1.
Serjeant-at-law
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A Serjeant-at-Law, commonly known simply as a Serjeant, was a member of an order of barristers at the English bar. The position of Serjeant-at-Law, or Sergeant-Counter, was centuries old, the Serjeants were the oldest formally created order in England, having been brought into existence as a body by Henry II. The order rose during the 16th century as a small, elite group of lawyers who took much of the work in the common law courts. With the creation of Queens Counsel during the reign of Elizabeth I, the last Serjeant-at-Law was Serjeant Sullivan. The last purely English Serjeant-at-Law was Lord Lindley, the Serjeants had for many centuries exclusive jurisdiction over the Court of Common Pleas, being the only lawyers allowed to argue a case there. At the same time they had rights of audience in the central common law courts. Only Serjeants-at-Law could become judges of these courts right up into the 19th century, the members of the Order initially used St Pauls Cathedral as their meeting place, standing near the parvis where they would give counsel to those who sought advice. The Order certainly existed during the reign of Henry II from 1154–1189, as such it is the oldest royally created order, the next is the Order of the Garter, created in 1330. Serjeants at Law existed in Ireland from at least 1302, and were appointed by letters patent in a way to English Serjeants. Henry de Bracton claimed that, for the trial of Hubert de Burgh in 1239 the king was assisted by all the serjeants of the bench, by the 1270s there were approximately 20 recorded Serjeants, by 1290,36. This period also saw the first regulation of Serjeants, with a power from 1275 to suspend from practise any Serjeant who misbehaved. The exclusive jurisdiction Serjeants-at-Law held over the Court of Common Pleas slowly came about during the 1320s, from this period, Serjeants also began to be called in regular groups, rather than individually on whatever date was felt appropriate. During the 16th century the Serjeants-at-Law were a small, though highly respected and powerful, there were never more than ten alive, and on several occasions the number dwindled to one, William Blendlowes bragged that he had been the only Serjeant-at-Law in England in 1559. Over these 100 years, only 89 Serjeants were created and these lawyers became known as outer or utter barristers, if they were allowed to act they had passed the bar towards becoming a Serjeant-at-Law. Despite holding a monopoly on cases in the Court of Common Pleas and this was also a time of great judicial success for the Serjeants, since only Serjeants could be appointed to the common law courts, many also sat in the Exchequer of Pleas, a court of equity. This period was not a time of success for the overall, however. The decline of the Serjeants-at-Law started in 1596, when Francis Bacon persuaded Elizabeth I to appoint him Queens Counsel Extraordinary and this was not a formal creation, in that he was not granted a patent of appointment, but in 1604 James I saw fit to finally award this. The creation of Queens Counsel was initially small, James I created at least one other, following the English Restoration this increased, with a few appointed each year
2.
Queen's Counsel
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A Queens Counsel, or Kings Counsel during the reign of a king, is an eminent lawyer who is appointed by the Queen to be one of Her Majestys Counsel learned in the law. The term is recognised as an honorific. Queens Counsel is a status, conferred by the Crown, that is recognised by courts, members have the privilege of sitting within the Bar of court. As members wear silk gowns of a design, the award of Queens Counsel is known informally as taking silk. Appointments are made from within the profession on the basis of merit rather than a particular level of experience. However, successful applicants tend to be barristers, or advocates with 15 years of experience or more, the Attorney-General, Solicitor-General, and Kings Serjeants were Kings Counsel in Ordinary in the Kingdom of England. The first Queens Counsel Extraordinary was Sir Francis Bacon, who was given a patent giving him precedence at the Bar in 1597, the new rank of Kings Counsel contributed to the gradual obsolescence of the formerly more senior serjeant-at-law by superseding it. The Attorney-General and Solicitor-General had similarly succeeded the Kings Serjeants as leaders of the Bar in Tudor times, but the Kings Counsel emerged into eminence only in the early 1830s, prior to when they were relatively few in number. It became the means to recognise a barrister as a senior member of the profession. It became of greater importance to become a KC. The KCs inherited the prestige of the serjeants and their priority before the courts, the earliest English law list, published in 1775, lists 165 members of the Bar, of whom 14 were Kings Counsel, a proportion of about 8. 5%. As of 2010 roughly the same proportion existed, though the number of barristers had increased to about 12,250 in independent practice, in 1839 the number of Queens Counsel was seventy. In 1882, the number of Queens Counsel was 187, the list of Queens Counsel in the Law List of 1897 gave the names of 238, of whom hardly one-third appeared to be in actual practice. In 1959, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 181, in each of the five years up to 1970, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 208,209,221,236 and 262, respectively. In each of the years 1973 to 1978, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 329,345,370,372,384 and 404, in 1989, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 601. In each of the years 1991 to 2000, the number of practising Queens Counsel was 736,760,797,845,891,925,974,1006,1043, the title traditionally depends on the sex of the sovereign. The current Queen, Elizabeth II has had a long reign and it can be assumed that, should the Queen die and the title pass to a descendant, the title will again become KC, as the next three in line to the throne are male heirs. Queens Counsel and serjeants were prohibited, at least from the century, from drafting pleadings alone
3.
Justice of the Common Pleas
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Justice of the Common Pleas was a puisne judicial position within the Court of Common Pleas of England and Wales, under the Chief Justice. The Common Pleas was the court of common law within England and Wales. It was created out of the common law jurisdiction of the Exchequer of Pleas, with splits forming during the 1190s, as a result, the courts jockeyed for power. The outcome was the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, under all the central courts were made part of a single Supreme Court of Judicature. Eventually the government created a High Court of Justice under Lord Coleridge by an Order in Council of 16 December 1880, at this point, the Common Pleas formally ceased to exist. The number of Justices at any one time varied, between 1377 and 1420 there were four, switching to five from 1420 to 1471. From 1471 onwards, the number was fixed at 3 and this changed in the 19th century, provisions were made for the appointment of a Fourth Justice and Fifth Justice in 1830 and 1868 respectively. From the start of the 14th century, Justices were appointed via letters patent made under the Great Seal, and held their appointments under the pleasure of the King. Justices received the same remuneration as judges of the Exchequer of Pleas and Court of Kings Bench, £1,000 in 1660, increased to £2,000 in 1759, from 1799, pensions were also awarded to retiring Justices. A Biographical Dictionary of the Justices of England, Exchequer and Bench in the Later Twelfth Century -- Separate or Identical Tribunals. The Judges of England 1272 -1990, a list of judges of the superior courts
4.
Court of King's Bench (England)
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The Court of Kings Bench, formally known as The Court of the King Before the King Himself, was an English court of common law in the English legal system. Although not immediately stemming the tide, in the term it helped the Kings Bench not only recover. While there was a decline in business from 1460 to 1540, as the new reforms began to take effect the Kings Benchs business was significantly boosted. While good for the Kings Bench, the Common Pleas became suspicious of the new developments, fighting against the Kings Bench in a reactionary and increasingly conservative way, an equilibrium was eventually reached in the 17th century. The Kings Bench thus ceased to exist, except as the Kings Bench Division of the High Court. It also acted as a court of appeal for the Exchequer of Pleas and Common Pleas, although it was not a court of last resort and those who chose not to retire became Justices of the High Court on the Kings Benchs dissolution. Originally, the court was the curia regis, one of the three central administrative bodies along with the Exchequer and Chancery, from which the Court of Chancery formed. This curia was the Kings court, composed of those advisers and courtiers who followed the King as he travelled around the country and this was not a dedicated court of law, instead a descendant of the witenagemot. In concert with the curia regis, eyre circuits staffed by itinerant judges dispensed justice throughout the country and these judges were also members of the curia, and would hear cases on the Kings behalf in the lesser curia regis. There were thus two common law courts, the curia, which followed the King, and the Common Pleas, the curia eventually became known as the Kings Bench, with the King himself required for the court to sit. There is some controversy whether the original fixed court was the Common Pleas or Kings Bench. This was originally interpreted as the foundation of the Kings Bench, the later theory was that Henry IIs decree created the Court of Common Pleas, not the Kings Bench, and that the Kings Bench instead split from the Common Pleas at some later time. The first records of an independent Kings Bench come from 1234, modern academics give 1234 as the founding date for the Kings Bench as a fully independent tribunal, considering it part of the law reform which took place from 1232 to 1234. Under Edward I, the presence of the King in the court became more and more irregular and its last travels around the country were in 1414 to Leicestershire, Staffordshire and Shropshire, and a visit to Northamptonshire in 1421. From then onwards, the Kings Bench became a court rather than one that followed the King. Like the Common Pleas, the Kings Bench sat in Westminster Hall until its dissolution and these courts were more attractive to the common lawyers because of their informality and the simple method used to arrest defendants. This loss of business was recognised by the Kings Bench. From 1500 the Kings Bench began reforming to increase its business and jurisdiction, the recovery of the Kings Bench was thanks to its use of Chancery-like procedure, centrally, the system of bills
5.
