. Many of the islands in the Aegean have safe harbours and bays, in ancient times, navigation through the sea was easier than travelling across the rough terrain of the Greek mainland
3.
Morgan Kibby
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Morgan Grace Kibby is an American singer and songwriter based in Los Angeles, California. She has fronted The Romanovs and has collaborated and toured with M83, in recent years she has developed a solo project called White Sea, releasing an EP The Frontier and an album In Cold Blood. After the release of In Cold Blood, she has been creating and releasing singles under a new maxim- to release music without using EPs or Albums. She also composed the score of Eva Hussons movie, Bang Gang in 2016, born in Barrow, Alaska to Charles and Lauri, Kibby grew up in San Francisco where besides vocal training she studied piano and cello in her teens. She also performed as part of the chorus of the San Francisco Opera, in 2003, Kibby released an EP entitled Beggars Alchemy, doing vocals, cello, and piano. Soon after the release she began performing with the musicians that would form The Romanovs, including Dan Rosa, in 2005, the band released the. And the Moon Was Hungry. For a short time the group were just known as Morgan and soon evolved into Morgan. In 2007, the band started to re-mix and re-master their first release, new percussion, cello, violin, piano and vocals were added to former tracks as well as two new studio recordings titled Fever Pitch and Mr. Okada. This was the first release with the band operating under their new name, in 2007, they won a Toronto Independent Music Awards for Best USA Band, but the same year the band when on hiatus while Kibby joined M83. Kibby provided keys and arrangements for M83 on their fifth release, Saturdays = Youth. Too Late and Skin of the Night, subsequently, she completed a tour with the band throughout Australia, Europe and the United States during 2008. She continued to tour with M83 in 2009 as they opened for The Kings of Leon in the U. K, the Killers on their U. S. arena concert tour and for some dates of Depeche Mode Tour of the Universe. In 2011, Kibby contributed to M83s sixth full-length album Hurry Up, Were Dreaming, providing vocals, keyboards and she co-wrote the songs Intro, Midnight City, and Reunion. On collaborating with Anthony Gonzalez she stated that I take a lot of inspiration from watching him work, in December 2015 it was revealed that Kibby was no longer part of M83. Kibby has embarked on a project since touring with M83, called White Sea. Her first track, a remix of Solid Golds Synchronize, first appeared on her MySpace, a second track titled Overdrawn was released to her MySpace in March, revealing a new musical direction for Kibby. On September 30, a new track, Mountaineer, became available for download on the RCRD LBL website. An EP, This Frontier, was released on October 5,2010, lots of disco references for the guitars
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Body of water
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A body of water or waterbody is any significant accumulation of water, generally on a planets surface. The term most often refers to oceans, seas, and lakes, a body of water does not have to be still or contained, Rivers, streams, canals, and other geographical features where water moves from one place to another are also considered bodies of water. Most are naturally occurring geographical features, but some are artificial, there are types that can be either. For example, most reservoirs are created by engineering dams, similarly, most harbors are naturally occurring bays, but some harbors have been created through construction. Bodies of water that are navigable are known as waterways, some bodies of water collect and move water, such as rivers and streams, and others primarily hold water, such as lakes and oceans. The term body of water can also refer to a reservoir of water held by a plant, note that there are some geographical features involving water that are not bodies of water, for example waterfalls, geysers and rapids. Arm of the sea - also sea arm, used to describe a sea loch, arroyo - a usually dry creek bed or gulch that temporarily fills with water after a heavy rain, or seasonally. Artificial lake or artificial pond - see reservoir or impoundment, barachois - a lagoon separated from the ocean by a sand bar. Bay - an area of water bordered by land on three sides, similar to, but smaller than a gulf, bayou - a slow-moving stream or a marshy lake. Bight - a large and often only slightly receding bay, or a bend in any geographical feature, billabong - see Oxbow lake, a pond or still body of water created when a river changes course and some water becomes trapped. Boil - see Seep Brook - a small stream, canal - an artificial waterway, usually connected to existing lakes, rivers, or oceans. Channel - the physical confine of a river, slough or ocean consisting of a bed. See also stream bed and strait, earth scientists generally use the term to describe a circular or round inlet with a narrow entrance, though colloquially the term is sometimes used to describe any sheltered bay. Basin - a region of land where water from rain or snowmelt drains downhill into another body of water, such as a river, lake, creek - an inlet of the sea, narrower than a cove. Delta - the location where a river flows into an ocean, sea, estuary, lake, distributary or distributary channel - a stream that branches off and flows away from a main stream channel. Draw - a usually dry creek bed or gulch that temporarily fills with water after a heavy rain, fjord - a submergent landform which has occurred due to glacial activity. Glacier - a large collection of ice or a river that moves slowly down a mountain. Glacial Pothole - see Kettle Gulf - a part of a lake or ocean that extends so that it is surrounded by land on three sides, similar to, but larger than a bay, headland - an area of water bordered by land on three sides
6.
Sea
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A sea is a large body of salt water that is surrounded in whole or in part by land. More broadly, the sea is the system of Earths salty. The sea moderates Earths climate and has important roles in the cycle, carbon cycle. Although the sea has been traveled and explored since prehistory, the scientific study of the sea—oceanography—dates broadly to the British Challenger expedition of the 1870s. Owing to the present state of continental drift, the Northern Hemisphere is now equally divided between land and sea but the South is overwhelmingly oceanic. Salinity in the ocean is generally in a narrow band around 3. 5% by mass, although this can vary in more landlocked waters, near the mouths of large rivers. About 85% of the solids in the sea are sodium chloride. Deep-sea currents are produced by differences in salinity and temperature, surface currents are formed by the friction of waves produced by the wind and by tides, the changes in local sea level produced by the gravity of the Moon and Sun. The direction of all of these is governed by surface and submarine land masses, former changes in sea levels have left continental shelves, shallow areas in the sea close to land. The most diverse areas surround great tropical coral reefs, whaling in the deep sea was once common but whales dwindling numbers prompted international conservation efforts and finally a moratorium on most commercial hunting. Life may have started there and aquatic microbial mats are generally credited with the oxygenation of Earths atmosphere, the sea is an essential aspect of human trade, travel, mineral extraction, and power generation. It is the scene of activities including swimming, diving, surfing. However, population growth, industrialization, and intensive farming have all contributed to marine pollution. Atmospheric carbon dioxide is being absorbed in increasing amounts, lowering its pH in a known as ocean acidification. The shared nature of the sea has made overfishing an increasing problem, both senses of sea date to Old English, the larger sense has required a definite article since Early Middle English. Seas are generally larger than lakes and contain salt water, while the defining elements of size and being bounded are generally used, there is no formally accepted technical definition of sea among oceanographers. In international law, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea states that all the ocean is the sea. Earth is the known planet with seas of liquid water on its surface, although Mars possesses ice caps
7.
Drainage basin
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A drainage basin or catchment area is any area of land where precipitation collects and drains off into a common outlet, such as into a river, bay, or other body of water. Drainage basins connect into other drainage basins at elevations in a hierarchical pattern, with smaller sub-drainage basins. Other terms used to describe drainage basins are catchment, catchment basin, drainage area, river basin and water basin. In closed drainage basins the water converges to a point inside the basin, known as a sink, which may be a permanent lake. The drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the covered by the basin. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from adjacent basins by a perimeter, drainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage areas delineated so as to nest into a multi-level hierarchical drainage system. Hydrologic units are defined to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks, in a strict sense, all drainage basins are hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins. Drainage basins of the oceans and seas of the world. Grey areas are endorheic basins that do not drain to the oceans, the following is a list of the major ocean basins, About 48. 7% of the worlds land drains to the Atlantic Ocean. The two major mediterranean seas of the world also flow to the Atlantic, The Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico basin includes most of the U. S. The Mediterranean Sea basin includes much of North Africa, east-central Africa, Southern, Central, and Eastern Europe, Turkey, and the areas of Israel, Lebanon. Just over 13% of the land in the world drains to the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Oceans drainage basin also comprises about 13% of Earths land. It drains the eastern coast of Africa, the coasts of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, the Indian subcontinent, Burma, antarctica comprises approximately eight percent of the Earths land. The five largest river basins, from largest to smallest, are the basins of the Amazon, the Río de la Plata, the Congo, the Nile, and the Mississippi. The three rivers that drain the most water, from most to least, are the Amazon, Ganga, endorheic drainage basins are inland basins that do not drain to an ocean. Around 18% of all land drains to endorheic lakes or seas or sinks, the largest of these consists of much of the interior of Asia, which drains into the Caspian Sea, the Aral Sea, and numerous smaller lakes. Some of these, such as the Great Basin, are not single drainage basins but collections of separate, in endorheic bodies of standing water where evaporation is the primary means of water loss, the water is typically more saline than the oceans. An extreme example of this is the Dead Sea, drainage basins have been historically important for determining territorial boundaries, particularly in regions where trade by water has been important
8.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
9.
