1.
Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
2.
Wildlife
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Wildlife traditionally refers to undomesticated animal species, but has come to include all plants, fungi, and other organisms that grow or live wild in an area without being introduced by humans. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems, humans have historically tended to separate civilization from wildlife in a number of ways including the legal, social, and moral sense. Some animals, however, have adapted to suburban environments and this includes such animals as domesticated cats, dogs, mice, and gerbils. The global wildlife population has decreased by 52 percent between 1970 and 2014, according to a report by the World Wildlife Fund, anthropologists believe that the Stone Age people and hunter-gatherers relied on wildlife, both plants and animals, for their food. In fact, some species may have been hunted to extinction by human hunters. Today, hunting, fishing, and gathering wildlife is still a significant food source in parts of the world. In other areas, hunting and non-commercial fishing are seen as a sport or recreation. Meat sourced from wildlife that is not traditionally regarded as game is known as bush meat, in November 2008, almost 900 plucked and oven-ready owls and other protected wildlife species were confiscated by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks in Malaysia, according to TRAFFIC. The animals were believed to be bound for China, to be sold in wild meat restaurants, most are listed in CITES which prohibits or restricts such trade.60. Many Amazon species, including peccaries, agoutis, turtles, turtle eggs, anacondas, armadillos, others in these informal markets, such as monkeys and parrots, are destined for the pet trade, often smuggled into the United States. Still other Amazon species are popular ingredients in traditional medicines sold in local markets, the medicinal value of animal parts is based largely on superstition. Many animal species have spiritual significance in different cultures around the world, for example, eagles, hawks and their feathers have great cultural and spiritual value to Native Americans as religious objects. In Hinduism the cow is regarded sacred, muslims conduct sacrifices on Eid-ul-Adha to commemorate the sacrificial spirit of Ibrahim in love of God. Camels, sheep, goats, and cows may be offered as sacrifice during the three days of Eid, many nations have established their tourism sector around their natural wildlife. South Africa has, for example, many opportunities for tourists to see the wildlife in its national parks. In South India the Periar Wildlife Sanctuary, Bandipur National Park and Mudamalai Wildlife Sanctuary are situated around, India is home to many national parks and wildlife sanctuaries showing the diversity of its wildlife, much of its unique fauna, and excels in the range. This subsection focuses on forms of wildlife destruction. Exploitation of wild populations has been a characteristic of man since our exodus from Africa 130,000 –70,000 years ago
3.
Ethology
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Ethology is the scientific and objective study of animal behaviour, usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions, and viewing behaviour as an evolutionarily adaptive trait. Many naturalists have studied aspects of animal behaviour throughout history, Ethology is a combination of laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to some other disciplines such as neuroanatomy, ecology, and evolutionary biology. Ethologists are typically interested in a process rather than in a particular animal group. Ethology is a growing field. New fields, such as neuroethology, have developed, understanding ethology or animal behaviour can be important in animal training. Considering the natural behaviours of different species or breeds enables the trainer to select the individuals best suited to perform the required task and it also enables the trainer to encourage the performance of naturally occurring behaviours and also the discontinuance of undesirable behaviours. The term ethology derives from the Greek language, ἦθος, ethos meaning character and -λογία, the term was first popularized by American myrmecologist William Morton Wheeler in 1902. An earlier, slightly different sense of the term was proposed by John Stuart Mill in his 1843 System of Logic. He recommended the development of a new science, ethology, the purpose of which would be explanation of individual and national differences in character and this use of the word was never adopted. Comparative psychology also studies animal behaviour, but, as opposed to ethology, is construed as a sub-topic of psychology rather than as one of biology. The two approaches are complementary rather than competitive, but they do result in different perspectives, in addition, for most of the twentieth century, comparative psychology developed most strongly in North America, while ethology was stronger in Europe. From a practical standpoint, early comparative psychologists concentrated on gaining extensive knowledge of the behaviour of very few species, ethologists were more interested in understanding behaviour across a wide range of species to facilitate principled comparisons across taxonomic groups. Ethologists have made more use of such cross-species comparisons than comparative psychologists have. See also, Great Chain of Being Until the 19th century, jean-Baptiste Lamarck was the first biologist to describe a complex theory of evolution. The second statement is that living organism, humans included. When Charles Darwin went to the Galapagos Islands, he was aware of Lamarcks theories and was influenced by them. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book The Expression of the Emotions in Man, other early ethologists, such as Charles O. Their beginning for studying the behaviour of a new species was to construct an ethogram and this provided an objective, cumulative data-base of behaviour, which subsequent researchers could check and supplement
4.