Joseph Yates (judge)
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Sir Joseph Yates of Peel Hall, Little Hulton, Lancashire was an eminent English judge. He was born in Manchester, the son of Joseph Yates, barrister, of Stanley House, Lancashire and educated at Manchester Grammar School and Queens College and he studied law at Staple Inn and the Inner Temple and was called to the bar in 1753. In 1761 he was appointed Kings Council for the Duchy of Lancaster and he was knighted in 1763 and appointed early the following year to the Kings Bench, in the same year becoming the Chancellor of Durham. During his time on the Kings Bench he adjudicated at the trial of John Wilkes who was charged with sedition and obscenity. He later transferred, in 1770, from the Kings bench to the Court of Common Pleas and he was buried at Cheam, in Surrey, where there is a monument to his memory. He had married Elizabeth Baldwyn, the daughter of Charles Baldwyn of Munslow and they had one son, Joseph, and a daughter. A descendant was Walter Baldwyn Yates C. B. E
6.
Westbury (UK Parliament constituency)
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Westbury was a parliamentary constituency in Wiltshire from 1449 to 2010. Until 1885, it was a borough, returning two Members of Parliament until 1832 and only one from 1832 to 1885. The parliamentary borough was abolished in 1885, when the name was transferred to a county constituency returning one MP, elections used the bloc vote system when two MPs were returned, and the first-past-the-post system of election when one seat was contested. Westbury returned a Conservative Member at every election after 1924, 1885-1918, The Sessional Divisions of Bradford-on-Avon, Melksham, Trowbridge, Westbury, and Whorwellsdon, and part of the Sessional Division of Warminster. 1983-1997, The District of West Wiltshire, and the District of Salisbury wards of Knoyle, Mere, originally a small rotten borough, covering only a small part of the parish of Westbury, in 1885 the parliamentary borough became a county constituency in Wiltshire. At the time of the abolition in 2010 it included the towns of Westbury, Warminster, Trowbridge, and Bradford on Avon. Until boundary changes in 1997, it also included Melksham, following a review of parliamentary representation in Wiltshire, the Boundary Commission for England created two new constituencies in the county. These changes were approved in 2005, to take effect at the general election. General Election 1914/15 Another General Election was required to place before the end of 1915. D Brunton & D H Pennington, Members of the Long Parliament Cobbetts Parliamentary history of England, from the Norman Conquest in 1066 to the year 1803
7.
Charles Dillon, 12th Viscount Dillon
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Charles Dillon-Lee, 12th Viscount Dillon, KP, PC was Member of Parliament for the English borough of Westbury. He was born Charles Dillon and changed his name to Dillon-Lee in 1776 under the terms of the will of his uncle, George Lee, Lord Dillon inherited his title in 1787 on the death of his father Henry Dillon, 11th Viscount Dillon. After the Papal recognition of the Hanoverian Dynasty in January 1766, in 1767 he was also elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1770 he was elected MP for Westbury constituency and in 1787 served as High Sheriff of Mayo and he was invested as a Knight of the Order of St. Patrick in 1798. In 1802, Lord Dillon sold the manor of Quarendon, in which the ancient seat of the Lee family had once stood, to James Dupre. In 1806 Lord Dillon raised a regiment, namely the 101st Regular, recruited from the inhabitants in and around Loughglynn, County Roscommon and he married, secondly, Marie Rogier in 1787. He died at Loughlynn in 1813 and he is buried in the Dillon Family Vault in the Cemetery at The Augustinian Friary, Ballyhaunis
8.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
9.
Wallingford, Oxfordshire
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Wallingford is an ancient market town and civil parish in the upper Thames Valley in England. Historically in Berkshire, it was transferred to Oxfordshire in 1974, Wallingford is situated 12 miles north of Reading,13 miles south of Oxford and 11 miles north west of Henley-on-Thames. The towns royal but mostly ruined Wallingford Castle held high status in the medieval period as a regular royal residence until the Black Death hit the town badly in 1349. Empress Matilda retreated here for the time from Oxford Castle in 1141. The castle declined subsequently, much stone being removed to renovate Windsor Castle, nonetheless the towns Priory produced two of the greatest minds of the age, the mathematician Richard of Wallingford and the chronicler John of Wallingford. Wallingford is on the west bank of the River Thames downstream of Oxford, at southern end of the town is the settlement of Winterbrook. The town bypass crosses the river to the southwest over Winterbrook Bridge, the centre of Wallingford has the feel of a typical old market town, with a large open town square around the war memorial, the 17th century arcaded town hall, and numerous shops. There are some alleyways and a number of historic inns, amenities include Wallingford Museum, the Corn Exchange theatre, Cholsey and Wallingford steam railway, public parks - one with the castle ruins. A blues festival, the annual BunkFest folk festival and a carnival are popular annual events, in recent years, the town has been used as a location for filming, notably Midsomer Murders which has also featured the Parish Church Choir. Wallingford is run by a council consisting of 16 councillors. It is part of the South Oxfordshire district and the county of Oxfordshire having formerly been represented by the Municipal Borough of Wallingford, the Member of Parliament is Ed Vaizey and the County Councillor is Lynda Atkins, one of four Independent members of Oxfordshire County Council. As with the rest of the British Isles and Oxfordshire, Wallingford experiences a climate with cool summers. There has been a station at the nearby Centre for Ecology & Hydrology collecting data on the local climate since 1961. Temperature extremes at Wallingford vary from −21.0 °C in January 1982, recent low temperatures include −17.6 °C during January 2010 and −17.5 °C during December 2010. Wallingford grew up around an important crossing point of the River Thames, the place has been fortified since at least Anglo-Saxon times, when it was an important fortified borough of Wessex with the right to mint Royal coinage. It was enclosed with substantial earthworks by King Alfred the Great in the 9th century as part of a network of fortified towns known as burhs or burghs to protect Wessex against the Vikings. These defences can still be discerned as a group of four roughly square areas around the centre of the town and are probably the best preserved such fortifications in England. Wallingford became the town of Berkshire and the seat of the countys Ealdorman
10.
Berkshire
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Berkshire is a county in south east England, west of London. It was recognised as the Royal County of Berkshire because of the presence of Windsor Castle by the Queen in 1957, Berkshire is a county of historic origin and is a home county, a ceremonial county and a non-metropolitan county without a county council. Berkshire County Council was the main county governance from 1889 to 1998 except for the separately administered County Borough of Reading, in 1974, significant alterations were made to the countys administrative boundaries although the traditional boundaries of Berkshire were not changed. The towns of Abingdon, Didcot and Wantage were transferred to Oxfordshire, Slough was gained from Buckinghamshire, since 1998, Berkshire has been governed by the six unitary authorities of Bracknell Forest, Reading, Slough, West Berkshire, Windsor and Maidenhead and Wokingham. It borders the counties of Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Greater London, Surrey, according to Asser, it takes its name from a large forest of box trees that was called Bearroc. Berkshire has been the scene of notable battles through its history. Alfred the Greats campaign against the Danes included the Battles of Englefield, Ashdown, Newbury was the site of two English Civil War battles, the First Battle of Newbury in 1643 and the Second Battle of Newbury in 1644. The nearby Donnington Castle was reduced to a ruin in the aftermath of the second battle, another Battle of Reading took place on 9 December 1688. It was the only military action in England during the Glorious Revolution. Reading became the new county town in 1867, taking over from Abingdon, boundary alterations in the early part of the 20th century were minor, with Caversham from Oxfordshire becoming part of the Reading county borough, and cessions in the Oxford area. On 1 April 1974 Berkshires boundaries changed under the Local Government Act 1972, Berkshire took over administration of Slough and Eton and part of the former Eton Rural District from Buckinghamshire. 94 Signal Squadron still keep the Uffington White Horse in their insignia, the original Local Government White Paper would have transferred Henley-on-Thames from Oxfordshire to Berkshire, this proposal did not make it into the Bill as introduced. On 1 April 1998 Berkshire County Council was abolished under a recommendation of the Banham Commission, unlike similar reforms elsewhere at the same time, the non-metropolitan county was not abolished. Berkshire divides into two distinct sections with the boundary lying roughly on a north-south line through the centre of Reading. The eastern section of Berkshire lies largely to the south of the River Thames, in two places the county now includes land to the north of the river. Tributaries of the Thames, including the Loddon and Blackwater, increase the amount of low lying land in the area. Beyond the flood plains, the land rises gently to the county boundaries with Surrey, much of this area is still well wooded, especially around Bracknell and Windsor Great Park. In the west of the county and heading upstream, the Thames veers away to the north of the county boundary, leaving the county behind at the Goring Gap
11.
