1.
Admiral (Royal Navy)
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Admiral is a senior rank of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom, which equates to the NATO rank code OF-9, outranked only by the rank admiral of the fleet. Royal Navy officers holding the ranks of admiral, vice admiral and admiral of the fleet are sometimes considered generically to be admirals. The rank of admiral is currently the highest rank to which an officer in the Royal Navy can be promoted, King Edward I of England appointed the first English admiral in 1297 when he named William de Laybourne “Admiral of the sea of the King of England”. The rank of admiral should not be confused with the office of Admiral of England or Lord High Admiral, the Royal Navy has had vice and rear admirals since at least the 16th century. When in command of the fleet, the admiral would be in either the lead or the portion of the fleet. When the admiral commanded from the portion of the fleet his deputy. Below him was another admiral at the rear of the fleet, in Elizabethan times the fleet grew large enough to be organised into squadrons. The squadron’s admiral wore a red ensign, the vice admirals white, as the squadrons grew, each was eventually commanded by an admiral and the official ranks became admiral of the white, etc. This was the Navys first attempt at superannuating older officers and they were often assigned to shore-based administrative roles, such as commander of a port or Commissioner of one of the Royal Dockyards. During the Interregnum, the rank of admiral was replaced by that of general at sea, after the battle of Trafalgar in 1805 the rank of admiral of the red was introduced. Thereafter the number of admirals was reduced and in 1853 there were 79 admirals, although the admirals were promoted according to strict seniority, appointments to command were made at the discretion of the Board of Admiralty. As there were invariably more admirals in service there were postings, many admirals remained unemployed. The organisation of the fleet into coloured squadrons was abandoned in 1864. The Red Ensign was allocated to the Merchant Navy, the White Ensign became the flag of the Royal Navy, the 18th- and 19th-century British Navy also maintained a positional rank known as port admiral. A port admiral was typically a veteran captain who served as the commander of a British naval port and was in charge of supplying, refitting. The problem of promoting strictly by seniority was well illustrated by the case of Provo Wallis who served for 96 years, when he died in 1901 four admirals under him could immediately be promoted. In 1996, the rank of admiral of the fleet was put in abeyance in peacetime, admirals of the fleet continue to hold their rank on the active list for life. The current ranks are rear admiral, vice admiral, admiral and admiral of the fleet, also known as flag ranks because admirals, an admiral of the fleet flies a Union Flag at the masthead, while an admiral flies a St Georges cross
2.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
3.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
4.
Governor of New South Wales
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The Governor of New South Wales is the viceregal representative of the Australian monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, in the state of New South Wales. In an analogous way to the Governor-General of Australia at the national level, the Governor is appointed by the queen on the advice of the Premier of New South Wales, for an unfixed period of time—known as serving At Her Majestys pleasure—though five years is the norm. The current Governor is retired General David Hurley, who succeeded Dame Marie Bashir on 2 October 2014, the office has its origin in the 18th-century colonial governors of New South Wales upon its settlement in 1788, and is the oldest continuous institution in Australia. The office of Governor is required by the New South Wales Constitution Act,1902, besides the administration of the oaths of office, there is no set formula for the swearing-in of a governor-designate. The sovereign will also hold an audience with the appointee and will at that time induct the governor-designate as a Companion of the Order of Australia. The incumbent will generally serve for at least five years, though this is only a convention. The premier may therefore recommend to the Queen that the remain in her service for a longer period of time. A governor may also resign and three have died in office, furthermore, if the Lieutenant Governor becomes incapacitated while serving in the office of Governor, the next most senior judge of the Supreme Court is sworn in as the Administrator. Between 1788 and 1957, all governors were born outside of New South Wales and were members of the Peerage. Taylor once noted that out and governing New South Wales became the British aristocracys abiding consolation. Coincidentally the first Australian-born Governor, Sir John Northcott on 1 August 1946, was also the first Australian-born Governor of any state, the first Governors were all military officers and the majority of governors since have come from a military background, numbering 19. Samuels was the first governor in New South Wales history without either a political, public service or military background, the first woman to hold this position is also the first Lebanese-Australian governor, Dame Marie Bashir. In this capacity, the governor will issue royal proclamations and sign orders in council, the Governor alone is constitutionally mandated to summon parliament. The governor grants Royal Assent in the Queens name, legally, if the governor withholds the Queens assent, the sovereign may within two years disallow the bill, thereby annulling the law in question. No modern viceroy has denied Royal Assent to a bill, with most constitutional functions delegated to Cabinet, the governor acts in a primarily ceremonial fashion. He or she will host members of Australias royal family, as well as foreign royalty, also as part of international relations, the governor receives letters of credence and of recall from foreign consul-generals appointed to Sydney. The governor is also tasked with fostering unity and pride, the governor also traditionally serves as Honorary and Regimental Colonel in the Royal New South Wales Regiment and as Honorary Air Commodore of No.22 Squadron, Royal Australian Air Force. Since 1946, the governor has also always made the Chief Scout of New South Wales
5.
Philip Gidley King
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Captain Philip Gidley King RN was the third Governor of New South Wales, and did much to civilise the young colony in the face of great obstacles. When the First Fleet arrived in January 1788, King was detailed to colonise Norfolk Island for defence, as Governor of New South Wales, he helped develop livestock farming, whaling and mining, built many schools and launched the colonys first newspaper. But conflicts with the military wore down his spirit, and they were able to force his resignation, Philip Gidley King was born at Launceston England on 23 April 1758, the son of draper Philip King, and grandson of Exeter attorney-at-law John Gidley. He joined the Royal Navy at the age of 12 as captains servant, King served under Arthur Phillip who chose him as second lieutenant on HMS Sirius for the expedition to establish a convict settlement in New South Wales. On arrival, in January 1788, King was selected to lead a party of convicts and guards to set up a settlement at Norfolk Island. More convicts were sent, and these proved occasionally troublesome, early in 1789 he prevented a mutiny when some of the convicts planned to take him and other officers prisoner, and escape on the next boat to arrive. Whilst commandant on Norfolk Island, King formed a relationship with the female convict Ann Inett – their first son, another son was born in 1790 and named Sydney. Following the wreck of Sirius at Norfolk Island in March 1790, King left, Ann Inett was left in Sydney with the boys, she later married another man in 1792, and went on to lead a comfortable and respected life in the colony. King, who had arranged the marriage, also arranged for their two sons to be educated in England, where they became officers in the navy. Whilst in England King married Anna Josepha Coombe on 11 March 1791 and returned shortly after on HMS Gorgon to take up his post as Lieutenant-Governor of Norfolk Island, Kings first legitimate offspring, Phillip Parker King, was born there in December 1791, and four daughters followed. On his return to Norfolk Island, King found the population of one thousand torn apart by discontent after the strict regime of Major Robert Ross. However, he set about enthusiastically to improve conditions and he encouraged settlers, drawn from ex-convicts and ex-marines, and he listened to their views on wages and prices. By 1794 the island was self-sufficient in grain, and surplus swine were being sent to Sydney, the number of people living off the government store was high, and few settlers wanted to leave. As their conduct became mutinous, he sent twenty of them to Sydney for trial by court-martial, there Lieutenant-Governor Francis Grose censured Kings actions and issued orders which gave the military illegal authority over the civilian population. Grose later apologised, but conflict with the continued to plague King. King became Governor on 28 September 1800 and he set about changing the system of administration, and appointed Major Joseph Foveaux as Lieutenant-Governor of Norfolk Island. His first task was to attack the misconduct of officers of the New South Wales Corps in their trading in liquor. He tried to discourage the importation of liquor, and began to construct a brewery, however, he found the refusal of convicts to work in their own time for other forms of payment, and the continued illicit local distillation, increasingly difficult to control
6.