Russian language
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Russian is an East Slavic language and an official language in Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and many minor or unrecognised territories. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages and is one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century and beyond. It is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia and the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages and it is also the largest native language in Europe, with 144 million native speakers in Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, the language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Russian is also the second most widespread language on the Internet after English, Russian distinguishes between consonant phonemes with palatal secondary articulation and those without, the so-called soft and hard sounds. This distinction is found between pairs of almost all consonants and is one of the most distinguishing features of the language, another important aspect is the reduction of unstressed vowels. Russian is a Slavic language of the Indo-European family and it is a lineal descendant of the language used in Kievan Rus. From the point of view of the language, its closest relatives are Ukrainian, Belarusian, and Rusyn. An East Slavic Old Novgorod dialect, although vanished during the 15th or 16th century, is considered to have played a significant role in the formation of modern Russian. In the 19th century, the language was often called Great Russian to distinguish it from Belarusian, then called White Russian and Ukrainian, however, the East Slavic forms have tended to be used exclusively in the various dialects that are experiencing a rapid decline. In some cases, both the East Slavic and the Church Slavonic forms are in use, with different meanings. For details, see Russian phonology and History of the Russian language and it is also regarded by the United States Intelligence Community as a hard target language, due to both its difficulty to master for English speakers and its critical role in American world policy. The standard form of Russian is generally regarded as the modern Russian literary language, mikhail Lomonosov first compiled a normalizing grammar book in 1755, in 1783 the Russian Academys first explanatory Russian dictionary appeared. By the mid-20th century, such dialects were forced out with the introduction of the education system that was established by the Soviet government. Despite the formalization of Standard Russian, some nonstandard dialectal features are observed in colloquial speech. Thus, the Russian language is the 6th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi/Urdu, Spanish, Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Education in Russian is still a choice for both Russian as a second language and native speakers in Russia as well as many of the former Soviet republics. Russian is still seen as an important language for children to learn in most of the former Soviet republics, samuel P. Huntington wrote in the Clash of Civilizations, During the heyday of the Soviet Union, Russian was the lingua franca from Prague to Hanoi
10.
Karelian language
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Karelian language is a Finnic language spoken mainly in the Russian Republic of Karelia. Linguistically Karelian is closely related to the Finnish dialects spoken in eastern Finland, Karelian is not to be confused with the Southeastern dialects of Finnish, sometimes referred to as karjalaismurteet in Finland. There is no single standard Karelian language, each writer writes in Karelian according to their own dialectal form. Three main written standards have developed, for North Karelian, Olonets Karelian. All variants are written with the Latin-based Karelian alphabet, though the Cyrillic script has been used in the past, the Karelian language belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages, and it is closely related to Finnish. Earlier some Finnish linguists classified Karelian as a dialect of Finnish, sometimes known in older Finnish literature as Raja-Karjalan murteet, besides Karelian and Finnish, the Finnic subgroup also includes Estonian and some minority languages spoken around the Baltic Sea. Karelian is spoken by about 100,000 people, mainly in the Republic of Karelia, Russia although notable Karelian-speaking communities can also be found in the Tver region northwest of Moscow. Previously, it was estimated there were 5,000 speakers in Finland, mainly belonging to the older generations. Due to post-World War II mobility and internal migration, Karelians now live scattered throughout Finland, Karelians in Tver Oblast have a national-cultural autonomy which guarantees the use of the Karelian language in schools and mass media. In Finland, Karelian has official status as a national minority language within the framework of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The Karelian language has two varieties, which can be considered as dialects or separate languages, Karelian Proper, which comprises North Karelian and South Karelian. These varieties constitute a continuum of dialects, the ends of which are no longer mutually intelligible. The original Proto-Finnic long mid and open vowels have been diphthongized, *ee, *öö, *oo > /ie/, /yö/, /uo/, *aa, *ää > /oa/, /eä/ or /ua/, Karelian is today written using a Latin alphabet consisting of 29 characters. It extends the ISO basic Latin alphabet with the additional letters Č, Š, Ž, Ä, Ö and ʼ and this unified alphabet is used to write all Karelian varieties except Tver Karelian. The very few texts that were published in Karelian from medieval times through the 19th century used the Cyrillic alphabet, with the establishment of the Soviet Union, Finnish, written with the Latin alphabet, became official. However, from 1937–39 Karelian written in Cyrillic replaced Finnish as a language of the Karelian ASSR. Karelian is written with similar to Finnish orthography. However, some features of the Karelian language and thus orthography are different from Finnish, The Karelian system of sibilants is extensive, in Finnish, there is only one, Karelian retains palatalization, usually denoted with an apostrophe The letter ü may replace y in some texts
11.
Northern Dvina River
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The Northern Dvina is a river in northern Russia flowing through the Vologda Oblast and Arkhangelsk Oblast into the Dvina Bay of the White Sea. Along with the Pechora River to the east, it drains most of Northwest Russia into the Arctic Ocean and it should not be confused with Western Dvina. The principal tributaries of the Northern Dvina are the Vychegda, the Vaga, according to the Max Vasmers Etymological Dictionary, the name of the river has been taken from the Western Dvina River. The toponym Dvina does not stem from a Uralic language, however, possibly it is an Indo-European word which used to mean river or stream. In the Komi language, the river is called Вы́нва / Výnva from vyn power, the length of the Northern Dvina is 744 kilometres. Together with its tributary, the Sukhona, it is 1,302 kilometres long – about as long as the Rhine River in central. The area of its basin is 357,052 square kilometres – about the size of the state of Montana in the United States. The Northern Dvina basin is roughly T-shaped, the 558 kilometres -long Sukhona River flows east and joins the basin of the west-flowing Vychegda River. The combined river flows northwest into the White Sea, which it joins near the city of Archangelsk, looking more closely, the Sukhona flows east and meets the north-flowing Yug River at Veliky Ustyug. The combined stream, now called the Northern Dvina, flows north about 60 km and receives the west-flowing Vychegda at Kotlas, the Sukhona-Vychegda was an important east–west transportation route while the Northern Dvina-Yug was a north–south route. The upper Sukhona is now connected by the Northern Dvina Canal to the Volga–Baltic Waterway, the Sukhona River flows east, eventually north-east, joins the north-flowing Yug River at Veliky Ustyug and acquires the name Northern Dvina. The P157 highway connects Kostroma with Kotlas via Nikolsk and Veliky Ustyug, North of Veliky Ustyg, the highway runs on the left bank of the Northern Dvina. Shortly downstream from the confluence, the Northern Dvina is crossed by the railway connecting Konosha with Kotlas, the Northern Dvina turns northwest and receives a number of smaller rivers such as the Uftyuga and the Nizhnyaya Toyma, both from the northeast. Near the urban settlement of Bereznik, the Vaga River comes in from the south, at this point, the M8 highway which runs from Moscow through Vologda to Arkhangelsk, also enters the region. The Yomtsa or Yemtsa River join from the southeast, with the P1 highway running parallel, the Pinega River, formerly an important river route, joins from the east. Near the mouth of the Pinega, the splits into several channels. The branches rejoin and pass the modern logging town of Novodvinsk, downstream from Novodvinsk, the 900 square kilometres delta begins. In the upstream part of the delta, the port of Arkhangelsk is located
12.
Inlet
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An inlet is an indentation of a shoreline, usually long and narrow, such as a small bay or arm, that often leads to an enclosed body of salt water, such as a sound, bay, lagoon, or marsh. In sea coasts, an inlet usually refers to the connection between a bay and the ocean and is often called an entrance or a recession in the shore of a sea, lake. A certain kind of created by glaciation is a fjord, typically but not always in mountainous coastlines. Complexes of large inlets or fjords may be called sounds, e. g. Puget Sound, Howe Sound, Karmsund. Some fjord-type inlets are called canals, e. g. Portland Canal, Lynn Canal, Hood Canal, and some are channels, e. g. Dean Channel and Douglas Channel. Tidal amplitude, wave intensity, and wave direction are all factors that influence sediment flux in inlets Alaska Panhandle British Columbia Coast Calanque Inside Passage Ria Bruun, Per, stability of Tidal Inlets, Theory and Engineering. Amsterdam, Elsevier Scientific Pub. Co. p.510, be pub co Coastal Inlets Research Program Hood Canal on Google Maps
13.
Barents Sea
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The Barents Sea is a marginal sea of the Arctic Ocean, located off the northern coasts of Norway and Russia divided between Norwegian and Russian territorial waters. Known among Russians in the Middle Ages as the Murman Sea and it is a rather shallow shelf sea, with an average depth of 230 metres, and is an important site for both fishing and hydrocarbon exploration. Novaya Zemlya, an extension of the part of the Ural Mountains. The southern half of the Barents Sea, including the ports of Murmansk, in September, the entire Barents Sea is more or less completely ice-free. Until the Winter War, Finlands territory also reached to the Barents Sea, with the harbor at Petsamo being Finlands only ice-free winter harbor. There are three types of water masses in the Barents Sea, Warm, salty Atlantic water from the North Atlantic drift, cold Arctic water from the north, and warm. Between the Atlantic and Polar waters, a front called the Polar Front is formed, the lands of Novaya Zemlya attained most of their early Holocene coastal deglaciation approximately 10,000 years before present. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Barentsz Sea as follows, On the west, on the northwest, The eastern shore of West Spitzbergen, Hinlopen Strait up to 80° latitude north, south and east coasts of North-East Land to Cape Leigh Smith. On the north, Cape Leigh Smith across the Islands Bolshoy Ostrov, Gilles and Victoria, on the east, Cape Kohlsaat to Cape Zhelaniya, west and southwest coast of Novaya Zemlya to Cape Kussov Noss and thence to western entrance Cape, Dolgaya Bay on Vaigach Island. Through Vaigach Island to Cape Greben, thence to Cape Belyi Noss on the mainland, on the south, The northern limit of the White Sea. Other islands in the Barents Sea include Chaichy and Timanets, most of its geological history is dominated by extensional tectonics, caused by the collapse of the Caledonian and Uralian orogenic belts and the break-up of Pangaea. These events created the rift basins that dominate the Barents Shelf, along with various platforms. Due to the North Atlantic drift, the Barents Sea has a high biological production compared to other oceans of similar latitude. The spring bloom of phytoplankton can start quite early close to the ice edge, the phytoplankton bloom feeds zooplankton such as Calanus finmarchicus, Calanus glacialis, Calanus hyperboreus, Oithona spp. and krill. The zooplankton feeders include young cod, capelin, polar cod, whales, the capelin is a key food for top predators such as the north-east Arctic cod, harp seals, and seabirds such as common guillemot and Brunnichs guillemot. The fisheries of the Barents Sea, in particular the cod fisheries, are of importance for both Norway and Russia. There is a genetically distinct polar bear population associated with the Barents Sea and its eastern corner, in the region of the Pechora Rivers estuary, has been known as Pechorskoye Morye, that is, Pechora Sea. This sea was given its present name in honor of Willem Barentsz, Barentsz was the leader of early expeditions to the far north, at the end of the sixteenth century
14.