St Peter's Church, Wallingford
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St Peters Church is a redundant Anglican church in Wallingford, Oxfordshire, England. It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II* listed building, the church stands at the east side of the town, overlooking the River Thames. An earlier church on the site was destroyed in 1646 during the siege of Wallingford in the Civil War, building of the present church started in 1763, the contractors being William Toovey and Joseph Tuckwell. In 1767 the interior of the church was paved, pews were added, a spire designed by Taylor was added in 1776–77. The chancel was built in 1904, designed by Sydney Stephenson, the church was declared redundant on 1 May 1971, and was vested in the Churches Conservation Trust on 26 July 1972. For visitor access, a key can be obtained from the nearby Tourist Information Office, a series of chamber music concerts is held during the summer months. The plan of the consists of a four-bay nave, a chancel with an apse. The nave and chancel are constructed in stone, the nave standing on a flint plinth. The tower is built in knapped flint, with stone quoins, the nave is roofed in Welsh slate and the chancel is tiled. At the top of the tower is a face on each side. Above this is an octagonal belfry surmounted by a stone spire. The nave and tower are in Neoclassical style, and the chancel is Gothic Revival, the church is entered by a double door in a round-headed doorway on the west side of the tower. Above the doorway is a window containing Y-tracery. The nave has a cornice and a plain parapet. In the chancel are windows dating from the 20th century, the one on the side being a rose window. The nave has a coffered ceiling. The pews and font date from the 18th century, in the east window is stained glass dating from 1918 by Morris & Co. On the south wall is a monument to Sir William Blackstone and it consists of an inscribed panel above three shields, surrounded by an arch
12.
Tories (British political party)
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The first Tories emerged in 1678 in England, when they opposed the Whig-supported Exclusion Bill which set out to disinherit the heir presumptive James, Duke of York. This party ceased to exist as a political entity in the early 1760s. A few decades later, a new Tory party would rise to establish a hold on government between 1783 and 1830, with William Pitt the Younger followed by Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool. When the Whigs subsequently regained control, the Representation of the People Act 1832 removed the rotten boroughs, in the following general election, the Tory ranks were reduced to 180 MPs. Under the leadership of Robert Peel, the Tamworth Manifesto was issued, however, Peel lost many of his supporters by repealing the Corn Laws, causing the party to break apart. One faction, led by the Earl of Derby and Benjamin Disraeli, survived to become the modern Conservative Party and this action resulted from this parliament not allowing him to levy taxes without yielding to its terms. In the beginning of the Long Parliament, the Kings supporters were few in number, the increasing radicalism of the Parliamentary majority, however, estranged many reformers even in the Parliament itself and drove them to make common cause with the King. By the end of the 1640s, the radical Parliamentary programme had become clear, reduction of the King to a powerless figurehead, and replacement of Anglican episcopacy with a form of Presbyterianism. This prospective form of settlement was prevented by a coup détat which shifted power from Parliament itself to the Parliamentary New Model Army, the Army had King Charles I executed and for the next eleven years the British kingdoms operated under military dictatorship. Charles II also restored episcopacy in the Church of England and these acts did not reflect the Kings personal views and demonstrated the existence of a Royalist ideology beyond mere subservience to the Court. These interests would soon coalesce as the Whigs, as a political term, Tory entered English politics during the Exclusion Bill crisis of 1678–81. The Whigs were those who supported the exclusion of James, the Duke of York from the succession to thrones of Scotland and England & Ireland, and the Tories were those who opposed the Exclusion Bill. The Whigs tried to link the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the Duke of Ormonde, with the foremost Irish Tory, Redmond OHanlon, in a supposed plot to murder Titus Oates. The Whig Bishop of Meath, Henry Jones, offered OHanlon a pardon and a bribe if he would testify to Parliament that Ormonde was plotting a French invasion. In December 1680, the government seized these letters and the plan collapsed. they call me names, Jesuit, Papish, Tory. I hear further since that this is the distinction they make instead of Cavalier and Roundhead, now they are called Torys, the rebellion of Monmouth, the candidate of the radical Whigs to succeed Charles II, was easily crushed and Monmouth himself executed. In the long run, however, Tory principles were to be severely compromised, James II, however, during his reign fought for a broadly tolerant religious settlement under which his co-religionists could prosper—a position anathema to conservative Anglicans. James attempts to use the church to promote policies that undermined the churchs own unique status in the state
13.
Lincoln's Inn Fields
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Lincolns Inn Fields is the largest public square in London. The grounds, which had remained private property, were acquired by London County Council in 1895 and it is today managed by the London Borough of Camden and forms part of the southern boundary of that borough with the City of Westminster. Lincolns Inn Fields takes its name from the adjacent Lincolns Inn, of which the gardens are separated from the Fields by a perimeter wall. The grassed area in the centre of the Fields contains a court for tennis and netball and it was previously used for corporate events, which are no longer permitted. Cricket and other sports are thought to have played here in the 18th century. When originally laid out, Lincolns Inn Fields was part of fashionable London, the oldest building from this early period is Lindsey House, 59–60 Lincolns Inn Fields, which was built in 1640 and has been attributed to Inigo Jones. The builder may have been David Cunningham, 1st Baronet of Auchinhervie, a friend of the mason-sculptor Nicholas Stone and it derives its name from a period of ownership in the 18th century by the earls of Lindsey. Another seventeenth century survival is now 66 Lincolns Inn Fields, which was built for Lord Powis, the charter of the Bank of England was sealed there on 27 July 1694. It was in 1705 acquired by the Duke of Newcastle who had it remodelled by Sir John Vanbrugh and it remains substantially in its circa 1700 form, although a remodelling in 1930 by Sir Edwin Lutyens gives it a curiously pastiche appearance. Up to the 17th century, cattle were grazed upon the fields, turnstiles were placed around the square to enable pedestrians to enter without the animals escaping. Shops and other businesses developed along these footpaths and some of these still exist – the Great. As London fashion moved west, Lincolns Inn Fields was left to lawyers who were attracted by its proximity to the Inns of Court. Thus, the former Newcastle House became in 1790 the premises of the solicitors Farrer & Co who are there, their clients include much of the landed gentry. The Lincolns Inn Fields Theatre was located in the Fields from 1661 to 1848 when it was demolished, originally called the Dukes Theatre, it was created by converting Lisles Tennis Court, to become the Lincolns Inn Fields Theatre in 1695. The theatre presented the first paid public performances of Purcells Dido and Aeneas in 1700, John Gays The Beggars Opera in January 1728, and Handels final two operas in 1740 and 1741. Sometime after 1735 the Fields were enclosed within an iron railing, on account of the then Master of the Rolls, an alternative version of the story claims that Jekyll was attacked for his support of an Act of Parliament raising the price of gin. Essex Court Chambers now occupy five buildings, nos. 24–28 Lincolns Inn Fields, other barristers chambers have since then also set up in Lincolns Inn Fields, but solicitors firms still outnumber them there. In Charles Dickens novel Bleak House, the solicitor to the aristocracy, Mr Tulkinghorn, has his offices in Lincolns Inn Fields
14.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
15.