Lachlan Macquarie
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Major-General Lachlan Macquarie CB was a British Army officer and colonial administrator from Scotland. Macquarie served as the fifth and last autocratic Governor of New South Wales from 1810 to 1821, an inscription on his tomb in Scotland describes him as The Father of Australia. Lachlan Macquarie was born on the island of Ulva off the coast of the Isle of Mull in the Inner Hebrides, a chain of islands off the West Coast of Scotland. He was a gentleman of the Scottish Highland family clan MacQuarrie which possessed Ulva, Staffa, and a region of the Isle of Mull for over one thousand years, and his forebears were buried on Iona. Governor Macquaries father, a man of Intelligence, polite, and much of the world, supposedly attained the age of 103 years and his mother was the daughter of a Maclaine chieftain who owned a castle on the Isle of Mull. Macquarie left the island at the age of 14, if he did attend the Royal High School of Edinburgh, as tradition has it, it was only for a very brief period because, at the same age, he volunteered for the army. Macquarie joined the 84th Regiment of Foot on 9 April 1777, as a new recruit on the way to America he participated in the Battle of the Newcastle Jane. This battle was the first naval victory for a British merchant ship over an American privateer and he was initially stationed at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and was commissioned as an ensign five months after his arrival. On 18 January 1781, he was promoted to lieutenant and transferred to the 71st Regiment of Foot, and served them in New York City, Charleston. In June 1784 he returned to Scotland as a half-pay lieutenant, three years later, on Christmas Day 1787 he received his commission as lieutenant in the 77th Regiment, where he saw service with the army in India and Egypt. Macquarie became a Freemason in January 1793 at Bombay, in Lodge No.1 and he was promoted Captain on 9 November 1789, Major on 12 March 1801. Two years later,1803, he was in London, as Assistant Adjutant General to Lord Harrington, in 1803 and 1804 saw him on active service in India. In 1793 he married Jane Jarvis, daughter of the Chief Justice of Antigua, three years later she died of tuberculosis. In November 1807, Macquaries cousin Elizabeth Henrietta Campbell became his second wife, in April 1809 Macquarie was appointed Governor of New South Wales. At the head of troops he was unchallenged by the New South Wales Corps whose members had become settled in farming, commerce. Macquarie was promoted to Colonel in 1810, Brigadier in 1811 and Major-General in 1813, the Macquaries departed from England in May 1809 aboard HMS Dromedary, accompanied by HMS Hindostan. They reached Sydney on 28 December 1809 and he started as a governor on 1 January 1810 and he appointed John Campbell as his secretary. The first task Macquarie had to tackle was to restore orderly, lawful government, Macquarie was ordered by the British government to arrest both John Macarthur and Major George Johnston, two of the leaders of the Rum Rebellion
7.
Plymouth
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Plymouths early history extends to the Bronze Age, when a first settlement emerged at Mount Batten. This settlement continued as a trading post for the Roman Empire, until it was surpassed by the prosperous village of Sutton founded in the ninth century. In 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers departed Plymouth for the New World, during the English Civil War the town was held by the Parliamentarians and was besieged between 1642 and 1646. The combined town took the name of Plymouth which, in 1928, the citys naval importance later led to its targeting and partial destruction during World War II, an act known as the Plymouth Blitz. After the war the city centre was rebuilt and subsequent expansion led to the incorporation of Plympton. The city is home to 262,700 people, making it the 30th most populous area in the United Kingdom. It is governed locally by Plymouth City Council and is represented nationally by three MPs, Plymouths economy remains strongly influenced by shipbuilding and seafaring including ferry links to Brittany and Spain, but has tended toward a service-based economy since the 1990s. It has the largest operational base in Western Europe – HMNB Devonport and is home to Plymouth University. An unidentified settlement named TAMARI OSTIA is listed in Ptolemys Geographia and is presumed to be located in the area of the modern city, at the time this village was called Sutton, meaning south town in Old English. The name Plym Mouth, meaning mouth of the River Plym was first mentioned in a Pipe Roll of 1211, the name Plymouth first officially replaced Sutton in a charter of King Henry VI in 1440. See Plympton for the derivation of the name Plym, during the Hundred Years War a French attack burned a manor house and took some prisoners, but failed to get into the town. In 1403 the town was burned by Breton raiders, on 12 November,1439, the English Parliament made Plymouth the first town incorporated. The castle served to protect Sutton Pool, which is where the fleet was based in Plymouth prior to the establishment of Plymouth Dockyard. In 1512 an Act of Parliament was passed for further fortifying Plymouth, defences on St Nicholas Island also date from this time, and a string of six artillery blockhouses were built, including one on Fishers Nose at the south-eastern corner of the Hoe. This location was further strengthened by the building of a fort in 1596, during the 16th century locally produced wool was the major export commodity. According to legend, Drake insisted on completing his game of bowls on the Hoe before engaging the Spanish Armada in 1588. In 1620 the Pilgrim Fathers set sail for the New World from Plymouth, during the English Civil War Plymouth sided with the Parliamentarians and was besieged for almost four years by the Royalists. The last major attack by the Royalist was by Sir Richard Grenville leading thousands of soldiers towards Plymouth, the civil war ended as a Parliamentary win, but monarchy was restored by King Charles II in 1660, who imprisoned many of the Parliamentary heroes on Drakes Island
8.
Devon
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Devon, also known as Devonshire, which was formerly its common and official name, is a county of England, reaching from the Bristol Channel in the north to the English Channel in the south. It is part of South West England, bounded by Cornwall to the west, Somerset to the northeast, combined as a ceremonial county, Devons area is 6,707 km2 and its population is about 1.1 million. Devon derives its name from Dumnonia, which, during the British Iron Age, Roman Britain, the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain resulted in the partial assimilation of Dumnonia into the Kingdom of Wessex during the eighth and ninth centuries. The western boundary with Cornwall was set at the River Tamar by King Æthelstan in 936, Devon was constituted as a shire of the Kingdom of England thereafter. The north and south coasts of Devon each have both cliffs and sandy shores, and the bays contain seaside resorts, fishing towns. The inland terrain is rural, generally hilly, and has a low density in comparison to many other parts of England. Dartmoor is the largest open space in southern England at 954 km2, to the north of Dartmoor are the Culm Measures and Exmoor. In the valleys and lowlands of south and east Devon the soil is fertile, drained by rivers including the Exe, the Culm, the Teign, the Dart. As well as agriculture, much of the economy of Devon is linked with tourism, in the Brittonic, Devon is known as Welsh, Dyfnaint, Breton, Devnent and Cornish, Dewnens, each meaning deep valleys. One erroneous theory is that the suffix is due to a mistake in the making of the original letters patent for the Duke of Devonshire. However, there are references to Defenascire in Anglo-Saxon texts from before 1000 AD, the term Devonshire may have originated around the 8th century, when it changed from Dumnonia to Defenascir. Kents Cavern in Torquay had produced human remains from 30–40,000 years ago, Dartmoor is thought to have been occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherer peoples from about 6000 BC. The Romans held the area under occupation for around 350 years. Devon became a frontier between Brittonic and Anglo-Saxon Wessex, and it was absorbed into Wessex by the mid 9th century. This suggests the Anglo-Saxon migration into Devon was limited rather than a movement of people. The border with Cornwall was set by King Æthelstan on the east bank of the River Tamar in 936 AD, the arrival of William of Orange to launch the Glorious Revolution of 1688 took place at Brixham. Devon has produced tin, copper and other metals from ancient times, Devons tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devons Stannary Parliament, which dates back to the 12th century. The last recorded sitting was in 1748, agriculture has been an important industry in Devon since the 19th century
9.