Karelia
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Karelia, the land of the Karelian peoples, is an area in Northern Europe of historical significance for Finland, Russia, and Sweden. It is currently divided between the Russian Republic of Karelia, the Russian Leningrad Oblast, and Finland, various subdivisions may be called Karelia. Finnish Karelia was a province of Finland, and is now divided between Finland and Russia, often called just Karjala in Finnish. The eastern part of this chiefly Lutheran area was ceded to Russia after the Winter War of 1939–40 and this area is the Karelia of the Karelian question in Finnish politics. The Republic of Karelia is a Russian federal subject, including the so-called East Karelia with a chiefly Russian Orthodox population, Karelia stretches from the White Sea coast to the Gulf of Finland. It contains the two largest lakes in Europe, Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega, the Karelian Isthmus is located between the Gulf of Finland and Lake Ladoga. In the North there were the nomadic Samis, but no natural border except for huge woods, in historical texts Karelia is sometimes divided into East Karelia and West Karelia, which are also called Russian Karelia and Finnish Karelia respectively. The area to the north of Lake Ladoga which belonged to Finland before World War II is called Ladoga Karelia, White Sea Karelia is the northern part of East Karelia and Olonets Karelia is the southern part. Tver Karelia denotes the villages in the Tver Oblast that are inhabited by Tver Karelians, the Treaty of Nöteborg in 1323 divided Karelia between the two. Viborg became the capital of the new Swedish province, in the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617 large parts of Russian Karelia were ceded to Sweden. Conflicts between the new Swedish rulers and the population of these areas led to an exodus, thousands of Karelians, including the ancestors of the Tver Karelians. The Treaty of Nystad in 1721 between Imperial Russia and Sweden ceded most of Karelia to Russia, after Finland had been occupied by Russia in the Finnish War, parts of the ceded provinces were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1917, Finland became independent and the border was confirmed by the Treaty of Tartu in 1920, Finnish partisans were involved in attempts to overthrow the Bolshevists in Russian Karelia in 1918–20, such as in the failed Aunus expedition. They also wanted to incorporate the rest of Karelia into Finland and these mainly private expeditions ended after the peace treaty of Tartu. After the end of the Russian Civil War and the establishment of the Soviet Union in 1922, in 1939, the Soviet Union attacked Finland, thus starting the Winter War. The Moscow Peace Treaty of 1940 handed most of Finnish Karelia to the Soviet Union, about 400,000 people, virtually the whole population, had to be relocated within Finland. In 1941, Karelia was liberated for three years during the Continuation War of 1941 to 1944 when East Karelia was occupied by the Finns. As a consequence of the treaty, the Karelian ASSR was incorporated with the Karelo-Finnish SSR 1941–1956
15.
Kola Peninsula
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The Kola Peninsula is a peninsula in the far northwest of Russia. The city of Murmansk is the most populous human settlement on the peninsula, summers are rather chilly, with the average July temperature of only 11 °C. The peninsula is covered by taiga in the south and tundra in the north, the peninsula supports a small variety of mammals, and its rivers are an important habitat for the Atlantic salmon. The Kandalaksha Nature Reserve, established to protect the population of eider, is located in the Kandalaksha Gulf. However, by the 1st millennium CE only the Sami people remained and this changed in the 12th century, when Russian Pomors discovered the peninsulas game and fish riches. Soon after, the Pomors were followed by the tribute collectors from the Novgorod Republic, no permanent settlements, however, were established by the Novgorodians until the 15th century. The Novgorod Republic lost control of the peninsula to the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1471, several new settlements were established during the 16th century, and the Sami and Pomor people were forced into serfdom. The original administrative and economic center of the area was Kola, however, in 1916, Romanov-na-Murmane was founded and quickly became the largest city and port on the peninsula. The Soviet period saw an increase of the population, although most of it remained confined to urbanized territories along the sea coast. As a result, the ecology of the peninsula suffered major damage, including contamination by military nuclear waste. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the economy went into decline, between 1989 and 2002, Murmansk Oblast lost almost a quarter of its population, and almost 100,000 more between 2002 and 2010. Nevertheless, the economy rebounded somewhat in the first decade of the 2000s, the peninsula is located in the far northwest of Russia, almost completely inside the Arctic Circle and is washed by the Barents Sea in the north and the White Sea in the east and southeast. Geologically, the peninsula occupies the edge of the Baltic Shield. Under a more restrictive definition, the covers a area of about 100,000 square kilometers. The northern coast is steep and high, while the southern coast is flat, the Keyvy drainage divide lies in the central part. The mountainous reliefs of the Murman and Kandalaksha Coasts stretch from southeast to northwest, deposits of construction materials such as granite, quartzite, and limestone are also abundant. Diatomaceous earth deposits are common near lakes and are used to produce insulation, cyclones are typical during the cold seasons, while the warm seasons are characterized by anticyclones. Monsoon winds are common in most areas, with south and southwesterly winds prevailing in winter months, strong storm winds blow for 80–120 days a year
16.
Kanin Peninsula
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Kanin Peninsula is a large peninsula in Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Russia. Latitude, 68° Longitude, 45° It is surrounded by the White Sea to the west and by the Barents Sea to the north, shoyna is one of the few communities on the peninsula. For cetaceans, beluga whales are most common around, male sperm whales are known to occur as well. A total of 29 butterfly species in the forest-tundra and 14 species in the tundra were recorded on the Kanin Peninsula. The data on the fauna and distribution of species in the forest-tundra of the Kanin Peninsula are generally typical of this natural zone, the most abundant species in the forest-tundra of the Kanin Peninsula are Erebia disa, Oeneis norna, Clossiana freija, Pieris napi, and Vacciniina optilete. The dominant species in southern tundra localities are Erebia Euryale, Erebia pandrose, and Boloria aquilonaris, which coincides with the result of the 1903 research
17.
Arkhangelsk Oblast
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Arkhangelsk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. It includes the Arctic archipelagos of Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, Arkhangelsk Oblast also has administrative jurisdiction over Nenets Autonomous Okrug. Including Nenetsia, Arkhangelsk Oblast has an area of 587,400 km2 and its population was 1,227,626 as of the 2010 Census. The city of Arkhangelsk, with a population of 348,716 as of the 2010 Census, is the center of the oblast. The second largest city is the nearby Severodvinsk, home to Sevmash, Plesetsk Cosmodrome is one of three spaceports in Russia. Arkhangelsk Oblast, which includes Nenets Autonomous Okrug, borders Kirov Oblast, Vologda Oblast, the Republic of Karelia, the Komi Republic, Cape Fligely in Franz Josef Land and Cape Zhelaniya in Novaya Zemlya are both located within Arkhangelsk Oblast. Arkhangelsk Oblast is located on the East European Plain, and most of it represents forested hilly landscape, the north-eastern part belongs to the Timan Ridge, a highland mostly situated east from the oblast. The Nenets Autonomous Okrug is essentially a flat tundra with several hill chains like Pay-Khoy Ridge, the Arctic islands including Novaya Zemlya and Franz Joseph Land are mountainous with glaciers and eternally snow-covered. This region has a distinct population of polar bears associated with the Barents Sea area. Almost all of the area of the Oblast belongs to the basin of the Arctic Ocean, with the rivers being Onega River, Northern Dvina River, Kuloy River, Mezen River. A minor area in the west of the Oblast, most notably the basin of the Ileksa River, drains into the Lake Onega and eventually to the Baltic Sea. A very minor area in Kargopolsky District in the south-west of the Oblast drains into the Kema River which belongs to the basin of the Caspian Sea. The area in the Onega River basin containing the biggest lakes in the oblast, such as Lake Lacha, Lake Kenozero, Lake Undozero, the tundra of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug also contains a number of bigger lakes. The river basin of the Pinega is characteristic of the karst, the White Sea coast within the Oblast is split into the Onega Bay, the Dvina Bay, and the Mezen Bay. Solovetsky Islands, as well as a number of islands, are located in the Onega Bay. The Onega Bay and the Dvina Bay are separated by the Onega Peninsula, the Mezen Bay is separated from the main body of the White Sea by Morzhovets Island. Almost all of the oblast is covered by taiga, the coniferous forest dominated by pine, spruce, large areas in the middle of taiga are devoid of trees and covered by swamps. In the floodplains of the rivers, there are meadows, a number of areas in Arkhangelsk Oblast have been designated as protected natural areas
18.