Pembroke College, Oxford
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Pembroke College is one of the constituent colleges of the University of Oxford in England, located in Pembroke Square. As of 2015, Pembroke had a financial endowment of £46.9 million. Pembroke offers the study of almost all the courses offered by the university, dame Lynne Brindley, former head of the British Library, has been Master of the College since 2013. In the early century, the endowment of Thomas Tesdale—a merchant from nearby Abingdon –. Following its foundation, the college proceeded to expand around Broadgates, built in stages through the seventeenth century out of the local Cotswold limestone, space restrictions saw the south-side of the Quad built directly on top of the old City Wall. The Chapel was designed and built by William Townsend, although the interior was redesigned by Charles Kempe—a Pembroke graduate—in 1884. The Chapel which is used for regular worship bears his name. Further expansion of the came in the 1960s, after the closure of Beef Lane to the north of Chapel Quad. The private houses north of the road were acquired by the College in a piecemeal fashion. The new area is now known as North Quad, which was opened in 1962. A modern annex, built near to college on the banks of the Isis at Grandpont, provides accommodation for thirty six graduates, named the Geoffrey Arthur Building, the building was named for the diplomat Sir Geoffrey Arthur — a former master of the college. In April 2013 the Duke of Kent officially opened two new quadrangles, with new buildings including a 170-seat multi-purpose auditorium, a new cafe, art gallery, both James I, as founder of the college, and the Earl of Pembroke are commemorated in the arms. The former, representing the union of the crowns as James I of England and James VI of Scotland, is symbolised by the rose, the three lions rampant are taken from the Earl’s personal coat arms. Pembroke offers a range of courses, covering almost all the subject areas offered by the university, Literae Humaniores, Geography. In particular, the college has had an involvement with Economics, as well as Management Studies. The college has maintained a relationship with the Saïd Business School. In March 2002 two Oxford fellows resigned after allegations that they had offered a place to the child of an undercover reporter in return for a donation to the college library. The journalist alleged that he had taped a conversation where he posed as the father of a fictitious son, Pembroke runs its own access schemes entitled Pem-Brooke and Pembroke North which work with disadvantaged students from London and areas of the North
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Jurist
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A jurist, also known as legal scholar or legal theorist, is someone who researches and studies jurisprudence. Such a person can work as an academic, legal writer or law lecturer, thus a jurist, someone who studies, analyses and comments on law, stands in contrast with a lawyer, someone who applies law on behalf of clients and thinks about it in practical terms. Many legal scholars and authors have explained that a person may be both a lawyer and a jurist, but a jurist is not necessarily a lawyer, nor a lawyer necessarily a jurist, both must possess an acquaintance with the term law. The work of the jurist is the study, analysis and arrangement of the law — work which can be wholly in the seclusion of the library. Any highly civilized society requires both lawyers and jurists, both philosophers and doers and it is important however to note the fundamental difference between the work of the lawyer and that of the jurist. The term jurist has another sense, which is wider, synonymous with legal professional, i. e. anyone professionally involved with law, in some other European languages, a word resembling jurist is used in this major sense. This is a classification of some notable jurists. History of the legal profession Law professor Legal profession List of jurists Paralegal Media related to Jurists at Wikimedia Commons
17.
Judge
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A judge presides over court proceedings, either alone or as a part of a panel of judges. The powers, functions, method of appointment, discipline, the judge is supposed to conduct the trial impartially and, typically, in an open court. In some jurisdictions, the judges powers may be shared with a jury, in inquisitorial systems of criminal investigation, a judge might also be an examining magistrate. A variety of traditions have become associated with the rank or occupation, in many parts of the world, judges wear long robes and sit on an elevated platform during trials. In some countries, especially in the Commonwealth of Nations, judges wear wigs, the long wig often associated with judges is now reserved for ceremonial occasions, although it was part of the standard attire in previous centuries. A short wig resembling but not identical to a wig would be worn in court. This tradition, however, is being phased out in Britain in non-criminal courts, American judges frequently wear black robes. American judges have ceremonial gavels, although American judges have court deputies or bailiffs, however, in some of the Western United States, like California, judges did not always wear robes and instead wore everyday clothing. Today, some members of state courts, such as the Maryland Court of Appeals wear distinct dress. In Italy and Portugal both judges and lawyers wear black robes. In Oman, the judge wears a stripe, while the attorneys wear the black gown. In Hong Kong, court proceedings are conducted in either English or Cantonese Chinese, Judges of Hong Kong retain many of the English traditions such as wearing wigs and robes in trials. In the lower courts, magistrates are addressed as Your worship, in writing, the post-nominal letters PJ is used to refer to a permanent judge of the Court of Final Appeal and NPJ to a non-permanent judge. In the High Court, the abbreviation JA is used to denote a justice of appeal, Masters of the High Court are addressed as Master. When trials are conducted in Chinese, judges were addressed, in Cantonese, as Fat Goon Dai Yan before the transfer of sovereignty from the United Kingdom to China, and as Fat Goon Gok Ha since 1997. In India, judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts were addressed as Your Lordship or My Lord and Your Ladyship or My Lady, the Bar Council of India had adopted a resolution in April 2006 and added a new Rule 49 in the Advocates Act. As per the rule, lawyers can address the court as Your Honour, if it is a subordinate court, lawyers can use terms such as sir or any equivalent phrase in the regional language concerned. Explaining the rationale behind the move, the Bar Council had held that the such as My Lord
18.
Commentaries on the Laws of England
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The work is divided into four volumes, on the rights of persons, the rights of things, of private wrongs and of public wrongs. The Commentaries were long regarded as the work on the development of English law. They were in fact the first methodical treatise on the common law suitable for a lay readership since at least the Middle Ages. The common law of England has relied on precedent more than statute and codifications and has far less amenable than the civil law, developed from the Roman law. The Commentaries were influential largely because they were in fact readable, the Commentaries are often quoted as the definitive pre-Revolutionary source of common law by United States courts. Opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States quote from Blackstones work whenever they wish to engage in historical discussion that goes back that far, or farther. The Rights of Persons is by and large concerned with the relations of status in the English social structure, from the King of England, also dealt with here were common relationships such as that of husband and wife, master and servant, and guardian and ward. The Rights of Things, Blackstones longest volume, deals with property, the vast majority of the text is devoted to real property, this being the most valuable sort in the feudal law upon which the English law of land was founded. Of Private Wrongs dealt with torts as they existed in Blackstones time, the various methods of trial that existed at civil law were also dealt with in this volume, as were the jurisdictions of the several courts, from the lowest to the highest. Of Public Wrongs is Blackstones treatise on criminal law, here, Blackstone the apologist takes centre stage, he seeks to explain how the criminal laws of England were just and merciful, despite becoming later known as the Bloody Code for their severity. Blackstone frequently resorted to assuring his reader that the laws as written were not always enforced, Blackstone for the first time made the common law readable and understandable by non-lawyers. At first, his Commentaries were hotly contested, some seeing in them an evil or covert attempt to reduce or codify the law which was anathema to common law purists. For decades, a study of the Commentaries was required reading for all first year law students, lord Avonmore said of Blackstone, He it was who first gave to the law the air of a science. He found it a skeleton and clothed it with life, colour and he embraced the cold statue and by his touch, it grew into youth, health and beauty. Jeremy Bentham, who had been a critic of the Commentaries when they were first published, while there is much valuable historical information in the Commentaries, later historians have tended to be somewhat critical of the uses Blackstone made of history. But Blackstones chief contribution was to create a succinct, readable, while useful in England, Blackstones text answered an urgent need in the developing United States and Canada. The four volumes of Blackstone put the gist of that tradition in portable form and they were required reading for most lawyers in the Colonies, and for many, they were the only reading. Two decades after their publication, Blackstones Commentaries were the focus of a polemic by Jeremy Bentham
19.