St Tudy
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For the saint, see Tudy of Landevennec St Tudy is a civil parish and village in north Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. The village is situated in the River Camel valley approximately five miles northeast of Wadebridge, the village is mentioned as having a cattle fair in Owens book of fairs 1788. There was formerly a house at Tinten and the chapel may still be recognized. It has been reused as a barn and has a 15th-century window, Cornwall which was sold at the Sir Richard Onslow sale, Sothebys,15 July 1959. Hengar was a seat of the Onslows. The parish church is dedicated to St Tudius and was restored in 1873, there was a Norman church here but the present structure is of the Perpendicular period. There are two aisles the arcades of which are identical, the tower has three stages, is 64 feet high, and is topped with battlements and pinnacles, there are five bells. Anthony Nicholl is commemorated by a memorial erected by his wife. In the churchyard is a coped stone with carving, possibly a rare hogback tomb. Trevenning cross is at a junction about one and a half miles northeast of the churchtown. It was found in the close to its present position by J. R. Collins of Bodmin. Media related to St Tudy at Wikimedia Commons
10.
Cornwall
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Cornwall is a ceremonial county and unitary authority area of England within the United Kingdom. It is bordered to the north and west by the Celtic Sea, to the south by the English Channel, Cornwall has a population of 551,700 and covers an area of 3,563 km2. Cornwall forms the westernmost part of the south-west peninsula of the island of Great Britain, and this area was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. It continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age peoples, there is little evidence that Roman rule was effective west of Exeter and few Roman remains have been found. In the mid-19th century, however, the tin and copper mines entered a period of decline, subsequently, china clay extraction became more important and metal mining had virtually ended by the 1990s. Traditionally, fishing and agriculture were the important sectors of the economy. Railways led to a growth of tourism in the 20th century, however, the area is noted for its wild moorland landscapes, its long and varied coastline, its attractive villages, its many place-names derived from the Cornish language, and its very mild climate. Extensive stretches of Cornwalls coastline, and Bodmin Moor, are protected as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Cornwall is the homeland of the Cornish people and is recognised as one of the Celtic nations, retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history. Some people question the present constitutional status of Cornwall, and a nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the United Kingdom in the form of a devolved legislative Cornish Assembly. On 24 April 2014 it was announced that Cornish people will be granted minority status under the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The modern English name Cornwall derives from the concatenation of two ancient demonyms from different linguistic traditions, Corn- records the native Brythonic tribe, the Cornovii. The Celtic word kernou is cognate with the English word horn. -wall derives from the Old English exonym walh, the Ravenna Cosmography first mentions a city named Purocoronavis in the locality. This is thought to be a rendering of Duro-cornov-ium, meaning fort of the Cornovii. The exact location of Durocornovium is disputed, with Tintagel and Carn Brea suggested as possible sites, in later times, Cornwall was known to the Anglo-Saxons as West Wales to distinguish it from North Wales. The name appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 891 as On Corn walum, in the Domesday Book it was referred to as Cornualia and in c.1198 as Cornwal. Other names for the county include a latinisation of the name as Cornubia, the present human history of Cornwall begins with the reoccupation of Britain after the last Ice Age. The area now known as Cornwall was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods and it continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age people. The Common Brittonic spoken at the time developed into several distinct tongues
11.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
12.
Bond Street
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Bond Street is a major shopping street in the West End of London. The southern section is Old Bond Street and the northern section New Bond Street—a distinction not generally made in everyday usage. The street was built on fields surrounding Clarendon House on Piccadilly and it was built up in the 1720s, and by the end of the 18th century was a popular place for the upper-class residents of Mayfair to socialise. It is one of the most expensive and sought after strips of real estate in Europe, Bond Street is the only street that runs between Oxford Street and Piccadilly. Old Bond Street is at the end between Piccadilly and Burlington Gardens. The northern section, New Bond Street, extends as far as Oxford Street, the entire street is around 0.5 miles long. Many of the shop frontages are less than 20 feet wide, the nearest tube stations are Green Park in Piccadilly, and Bond Street station in Oxford Street. Despite its name, Bond Street station does not directly connect to either New or Old Bond Street, No buses use the street, although the C2 service crosses New Bond Street. Part of New Bond Street is numbered B406 but the remainder, New Bond Street is pedestrianised between Grafton Street and Clifford Street to prevent through traffic and to stop the road being used as a rat run. There is evidence of Roman settlement around what is now Bond Street, in 1894, a culvert made from brick and stone was discovered in the area. At that time, the house backed onto open fields, known as Albemarle Ground, New Bond Street was laid out during a second phase of construction 14 years after Bonds syndicate began developing the area. Most of the building along the street occurred in the 1720s, john Rocques map of London, published in 1746, shows properties along the entire length of Bond Street, including the fully constructed side streets. The two parts of the street have always had separate names, and a plan by the council to merge the two into a singular Bond Street in the 1920s was rejected by locals. During the 18th century, the street began to be popular with the bourgeoisie living around Mayfair, shop owners let out their upper storeys for residential purposes, attracting lodgers such as Jonathan Swift, George Selwyn, William Pitt the Elder and Laurence Stern. In 1784, Georgiana Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire, an active socialite and this had caused him to lose his seat in parliament, leading to the dissolution of the Fox–North Coalition. She insisted people should look for nearer shopping streets, and encouraged people to go to Bond Street, consequently, the street became a retail area for people living in Mayfair. By the end of the century, a social group known as the Bond Street Loungers had appeared, wearing expensive wigs and parading up. Lord Nelson stayed at temporary lodgings in New Bond Street between 1797–8, and again in 1811–13, Thomas Pitt, 2nd Baron Camelford lived in Bond Street and was unhappy about the presence of the Bond Street Loungers
13.
Garden Museum
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The museum is currently closed for re-development and will re-open in 2017. St Marys, which was largely a Victorian reconstruction, was deconsecrated in 1972 and it was the first museum in the world dedicated to the history of gardening. The museums main gallery is the body of the church, the collection comprises tools, ephemera and a library. The tool collection includes items purchased at auction and donations from individuals, the ephemera includes items such as prints, photographs, bills, catalogues and brochures, and gives an insight into the social history of gardening as well as the practical aspects of the subject. The museum covers the range of gardening, from royal gardens to allotments. In the early 1980s, a 17th-century style knot garden was created in the churchyard, in 2006, Christopher Woodward, formerly director of the Holburne Museum in Bath, Somerset, was appointed as the new director of the Garden Museum. In its 25th anniversary year in 2002, the museum launched a campaign to raise at least £600,000 to pay for an overhaul of its facilities. In 2008, the interior of the museum had a total makeover, in 2008, the interior was transformed into a centre for exhibitions and events by the construction of contemporary gallery spaces. Visitors will also see a permanent display of paintings, tools, ephemera and historic artefacts, the Museum is undertaking a second phase of work to complete the restoration of the ancient structure and its transformation into a Museum. In 2014 the museum was awarded a grant of £3,510,600 from the Heritage Lottery Fund for the development, the redevelopment will re-open in 2017. This will add contemporary galleries and spaces for education and events, at the core of the project is an aspiration to create the country’s first archive of garden and landscape design. The museum is developing ideas on shared activities and programmes with three historic garden charities, the Garden History Society, the Association of Garden Trusts, and Parks, the aim is to celebrate and explore the design, history and art of gardens. The Garden Museum is housed in the medieval and Victorian church of St Mary’s at Lambeth, the first church on the site was built before the Norman Conquest, and was integral to the religious centre established by the Archbishops of Canterbury in the twelfth century. The structure was deconsecrated in 1972, and rescued from demolition by the founder of the Museum, the structure of the church was repaired, holding small exhibitions such as The Tradescant Story from 1979. The Museum opened in 1977, as the world’s first museum of garden history, the church is the oldest structure in the Borough of Lambeth, except for the crypt of Lambeth Palace itself, and its burials and monuments are a record of 950 years of a community. But for the Palace, it has perhaps the richest historical story of any building in the borough, in 1062, a wooden church was built on the site by Goda, sister of Edward the Confessor, the Domesday Book records 29 tenancies in her manor. In 1377, the tower was built, it was repaired in 1834-1835. It is described by Museum of London Archaeology Service as an almost complete rebuilding of the old body of the church, the most eye-catching survivals are four of eight corbels in the ceiling of the nave
14.