Murmansk Oblast
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Murmansk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia, located in the northwestern part of Russia. Its administrative center is the city of Murmansk, as of the 2010 Census, its population was 795,409. Geographically, Murmansk Oblast is located mainly on the Kola Peninsula almost completely north of the Arctic Circle and is a part of the larger Lapland region that spans four countries. Arkhangelsk Oblast of Russia lies across the White Sea, much of the oblasts relief is hilly, with the Khibiny and Lovozero ranges rising as high as 1,200 meters above sea level and stretching from west to east. The north of the oblast is covered by tundra, forest tundra prevails further south. There are over 100,000 lakes and 18,000 rivers in the oblast, the climate is harsh and unstable, due to the proximity of the Gulf Stream on one side and Arctic cold fronts on the other. Sharp temperature changes, high winds, and abundant precipitation are common throughout the year, however, the waters of the Murman Coast in the south remain warm enough to remain ice-free even in winter. The Saami, now a small minority, are the indigenous people of the region. However, Russians started to explore the shores of the White Sea as early as the 12th century, despite these early settlements, the area remained undeveloped for centuries, with the city of Murmansk being founded only in 1916. The oblast was established on May 28,1938 from Murmansk Okrug of Leningrad Oblast, the area of Pechengsky District, which was ceded to Finland by the 1920 Treaty of Tartu and gave Finland access to the Barents Sea, was recaptured by the Soviet Union in 1940. After the Paris Peace Treaties of 1947, the local Saami population was given the choice either of staying in Soviet Russia or resettling in Finland, most of them chose the second option. Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, the Charter of Murmansk Oblast is the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Murmansk Oblast is the provinces standing legislative body, the Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The indigenous people of the area, the Saami, are only a minority today. As of the 2002 Census,92. 2% of the population live in urban areas. The most populous city is the Oblasts administrative center, Murmansk, other large cities and towns include Severomorsk, Apatity, Kandalaksha, Monchegorsk, and Kirovsk. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group, according to a 2012 official survey 41. 4% are adherents of Rodnovery and other indigenous folk religions, and 1% are members of the Catholic Church. In addition, 28% of the population declares to be spiritual but not religious, 12% is atheist, the Murmansk Oblast is very rich in natural resources and has deposits of over 700 minerals
19.
Republic of Karelia
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The Republic of Karelia is a federal subject of Russia, located in the northwest of Russia. Its capital is the city of Petrozavodsk and its population in 2010 was 643,548. From 1940 to 1956, it was known as the Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic, in 1956, it was once again an autonomous republic and remains as part of Russia after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. The republic is in the part of Russia, taking intervening position between the White and Baltic Seas. The White Sea has a line of 630 kilometers. It has an area of 172,400 km2 and it shares internal borders with Murmansk Oblast, Arkhangelsk Oblast, Vologda Oblast, and Leningrad Oblast, and it also borders Finland, the borders measure 723 km. The main bodies of water next to Karelia are the White Sea to the north-east and Lake Onega and its highest point is the Nuorunen peak at 576 m. This area is the largest contiguous Archaean outcrop in Europe and one of the largest in the world, There are about 27,000 rivers in Karelia. Major rivers include, Vodla River Kem River Kovda River Shuya River Suna River with Kivach Falls Vyg River There are 60,000 lakes in Karelia, the republics lakes and swamps contain about 2,000 km³ of high-quality fresh water. Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega are the largest lakes in Europe, other lakes include, Nyukozero Pyaozero Segozero Syamozero Topozero Vygozero Lakes Ladoga and Onega are located on the south of the republic. Vodlozero National Park Kalevala National Park Paanajärvi National Park The majority of the territory is composed of state forest stock. The total growing stock of resources in the forests of all categories and ages is 807 million m³. The mature and over mature tree stock amounts to 411.8 million m³, fifty useful minerals are found in Karelia, located in more than 400 deposits and ore bearing layers. Natural resources of the republic include iron ore, diamonds, vanadium, molybdenum, the Republic of Karelia is located in the Atlantic continental climate zone. Average temperature in January is −8.0 °C and +16.4 °C in July, average annual precipitation is 500–700 mm. Historically, Karelia was a region to the northwest of Russia, east of present-day Finland, controlled by the Novgorod Republic. From the 13th century and onwards, various parts were conquered by Sweden, in 1920, the province became the Karelian Labour Сommune. In 1923, the became the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Annexed territories were incorporated into Karelo-Finnish SSR, but after the Continuation War the Karelian Isthmus was incorporated into the Leningrad Oblast and its status was changed back to an ASSR in 1956
20.
Port of Arkhangelsk
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Port of Arkhangelsk is a major seaport at Arkhangelsk, located at the mouth of the Northern Dvina River,50 km from the Dvina Bay of the White Sea. The important point links with coastal areas of the Russian North, for much of Russias history this was Russias main centre of international maritime trade, conducted by the so-called Pomors from Kholmogory. During the Soviet period it was a naval and submarine base of the Soviet Navy. It is still a naval base of the Northern Fleet of the Russian Navy. Arkhangelsk sea port sends and receives lumber, pulp, coal, machinery, metals, industrial, Arkhangelsk seaport - the main base of the Northern Company, performing the maritime transport of the White, Barents and Kara seas, the Northern Sea Route and overseas lines. Originate from Arkhangelsk regular passenger line to Murmansk, Dikson, Onega, Mezen, Kandalaksha, as part of the port has 3 cargo area, a container terminal, shipping company Portoflot sea-river station. The total length of wharfage -3.3 km, bandwidth container terminal 75000 TEUs per year
21.
Arkhangelsk
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Arkhangelsk, also known in English as Archangel and Archangelsk, is a city and the administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast, in the north of European Russia. It lies on both banks of the Northern Dvina River near its exit into the White Sea, the city spreads for over 40 kilometers along the banks of the river and numerous islands of its delta. Arkhangelsk was the seaport of medieval and early modern Russia until 1703. A1, 133-kilometer-long railway runs from Arkhangelsk to Moscow via Vologda and Yaroslavl, and air travel is served by the Talagi Airport and a smaller Vaskovo Airport. As of the 2010 Census, the population was 348,783, down from 356,051 recorded in the 2002 Census. The arms of the city display the Archangel Michael in the act of slaying the Devil, legend states that this victory took place near where the city stands, hence its name, and that Michael still stands watch over the city to prevent the Devils return. Vikings knew the area around Arkhangelsk as Bjarmaland, ohthere of Hålogaland told circa 890 of his travels in an area by a river and the White Sea with many buildings. This was probably the later known as Arkhangelsk. According to Snorri Sturluson, Vikings led by Thorir Hund raided this area in 1027, in 1989, an unusually impressive silver treasure was found by the mouth of Dvina, right next to present-day Arkhangelsk. It was probably buried in the beginning of the 12th century, most of the findings comprised a total of 1.6 kilograms of silver, largely in the form of coins. Jewelry and pieces of jewelry come from Russia or neighboring areas, the majority of the coins were German, but the hoard also included a smaller number of Kufan, English, Bohemian, Hungarian, Danish, Swedish and Norwegian coins. It is hard to place this find historically until further research is completed, there are at least two possible interpretations. It may be a treasure belonging to the society outlined by the Norse source material, generally such finds, whether from Scandinavia, the Baltic area, or Russia, are closely tied to well-established agricultural societies with considerable trade activity. Alternatively, like the Russian scientists who published the find in 1992, in the 12th century, the Novgorodians established the Archangel Michael Monastery in the estuary of the Northern Dvina River. Written sources indicate that Kholmogory existed early in the 12th century and it is not known whether the origin of this settlement was Russian, or if it goes back to pre-Russian times. In the center of the town that is there today is a large mound of building remains and river sand. The area of Arkhangelsk came to be important in the rivalry between Norwegian and Russian interests in the northern areas, from Novgorod, the spectrum of Russian interest was extended far north to the Kola Peninsula in the 12th century. However, here Norway enforced taxes and rights to the fur trade, a compromise agreement entered in 1251 was soon broken
22.
Pomors
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As early as the 12th century, explorers from Novgorod entered the White Sea through the Northern Dvina and Onega estuaries and founded settlements along the sea coasts of Bjarmaland. Kholmogory served as their town until the rise of Arkhangelsk in the late 16th century. From their base at Kola, they explored the Barents Region and the Kola peninsula, Spitsbergen, later the Pomor discovered and maintained the Northern Sea Route between Arkhangelsk and Siberia. With their ships, the Pomors penetrated to the areas of Northern Siberia. The name of the Pomors derives from the Pomorsky coast of the White Sea, the same root appears in the toponym Pomerania. The term Pomor, which in the 10th-12th centuries meant a person who lived near sea, finally in the 15th century, the people became disconnected from the sea. The sea was not a part of economy of this region. The traditional livelihoods of the Pomor based on the sea included animal hunting, whaling and fishing, the Pomor traded by sea in corn and fish with Northern Norway, which became important to both sides. This trade was so intensive that a kind of Russian-Norwegian pidgin language Moja på tvoja developed on the North Norwegian coast that was used from 1750–1920, in the 12-15th centuries, Pomore was considered an extensive colony of the state of Great Novgorod. By the early 16th century the annexation of Pomore by Moscow was completed, in the 17th century, in 22 Pomore districts the great bulk of the population consisted of free peasants. A portion of the land belonged to monasteries and to the Stroganov merchants, there were no landlords in Pomore. The population of Pomore districts was engaged in fishing, mica and salt production, although in the 21st century, some people identify as Pomor or of Pomor origin, this is a new phenomenon. The Russian Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, in its 1890-1907 edition, to date, no encyclopedia or encyclopedic dictionary refers to the Pomor as a separate ethnic group. In the 2002 census, respondents had the option to identify as Pomors, however, only 6,571 persons did so, almost all of them in Arkhangelsk Oblast and Murmansk Oblast. Like most other Russians, Pomors have traditionally been Orthodox Christians in faith, prior to the Revolution of 1917 a large percentage of Russians from Pomorje were practicing Old Believers. Pomor dialects Boris Shergin Laughter and Grief by the White Sea, a film celebrating the Pomors culture
23.