Camera lens
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A lens might be permanently fixed to a camera, or it might be interchangeable with lenses of different focal lengths, apertures, and other properties. While in principle a simple convex lens will suffice, in practice a compound made up of a number of optical lens elements is required to correct the many optical aberrations that arise. Some aberrations will be present in any lens system and it is the job of the lens designer to balance these and produce a design that is suitable for photographic use and possibly mass production. Typical rectilinear lenses can be thought of as improved pinhole lenses, as shown, a pinhole lens is simply a small aperture that blocks most rays of light, ideally selecting one ray to the object for each point on the image sensor. Here a pixel is the area of the detector exposed to light from a point on the object, making the pinhole smaller improves resolution, but reduces the amount of light captured. At a certain point, shrinking the hole does not improve the resolution because of the diffraction limit, beyond this limit, making the hole smaller makes the image blurrier as well as darker. Practical lenses can be thought of as an answer to the question how can a pinhole lens be modified to more light. A first step is to put a simple convex lens at the pinhole with a length equal to the distance to the film plane. The geometry is almost the same as with a pinhole lens. From the front of the camera, the hole, would be seen. If one were inside the camera, one would see the acting as a projector. The virtual image of the aperture from inside the camera is the exit pupil. Practical photographic lenses include more lens elements, a camera lens may be made from a number of elements, from one, as in the Box Brownies meniscus lens, to over 20 in the more complex zooms. These elements may themselves comprise a group of lenses cemented together, the front element is critical to the performance of the whole assembly. In all modern lenses the surface is coated to reduce abrasion, flare, and surface reflectance, to minimize aberration, the curvature is usually set so that the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction are equal. In a prime lens this is easy, but in a zoom there is always a compromise, the lens usually is focused by adjusting the distance from the lens assembly to the image plane, or by moving elements of the lens assembly. To improve performance, some lenses have a cam system that adjusts the distance between the groups as the lens is focused, manufacturers call this different things, Nikon calls it CRC, Canon calls it a floating system, and Hasselblad and Mamiya call it FLE. Glass is the most common used to construct lens elements, due to its good optical properties
5.
Film speed
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Film speed is the measure of a photographic films sensitivity to light, determined by sensitometry and measured on various numerical scales, the most recent being the ISO system. A closely related ISO system is used to measure the sensitivity of digital imaging systems, highly sensitive films are correspondingly termed fast films. In both digital and film photography, the reduction of exposure corresponding to use of higher sensitivities generally leads to reduced image quality, in short, the higher the sensitivity, the grainier the image will be. Ultimately sensitivity is limited by the efficiency of the film or sensor. The speed of the emulsion was then expressed in degrees Warnerke corresponding with the last number visible on the plate after development. Each number represented an increase of 1/3 in speed, typical speeds were between 10° and 25° Warnerke at the time. The concept, however, was built upon in 1900 by Henry Chapman Jones in the development of his plate tester. In their system, speed numbers were inversely proportional to the exposure required, for example, an emulsion rated at 250 H&D would require ten times the exposure of an emulsion rated at 2500 H&D. The methods to determine the sensitivity were later modified in 1925, the H&D system was officially accepted as a standard in the former Soviet Union from 1928 until September 1951, when it was superseded by GOST 2817-50. The Scheinergrade system was devised by the German astronomer Julius Scheiner in 1894 originally as a method of comparing the speeds of plates used for astronomical photography, Scheiners system rated the speed of a plate by the least exposure to produce a visible darkening upon development. ≈2 The system was extended to cover larger ranges and some of its practical shortcomings were addressed by the Austrian scientist Josef Maria Eder. Scheiners system was abandoned in Germany, when the standardized DIN system was introduced in 1934. In various forms, it continued to be in use in other countries for some time. The DIN system, officially DIN standard 4512 by Deutsches Institut für Normung, was published in January 1934, International Congress of Photography held in Dresden from August 3 to 8,1931. The DIN system was inspired by Scheiners system, but the sensitivities were represented as the base 10 logarithm of the sensitivity multiplied by 10, similar to decibels. Thus an increase of 20° represented an increase in sensitivity. ≈3 /10 As in the Scheiner system, speeds were expressed in degrees, originally the sensitivity was written as a fraction with tenths, where the resultant value 1.8 represented the relative base 10 logarithm of the speed. Tenths were later abandoned with DIN4512, 1957-11, and the example above would be written as 18° DIN, the degree symbol was finally dropped with DIN4512, 1961-10
6.