Lambeth
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Lambeth is a district in Central London, England, located in the London Borough of Lambeth. It is situated 1 mile south of Charing Cross, the population of Lambeth was 23,937 in 2011. The area experienced some growth in the medieval period as part of the manor of Lambeth Palace. By the Victorian era the area had seen significant development as London expanded, the changes brought by World War II altered much of the fabric of Lambeth. Subsequent development in the late 20th century and early 21st century has seen an increase in the number of high-rise buildings, the area is home to the International Maritime Organization. The origins of the name of Lambeth come from its first record in 1062 as Lambehitha, meaning landing place for lambs, in the Domesday Book, Lambeth is called Lanchei, likely in error. The name refers to a harbour where lambs were either shipped from or to and it is formed from the Old English lamb and hythe. South Lambeth is recorded as Sutlamehethe in 1241 and North Lambeth is recorded in 1319 as North Lamhuth, the manor of Lambeth is recorded as being under ownership of the Archbishop of Canterbury from at least 1190. The Archbishops led the development of much of the manor, with Archbishop Hubert Walter creating the residence of Lambeth Palace in 1197, Lambeth and the palace were the site of two important 13th century international treaties, the Treaty of Lambeth 1217 and the Treaty of Lambeth 1212. Edward, the Black Prince lived in Lambeth in the 14th century in an estate that incorporated the land not belonging to the Archbishops, which also included Kennington. As such, much of the land of Lambeth to this day remains under Royal ownership as part of the estate of the Duchy of Cornwall. The road names, Norfolk Place and Norfolk Row reflect the history, Lambeth Palace lies opposite the southern section of the Palace of Westminster on the Thames. The two were linked by a horse ferry across the river. Until the mid-18th century the north of Lambeth was marshland, crossed by a number of roads raised against floods, the marshland in the area, known as Lambeth Marshe, was drained in the 18th century but is remembered in the Lower Marsh street name. The subsequent growth in road and marine transport, along with the development of industry in the wake of the revolution brought great change to the area. The area grew with a population at this time, many of whom were considerably poor. As a result, Lambeth opened a workhouse in 1726. In 1777 a parliamentary report recorded a parish workhouse in operation accommodating up to 270 inmates and its operation was overseen by an elected Board of twenty Guardians
15.
Mary Putland
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Mary Putland was the Lady of Government House, New South Wales, Australia during the period her father William Bligh was the Governor of New South Wales. Mary Bligh was born on 1 April 1783 at Douglas, Isle of Man, in 1805, she married John Putland, a lieutenant in the Royal Navy who had served in the victory of the Battle of the Nile under the command of Horatio Nelson. When her father William Bligh was offered the post of Governor of New South Wales, her mother Elizabeth did not wish to accompany him, fearing the long ocean voyage. Instead, Mary agreed to accompany her father to act as the Lady of the Government House with her husband John Putland to serve as William Blighs aide-de-camp, Bligh and Short disagreed continually through the voyage as each believed he was in charge of expedition. When Bligh ordered a change of course of the ship, Short responded ordering Putland to fire warning shots at the transport containing his wife. In great distress, Putland complied with the order, when the convoy arrived in Sydney Harbour on 6 August 1806, Bligh assumed the governorship of the colony. He retained the Porpoise to act as its naval unit. Bligh then appointed Putland to command the Porpoise, on arrival in Sydney, Mary Putland took charge of Government House. This was the first Government House in Sydney, built originally for Governor Arthur Phillip although extended on numerous occasions, Mary Putland hosted many entertainments including dinners and balls. To ensure her status in Sydney society, her mother, Elizabeth Bligh. In return, Mary sent her mother bird feathers and precious stones from New South Wales, however, despite her public gaiety, her private life was taken up with concern about her husbands health which deteriorated since their arrival in New South wales. Her husband John Putland died of tuberculosis on 4 January 1808 and he was buried in the grounds of the Government House. Mary Putland wrote to her mother We entertain everyone of importance, William Bligh and Mary Putland were placed under house arrest. William Bligh refused to leave the colony until he received an order from London. In April 1809, the British Government appointed Lachlan Macquarie as Governor of New South Wales and they arrived in New South Wales on the HMS Hindostan and HMS Dromedary. At the head of troops, Macquarie was unchallenged by the New South Wales Corps, whose members had become settled in farming, commerce. William Bligh and Mary Putland were to return to England on the Hindostan in May 1810, however, before that occurred, Mary Putland was courted by Maurice Charles OConnell, encouraged by Macquaries wife Elizabeth. Only days before the ship was to depart, Maurice OConnell proposed marriage to Mary, the couple were married quickly on 8 May 1810 at Government House and Mary remained in Sydney with her new husband, while William Bligh returned to England alone
16.
Vice admiral (Royal Navy)
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Please see “vice admiral” for other nations which use this rank. Vice admiral is an officer rank of the British Royal Navy. It equates to the NATO rank code OF-8 and is superior to rear admiral and is subordinate to the full admiral rank. The Royal Navy has had vice admirals since at least the 16th century, when the fleet was deployed the vice admiral would be in the leading portion or van acting as the deputy to the admiral. Vice admirals are entitled to fly a personal flag, a vice admiral flies a St George’s cross defaced with a red disc in the hoist. The rank of admiral itself is shown in its sleeve lace by a broad band with two narrower bands. Since 2001 it has designated a three-star rank when the number of stars on the shoulder board were increased to three
17.
Mutiny on the Bounty
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The mutiny on the Royal Navy vessel HMS Bounty occurred in the south Pacific on 28 April 1789. Led by Acting Lieutenant Fletcher Christian, disaffected crewmen seized control of the ship from their captain, Lieutenant William Bligh, the mutineers variously settled on Tahiti or on Pitcairn Island. Bligh meanwhile completed a voyage of more than 3,500 nautical miles in the launch to reach safety, Bounty had left England in 1787 on a mission to collect and transport breadfruit plants from Tahiti to the West Indies. A five-month layover in Tahiti, during many of the men lived ashore and formed relationships with native Polynesians. Relations between Bligh and his crew deteriorated after he began handing out increasingly harsh punishments, criticism and abuse, after three weeks back at sea, Christian and others forced Bligh from the ship. Twenty-five men remained on board afterwards, including loyalists held against their will, Bligh reached England in April 1790, whereupon the Admiralty despatched HMS Pandora to apprehend the mutineers. Fourteen were captured in Tahiti and imprisoned on board Pandora, which then searched without success for Christians party that had hidden on Pitcairn Island. After turning back toward England, Pandora ran aground on the Great Barrier Reef, the 10 surviving detainees reached England in June 1792 and were court martialled,4 were acquitted,3 were pardoned, and 3 were hanged. Christians group remained undiscovered on Pitcairn until 1808, by time only one mutineer, John Adams. Almost all his fellow mutineers, including Christian, had been killed, no action was taken against Adams. Descendants of the mutineers and their Tahitian consorts live on Pitcairn into the 21st century and his Majestys Armed Vessel Bounty, or HMS Bounty, was built in 1784 at the Blaydes shipyard in Hull, Yorkshire as a collier named Bethia. She was renamed after being purchased by the Royal Navy for £1,950 in May 1787 and she was three-masted,91 feet long overall and 25 feet across at her widest point, and registered at 230 tons burthen. Her armament was four short four-pounder carriage guns and ten swivel guns. As she was rated by the Admiralty as a cutter, the smallest category of warship, her commander would be a lieutenant rather than a post-captain, nor did a cutter warrant the usual detachment of Marines that naval commanders could use to enforce their authority. Bounty had been acquired to transport breadfruit plants from Tahiti, a Polynesian island in the south Pacific, Bounty was refitted under Bankss supervision at Deptford Dockyard on the River Thames. The space required for these arrangements in the ship meant that the crew. Bligh was born in Plymouth in 1754 into a family of naval, appointment to Cooks ship at the age of 21 had been a considerable honour, although Bligh believed that his contribution was not properly acknowledged in the expeditions official account. With the ending of the American War of Independence in 1783, the navy was reduced in size, after a period of idleness, Bligh took temporary employment in the mercantile service and in 1785 was captain of the Britannia, a vessel owned by his wifes uncle Duncan Campbell
18.