Soviet Union
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The Soviet Union, officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was a socialist state in Eurasia that existed from 1922 to 1991. It was nominally a union of national republics, but its government. The Soviet Union had its roots in the October Revolution of 1917 and this established the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and started the Russian Civil War between the revolutionary Reds and the counter-revolutionary Whites. In 1922, the communists were victorious, forming the Soviet Union with the unification of the Russian, Transcaucasian, Ukrainian, following Lenins death in 1924, a collective leadership and a brief power struggle, Joseph Stalin came to power in the mid-1920s. Stalin suppressed all opposition to his rule, committed the state ideology to Marxism–Leninism. As a result, the country underwent a period of rapid industrialization and collectivization which laid the foundation for its victory in World War II and postwar dominance of Eastern Europe. Shortly before World War II, Stalin signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact agreeing to non-aggression with Nazi Germany, in June 1941, the Germans invaded the Soviet Union, opening the largest and bloodiest theater of war in history. Soviet war casualties accounted for the highest proportion of the conflict in the effort of acquiring the upper hand over Axis forces at battles such as Stalingrad. Soviet forces eventually captured Berlin in 1945, the territory overtaken by the Red Army became satellite states of the Eastern Bloc. The Cold War emerged by 1947 as the Soviet bloc confronted the Western states that united in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1949. Following Stalins death in 1953, a period of political and economic liberalization, known as de-Stalinization and Khrushchevs Thaw, the country developed rapidly, as millions of peasants were moved into industrialized cities. The USSR took a lead in the Space Race with Sputnik 1, the first ever satellite, and Vostok 1. In the 1970s, there was a brief détente of relations with the United States, the war drained economic resources and was matched by an escalation of American military aid to Mujahideen fighters. In the mid-1980s, the last Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, sought to reform and liberalize the economy through his policies of glasnost. The goal was to preserve the Communist Party while reversing the economic stagnation, the Cold War ended during his tenure, and in 1989 Soviet satellite countries in Eastern Europe overthrew their respective communist regimes. This led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements inside the USSR as well, in August 1991, a coup détat was attempted by Communist Party hardliners. It failed, with Russian President Boris Yeltsin playing a role in facing down the coup. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned and the twelve constituent republics emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as independent post-Soviet states
24.
Baltic Sea
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The Baltic Sea is a sea of the Atlantic Ocean, enclosed by Scandinavia, Finland, the Baltic countries, and the North European Plain. It includes the Gulf of Bothnia, the Bay of Bothnia, the Gulf of Finland, the Gulf of Riga, the sea stretches from 53°N to 66°N latitude and from 10°E to 30°E longitude. The Baltic Sea is connected by waterways to the White Sea via the White Sea Canal. Traffic history Historically, the Kingdom of Denmark collected Sound Dues from ships at the border between the ocean and the land-locked Baltic Sea and they were collected in the Øresund at Kronborg castle near Helsingør, in the Great Belt at Nyborg. In the Little Belt, the site of intake was moved to Fredericia, the narrowest part of Little Belt is the Middelfart Sund near Middelfart. Oceanography Geographers widely agree that the physical border of the Baltic is a line drawn through the southern Danish islands, Drogden-Sill. The Drogden Sill is situated north of Køge Bugt and connects Dragør in the south of Copenhagen to Malmö, it is used by the Øresund Bridge, including the Drogden Tunnel. By this definition, the Danish Straits are part of the entrance, but the Bay of Mecklenburg, another usual border is the line between Falsterbo, Sweden and Stevns Klint, Denmark, as this is the southern border of Øresund. Its also the border between the shallow southern Øresund and notably deeper water, hydrography and biology Drogden Sill sets a limit to Øresund and Darss Sill, and a limit to the Belt Sea. The shallow sills are obstacles to the flow of salt water from the Kattegat into the basins around Bornholm. The Kattegat and the southwestern Baltic Sea are well oxygenated and have a rich biology, the remainder of the Sea is brackish, poor in oxygen and in species. While Tacitus called it Mare Suebicum after the Germanic people called the Suebi, the origin of the latter name is speculative. Adam of Bremen himself compared the sea with a belt, stating that it is so named because it stretches through the land as a belt and he might also have been influenced by the name of a legendary island mentioned in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder. Pliny mentions an island named Baltia with reference to accounts of Pytheas and it is possible that Pliny refers to an island named Basilia in On the Ocean by Pytheas. Baltia also might be derived from belt and mean near belt of sea, meanwhile, others have suggested that the name of the island originates from the Proto-Indo-European root *bhel meaning white, fair. This root and its meaning were retained in both Lithuanian and Latvian. On this basis, a related hypothesis holds that the name originated from this Indo-European root via a Baltic language such as Lithuanian, yet another explanation is that the name originally meant enclosed sea, bay as opposed to open sea. Some Swedish historians believe the name derives from the god Balder of Nordic mythology, in the Middle Ages the sea was known by variety of names
25.
Black Sea
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The Black Sea is a body of water between Eastern Europe and Western Asia, bounded by Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania, Russia, Turkey, and Ukraine. It is supplied by a number of rivers, such as the Danube, Dnieper, Rioni, Southern Bug. The Black Sea has an area of 436,400 km2, a depth of 2,212 m. It is constrained by the Pontic Mountains to the south and by the Caucasus Mountains to the east, the longest east-west extent is about 1,175 km. The Black Sea has a water balance, that is, a net outflow of water 300 km3 per year through the Bosphorus. Mediterranean water flows into the Black Sea as part of a two-way hydrological exchange, the Black Sea drains into the Mediterranean Sea and then the Atlantic Ocean, via the Aegean Sea and various straits. The Bosphorus Strait connects it to the Sea of Marmara, and these waters separate Eastern Europe and Western Asia. The Black Sea is also connected to the Sea of Azov by the Strait of Kerch, the water level has varied significantly. Due to these variations in the level in the basin. At certain critical water levels it is possible for connections with surrounding water bodies to become established and it is through the most active of these connective routes, the Turkish Straits, that the Black Sea joins the world ocean. When this hydrological link is not present, the Black Sea is a basin, operating independently of the global ocean system. Currently the Black Sea water level is high, thus water is being exchanged with the Mediterranean. The Turkish Straits connect the Black Sea with the Aegean Sea, and comprise the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Black Sea as follows, On the Southwest. The Northeastern limit of the Sea of Marmara, a line joining Cape Takil and Cape Panaghia. Strabos Geographica reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often just called the Sea, for the most part, Graeco-Roman tradition refers to the Black Sea as the Hospitable sea, Εὔξεινος Πόντος Eúxeinos Póntos. This is a euphemism replacing an earlier Inhospitable Sea, Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos, strabo thinks that the Black Sea was called inhospitable before Greek colonization because it was difficult to navigate, and because its shores were inhabited by savage tribes. The name was changed to hospitable after the Milesians had colonized the southern shoreline and it is also possible that the epithet Áxeinos arose by popular etymology from a Scythian word axšaina- unlit, dark, the designation Black Sea may thus date from antiquity. A map of Asia dating to 1570, entitled Asiae Nova Descriptio, from Abraham Orteliuss Theatrum Orbis Terrarum, english-language writers of the 18th century often used the name Euxine Sea to refer to the Black Sea
26.