Quagga
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The quagga is an extinct subspecies of plains zebra that lived in South Africa until the 19th century. It was long thought to be a species, but genetic studies have shown it to be the southernmost subspecies of plains zebra. It is considered close to Burchells zebra. Its name was derived from its call, which sounded like kwa-ha-ha, the quagga is believed to have been around 257 cm long and 125–135 cm tall at the shoulder. It was distinguished from other zebras by its pattern of primarily brown and white stripes. The rear was brown and without stripes, and therefore more horse-like, the distribution of stripes varied considerably between individuals. Little is known about the behaviour, but it may have gathered into herds of 30–50 individuals. Quaggas were said to be wild and lively, yet were also considered more docile than Burchells zebra and they were once found in great numbers in the Karoo of Cape Province and the southern part of the Orange Free State in South Africa. After the Dutch settlement of South Africa began, the quagga was hunted as it competed with domesticated animals for forage. While some individuals were taken to zoos in Europe, breeding programs were unsuccessful, the last wild population lived in the Orange Free State, and the quagga was extinct in the wild by 1878. The last captive died in Amsterdam on 12 August 1883. Only one quagga was ever photographed alive and only 23 skins are preserved today, the name quagga is derived from the Khoikhoi word for zebra and is onomatopoeic, being said to resemble the quaggas call, variously transcribed as kwa-ha-ha, kwahaah, or oug-ga. The name is used colloquially for the plains zebra. The quagga was originally classified as a species, Equus quagga. Traditionally, the quagga and the plains and mountain zebras were placed in the subgenus Hippotigris. There has been debate over the status of the quagga in relation to the plains zebra. It is poorly represented in the record, and the identification of these fossils is uncertain. Quaggas have also identified in cave art attributed to the San
7.
Focal length
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The focal length of an optical system is a measure of how strongly the system converges or diverges light. For an optical system in air, it is the distance over which initially collimated rays are brought to a focus. A system with a focal length has greater optical power than one with a long focal length. For a thin lens in air, the length is the distance from the center of the lens to the principal foci of the lens. For a converging lens, the length is positive, and is the distance at which a beam of collimated light will be focused to a single spot. For a diverging lens, the length is negative, and is the distance to the point from which a collimated beam appears to be diverging after passing through the lens. The focal length of a lens can be easily measured by using it to form an image of a distant light source on a screen. The lens is moved until an image is formed on the screen. In this case 1/u is negligible, and the length is then given by f ≈ v. Back focal length or back focal distance is the distance from the vertex of the last optical surface of the system to the focal point. For an optical system in air, the focal length gives the distance from the front. If the surrounding medium is not air, then the distance is multiplied by the index of the medium. Some authors call these distances the front/rear focal lengths, distinguishing them from the front/rear focal distances, defined above. In general, the length or EFL is the value that describes the ability of the optical system to focus light. The other parameters are used in determining where an image will be formed for an object position. The quantity 1/f is also known as the power of the lens. The corresponding front focal distance is, FFD = f, in the sign convention used here, the value of R1 will be positive if the first lens surface is convex, and negative if it is concave. The value of R2 is negative if the surface is convex
8.