HMS Bounty
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HMS Bounty, also known as HM Armed Vessel Bounty, was a small merchant vessel purchased by the Royal Navy for a botanical mission. The ship was sent to the Pacific Ocean under the command of William Bligh to acquire breadfruit plants and that mission was never completed due to a mutiny led by Acting Lieutenant Fletcher Christian. This incident is now known as the Mutiny on the Bounty. The ship was burned on Pitcairn Island by the mutineers. The remains of the Bounty were re-discovered in 1957 by an American adventurer, Bounty was originally known as collier Bethia, built in 1784 at the Blaydes shipyard in Kingston upon Hull, East Yorkshire, England. The vessel was purchased by the Royal Navy for £1,950 on 23 May 1787, refit, the ship was relatively small at 215 tons, but had three masts and was full-rigged. After conversion for the expedition, she was equipped with four 4-pounder cannon. The experiment was proposed by Sir Joseph Banks, who recommended William Bligh as commander, in June 1787, Bounty was refitted at Deptford. The great cabin was converted to house the potted breadfruit plants, the ships complement was 46 men, a single commissioned officer,43 other Royal Navy personnel, and two civilian botanists. On 23 December 1787, Bounty sailed from Spithead for Tahiti, for a full month, the crew attempted to take the ship around Cape Horn, but adverse weather prevented this. Bligh then proceeded east, rounding the tip of Africa. During the outward voyage, Bligh demoted Sailing Master John Fryer and this act seriously damaged the relationship between Bligh and Fryer, and Fryer later claimed that Blighs act was entirely personal. Bligh is commonly portrayed as the epitome of abusive sailing captains, caroline Alexander points out in her 2003 book The Bounty that Bligh was relatively lenient compared with other British naval officers. Bligh enjoyed the patronage of Sir Joseph Banks, a wealthy botanist and that, together with his experience sailing with Cook, familiarity with navigation in the area, and local customs were probably important factors in his appointment. Bounty reached Tahiti on 26 October 1788, after ten months at sea, Bligh and his crew spent five months in Tahiti, then called Otaheite, collecting and preparing 1,015 breadfruit plants to be transported. Bligh allowed the crew to live ashore and care for the breadfruit plants. Many of the seamen and some of the gentlemen had themselves tattooed in native fashion. Masters Mate and Acting Lieutenant Fletcher Christian married Maimiti, a Tahitian woman, other of Bountys warrant officers and seamen were also said to have formed connections with native women
19.
Launch (boat)
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A launch is an open motorboat. The forward part of the launch may be covered, prior to the era of engines on small craft, a launch was the largest boat carried on a sailing vessel, powered by sail or by oars. In competitive rowing, a launch is a boat used by the coach during training. Originally a launch was the largest boat carried by a warship in the age of sail, the word comes from the Spanish lancha and Portuguese, from Malay lancharan, from lanchar. In the Age of Sail, a ship carried a variety of boats of different sizes. In addition to the launch, examples include the boat, captains gig, pinnace. Distinctions among the vessels were clear, both in design and purpose. In the age of motorized ships, these distinctions of size and purpose have largely disappeared, in the 18th century, a launch was used to set the large anchors on a ship. The launch of that era had a transom and was about 24 feet long. In 1788 Captain Bligh was set adrift in Bounty’s launch, on the River Thames the term launch is used to mean any motorised pleasure boat. The usage arises from the governing the management of the Thames and laying down the categories of boats. Motor launch was the designation for large vessels used in the Second World War by the Royal Navy and they were used for inshore work in defending the coast from submarines and carried relatively light armament, a few depth charges, a gun and a few machine guns. In competitive rowing the term launch is used to refer to any motorized boat used by the coach to follow practicing boats during workouts, RAF rescue launch Cabin cruiser Slipper launch Naphtha launch
20.
Timor
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Timor is an island at the southern end of Maritime Southeast Asia, north of the Timor Sea. The island is divided between the states of East Timor, on the eastern part, and Indonesia, on the western part. The Indonesian part, also known as West Timor, constitutes part of the province of East Nusa Tenggara, within West Timor lies an exclave of East Timor called Oecusse District. The island covers an area of 30,777 square kilometres, the name is a variant of timur, Malay for east, it is so called because it lies at the eastern end of the Lesser Sunda Islands. Anthropologists identify eleven distinct ethno-linguistic groups in Timor, the largest are the Atoni of western Timor, and the Tetum of central and eastern Timor. Most indigenous Timorese languages belong to the Timor–Babar branch of the Austronesian languages spoken throughout the Indonesian archipelago, the non-Austronesian languages are thought to be related to languages spoken on Halmahera and in Western New Guinea. Some are so mixed it is difficult to tell which family they descend from, the official languages of East Timor are Tetum and Portuguese, while in West Timor it is Indonesian. Indonesian is also spoken and understood in East Timor. Islam and Animism make up most of the remainder at about 5% each across the island, Timor is located north of Australia, and is one of the easternmost Sunda Islands. Timor is the island of the Outer Banda Arc, which has been upthrust by collision with the Australian continent. Timor has older geology and lacks the volcanic nature of the northern Lesser Sunda Islands, the orientation of the main axis of the island also differs from its neighbors. These features have been explained as the result of being on the edge of the Indo-Australian Plate as it meets the Eurasian Plate. The climate includes a dry season with hot winds blowing over from Australia. Rivers on the island include the Southern and Northern Laclo Rivers in East Timor, the largest towns on the island are the provincial capital of Kupang in West Timor, Indonesia and the Portuguese colonial towns of Dili the capital, and Baucau in East Timor. Poor roads make transport to inland areas difficult, in East Timor especially, East Timor is a poor country, with health issues including malaria and dengue fever. Sources of revenue include gas and oil in the Timor Sea, coffee growing, the natural vegetation was tropical dry broadleaf forests with an undergrowth of shrubs and grasses supporting a rich wildlife. However much of the original forest has been cleared for farming, especially on the coasts of Timor, apart from one large block in the centre of Timor only patches remain. This ecoregion is part of the Wallacea area with a mixture of plants and animals of Asian and Australasian origin, it lies in the part of Wallacea
21.
Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
22.
Rum
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Rum is a distilled alcoholic beverage made from sugarcane byproducts, such as molasses, or directly from sugarcane juice, by a process of fermentation and distillation. The distillate, a liquid, is then usually aged in oak barrels. The majority of the rum production occurs in the Caribbean. Rums are produced in various grades, light rums are commonly used in cocktails, whereas golden and dark rums were typically consumed straight or neat, on the rocks, or used for cooking, but are now commonly consumed with mixers. Premium rums are also available, made to be consumed straight or iced. Rum plays a part in the culture of most islands of the West Indies as well as in The Maritimes and this beverage has famous associations with the Royal Navy and piracy. Rum has also served as a medium of economic exchange, used to help fund enterprises such as slavery, organized crime. The origin of the rum is generally unclear. In an 1824 essay about the origin, Samuel Morewood. He wrote, As spirits, extracted from molasses, could not well be ranked under the name whiskey, brandy, or arrack, it would be called rum, given the harsh taste of early rum, this is unlikely. Morewood later suggested another possibility, that it was taken from the last syllable of the Latin word for sugar, saccharum, other etymologists have mentioned the Romani word rum, meaning strong or potent. These words have been linked to the ramboozle and rumfustian, both popular British drinks in the mid-17th century, however, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices. The most probable origin is as a version of rumbullion or rumbustion. Both words surfaced in English about the time as rum did. This is a far more convincing explanation, and brings the image of men fighting in entanglements at island tippling houses. Another claim is the name is from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, other options include contractions of the words iterum, Latin for again, a second time, or arôme, French for aroma. A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc. In current usage, the used for a rum is often based on its place of origin
23.