Charterhouse School
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Charterhouse is an independent day and boarding school in Godalming, Surrey. Today pupils are referred to as Carthusians, and ex-pupils as Old Carthusians. Charging full boarders up to £36,000 per annum in 2015/16, Charterhouse is amongst the most expensive Headmasters and it has educated one British Prime Minister and has a long list of notable alumni. In May 1611, the London Charterhouse came into the hands of Thomas Sutton of Knaith and he acquired a fortune by the discovery of coal on two estates which he had leased near Newcastle-on-Tyne, and afterwards, removing to London, he carried on a commercial career. Charterhouse established a reputation for excellence in care and treatment, thanks in part to Henry Levett. Levett was widely esteemed for his writings, including an early tract on the treatment of smallpox. Levett was buried in Charterhouse Chapel and his widow married Andrew Tooke, the school was moved to its present site in 1872 by the then headmaster, the Reverend William Haig Brown – a decision influenced by the findings of the Clarendon Commission of 1864. The school bought a 68-acre site atop a hill just outside Godalming, in addition to the main school buildings, they constructed three boarding houses, known as Saunderites, Verites and Gownboys. The school was built by Lucas Brothers, who built the Royal Albert Hall. As pupil numbers grew, other houses were built alongside the approach road, each was titled with an adaptation of the name of their first housemaster, such as Weekites, Daviesites and Girdlestoneites. The last of these is referred to as Duckites, reflecting the unusual gait of its original housemaster. There are now the four old houses plus eight new houses. The twelve Houses have preserved a unique identity and pupils compete against each other in sports and the arts. The school continued to expand over the 20th century, around 350 names have been subsequently added to commemorate those who died in the Second World War and other more recent conflicts. Most still attend a chapel service there six times a week. Charterhouse was all male until the 1970s when girls were first admitted in the sixth form, of over 400 sixth formers today, almost a third are girls. An addition to the campus was seven new Houses, built in the 1970s, in 2003, the School renovated its onsite Library. 2006 saw the opening of The Beveridge Centre for the Social Sciences, in 2007, a £3m Modern Languages building was completed
20.
All Souls College, Oxford
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All Souls College is a constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. Unique to All Souls, all of its members automatically become Fellows, All Souls is one of the wealthiest colleges in Oxford, with a financial endowment of £286. 4m. However, since the Colleges principal source of revenue is its endowment, All Souls is a registered charity under English law. The college is located on the side of the High Street adjoining Radcliffe Square to the west. To the east is The Queens College with Hertford College to the North, the current Warden is Sir John Vickers, a graduate of Oriel College, Oxford. The College was founded by Henry VI of England and Henry Chichele, the Statutes provided for the Warden and forty fellows – all to take Holy Orders, twenty-four to study arts, philosophy and theology, and sixteen to study civil or canon law. Today the College is primarily a research institution. The College now has no undergraduate members, All Souls did once have them, especially in the early 17th century on the instigation of Robert Hovenden, in order to provide the fellows with servientes. The admission of undergraduates for this purpose was abandoned in the 19th century, the All Souls Library was founded through a bequest from Christopher Codrington, a Fellow of the College. Christopher Codrington bequeathed books worth £6,000, in addition to £10,000 in currency and this bequest allowed the library to be built and endowed. Christopher Codrington was born in Barbados, and amassed his fortune from his sugar planation in the West Indies, the library was completed in 1751, and has been in continuous use since then. The modern library comprises some 185,000 items, about a third of which were published before 1800, the collections are particularly strong in Law and History. Built between 1438 and 1442, the chapel remained largely unchanged until the Commonwealth, Oxford, having been a largely Royalist stronghold, suffered under the Puritans wrath. The 42 misericords date from the Chapels building, and show a resemblance to the misericords at Higham Ferrers, both may have been carved by Richard Tyllock. Christopher Wren was a Fellow from 1653, and in 1658 produced a sundial for the College and this was originally placed on the South wall of the Chapel, until it was moved to the quadrangle in 1877. During the 1660s a screen was installed in the Chapel, which was based on a design by Wren, however, this screen needed to be rebuilt by 1713. By the mid-19th century the Chapel was in great need of renovation, each year several dozen typically do so. Two examination fellows are elected each year, although the college has awarded a single place in previous years
21.
Middle Temple
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It is located in the wider Temple area of London, near the Royal Courts of Justice, and within the City of London. In the 13th century, the Inns of Court originated as hostels and schools for student lawyers, the Middle Temple is the western part of The Temple, the headquarters of the Knights Templar until they were dissolved in 1312. The Temple Church still stands as a church of the Inner. Most of the Inn is occupied by offices, known as chambers. One of the Middle Temples main functions now is to provide education, Middle Temple Hall is at the heart of the Inn, and the Inns student members are required to attend a minimum of 12 qualifying sessions there. Qualifying sessions, formerly known as dinners, combine collegiate and educational elements and will combine an dinner or reception with lectures, debates, mooting. Middle Temple Hall is also a venue for banqueting, weddings, receptions. In recent years, it has become a much-used film location—the cobbled streets, historic buildings, william Shakespeares Twelfth Night received its first recorded performance here, at the feast Candlemas in 1602. Middle Temple Library possesses Emery Molyneuxs terrestrial and celestial globes, which are of particular historical cartographical value, Middle Temple is also one of the few remaining liberties, an old name for a geographic division. It is an independent extra-parochial area, historically not governed by the City of London Corporation, the Middle Temples functions as a local council are set out in the Temples Order 1971. It geographically falls within the boundaries and liberties of the City, some of the Inns buildings lie just outside the liberty of the Middle Temple and the Citys boundary, and are actually situated in the City of Westminster. Quadrant House was acquired by the Middle Temple in 1999 and after five years of conversion is now a barristers chambers and this lies outside the liberty but is within the City of London. List of members of Middle Temple Outer Temple Pump Court Middle Temple website
22.
An Analysis of the Laws of England
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An Analysis of the Laws of England is a legal treatise by British legal professor William Blackstone. It was first published by the Clarendon Press in 1756. A Fellow of All Souls, Oxford, and a lecturer there, a prospectus was issued on 23 June 1753, and with a class of approximately 20 students, the first lecture series was completed by July 1754. Despite Blackstones limited oratory skills and a style described by Jeremy Bentham as formal, precise and affected. The second and third series were far more popular, partially due to his unusual use of printed handouts and lists of suggested reading. These show Blackstones attempts to reduce English law to a logical system, the lecture series brought him £116, £226 and £111 a year respectively from 1753 to 1755 — a total of £63,000 in 2017 terms. Analysis begins with a summary of the ways that English law had been subdivided until that time, Blackstone examined the methods of Ranulf de Glanvill, Henry de Bracton and Matthew Hale, concluding that Hales method was superior to the others. As such, Hales distribution hath therefore been principally followed, albeit with some amendments, the treatise is a marked advance on any previous introduction to English law. Including constitutional, civil and criminal law, public and private law, substantive law and procedure, as well as some introductory jurisprudential content. The initial print run of 1,000 copies almost immediately sold out, a fifth edition was published in 1762, and a sixth, edited to take into account Blackstones Commentaries on the Laws of England, in 1771. Many of the editions were prefaced with copies of Blackstones A Discourse on the Study of the Law. Cairns, J. Blackstone, An English Institutist, Legal Literature, university of Notre Dame Law School. Some Aspects of Blackstone and His Commentaries, William Blackstone, Law and Letters in the Eighteenth Century
23.
Vinerian Professor of English Law
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Until the establishment of the Vinerian Chair, only Canon Law and Roman Law had been taught at Oxford and Cambridge. Therefore, only the Inns of Court provided any instruction in the Common Law, upon Sir William Blackstones appointment to the Vinerian Professorship, his lectures were the first to be given on the English Common Law in any university in the world. Oxford, OUP Windeyer, W. V. J.1957, Lectures on Legal History
24.
A Discourse on the Study of the Law
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A Discourse on the Study of the Law is a treatise by Sir William Blackstone first published in 1758. On 20 October 1758 Blackstone had been confirmed as the first Vinerian Professor of English Law, and immediately gave a lecture on 24 October, the Discourse was designed to be a work on how to study English law, and the importance of doing so. Blackstone emphasised the advantages of a legal education over the training for a call to the Bar. And what the consequence may be, to have the interpretation and this was because the stylistic barbarisms and crafty practitioners were seen as below the aristocracy, and not conforming to gentleman-like sensibilities. Described as a sensible, spirited and manly exhortation to the study of the law, later versions of his An Analysis of the Laws of England and the first volume of his Commentaries on the Laws of England were prefaced with copies. Blackstone and the Reform of the Legal Profession, William Blackstone, Law and Letters in the Eighteenth Century. The history of education in the United States, commentaries
25.