Camera trap
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A camera trap is a remotely activated camera that is equipped with a motion sensor or an infrared sensor, or uses a light beam as a trigger. Camera trapping is a method for capturing wild animals on film when researchers are not present, Camera traps, also known as trail cameras, are used to capture images of wildlife with as little human interference as possible. The introduction of commercial infrared-triggered cameras in the early 1990s has seen their use dramatically increase, with advancements in the quality of camera equipment this method of field observation has become more popular among researchers. Hunting has played an important role in development of camera traps and these hunters have opened a commercial market for the devices which have led to many improvements over time. The great advantage of camera traps is that they can record very accurate data without the photographed animal and these data are superior to human observations, because they can be reviewed by other researchers. They minimally disturb wildlife and can replace the use of more invasive survey and monitoring techniques such as live trap, infrared flash cameras have low disturbance and visibility. Besides olfactory and acoustic cues, camera flash may scare animals so that they avoid or destroy camera traps, the major alternative light source is infrared, which is usually not detectable by mammals or birds. Camera traps are helpful in quantifying the number of different species in an area. It can also be useful in identifying new or rare species that have yet to be well documented, by using camera traps, the well-being and survival rate of animals can be observed over time. Camera traps are helpful in determining behavioral and activity patterns of animals, Camera traps are also useful to record animal migrations. Camera traps can document wildlife presence, abundance, and population changes, particularly in the face of deforestation, Camera traps enable collection of baseline population data on elusive mammals and birds where only estimates — and often just guesses — were possible before. The earliest models used traditional film and a one-shot trigger function and these cameras contained film that needed to be collected and developed like any other standard camera. Today, more advanced cameras utilize digital photography, sending photos directly to a computer, even though this method is uncommon it is highly useful and could be the future of this research method. Some cameras are even programmed to take pictures after a triggering event. There are non-triggered cameras that either run continuously or take pictures at specific time intervals, the more common ones are the advanced cameras that are triggered only after sensing movement and/or a heat signature to increase the chances of capturing a useful image. Infrared beams can also be used to trigger the camera, video is also an emerging option in camera traps, allowing researchers to record running streams of video and to document animal behavior. Weather roof and waterproof housing for camera traps protect the equipment from damage, noise-reduction housing limits the possibility of disturbing and scaring away animals. Sound recording is another feature that can be added to the camera to record animal calls, humidity has a highly negative effect on camera traps and can result in camera malfunction
9.
Telephoto lens
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In photography and cinematography, a telephoto lens is a specific type of a long-focus lens in which the physical length of the lens is shorter than the focal length. This is achieved by incorporating a special group known as a telephoto group that extends the light path to create a long-focus lens in a much shorter overall design. The angle of view and other effects of long-focus lenses are the same for telephoto lenses of the same specified focal length, long-focal-length lenses are often informally referred to as telephoto lenses although this is technically incorrect, a telephoto lens specifically incorporates the telephoto group. In contrast to a lens, for any given focal length a simple lens of non-telephoto design is constructed from one lens. To focus on an object at infinity, the distance from this single lens to focal plane of the camera has to be adjusted to this focal length, for example, given a focal length of 500 mm, the distance between lens and focal plane is 500 mm. The farther the focal length is increased, the more the length of such a simple lens makes it unwieldy. But such simple lenses are not telephoto lenses, no matter how extreme the focal length – they are known as long-focus lenses, while the optical centre of a simple lens is within the construction, the telephoto lens moves the optical centre in front of the construction. The basic construction of a telephoto lens consists of front lens elements that, the focal length of this group is shorter than the effective focal length of the lens. The converging rays from this group are intercepted by the rear lens group, sometimes called the telephoto group, the simplest telephoto designs could consist of one element in each group, but in practice, more than one element is used in each group to correct for various aberrations. The combination of two groups produces a lens assembly that is physically shorter than a long-focus lens producing the same image size. This same property is achieved in camera lenses that combine mirrors with lenses and these designs, called catadioptric, reflex, or mirror lenses, have a curved mirror as the primary objective with some form of negative lens in front of the mirror to correct optical aberrations. They also use a secondary mirror to relay the image that extends the light cone the same way the negative lens telephoto group does. The mirrors also fold the light path, the heaviest non-Catadioptric telephoto lens for civilian use was made by Carl Zeiss and has a focal length of 1700 mm with a maximum aperture of f/4, implying a 425 mm entrance pupil. It is designed for use with a medium format Hasselblad 203 FE camera, the telephoto lens design has also been used for wide angles, at least once in the case of the Olympus XA where it permitted a 35mm focal length to fit in an extra compact camera body. Inverting the telephoto configuration, employing one or more negative lens groups in front of a positive lens group and this allows for greater clearance for other optical or mechanical parts such as the mirror parts in a single-lens reflex camera. Zoom lenses that are telephotos at one extreme of the zoom range, the concept of the telephoto lens, in reflecting form, was first described by Johannes Kepler in his Dioptrice of 1611, and re-invented by Peter Barlow in 1834. Some of his photographs are preserved in the holdings of the Turnbull Library in Wellington, one of McKay’s photographs shows the Russian warship Vjestnik anchored in Wellington harbour about two and a half kilometres away, with its rigging lines and gun ports clearly visible. The other, taken from the point, is of a local hotel
10.