New South Wales Corps
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The New South Wales Corps was formed in England in 1789 as a permanent regiment to relieve the New South Wales Marine Corps, who had accompanied the First Fleet to Australia. The regiment was formed in England in June 1789 as a permanent unit to relieve the New South Wales Marine Corps, the regiment began arriving as guards on the Second Fleet in 1790. The regiment, led by Major Francis Grose, consisted of three companies, a fourth company was raised from those Marines wishing to remain in New South Wales under Captain George Johnston, who had been Governor Arthur Phillips aide-de-camp. When Phillip returned to England for respite in December 1792, Grose was left in charge, Grose immediately abandoned Phillips plans for governing the colony. A staunch military man, he established military rule and set out to secure the authority of the Corps and he abolished the civilian courts and transferred the magistrates to the authority of Captain Joseph Foveaux. After the poor crops of 1793 he cut the rations of the convicts but not those of the Corps, in a connived attempt to improve agricultural production and make the colony more self-sufficient, Grose turned away from collective farming and made generous land grants to officers of the Corps. They were also provided with government-fed and clothed convicts as farm labour, Grose also relaxed Phillips prohibition on trading of rum, usually from Bengal. The colony, like many British territories at the time, was short of coins, by 1793 stills were being imported and grain was being used to make rum, exacerbating the shortage of grain. Due to poor health Grose returned to England in December 1794 and Captain William Paterson assumed temporary command until a permanent replacement, Governor John Hunter, arrived in September 1795. Paterson had obtained his commission with the backing of Sir Joseph Banks because he was interested in history and would explore and collect samples for Banks. Governor Hunter attempted unsuccessfully to use the troops of the Corps to guard imported rum, Hunter also tried to start up a public store with goods from England to provide competition and stabilise the price of goods, but Hunter was not a good businessman and supplies were too erratic. Hunter requested greater control by authorities in England and a duty on rum. He also issued an order restricting the amount of labour that officers could use. Hunter was opposed strongly by officers of the Corps, and pamphlets, John Macarthur wrote a letter accusing Hunter of ineffectiveness and trading in rum. Hunter was required by the Colonial Office to answer the charges, in 1799 Paterson, now a Lieutenant Colonel, returned from England with orders to stamp out the trading in rum by officers of the Corps. In 1800 he charged Major George Johnston, who had served as Hunter’s aide-de-camp. Johnston claimed he was being persecuted and demanded that he be sent to England for trial. The English courts decided that colonial affairs were not a matter for them and, as all the evidence and witnesses were in Sydney and they also decided that, as proper court martial could not be constituted in Sydney, no further action should be taken against Johnston
24.
Rum Rebellion
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The Rum Rebellion of 1808 was the only successful armed takeover of government in Australian history. During the 19th century, it was referred to as the Great Rebellion. William Bligh, well known for his overthrow in the mutiny on the Bounty, was a naval officer and he succeeded Governor Philip Gidley King in 1805, having been offered the position by Sir Joseph Banks. It is likely that he was selected by the British Government as governor because of his reputation as a hard man and he stood a good chance of reining in the maverick New South Wales Corps, something that his predecessors had not been able to do. Bligh left for Sydney with his daughter, Mary Putland, even before his arrival, Blighs style of governance led to problems with his subordinates. The Admiralty gave command of the storeship Porpoise and the convoy to the lower ranked Captain Joseph Short and this led to quarrels which eventually resulted in Captain Short firing across Blighs bow in order to force Bligh to obey his signals. When this failed, Short tried to give an order to Lieutenant Putland, Blighs son-in-law, Bligh boarded the Porpoise and seized control of the convoy. The president of the court, Sir Isaac Coffin, wrote to the Admiralty and made several accusations against Bligh. Blighs wife obtained a statement from one of the officers denying this and Banks, supplies were divided up according to those most in need and provisions were made for loans to be drawn from the store based on capacity to repay. This earned Bligh the gratitude of the farmers but the enmity of traders in the Corps who had been profiting greatly from the situation. Bligh, under instructions from the Colonial Office, attempted to normalise trading conditions in the colony by prohibiting the use of spirits as payment for commodities, Bligh communicated his policy to the Colonial Office in 1807, with the advice that his policy would be met with resistance. Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, Secretary of State for War, the instructions were to stop the barter of spirits and H. V. Evatt concludes in his history of the Rebellion that, Evatt argues that the enmity of the monopolists within the colony stemmed from this and other policies which counteracted the power of the rich and promoted the welfare of the poor settlers. Bligh also dismissed Thomas Jamison from the magistracy, describing him in 1807 as being inimical to good government, Jamison was the highly capable Surgeon-General of New South Wales. He had accumulated significant personal wealth as a trader and was a friend. Jamison never forgave Bligh for sacking him as a magistrate and interfering with his business activities. It is clear that Bligh had made enemies of some of the most influential people in the colony and he also antagonised some of the less wealthy when he ordered those who had leases on government land within Sydney to remove their houses. Macarthur had arrived with the New South Wales Corps in 1790 as a lieutenant and he had quarrelled with Blighs predecessor governors and had fought three duels
25.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
26.
St Andrew's Church, Plymouth
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The Minster Church of St Andrew, also known as St Andrews Church, Plymouth is an Anglican church in Plymouth. It is the parish church of Sutton, one of the three towns which were later combined to form the city of Plymouth. The church is the largest parish church in the county of Devon and was built in the mid to late 15th century. It was designated as a Minster Church in 2009 and it continues to operate as the focus for civic events for the city. It is likely to be on the site of the original Saxon church and was attached to the abbey of Plympton. The church existed at least as early as the beginning of the 12th century, possibly established in the 8th century, a Purbeck marble effigy tomb now located in the north transept is the only remaining feature of the earlier church. The principle building of Plymouth blue-sky limestone and Dartmoor granite corner buttressing in the Perpendicular style, with a plaque on the tower dating to 1460. It is known to have restored three times, in 1824 by John Foulston, in 1875 by Sir George Gilbert Scott. The Resurgam Door is a commemoration of this, the length is 185 feet and the width 96 feet. There are two aisles on each side of the nave and one side of the chancel. The arcades are of the type which is standard in Cornwall at the period, the tower is 136 feet high and was funded by Thomas Yogge, a prosperous merchant, c. 1460. Who lived in the wrongly-named Prysten House immediately located to the south of the Church, the organ, the largest west of Bristol, was built by Rushworth and Dreaper to a design by George Harry Moreton, William Lloyd Webber and O. H. Peasgood. Dr Harry Moreton was the organist of St Andrews from 1885 to 1958, in March 1941, St Andrews Parish Church was bombed and badly damaged. Amid the smoking ruins a headmistress nailed over the door a wooden sign saying simply Resurgam, indicating the wartime spirit and that entrance to St Andrews is still referred to as the Resurgam door and a carved granite plaque is now permanently fixed there. The Church was re-roofed and restored by Etchells and re-consecrated on 30 November 1957, the restoration includes a new chancel as the old one had been made into a ruin. There is a collection of 17th century plate and one chalice. Nick McKinnel, rector from 1994 to 2012 later bishop of Plymouth Clifford Martin, vicar from 1939 to 1944, fermer, Michael T. and Parkinson, John F. A Short History and Pictorial Guide to the Church of St Andrew, Plymouth, The Church of St Andrew, Plymouth, Minster Church of St Andrew, a brief history St Andrews Church, Plymouth
27.