Red Sea
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The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait, to the north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez. The Red Sea is a Global 200 ecoregion, the sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley. The Red Sea has an area of roughly 438,000 km2, is about 2250 km long and. It has a depth of 2211 m in the central median trench. However, there are also extensive shallow shelves, noted for their marine life, the sea is the habitat of over 1,000 invertebrate species, and 200 soft and hard corals. It is the worlds northernmost tropical sea, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Red Sea as follows, On the North. The Southern limits of the Gulfs of Suez and Aqaba, a line joining Husn Murad and Ras Siyyan. Red Sea is a translation of the Greek Erythra Thalassa, Latin Mare Rubrum, Arabic, البحر الأحمر. Al-Baḥr Al-Aḥmar, Somali Badda Cas and Tigrinya Qeyyiḥ bāḥrī, the name of the sea may signify the seasonal blooms of the red-coloured Trichodesmium erythraeum near the waters surface. A theory favored by modern scholars is that the name red is referring to the direction south. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions, herodotus on one occasion uses Red Sea and Southern Sea interchangeably. Historically, it was known to western geographers as Mare Mecca. Some ancient geographers called the Red Sea the Arabian Gulf or Gulf of Arabia. C, in that version, the Yam Suph is translated as Erythra Thalassa. The Red Sea is one of four seas named in English after common color terms — the others being the Black Sea, the White Sea and the Yellow Sea. The direct rendition of the Greek Erythra thalassa in Latin as Mare Erythraeum refers to the part of the Indian Ocean. The earliest known exploration of the Red Sea was conducted by ancient Egyptians, one such expedition took place around 2500 BC, and another around 1500 BC. Both involved long voyages down the Red Sea, historically, scholars argued whether these trips were possible
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Yellow Sea
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The Yellow Sea is the name given to the northern part of the East China Sea, which is a marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean. It is located between mainland China and the Korean Peninsula and its name comes from the sand particles from Gobi Desert sand storms that turn the surface of the water golden yellow. The innermost bay of the Yellow Sea is called the Bohai Sea, into it flow both the Yellow River and Hai He. Deposits of sand and silt from those rivers contribute to the sea colour, the northern extension of the Yellow Sea is called the Korea Bay. The Yellow Sea is one of four seas named after common colour terms — the others being the Black Sea, the Red Sea, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Yellow Sea as follows, On the South. The parallel of 33°17 North from Saisyu To to the mainland. The Yellow Sea, excluding the Bohai, extends by about 960 km from north to south and about 700 km from east to west, it has an area of about 380,000 km2 and the volume of about 17,000 km3. Its depth is only 44 m on average, with a maximum of 152 m, the sea is a flooded section of continental shelf that formed after the last ice age as sea levels rose 120 m to their current levels. The sea bottom is slowly rising toward China and more rapidly at the Korean Peninsula, the depth gradually increases from north to south. The sea bottom and shores are dominated by sand and silt brought by the rivers through the Bohai Sea and those deposits, together with sand storms are responsible for the yellow water color and the sea name. The area has cold, dry winters with strong northerly monsoons blowing from late November to March, average January temperatures are −10 °C in the north and 3 °C in the south. Summers are wet and warm with frequent typhoons between June and October, air temperatures range between 10 and 28 °C. The average annual precipitation increases from about 500 mm in the north to 1,000 mm in the south, fog is frequent along the coasts, especially in the upwelling cold-water areas. The sea has a warm cyclone current and it is a part of the Kuroshio Current, which diverges near the western part of Japan and flows northward into the Yellow Sea at the speed of below 0.8 km/h. Southward currents prevail near the sea coast, especially in the monsoon period. The water temperature is close to freezing in the part in winter, so drift ice patches and continuous ice fields form. The water temperature and salinity are homogeneous across the depth, the southern waters are warmer at 6–8 °C. In spring and summer, the layer is warmed up by the sun and diluted by the fresh water from rivers, while the deeper water remains cold
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White Sea Rift System
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The White Sea Rift System is a complex of rifts manifested as numerous individual grabens located chiefly in the White Sea but including onshore areas and a strip of the Barents Sea. The rifts run in a subparallel manner from northwest to southeast where the system continues under the East European Platform. The system or complex originated due to extensional tectonics acting during the Middle to Late Riphean in the Proterozoic and this tectonic environment is believed to have been related to the break-up of the ancient supercontinent Palaeopangea. During the Riphean the graben structures were filled by Jotnian sediments, during the Middle Paleozoic the rift system was reactivated resulting in intrusion of alkaline magmas. In the Late Cenozoic the rift system was reactivated resulting in the formation of the modern White Sea. The White Sea Rift System includes the following rifts, the Onega–Kandalaksha Rift, the Kandalksha graben is about 220 km long and 60 km broad. Its southwestern slopes are steeper than its northwestern slopes, the Kerets–Leshukonsky Rift. the Barents Rift. Many of the grabens are filled with Jotnian sediments
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International Hydrographic Organization
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The International Hydrographic Organization is the inter-governmental organisation representing hydrography. A principal aim of the IHO is to ensure that the seas, oceans. It does this through the setting of standards, the co-ordination of the endeavours of the worlds national hydrographic offices. The IHO enjoys observer status at the United Nations where it is the competent authority on hydrographic surveying. When referring to hydrography and nautical charting in Conventions and similar Instruments, it is the IHO standards, the IHO was established in 1921 as the International Hydrographic Bureau. The present name was adopted in 1970 as part of a new international Convention on the IHO adopted by the member nations. The former name International Hydrographic Bureau was retained to describe the IHO secretariat until 8 November 2016, there were substantial differences in hydrographic procedures charts, and publications. In 1889, an International Maritime Conference was held at Washington, D. C. similar proposals were made at the sessions of the International Congress of Navigation held at Saint Petersburg in 1908 and the International Maritime Conference held at Saint Petersburg in 1912. In 1919 the hydrographers of Great Britain and France cooperated in taking the steps to convene an international conference of hydrographers. London was selected as the most suitable place for this conference, and on 24 July 1919 and this is still the major purpose of the IHO. As a result of the conference, a permanent organization was formed, the IHB, now the IHO, began its activities in 1921 with 18 nations as members. The Principality of Monaco was selected as the seat of the organization as a result of the offer of Albert I, the IHO develops hydrographic and nautical charting standards. These standards are adopted and used by its 86 member countries and others in their surveys, nautical charts. Much has been done in the field of standardisation since the Bureau was founded, the IHO has encouraged the formation of Regional Hydrographic Commissions. Each RHC coordinates the national surveying and charting activities of countries within each region, the 15 RHCs plus the IHO Hydrographic Commission on Antarctica effectively cover the world. The IHO, in partnership with the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, directs the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans programme, in 2010 the IHO introduced a new, contemporary hydrographic geospatial standard for modelling marine data and information, known as S-100. S-100 and any dependent product specifications are underpinned by an on-line registry accessible via the IHO website, S-100 is aligned with the ISO19100 series of geographic standards, thereby making it fully compatible with contemporary geospatial data standards. Because S-100 is based on ISO19100, it can be used by other providers for their maritime-related data
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Severodvinsk
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Severodvinsk is a city in the north of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia, located in the delta of the Northern Dvina River,35 kilometers west of Arkhangelsk, the administrative center of the oblast. As of the 2010 Census, the population was 192,353, due to the presence of important military shipyards, Severodvinsk is an access restricted town for foreign citizens. Vikings explored the territories around the North Dvina River - part of Bjarmaland - at the start of the first millennium. British and Norman ships came to these places for mining, fur and fishing before the 13th century, tradition states that Saint Euphemius, an Orthodox missionary in Karelia, founded this monastery. The abbey stood in ruins until 1471, when two sons of Marfa Boretskaya died in a storm, their bodies were recovered on the beach near the monastery twelve days later. At the urging of Boretskaya, the monastery was restored and her sons were buried there, on August 24,1553, a ship of Richard Chancellor reached the salt-mining settlement of Nyonoksa, which is still famous for its traditional wooden architecture. The British sailors visited the Nikolo-Korelsky Monastery, where they were surprised to find a community of sailors in soutanes, in late 1613, during the Time of Troubles in Russia, Polish-Lithuanian vagabonds, the Lisowczycy, captured and looted Severodvinsk with the monastery. The Nikolo-Korelsky Monastery flourished after the establishment of the Muscovy Company, in August 1618 the harbour was visited by John Tradescant the elder, who conducted a survey of an island situated opposite the monastery. This island became known to the British as Rose Island, because it was there that Tradescant found a rare plant which he named Rosa moscovita. The surviving buildings of the monastery were constructed at the close of the Muscovite period, the five-domed cathedral of St. Nicholas was built between 1670 and 1674, preceded by the Assumption church, to which it is joined by a gallery. Several decades later, the walls and towers were built of timber, the Soviets transported the best-preserved of these towers to Kolomenskoye, Moscow, Severodvinsk is the second-largest city in Arkhangelsk Oblast. Its main industry remains defense-related — the construction and repair of submarines at the huge Northern Machine-building Enterprise SEVMASH, the Soviet Unions first nuclear submarine Leninsky Komsomol was built here in 1957. At the beginning of the 1980s the worlds largest submarine, a Typhoon class, was built here. The modern city of Severodvinsk developed in the Soviet period, as it began to be built it was called Sudostroy. It received town status in 1938 and until 1957 was named Molotovsk, on September 12,1957 it was renamed Severodvinsk. During World War II a significant portion of the materials delivered by the Arctic Convoys to Murmansk and Arkhangelsk for the Soviet Union were unloaded in Severodvinsk. For example, the Empire Elgar, a British heavy lift ship that arrived in Arkhangelsk with convoy PQ16, a Russian naval-base supports the sea trials of nuclear submarines from the major submarine construction- and repair-facilities located in the area. In Soviet times the 17th-century buildings of the Nikolo-Korelsky monastery, located on the territory of the shipyard, were adapted and used for shipbuilding purposes, in recent years the monastery buildings, specifically the main church, have been restored and re-consecrated