Flash (photography)
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A flash is a device used in photography producing a flash of artificial light at a color temperature of about 5500 K to help illuminate a scene. A major purpose of a flash is to illuminate a dark scene, other uses are capturing quickly moving objects or changing the quality of light. Flash refers either to the flash of light itself or to the flash unit discharging the light. Most current flash units are electronic, having evolved from single-use flashbulbs, modern cameras often activate flash units automatically. Flash units are built directly into a camera. Some cameras allow separate flash units to be mounted via an accessory mount bracket. In professional studio equipment, flashes may be large, standalone units, or studio strobes, studies of magnesium by Bunsen and Roscoe in 1859 showed that burning this metal produced a light with similar qualities to daylight. The potential application to photography inspired Edward Sonstadt to investigate methods of manufacturing magnesium so that it would burn reliably for this use and he applied for patents in 1862 and by 1864 had started the Manchester Magnesium Company with Edward Mellor. It also had the benefit of being a simpler and cheaper process than making round wire, mather was also credited with the invention of a holder for the ribbon, which formed a lamp to burn it in. The packaging also implies that the ribbon was not necessarily broken off before being ignited. An alternative to ribbon was flash powder, a mixture of powder and potassium chlorate, introduced by its German inventors Adolf Miethe. A measured amount was put into a pan or trough and ignited by hand, producing a brilliant flash of light, along with the smoke. This could be an activity, especially if the flash powder was damp. An electrically triggered flash lamp was invented by Joshua Lionel Cowen in 1899 and his patent describes a device for igniting photographers’ flash powder by using dry cell batteries to heat a wire fuse. Variations and alternatives were touted from time to time and a few found a measure of success in the marketplace, especially for amateur use. The use of powder in an open lamp was replaced by flashbulbs, magnesium filaments were contained in bulbs filled with oxygen gas. Manufactured flashbulbs were first produced commercially in Germany in 1929, such a bulb could only be used once, and was too hot to handle immediately after use, but the confinement of what would otherwise have amounted to a small explosion was an important advance. A later innovation was the coating of flashbulbs with a film to maintain bulb integrity in the event of the glass shattering during the flash
11.
Monopod
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A monopod, also called a unipod, is a single staff or pole used to help support cameras, video cameras, binoculars, rifles or other precision instruments in the field. The monopod allows a camera to be held steadier, allowing the photographer to take sharp pictures at slower shutter speeds. In the case of video, it reduces camera shake, monopods are easier to transport and quicker to set up than conventional tripods, making them preferable for on-the-go photography. An OTG photographer is not able to carry a heavy, bulky tripod around, when used by itself, it eliminates camera shake in the vertical axis. When used in combination with leaning against an object, a bipod is formed. Unlike a tripod, monopods cannot support a camera independently, in the case of still cameras, this limits the shutter speed that can be used. They still allow lower shutter speeds than hand holding, and are easier to carry, many monopods can also be used as a beltpod, meaning that the foot of the monopod can rest on the belt or hip of the photographer. This is usually used in selfies for clearer shots by ensuring that the camera is not in motion relative to the body, with a special adapter, monopods can be used as a chestpod, meaning that the foot rests now on the chest of the photographer. The result is that the camera is held more steadily than by hand alone, and this technique is widely used in videography in which the photographer has to move with the subject e. g first-person scenes, and is also especially useful for disabled photographers. Walking sticks or trekking poles exist that have a 1/4-20 threaded stud on the top of the handle, usually covered by a cap when not in use, the user would usually need to carry a ball swivel adapter separately and mount it as needed. Monopods used with a smartphone or camera to take selfie photographs beyond the reach of the arm are known as selfie sticks. There are two ways to attach your camera to a monopod, the first is to screw the monopods screw thread directly into the camera body. This is fine if youre using a small, light lens. If youre shooting using a long, heavy telephoto lens, its better to use a tripod mount ring and this fixes the monopod to the lens rather than the camera body, giving better balance and stopping the monopod from rotating in your hands as you try to position it. There are various different types of monopod head available, and ball heads offer the most flexibility and they allow you to shoot in portrait or landscape orientation, and angle your camera to adjust for any sloping of the monopod. A monopod can be used for firearms and they have the advantage of being light and compact, although when used in firing mode they can only be used with small firearms. They are also used as butt spikes as a support on precision rifles. When used to support a compass or transit, the monopod is referred to as a jacob staff, mounting the compass atop the jacob staff eliminates reading errors introduced by body movements, and permits the taking of more precise bearings to targets
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