Bodmin
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Bodmin is a civil parish and major town in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It is situated south-west of Bodmin Moor, the extent of the civil parish corresponds fairly closely to that of the town so is mostly urban in character. It is bordered to the east by Cardinham parish, to the southeast by Lanhydrock parish, to the southwest and west by Lanivet parish, Bodmin had a population of 12,778. This population had increased to 14,736 at the 2011 Census and it was formerly the county town of Cornwall until the Crown Courts moved to Truro which is also the administrative centre. Bodmin was in the administrative North Cornwall District until local government reorganisation in 2009 abolished the District, the town is part of the North Cornwall parliamentary constituency, which is represented by Scott Mann MP. Bodmin Town Council is made up of sixteen councillors who are elected to serve a term of four years, each year, the Council elects one of its number as Mayor to serve as the towns civic leader and to chair council meetings. Bodmin lies in the east of Cornwall, south-west of Bodmin Moor and it has been suggested that the towns name comes from an archaic word in the Cornish language bod and a contraction of menegh. The monks dwelling may refer to a monastic settlement instituted by St. Guron. Guron is said to have departed to St Goran on the arrival of Petroc, the hamlets of Cooksland, Dunmere and Turfdown are in the parish. St. Petroc founded a monastery in Bodmin in the 6th century, the monastery was deprived of some of its lands at the Norman conquest but at the time of Domesday still held eighteen manors, including Bodmin, Padstow and Rialton. Bodmin is one of the oldest towns in Cornwall, and the only large Cornish settlement recorded in the Domesday Book in 1086, in the 15th century the Norman church of St Petroc was largely rebuilt and stands as one of the largest churches in Cornwall. Also built at that time was an abbey of canons regular, for most of Bodmins history, the tin industry was a mainstay of the economy. The name of the town derives from the Cornish Bod-meneghy. Variant spellings recorded include Botmenei in 1100, Bodmen in 1253, Bodman in 1377, an inscription on a stone built into the wall of a summer house in Lancarffe furnishes proof of a settlement in Bodmin in the early Middle Ages. It is a memorial to one Dunoatus son of Mecagnus and has dated from the 6th to 8th centuries. Arthur Langdon records three Cornish crosses at Bodmin, one was near the Berry Tower, one was outside Bodmin Gaol, there is also Carminow Cross at a road junction southeast of the town. The Black Death killed half of Bodmins population in the mid 14th century, Bodmin was the centre of three Cornish uprisings. Then, in the autumn of 1497, Perkin Warbeck tried to usurp the throne from Henry VII, Warbeck was proclaimed King Richard IV in Bodmin but Henry had little difficulty crushing the uprising
28.
Able seaman (rank)
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In the British Royal Navy in the middle of the 18th century, the term able seaman referred to a seaman with more than two years experience at sea and considered well acquainted with his duty. Seamen with no or less one year experience at sea are referred to as landmen or ordinary seamen respectively. In 1653 the Royal Navy introduced a new pay scale as part of reforms following defeat in the Battle of Dungeness the previous year, included in these reforms were, for the first time, separate pay scales for more experienced seamen. It distinguished between an ordinary seaman and an able seaman, the higher ranked able seaman could steer, use the lead and work aloft, traditionally to hand, reef, and steer. An able seaman received about 25% higher pay than an ordinary seaman, in peacetime, with fewer active warships, there was usually a surplus of unemployed able seamen willing to work in the navy. Some notable able seamen from the Royal Navy include, Simon, ships cat on HMS Amethyst, also said to have been promoted to able seacat Just Nuisance, a Great Dane in the Royal Navy, famous for his dislike of officers and liking of ordinary sailors. Alistair MacLean, author Sir Fairfax Moresby, English admiral of the fleet, William Charles Williams, recipient of the Victoria Cross William G. V. Williams, first recorded Australian casualty in World War 1. He was actually part of the Royal Australian Navy and was an able seaman and he died on 11 September 1914 in Rabaul, Papua New Guinea as part of the Australian expeditionary force that captured the former German colony called German New Guinea. He is buried in the Rabaul War Cemetery in Kopoko that is near Rabaul on the island of New Britain, in all trades, the rank is awarded on completion of 30 months of service, by which time all initial training is completed. Consequently, it is said that promotion to the rank of able seaman means the recipient has lost their best excuse. Able seaman is the equivalent rank to private, or simply private, in the Army, in French the rank is called matelot de 2e classe. In the Royal Australian Navy, able seaman is the second-lowest of the non-commissioned member ranks, ranking above seaman, Able seaman is the equivalent rank to Leading aircraftman, in the Royal Australian Air Force and Private Proficient Private Proficient in the Australian Army. It is not equivalent to Lance Corporal which is rated as E4, not E3 like the ranks of Able Seaman, the Wooden World, An Anatomy of the Georgian Navy. The Command of the Ocean, A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815 W. W
29.
Midshipman
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A midshipman is an officer cadet or a commissioned officer candidate of the junior-most rank, in the Royal Navy, United States Navy, and many Commonwealth navies. Commonwealth countries which use the rank include Canada, Australia, Bangladesh, Namibia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Kenya. Beginning in the 18th century, an officer candidate was rated as a midshipman. After serving at least three years as a midshipman or masters mate, he was eligible to take the examination for lieutenant, promotion to lieutenant was not automatic, and many midshipmen took positions as masters mates for an increase in pay and responsibility aboard ship. Midshipman began to mean an officer cadet at a naval college, trainees now spent around four years in a college and two years at sea prior to promotion to commissioned officer rank. Between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries, time at sea declined to less than a year as the age was increased from 12 to 18. Ranks equivalent to midshipman exist in other navies. Using US midshipman or pre-fleet board UK midshipman as the basis for comparison, using post-fleet board UK midshipman for comparison, the rank would be the most junior commissioned officer in the rank structure, and similar to a US ensign in role and responsibility. Today, these ranks all refer to cadets, but historically they were selected by the monarchy. The first published use of the term midshipman was in 1662, the word derives from an area aboard a ship, amidships, but it refers either to the location where midshipmen worked on the ship, or the location where midshipmen were berthed. By the 18th century, four types of midshipman existed, midshipman, midshipman extraordinary, midshipman, by 1794, all midshipmen were considered officer candidates, and the original rating was phased out. Beginning in 1661, boys who aspired to become officers were sent by their families to serve on ships with a letter of service from the crown, and were paid at the same rate as midshipmen. Their official rating was volunteer-per-order, but they were known as Kings letter boys. Beginning in 1677, Royal Navy regulations for promotion to lieutenant required service as a midshipman, by the Napoleonic era, the regulations required at least three years of services as a midshipman or masters mate and six years of total sea time. Sea time was earned in various ways, most boys served this period at sea in any lower rating, either as a servant of one of the ships officers, a volunteer, or a seaman. By the 1730s, the rating volunteer-per-order was phased out and replaced with a system where prospective midshipmen served as servants for officers. For example, a captain was allowed four servants for every 100 men aboard his ship, the school was unpopular in the Navy, because officers enjoyed the privilege of having servants and preferred the traditional method of training officers via apprenticeship. Volunteers were paid £6 per year, by 1816, the rating of midshipman ordinary was phased out, and all apprentice officers were rated as midshipmen
30.
James Cook
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Captain James Cook FRS RN was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755 and he saw action in the Seven Years War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society, in three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail, as he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, Cook was attacked and killed while attempting to kidnap the native chief of Hawaii during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 in the village of Marton in Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November in the church of St Cuthbert. He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, in 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his fathers employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years schooling, he work for his father. For leisure, he would climb a hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude. Cooks Cottage, his parents last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, having moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick. In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles to the village of Staithes. Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window. After 18 months, not proving suitable for work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to friends of Sandersons, John. The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade and their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their fleet of vessels. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and his three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea
31.