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Kandalaksha Gulf
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The Kandalaksha Gulf, Finnish, Kantalahti) is located in the Republic of Karelia, and Murmansk Oblast in northwestern Russia. Forming the north-western corner of the White Sea, it is one of four bays and gulfs of this sea, the others being the Onega Bay, the Dvina Bay. The Kola Peninsula lies north of the Kandalaksha Gulf, the city of Kandalaksha is located at the northern tip of the gulf, the new oil port Vitino, some 10 km to the south. There are hundreds of skerries in the gulf, the gulf is shallow, reaching 300 meters on its western side. In 1976, the reaches of the Gulf were designated a RAMSAR wetland of international importance. Kandalaksha Nature Reserve includes parts of the coastline and many of the islands in the Gulf and it is one of Russias oldest nature reserves, established in 1932. Gandvik White Sea Rift System Kandalaksha Nature Reserve, and some practical travel information on the City of Kandalaksha, also in English
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Kiy Island
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Kiy Island is an island in the Onega Bay of the White Sea,8 km off-shore and 15 km from the town of Onega. The island stretches for 2 kilometres from north-west to south-east, but its width does not exceed 800 meters. The island includes wide and sandy beaches, piny woods rich with berries and it has a remarkably interesting architectural ensemble, and hosts the history of the Kiysky Krestny monastery. Thousands of tourists go and visit the island, in 1632 the future Patriarch Nikon attempted to escape from the Solovki to the Kozheozero Monastery in the south. As Nikon later recalled, a tempest broke out and his life was at peril, the monk began to pray to the holy cross and soon his boat was cast ashore on Ky Island, where he erected a wooden cross to thank heaven. Twenty years later, he went from Novgorod to the Solovki in order to bring the relics of Metropolitan Philip to Moscow, on his way he visited Kiy Island and was pleased to see his wooden cross still standing. Upon becoming the Patriarch a year later, Nikon ordered a monastery to be established on the spot, the monastery was dedicated to the True Cross in 1656, whereupon 4537 peasants were declared its property. Under Nikons supervision, the Krestny Monastery became one of the richest in the region, the patriarch sent to the monks a huge cypress cross, commissioned by him in Palestine as an exact replica of the True Cross and lavishly decorated with jewels. In 1660 he visited the monastery for the last time and dwelled there for a year and it is believed that the wayward patriarch personally selected the location of and designed most buildings to suit his taste. It was for his own use that a choir loft was built within the cathedral. A large portion of monastery buildings, including the cathedral, were constructed from local granite, after Nikons fall from grace, the monastery declined and its possessions were expropriated. The British Royal Navy sacked the island during the Crimean War on 9 July 1854, the following year it was damaged by fire but the Holy Synod decided in favour of restoring the complex. The Communists disbanded the abbey in 1922, the granite heights of the island are crowned by the four-pillared Cathedral of the Exaltation of the Cross, dedicated in the presence of Nikon on 4 September 1661. Its monumental proportions are deliberately archaic but the effect is unusually spacious. There were formerly three domes but only the one still subsists. Other buildings from Nikons period include the chapel over the well, the two-storey refectory church of the Virgins Nativity, the sadly disfigured All Saints Church, photographs Photographs_2007 Architectural Monuments of the Russian North
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Onega Bay
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The Onega Bay is located in the Republic of Karelia and Arkhangelsk Oblast in Northwestern Russia, west of the city of Arkhangelsk. It is the southernmost of four bays and gulfs of the White Sea, the others being the Dvina Bay, the Mezen Bay. The area of the bay is 6,630 square kilometres, the Onega Bay is 185 kilometres long and 50 kilometres -100 kilometres wide. The average depth of the bay is 16 metres, and the depth is 36 metres. Onega, Kem, and Vyg Rivers flow into the bay, Solovetsky Islands, which are the largest and the most famous, are located on the entrance to the bay and separate it from the main body of the White Sea. Along the west coast, there are hundreds of small islands, the biggest of these are Shuyostrov Island, Russky Kuzov Island, Myagostrov Island, Kondostrov Island, and Sumostrov Island. The group of islands around Kondostrov Island are collectively known as the Sumsky Skerries, between the Sumsky Skerries and Solovetsky Island, in the open sea, there is an archipelago consisting of Bolshoy Zhuzhmuy Island and Maly Zhuzhmuy Island. On the west coast of the bay there are the town of Belomorsk, from the east, the bay is limited by the Onega Peninsula. In the south-east, the town of Onega is located close to the shore of the bay, administratively, the coast and the islands are shared between Kemsky and Belomorsky Districts of the Republic of Karelia, and Onezhsky, Primorsky, and Solovetsky Districts of Arkhangelsk Oblast. Most of the islands, including all of Sumsky Skerries. The Onega Bay coast was populated by Russians not later than in the 12th century, the selo of Soroki, currently Belomorsk, is known from that time. Most of the villages at the Onega Bay coast such as Purnema or Unezhma, are old Pomor villages, Solovetsky Islands are on the World Heritage list, and there is intensive passenger sea traffic to the islands, mostly originating from Kem and Belomorsk. There are also regular but infrequent passenger connections between Arkhangelsk and the villages of the Onega Peninsula
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Onega River
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The Onega is a river in Kargopolsky, Plesetsky, and Onezhsky Districts of Arkhangelsk Oblast in Russia. The Onega connects Lake Lacha with the Onega Bay in the White Sea southwest of Arkhangelsk, the discharge at the source is 74.1 cubic metres per second and at the mouth is 505 cubic metres per second. The river is 416 kilometres long, and the area of its basin 56,900 square kilometres and its main tributaries are the Voloshka, the Kena, the Mosha, the Kodina, and the Kozha. The major tributary of the Lake Lacha is the Svid, the name of the river is traditionally explained as related to Finnish Enojoki - the main river, stream. In terms of area of the basin and the average discharge, the Onega is the third river basin of the White Sea (behind the Northern Dvina. The river basin of the Onega is spread over the west of Arkhangelsk Oblast, north-west of Vologda Oblast, the whole valley of the Onega is populated, with the exception of the stretch between Severoonezhsk and Yarnema, in Plesetsky District. There are two towns located on the Onega River, Kargopol close to its source and Onega in its mouth, there are also two urban-type settlements, located opposite to each other in the middle course of the river, Oksovsky and Severoonezhsk. 155 kilometres of the lower course, between the village of Gorodok and the selo of Porog, is listed in the State Water Register of Russia as navigable. The rest of the Onega is notable for the rapids, spread everywhere between Kargopol and Gorodok, and also located downstream from Porog, the Onega basin area has an important historical and cultural significance. Kargopol is one of the oldest cities in Russian North, oshevensk on the left bank of the Onega is the location of the former Alexandro-Oshevensky Monastery. Another historically important monastery in the Onega basin is the Kozheozersky Monastery on an island in the Lake Kozheozero. Some of the finest monuments of the wooden architecture are located in the basin of the Onega, including ensembles of Lyadiny, Saunino Pogost, Krasnaya Lyaga. These monuments also suffer from the lack of protection and their number steadily diminishes, in fact, the majority of them have been lost. The river splits into the Big Onega and Little Onega Rivers 75 kilometres from its estuary and it freezes up in late October - early December and stays under the ice until mid-April - May. It was used for timber rafting, the Onega flows among the coniferous forests, mostly among the swamps. Elsewhere, including the district center of Konyovo, the Onega can only be traversed by ferry crossings. Media related to Onega River at Wikimedia Commons Река Онега
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Dvina Bay
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The Dvina Bay is located in Arkhangelsk Oblast in Northwestern Russia. It is one of four bays and gulfs of the White Sea, the others being the Mezen Bay, the Onega Bay. The two main river emptying into the Dvina Bay is the Northern Dvina River, while the two cities on the bay are Arkhangelsk and Severodvinsk, the Dvina Bay is 93 kilometres long and 130 kilometres wide. Administratively, the coast and the islands belong to Primorsky District of Arkhangelsk Oblast, the Northern Dvina forms a delta entering the Dvina Bay, with many islands separating different streams. There are many islands in the Dvina Bay as well. A national park, Onezhskoye Pomorye National Park, was open on the Onega Peninsula on 26 February 2013, the Dvina Bay is limited by the Onega Peninsula from the west. At the eastern side, the shore steeply rises to a plateau which drains east into the Soyana, the Onega Bay shore is often referred to as Letny Bereg, and the eastern shore of the bay is Zimny Bereg. The names reflect the fact that the pomors of the Dvina Bay were fishing at Summer Coast and Winter Coast in the summer and in the winter, the Dvina Bay coast was populated by Russians not later than in the 13th century. Most of the villages at the Dvina Bay coast such as Pertominsk, Lopshenga, except for vicinity of the river delta of the Northern Dvina, both Winter and Summer coasts are remote, with sea and air being the only connections to the villages. There is regular sea navigation in the summer, serving all of the villages
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Mezen Bay
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The Mezen Bay is located in Arkhangelsk Oblast and Nenets Autonomous Okrug in Northwestern Russia. It is one of four bays and gulfs of the White Sea, the others being the Dvina Bay, the Onega Bay. The Mezen Bay is the easternmost of these, as it lies to the south of the Kanin Peninsula, Morzhovets Island lies at the entrance of the bay. The two main rivers emptying into the Mezen Bay are the Kuloy River, and the Mezen River, the area of the bay is 6,630 square kilometres. The Mezen Bay is 105 kilometres long and 97 kilometres wide, the tides in the Mezen Bay are up to 10 metres high and are the biggest in the White Sea. The northern part of the bay, just south of Morzhovets Island, is crossed by the Arctic Circle, historically, the Mezen Bay was the fishing area. The pomors who populated the coast were fishing along the coast, a sudden change of the weather could drive them off-shore. In this case, Morzhovets island was the last land before they got driven off to the Barents Sea and perish, another traditional occupation of the pomors in the Mezen Bay was seal hunting. The south-western coast of the bay is known as Abramovsky Bereg, the principal villages on the Abramovsky coast are Koyda and Dolgoshhelye, both of the Mezensky District of Arkhangelsk Oblast. On the Konushinsky Coast, the villages are Yazhma and Chizha. The entire coast of the Mezen Bay is included into border security zone, in order to visit the zone, a permit issued by the local FSB department is required. There was a project to construct a power station, Mezenskaya Tidal Power Plant. The project has not been realized