Rotten and pocket boroughs
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The same terms were used for similar boroughs represented in the 18th-century Parliament of Ireland. Old Sarum in Wiltshire was the most notorious pocket borough and it was a possession of the Pitt family from the mid-17th century until 1802, and one of its Members of Parliament was Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder. In 1802 the Pitt family sold it for £60,000, even though the land, a parliamentary borough was a town which was incorporated under a royal charter, giving it the right to send two elected burgesses as Members of Parliament to the House of Commons. As voting was by show of hands at a polling station at a single time. Often only one candidate would be nominated, so that the election was uncontested, many of these ancient boroughs elected two MPs. By the time of the 1831 general election, out of 406 elected members,152 were chosen by fewer than 100 voters each, the Ballot Act 1872 introduced the secret ballot, which greatly hindered patrons from controlling elections by preventing them from knowing how an elector had voted. At the same time, the practice of paying or entertaining voters was outlawed, the word rotten had the connotation of corruption as well as long-term decline. In such boroughs most or all of the few electors could not vote as they pleased, due to the lack of a secret ballot and their dependency on the owner of the borough. Only rarely were the views or personal character of a taken into consideration. Some had once been important places or had played a role in Englands history. Despite this dramatic loss of population, the borough of Old Sarum retained its right to elect two MPs. Commonly also they sold them for money or other favours, the peers who controlled such boroughs had an influence in Parliament as they themselves held seats in the House of Lords. This patronage was based on property rights which could be inherited and passed on to heirs, or else sold, one seat was controlled from the mid-17th century to 1832 by the Treby family of Plympton House. Bramber in West Sussex had 35 houses and 20 voters Callington in Cornwall had 225 houses and 42 voters and it was a pocket borough of the Rolle family of Heanton Satchville and Stevenstone in Devon. Trim in County Meath Before being awarded a peerage, Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington, as there was no secret ballot until 1872, the landowner could evict electors who did not vote for the man he wanted. A common expression referring to such a situation was that Mr A had been elected on Lord Bs interest, some rich individuals controlled several boroughs, for example, the Duke of Newcastle is said to have had seven boroughs in his pocket. The representative of a borough was often the man who owned the land. Pocket boroughs were seen by their 19th-century owners as a method of ensuring the representation of the landed interest in the House of Commons
26.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
27.
William Searle Holdsworth
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Sir William Searle Holdsworth OM KC FBA, was Vinerian Professor of English Law at Oxford University and a legal historian, amongst whose works is the 17 volume History of English Law. Holdsworth was born in Beckenham, Kent in 1871, the son of a well-known London solicitor, Charles Joseph Holdsworth and he was educated at Dulwich College and in 1890 went on to win a History Exhibition from Dulwich College to New College, Oxford. He took first-class honours both in History and in Law, and second class honours in the BCL and he was called to the bar at Lincolns Inn in 1896. Holdsworths main work, with a first edition of the first book in 1903, was A History of English Law, Holdsworth became Professor of Constitutional Law at University College, London. In 1922 he became the Vinerian Professor of English Law at Oxford, Holdsworth was knighted in 1929 and was appointed as a member of the Order of Merit in 1943. There are portraits of Sir William Holdsworth by Bassano in the National Portrait Gallery, a History of English Law, eventually comprising 17 volumes, published between 1903 and 1966, was Holdsworths greatest literary academic achievement. Holdsworths history has been criticised as involving lapses from full modern scholarly standards, the Holdsworth Club is the University of Birmingham Law Schools student law society. Sir William Holdsworth was Smalley-Bakers mentor and had been an External Examiner at the University for several years, after giving his name to the Law Facultys Student Club, Sir William Holdsworth became its active Patron. In this role he attended and spoke at the Clubs annual dinner, Sir William Holdsworth remained patron of the club until his death in 1944. This medal is worn by Holdsworth presidents when delivering their address. The vice-president of the club is Mr George Applebey, lecturer at law, the Holdsworth Society is the College Law Society of St Johns College, Oxford. The Committee consists of the President, the Secretary and the Librarian, the Holdsworth Society attracts a high calibre of guest speaker, and also hosts termly black tie dinners. The social highlight of the Societys year is undoubtedly the Alumni Dinner, the Society is renowned for its extreme legal prowess, as well as its often-lauded Wikipedia game tournaments. Past greats include Daniel Leroni, Angus Tyrrell and Amith Yedugondla, the St Johns College Law Library is named The Holdsworth Library after Sir William Searle Holdsworth, Fellow of St. Johns 1897–1922 and Vinerian Professor of Law, and later Honorary Fellow. His portrait in pastels by E. Plachter can be seen there, all initiates to the Holdsworth Society must take a solemn Sacramentum in order to be admitted to the Final Honour Schools programme, a peculiarity of St Johns Colleges requirements for enrolment. W. Maitland Sir John Baker David Ibbetson S. F. C
28.
Common law
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Common law is the body of law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day, as case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and tribunals. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, if a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. Resolution of the issue in one case becomes precedent that binds future courts, stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems. A common law system is a system that gives great precedential weight to common law. Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, today, one third of the worlds population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law. The term common law has many connotations, the first three set out here are the most-common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from past centuries are seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday speech. Blacks Law Dictionary, 10th Ed. gives as definition 1,1, the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions, CASELAW, STATUTORY LAW. In this connotation, common law distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. e, examples include most criminal law and procedural law before the 20th century, and even today, most contract law and the law of torts. Interstitial common law decisions that analyze, interpret and determine the fine boundaries. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, while all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent, some become leading cases or landmark decisions that are cited especially often. Blacks 10th Ed. definition 2, differentiates common law jurisdictions, by contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. As a rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, blacks 10th Ed. definition 4, differentiates common law from equity. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States, for most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U. S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Additionally, even before the courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law. In the United States, determining whether the Seventh Amendments right to a jury trial applies or whether the issue will be decided by a judge, the standard of review and degree of deference given by an appellate tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal under review
29.
Alexander Hamilton
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Alexander Hamilton was an American statesman and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. As the first Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton was the author of the economic policies of the George Washington administration. He took the lead in the funding of the debts by the Federal government, as well as the establishment of a national bank, a system of tariffs. His vision included a central government led by a vigorous executive branch. This was challenged by Virginia agrarians Thomas Jefferson and James Madison who formed a rival party and they favored strong states based in rural America and protected by state militias as opposed to a strong national army and navy. They denounced Hamilton as too friendly toward Britain and toward monarchy in general, Hamilton was born out of wedlock in Charlestown, to a married mother of British and French Huguenot ancestry and a Scottish father. His father, James A. Hamilton, was the son of laird Alexander Hamilton of Grange. Orphaned as a child by his mothers death and his fathers abandonment, Hamilton was taken in by an older cousin and he was recognized for his intelligence and talent, and sponsored by a group of wealthy local men to travel to New York City to pursue his education. Hamilton attended Kings College, choosing to stay in the Thirteen Colonies to seek his fortune, discontinuing his studies before graduating when the college closed its doors during British occupation of the city, Hamilton played a major role in the American Revolutionary War. At the start of the war in 1775, he joined a militia company, in early 1776, he raised a provincial artillery company, to which he was appointed captain. He soon became the aide to General Washington, the American forces commander-in-chief. Hamilton was dispatched by Washington on numerous missions to convey plans to his generals, after the war, Hamilton was elected as a representative to the Congress of the Confederation from New York. He resigned to practice law, and founded the Bank of New York, Hamilton was among those dissatisfied with the weak national government. He led the Annapolis Convention, which successfully influenced Congress to issue a call for the Philadelphia Convention in order to create a new constitution, Hamilton became the leading cabinet member in the new government under President Washington. These programs were funded primarily by a tariff on imports, to overcome localism, Hamilton mobilized a nationwide network of friends of the government, especially bankers and businessmen, which became the Federalist Party. A major issue in the emergence of the American two-party system was the Jay Treaty and it established friendly trade relations with Britain, to the chagrin of France and the supporters of the French Revolution. Hamilton played a role in the Federalist party, which dominated national. In 1795, he returned to the practice of law in New York and he tried to control the policies of President Adams
30.