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Mezen River
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The Mezen is a river in Udorsky District of the Komi Republic and in Leshukonsky and Mezensky Districts of Arkhangelsk Oblast in Russia. Its mouth is located in the Mezen Bay of the White Sea, Mezen is one of the biggest rivers of European Russia. It is 857 kilometres long, and the area of its basin 78,000 square kilometres, the river basin of the Mezen comprises vast areas in the east and north-east of Arkhangelsk Oblast and in the west of the Komi Republic. The town of Mezen, the urban settlements of Usogorsk and Kamenka, as well as the administrative center of Udorsky District. The source of the Mezen is in the Timan Ridge in the Komi Republic and it flows first south-west, then sharply turns roughly in the north-western direction. The upper course of the Mezen runs through the hilly landscape, the Mezen flows into the Mezen Bay of the White Sea near the town of Mezen, right below the Arctic Circle. Near its mouth the Pyoza River enters from the east, the Mezen is navigable below the selo of Koslan, however, there is no regular passenger navigation except for ferry crossings. The area was populated by Finno-Ugric peoples and then colonized by the Novgorod Republic. In the 13th century the Novgorod merchants already reached the White Sea, the Mezen was used by Novgorod merchants as the trading route to the basin of the Pechora River which was attractive because of the fur. From the Northern Dvina, they went upstream the Pinega and took the boats by land to the Kuloy, the boats then were taken from the Kuloy to the Mezen. The river route continued east up the Pyoza, portage, another route went from the Northern Dvina upstream the Pukshenga, then moved to the Pokshenga and downstream to the Pinega. From the Pinega, the merchants used the Yezhuga, the Zyryanskaya Vashka, after the fall of Novgorod, the area became a part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The first permanent Russian settlements on the Mezen River are mentioned during the 16th century, Yuroma, the middle course of the Mezen, approximately the current area of Leshukonsky District, was where Russian and Komi cultures mixed the most. In the lower course of the Mezen, currently Mezensky District, Russians dominated, whereas in the course, currently Udorsky District
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Kuloy River (White Sea)
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The Kuloy is a river in Pinezhsky and Mezensky Districts of Arkhangelsk Oblast in Russia. Its mouth is located in the Mezen Bay of the White Sea and it is 235 kilometres long, and the area of its basin 19,000 square kilometres. The principal tributaries of the Kuloy are the Kyolda, the Nemnyuga, in the upper course, the Kuloy is known as the Sotka River, the total length of the Sotka and the Kuloy is 350 kilometres. In the low course, the Sotka approaches the middle course of the Pinega River, in this place, close to the settlement of Pinega, the Kuloy-Pinega Canal was constructed in 1926—1928, however, currently the canal is pretty much neglected. Below the mouth of the canal the river is known as the Kuloy, above the mouth, the lower 208 kilometres of the course of Kuloy, downstream from the selo of Kulogory, are navigable, the course adjacent to the canal is not navigable anymore. There is no navigation on the Kuloy. The river basin of the Kuloy is huge and includes almost all the area in the north-east of Arkhangelsk Oblast between the White Sea and the Mezen and Pinega rivers. This area is spread over five districts, Pinezhsky, Mezensky, Primorsky, from the confluence of the canal, the Kuloy flows north, crosses from Pinezhsky District into Mezensky District, where it accepts the Nemnyuga from the right. Below the mouth of the Soyana, the valley of the Kuloy starts broadening and turns into the estuary, the selo of Dolgoshchelye is located at the right bank of the estuary. The area was populated by Finno-Ugric peoples and then colonized by the Novgorod Republic. In the 13th century the Novgorod merchants already reached the White Sea, the Kuloy was used by Novgorod merchants as the trading route to the basin of the Pechora River. From the Northern Dvina, they went upstream the Pinega and took the boats by land to the Kuloy at the place where the canal now is, the boats then were taken from the Kuloy to the Mezen. The selo of Dolgoshchelye, in the estuary of the Kuloy, is a historical pomor fishermen village
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Niva River
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Niva River is a river in the Murmansk Oblast in Russia. The length of the river is 36 km, the area of its basin is 12,800 km². The Niva River flows out of the Imandra Lake and into the Kandalaksha Gulf of the White Sea, the town of Kandalaksha is located in the estuary of the Niva River. Its maximum depth is 24 feet, between 1936 and 1954 three hydroelectric power stations were built on the Niva. Total capacity is 240 MW and annual power production 1390 GWh
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Umba River (Russia)
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Umba is a 123 km long river on the Kola Peninsula, Murmansk Oblast, Russia. The rivers source is Lake Umbozero,100 km northeast of Kandalaksha, from there it flows south, through a landscape of forests and hills. The river alternates between rapids and more sections, and it flows through several lakes, the largest of which is Lake Kanozero. The river exits from Lake Kanozero through two separate channels, about five kilometers apart. The outlets are called the Kitsa and the Rodvinga, and the latter again divides forming yet another called the Nizma. The Kitsa and Rodvinga rejoins in Lake Ponchozero, below which the river is called the Umba. The river empties into the Kandalaksha Gulf at the settlement of Umba. Its biggest tributary is the Vyala, which comes from Lake Vyalozero, the Umba is known as a very good river for salmon fishing. The Umba is also used for timber floating, semi-precious stones found in the Umba river are used for high quality, very rare jewelry. Jussi Soppela – The Distinctive Features of Fishing Tourism on the Kola Peninsula Data on Umba River runoff, Northern Water Problems Institute, KRC RAS
41.
Varzuga River
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Varzuga River is a river in the south of the Kola Peninsula in Murmansk Oblast, Russia. The area of its basin is 9,840 km², the Varzuga River flows into the White Sea. It freezes up in October and stays under the ice until May and this is the most prolific atlantic salmon fishing river in the whole of the Kola peninsular. Over the season over 10,000 salmon are caught and returned in this river system, favourite Salmon fishing patterns are the Kola Vulcan, Kola Blue Fire, Kola Fire and the Kolalander
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Ponoy River
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Ponoy River is a river on the Kola Peninsula in Russia. The area of its basin is 15,500 km², the Ponoys source lies in the western end of the Keivy Uplands,50 km east of Lake Lovozero, in the middle of the Kola Peninsula. The river then flows towards the east, threading a path through a landscape of hills. The Ponoy receives several tributaries from the north, the largest being the Acheryok, like the Ponoy itself, these also has their sources in the Keivy Uplands. Below its confluence with the Purnach River, some 50 km from the sea and it finally flows into the White Sea at Cape Korabelniy, at the eastern end of the Kola Peninsula. The river freezes over in late October to early November, the river is very rich in Atlantic salmon. It has become popular among European fishing tourists, and there are fishing camps along the river. Favourite salmon fishing patterns are the Kola Vulcan, Kola Blue Fire, Kola Fire, there are lots of ducks along its banks, and muskrats are common
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Silt
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Silt is granular material of a size between sand and clay, whose mineral origin is quartz and feldspar. Silt may occur as a soil or as sediment mixed in suspension with water in a body of such as a river. It may also exist as soil deposited at the bottom of a water body, Silt has a moderate specific area with a typically non-sticky, plastic feel. Silt usually has a floury feel when dry, and a slippery feel when wet, Silt can be visually observed with a hand lens. Silt is created by a variety of physical processes capable of splitting the generally sand-sized quartz crystals of primary rocks by exploiting deficiencies in their lattice and these involve chemical weathering of rock and regolith, and a number of physical weathering processes such as frost shattering and haloclasty. The main process is abrasion through transport, including fluvial comminution, aeolian attrition and it is in semi-arid environments that substantial quantities of silt are produced. Silt is sometimes known as rock flour or stone dust, especially produced by glacial action. Mineralogically, silt is composed mainly of quartz and feldspar, sedimentary rock composed mainly of silt is known as siltstone. Liquefaction created by an earthquake is silt suspended in water that is hydrodynamically forced up from below ground level. In the Udden–Wentworth scale, silt particles range between 0.0039 and 0.0625 mm, larger than clay but smaller than sand particles, ISO14688 grades silts between 0.002 mm and 0.063 mm. In actuality, silt is chemically distinct from clay, and unlike clay, grains of silt are approximately the size in all dimensions, furthermore. Clays are formed from thin plate-shaped particles held together by electrostatic forces, according to the U. S. Department of Agriculture Soil Texture Classification system, the sand-silt distinction is made at the 0.05 mm particle size. The USDA system has been adopted by the Food and Agriculture Organization, in the Unified Soil Classification System and the AASHTO Soil Classification system, the sand-silt distinction is made at the 0.075 mm particle size. Silts and clays are distinguished mechanically by their plasticity, Silt is easily transported in water or other liquid and is fine enough to be carried long distances by air in the form of dust. Thick deposits of silty material resulting from deposition by aeolian processes are called loess. Silt and clay contribute to turbidity in water, Silt is transported by streams or by water currents in the ocean. When silt appears as a pollutant in water the phenomenon is known as siltation, Silt, deposited by annual floods along the Nile River, created the rich, fertile soil that sustained the Ancient Egyptian civilization. In south east Bangladesh, in the Noakhali district, cross dams were built in the 1960s whereby silt gradually started forming new land called chars, the district of Noakhali has gained more than 28 square miles of land in the past 50 years
"White Sea". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.
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