John Marshall
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John Marshall was the fourth Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Previously, Marshall had been a leader of the Federalist Party in Virginia and he was Secretary of State under President John Adams from 1800 to 1801. Most notably, he reinforced the principle that courts are obligated to exercise judicial review. Thus, Marshall cemented the position of the American judiciary as an independent, in particular, he repeatedly confirmed the supremacy of federal law over state law, and supported an expansive reading of the enumerated powers. Some of his decisions were unpopular, nevertheless, Marshall built up the third branch of the federal government, and augmented federal power in the name of the Constitution, and the rule of law. John Marshall was of almost entirely English ancestry, though his mother also had some distant Scottish ancestry as well, the oldest of fifteen, John had eight sisters and six brothers. Also, several cousins were raised with the family, from a young age, he was noted for his good humor and black eyes, which were strong and penetrating, beaming with intelligence and good nature. Marshall loved his home, built in 1790, in Richmond, Virginia, for approximately three months each year, Marshall lived in Washington during the Courts annual term, boarding with Justice Story during his final years at the Ringgold-Carroll House. Marshall also left Richmond for several weeks each year to serve on the court in Raleigh. He also maintained the D. S. Tavern property in Albemarle County, Marshall himself was not religious, and although his grandfather was a priest, never formally joined a church. He did not believe Jesus was a divine being, and in some of his opinions referred to a deist Creator of all things. He was an active Freemason and served as Grand Master of Masons in Virginia in 1794–1795 of the Most Worshipful Grand Lodge of Ancient, Free, while in Richmond, Marshall attended St. The Marshall family occupied Monumental Churchs pew No.23 and entertained the Marquis de Lafayette there during his visit to Richmond in 1824, Thomas Marshall was employed in Fauquier County as a surveyor and land agent by Lord Fairfax, which provided Marshall with a substantial income. In the early 1760s, the Marshall family left Germantown and moved about 30 miles miles to Leeds Manor on the slope of the Blue Ridge Mountains. On the banks of Goose Creek, Thomas Marshall built a frame house. Thomas Marshall was not yet established, so he leased it from Colonel Richard Henry Lee. The Marshalls called their new home the Hollow, and the ten years they resided there were John Marshalls formative years, in 1773, the Marshall family moved once again. Thomas Marshall, by then a man of means, purchased an estate adjacent to North Cobbler Mountain in Delaplane
31.
James Wilson
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James Wilson was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States and a signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence. Wilson was elected twice to the Continental Congress, where he represented Pennsylvania, a leading legal theorist, he was one of the six original justices appointed by George Washington to the Supreme Court of the United States. Wilson was one of seven children born into a Presbyterian farming family on September 14,1742 near St. Andrews, Scotland and he studied at the Universities of St. Andrews, Glasgow and Edinburgh, but never obtained a degree. While he was a student, he studied Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, including Francis Hutcheson, David Hume, imbued with the ideas of the Scottish Enlightenment he moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in British America in 1766, carrying valuable letters of introduction. These helped Wilson to begin tutoring and then teaching at The Academy and he petitioned there for a degree and was awarded an honorary Master of Arts several months later. Wilson began to read the law at the office of John Dickinson a short time later, after two years of study he attained the bar in Philadelphia, and in the following year, set up his own practice in Reading, Pennsylvania. His office was successful and he earned a small fortune in a few years. On November 5,1771, he married Rachel Bird, daughter of William Bird and Bridget Hulings, they had six children together, Mary, William, Bird, James, Emily and Charles. Rachel died in 1786, and in 1793 he married Hannah Gray, daughter of Ellis Gray and Sarah DOlbear, the marriage produced a son named Henry, after Wilsons death, Hannah married Thomas Bartlett, M. D. In 1774, Wilson published Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the British Parliament, in this pamphlet, Wilson argued that the Parliament had no authority to pass laws for the American colonies because the colonies had no representation in Parliament. It presented his views that all power derived from the people, scholars considered his work on par with the seminal works of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams of the same year. However, it was penned in 1768, perhaps the first cogent argument to be formulated against British dominance. Some see Wilson as a leading revolutionary while others see him as another reluctant, in 1775 he was commissioned Colonel of the 4th Cumberland County Battalion and rose to the rank of Brigadier General of the Pennsylvania State Militia. As a member of the Continental Congress in 1776, James Wilson was an advocate for independence. Believing it was his duty to follow the wishes of his constituents, only after he received more feedback did he vote for independence. While serving in the Congress, Wilson was clearly among the leaders in the formation of French policy, Wilson also served from June 1776 on the Committee on Spies, along with John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, John Rutledge, and Robert R. Livingston. On October 4,1779, the Fort Wilson Riot began, after the British had abandoned Philadelphia, Wilson successfully defended at trial 23 people from property seizure and exile by the radical government of Pennsylvania. A mob whipped up by liquor and the writings and speeches of Joseph Reed, president of Pennsylvanias Supreme Executive Council, marched on Congressman Wilsons home at Third, Wilson and 35 of his colleagues barricaded themselves in his home, later nicknamed Fort Wilson
32.
John Jay
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John Jay was an American statesman, Patriot, diplomat, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, signatory of the Treaty of Paris, and first Chief Justice of the United States. Jay was born into a family of merchants and government officials in New York City. He became a lawyer and joined the New York Committee of Correspondence and he joined a conservative political faction that, fearing mob rule, sought to protect property rights and maintain the rule of law while resisting British rule. Jay served as the President of the Continental Congress, a position with little power. His major diplomatic achievement was to negotiate trade terms with Great Britain in the Jay Treaty in 1794. Jay, a proponent of strong, centralized government, worked to ratify the U. S, constitution in New York in 1788 by pseudonymously writing five of The Federalist Papers, along with the main authors Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. After the establishment of the U. S. government, Jay became the first Chief Justice of the United States, as a leader of the new Federalist Party, Jay was the Governor of the State of New York, where he became the states leading opponent of slavery. His first two attempts to end slavery in New York in 1777 and 1785 failed, but a third in 1799 succeeded, the 1799 Act, a gradual emancipation he signed into law, eventually granted all slaves in New York their freedom before his death in 1829. The Jays were a prominent merchant family in New York City, in 1685 the Edict of Nantes had been revoked, thereby abolishing the rights of Protestants and confiscating their property. Among those affected was Jays paternal grandfather, Augustus Jay and he moved from France to New York, where he built a successful merchant empire. Jays father, Peter Jay, born in New York City in 1704, became a trader in furs, wheat, timber. Johns mother was Mary Van Cortlandt, who had married Peter Jay in 1728 and they had ten children together, seven of whom survived into adulthood. Marys father, Jacobus Van Cortlandt, had born in New Amsterdam in 1658. Cortlandt served on the New York Assembly, was mayor of New York City. Two of his children married into the Jay family, Jay spent his childhood in Rye. He was educated there by his mother until he was eight years old, in 1756, after three years, he would return to homeschooling in Rye under the tutelage of his mother and George Murray. In 1760, Jay attended Kings College, during this time, Jay made many influential friends, including his closest, Robert Livingston—the son of a prominent New York aristocrat and Supreme Court justice. Jay took the political stand as his father, a staunch Whig
33.
John Adams
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John Adams was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States and the first Vice President. He was a lawyer, diplomat, statesman, political theorist, and, as a Founding Father and he was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent, particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail. He collaborated with his cousin, revolutionary leader Samuel Adams, Adams was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, as a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams was the author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory. Adamss credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washingtons vice president and also his own election in 1796 as the second president. In his single term as president, he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army, the major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamiltons opposition. Due to his strong posture on defense, Adams is often called the father of the American Navy and he was the first U. S. president to reside in the executive mansion, now known as the White House. In 1800, Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson and retired to Massachusetts and he eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latters own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years. He and his wife established a family of politicians, diplomats, Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States. He died on the anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Modern historians in the aggregate have favorably ranked his administration, John Adams was born on October 30,1735 to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams birthplace was then in Braintree, Massachusetts, and is preserved at Adams National Historical Park, Adams mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a Congregationalist deacon, a farmer, a cordwainer, the Deacon also served as a selectman and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship, though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt an acute responsibility to live up to his familys heritage of reverence. Journalist Richard Brookhiser wrote that Adams Puritan ancestors believed they lived in the Bible, England under the Stuarts was Egypt, they were Israel fleeing
34.
James Kent
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James Kent was an American jurist and legal scholar. He was the author of Commentaries on American Law, Kent was the son of Moss Kent, a lawyer from Dutchess County, New York and the first Surrogate of Rensselaer County, New York. In 1791 and 1792-93 Kent was a member from Dutchess County of the New York State Assembly, in 1793, he removed to New York City, where he was appointed a master in chancery for the city. Kent was the first professor of law in Columbia College in 1793-98, in 1797, he was appointed Recorder of New York City and in 1798, a justice of the New York Supreme Court, in 1804 Chief Justice, and in 1814 Chancellor of New York. Kent was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814, in 1821 he was a member of the New York State Constitutional Convention where he unsuccessfully opposed the raising of the property qualification for African American voters. Two years later, Chancellor Kent reached the age limit and retired from his office. Kent has been remembered for his Commentaries on American Law, highly respected in England. The Commentaries treated state, federal and international law, and the law of rights and of property. Kent rendered his most essential service to American jurisprudence while serving as chancellor, chancery, or equity law, had been very unpopular during the colonial period, and had received little development, and no decisions had been published. His judgments of this class cover a range of topics. His brother Moss Kent was a Congressman, Kent County, Michigan and Kent City, Michigan are named in his honor, probably because he represented Michigan Territory in its dispute with Ohio over the Toledo Strip. Chicago-Kent College of Law is named in his honor, students who have high honors status during any one of their years at Columbia Law School are called James Kent Scholars in honor of James Kents status as Columbias first professor of law. The Chancellor Kent Professorship at Yale Law School is also named after him, Kent Place School, an independent all-girls school in New Jersey, is located where his summer house was. James Kents original Summit Lodge is now incorporated into a mansion at 50 Kent Place Boulevard, Summit. Most of the architecture including the kitchen and long room still exist today. C. These statues are among sixteen representing men whose works have shaped human development, notes Sources This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Kent, James
35.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
36.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
37.
Mercery
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Mercery initially referred to silk, linen, and fustian textiles imported to England in the 12th century. The term mercery later extended to goods made of these and the sellers of those goods, the term mercer for cloth merchants is now largely obsolete. Mercers were formerly merchants or traders who dealt in cloth, typically fine cloth that was not produced locally, inventories of mercers in small towns, however, suggest that many were shopkeepers who dealt in various dry commodities other than cloth. Related occupations include haberdasher, draper and cloth merchant, while clothier historically referred to someone who manufactured cloth, by the 21st century the word mercer was primarily used in connection with the Worshipful Company of Mercers, one of the twelve great Liveries Companies of the City of London
38.
Cheapside
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Cheapside is a street in the City of London, the historic and modern financial centre of London, which forms part of the A40 London to Fishguard road. It links St. Martins Le Grand with Poultry, near its eastern end at Bank junction, where it becomes Poultry, is Mansion House, the Bank of England, and Bank station. To the west is St. Pauls Cathedral, St. Pauls tube station, in the Middle Ages, it was known as Westcheap, as opposed to Eastcheap, another street in the City, near London Bridge. The contemporary Cheapside is widely known as the location of a range of retail and food outlets and offices, as well as the Citys only major shopping centre, One New Change. Cheapside is a common English street name, meaning place, from Old English ceapan, to buy, whence also chapman. There was originally no connection to the meaning of cheap. There is also a Cheapside in Bridgetown, Barbados, Lexington, Kentucky, US, Greenfield, Massachusetts, US, Saint Helier, Jersey, Cheapside is the former site of one of the principal produce markets in London, cheap broadly meaning market in medieval English. Many of the streets feeding into the thoroughfare are named after the produce that was once sold in those areas of the market, including Honey Lane, Milk Street, Bread Street. In medieval times, the processional route from the Tower of London to the Palace of Westminster would include Cheapside. During state occasions such as the first entry of Margaret of France, into London in September 1299, during the reign of Edward III in the 14th century, tournaments were held in adjacent fields. No one died, but the King was greatly displeased, Meat was brought in to Cheapside from Smithfield market, just outside Newgate. Further down, on the right, was Goldsmiths Row, an area of commodity dealers, from the 14th century to the Great Fire, the eastern end of Cheapside was the location of the Great Conduit. Cheapside was the birthplace of John Milton, and Robert Herrick and it was for a long time one of the most important streets in London. It is also the site of the Bow Bells, the church of St. Mary-le-Bow, which has played a part in Londons Cockney heritage, geoffrey Chaucer grew up around Cheapside and there are a scattering of references to the thoroughfare and its environs throughout his work. The first chapter of Peter Ackroyds Brief Lives series on Chaucer also colourfully describes the street at that time, thomas Middletons play A Chaste Maid in Cheapside both satirises and celebrates the citizens of the neighbourhood during the Renaissance, when the street hosted the citys goldsmiths. William Wordsworth, in his 1797 poem The Reverie of Poor Susan, imagines a naturalistic Cheapside of past and that is capital, added her sister, and they both laughed heartily. If they had enough to fill all Cheapside, cried Bingley. But it must very materially lessen their chance of marrying men of any consideration in the world, charles Dickens, Jr. wrote in his 1879 book Dickenss Dictionary of London, Cheapside remains now what it was five centuries ago, the greatest thoroughfare in the City of London
39.
Apothecary
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Apothecary /əˈpɒθᵻkəri/ is one term for a medical professional who formulates and dispenses materia medica to physicians, surgeons and patients. The modern pharmacist has taken over this role and in some languages, the apothecaries investigation of herbal and chemical ingredients was a precursor to the modern sciences of chemistry and pharmacology. Apothecary shops sold ingredients and the medicines they prepared wholesale to other medical practitioners, in 1600s England, they also controlled the trade of tobacco which was imported as a medicine. Apothecary derives from the Ancient Greek word ἀποθήκη via Latin apotheca, Medieval Latin apothecarius, in some languages the word apothecary is still used for designating a pharmacist/chemist, such as German and Dutch and Luxembourgish. Likewise, pharmacy translates as apotek in the Scandinavian and some Slavic languages such as Bosnian apoteka, Serbian апотека, use of the term apothecary in the names of businesses varies with time and location. Apothecary, as a profession, could date back to 2600 BC to ancient Babylon, clay tablets were found with medical texts recording symptoms, the prescriptions, and the directions for compounding it. The Papyrus Ebers from ancient Egypt, written around 1500 B. C. contain a collection of more than 800 prescriptions and it mentions over 700 different drugs. According to Sharif Kaf al-Ghazal, and S. Hadzovic, apothecary shops existed during the Middle Ages in Baghdad by Islamic pharmacists in 754 during the Abbasid Caliphate, Apothecaries were also active in Islamic Spain by the 11th century. In modern English, this can be transliterated as, and you should not linger, Though in this town there is no apothecary, I shall teach you about herbs myself, That will be for your health and for your pride. In Renaissance Italy, Italian Nuns became a prominent source for medicinal needs, at first they used their knowledge in non-curative uses in the convents to solidify the sanctity of religion among their sisters. As they progressed in skill they started to expand their field to create profit and this profit they used towards their charitable goals. Because of their spread to urban society, these religious women gained roles of public significance beyond the spiritual realm. Later apothecaries led by nuns were spread across the Italian peninsula, from the 15th century to the 16th century, the apothecary gained the status of a skilled practitioner. In England, the apothecaries merited their own company, the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries. Its roots, however, go back much earlier to the Guild of Pepperers formed in London in 1180, however, there were ongoing tensions between apothecaries and other medical professions, as is illustrated by the experiences of Susan Reeve Lyon and other women apothecaries in 17th century London. In 1865 Elizabeth Garrett Anderson became the first woman to be licensed to practise medicine in Britain by passing the examination of the Society of Apothecaries. In German speaking countries, such as Germany, Austria and Switzerland, thus a Pharmazeut is not always an Apotheker. Apothecaries used their own measurement system, the system, to provide precise weighing of small quantities
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