Master (naval)
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The master, or sailing master, was a historical rank for a naval officer trained in and responsible for the navigation of a sailing vessel. The rank can be equated to a seaman and specialist in navigation. In the British Royal Navy, the master was originally a warrant officer who ranked with, but after, when the United States Navy was formed in 1794, master was listed as one of the warrant officer ranks and ranked between midshipmen and lieutenants. The rank was also an officer rank from 1837 until it was replaced with the current rank of lieutenant. From the time of the reforms of Henry VIII, the master was a warrant officer, appointed by the Council of the Marine who also built, the master was tasked with sailing the ship as directed by the captain, who fought the ship when an enemy was engaged. The captain had a commission from the Admiralty, who were in charge of the Navys strategy, the master’s main duty was navigation, taking the ship’s position at least daily and setting the sails as appropriate for the required course and conditions. During combat, he was stationed on the quarterdeck, next to the captain, the master was responsible for fitting out the ship, and making sure they had all the sailing supplies necessary for the voyage. The master also was in charge of stowing the hold and ensuring the ship was not too weighted down to sail effectively. The master, through his subordinates, hoisted and lowered the anchor, docked and undocked the ship, issues were brought to the attention of the master, who would notify the captain. The master was in charge of the entry of parts of the official log such as weather, position, Masters were promoted from the rank of the masters mates, quartermasters, or midshipmen. Masters were also recruited from the merchant service, a prospective master had to pass an oral examination before a senior captain and three masters at Trinity House. After passing the examination, they would be eligible to receive a warrant from the Navy Board, second master was a rating introduced in 1753 that indicated a deputy master on a first-, second- or third-rate ship-of-the-line. A second master was generally a masters mate who had passed his examination for master and was deemed worthy of being master of a vessel, Masters mates would act as second master of vessels too small to be allocated a warranted master. Second masters were paid more than masters mates, £5 5s per month. Second masters were given the first opportunity for master vacancies as they occurred, in 1787 the warrant officers of wardroom rank received an official uniform, but it did not distinguish them by rank. In 1807, masters, along with pursers, received their own uniform, in 1808, Masters were given similar status to commissioned officers, as warrant officers of wardroom rank. In 1843 the wardroom warrant officers were given commissioned status, the Admiralty, under the First Sea Lord the Duke of Somerset, began to phase out the title of master after 1862. There were no more masters warranted after 1883, and the last one retired in 1892, the last staff commander disappeared in around 1904, and the last staff captain left the Active List in 1913
32.
HMS Resolution (1771)
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She impressed him enough that he called her the ship of my choice, and the fittest for service of any I have seen. Resolution began her career as the North Sea collier Marquis of Granby, launched at Whitby in 1770 and she was originally registered as HMS Drake, but fearing this would upset the Spanish, she was soon renamed Resolution, on 25 December 1771. Her armament consisted of 12 6-pounder guns and 12 swivel guns, at his own expense Cook had brass door-hinges installed in the great cabin. However, in sea trials the ship was found to be top-heavy, banks subsequently refused to travel under the resulting adverse conditions and Johann Reinhold Forster and his son, George, replaced him. Resolution departed Sheerness on 21 June 1772, carrying 118 people, including 20 volunteers who had sailed on Cooks first voyage in HMS Endeavour in 1768–1771 and she joined HMS Adventure at Plymouth and the two ships departed English waters on 13 July 1772. Resolutions first port of call was at Funchal in the Madeira Islands, which she reached on 1 August. The ship was reprovisioned with fresh water, beef, fruit and onions, several of the crew had brought monkeys aboard as pets, but Cook had them thrown overboard to prevent their droppings from fouling the ship. Kendalls K1 was remarkably accurate and was to prove to be most efficient in determining longitude on board Resolution, on 17 January 1773, Resolution was the first ship to cross the Antarctic Circle and crossed twice more on the voyage. The third crossing, on 3 February 1774, was the most southerly penetration, Resolution thus proved Alexander Dalrymples Terra Australis Incognita to be a myth. She returned to Britain in 1775 and was paid off. She arrived back in Britain on 4 October 1780, in 1780, Resolution was converted into an armed transport and sailed for the East Indies in March 1781. Sphinx and Annibal of Suffrens squadron captured Resolution on 9 June 1782, after the action at Negapatam on 6 July 1782, Resolution sailed to Manila for wood, biscuit and rigging, and to press any seaman she found there. She then sailed on 22 July 1782 and was never seen again, on 5 June 1783 de Suffren wrote that Resolution had last been seen in the Sunda Strait, and that he suspected she had either foundered or fallen into the hands of the English. An item from the Melbourne Argus,25 February 1879, said that she ended her days as a Portuguese coal-hulk at Rio de Janeiro, alternatively, in 1789 she may have been renamed Général Conway, in November 1790 Amis Réunis, and in 1792 Liberté. She settled to the bottom just a mile from Endeavour, european and American voyages of scientific exploration Beaglehole, J. C. ed. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery II, I, The Voyage of the Resolution and Adventure 1772–1775. Ships of the Royal Navy, The Complete Record of all Fighting Ships of the Royal Navy, dugard, Martin Farther Than Any Man The Rise and Fall of Captain James Cook, Washington Square Press. Paine, Lincoln P Ships of the World, an Historical Encyclopedia, Houghton Mifflin
33.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
34.
Douglas, Isle of Man
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Douglas is the capital and largest town of the Isle of Man, with a population of 27,938. It is located at the mouth of the River Douglas, the River Douglas forms part of the towns harbour and main commercial port. Douglas was a settlement until it grew rapidly as a result of links with the English port of Liverpool in the 18th century. The town is the Islands main hub for business, finance, legal services, shipping, transport, shopping, the annual Isle of Man TT motorcycle races start and finish in Douglas. In the absence of any data, the origins of the town may be revealed by analysis of the original street. Scholars agree that the name of the town derives from Early Celtic Duboglassio meaning black river and these may be references to the site of the later Nunnery, a little upstream from the port. This suggests that the origins of the nucleus were as a non-urban port. Current speculation links the buildings with the Irish Sea Herring fishery. Other forms of trade grew, and following the Revestment Act 1765, Douglas began to reap the benefits of trans-Atlantic trade. Legitimate merchants who rose to prominence over the period included the Murreys, the Moores, the towns later prosperity was facilitated by the low cost of living, and the favourable legal status enjoyed by English debtors and half-pay officers. The initial growth and development of the town owed much to its natural harbour, over the 18th century, the towns population rose from about 800 in 1710 to nearly 2,500 in 1784. Throughout the 19th century, the towns demographics followed the trends as the United Kingdom. The number of visitors grew from the early 19th century, and from around 1870 onwards. But there were increasingly unsanitary conditions, and poor quality housing, the open sewage, middens, and smell from the harbour at low tide all contributed to the towns uncleanliness. Douglas in the first half of the 19th century often suffered from the destitution of its population and the many epidemics, in particular cholera. However, an Act passed later that decade, which did not include opt-out clauses, was accepted, and in 1860, Douglas elected its first town council, which was predominantly middle class in its makeup. The Town Commissioners could tackle the problems with greater efficiency. The Commissioners also designed to alter the anachronistic architecture of Douglas, built during the era of fishing and trading, the proportion of the Manx population living in Douglas was also expanding, with 35% living there by 1891
35.
Onchan
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Onchan /ˈɔːŋkən/ is a village in the parish of Onchan on the Isle of Man. It is at the end of Douglas Bay. Although administratively a village, it has the second largest population on the island, after Douglas, in Manx the name for the village is Kione Droghad meaning bridge end. In the 1890s a 5, 000-year-old stone age axe was found in the Cassa Field by Onchan wetlands, in the Viking reign Onchan became part of Middle sheading. The name of the village is identified with St Connachan who was Bishop of Sodor and Man in 540, an early name for the village is Manx, Kiondroghad which literally translated means bridgehead. The earliest written record of Kiondroghad was in the 1643 Manorial Roll, the name Kiondroghad appeared on the 1841 census but not the subsequent one a decade later. The village of Kiondroghad remained little changed for a couple of centuries apart from the old cottages being replaced by newer ones if they fell into disrepair, gradually the village moved out of Church Road, known locally as The Butt, and spread a little. At the junction with the track that led towards the mountains a few more cottages appeared in the early 19th century, as Onchan approached the 20th century land was sold off for terraces of houses to be built. The area surrounding Church Road today is the heritage area and the location of Molly Carooins Cottage which is maintained by the Friends Of Onchans Heritage. The area features period lamp standards and since 2001 has been home to the newly developed Village Green which links Church Road with the Onchan Wetlands to the north west. There is also a garage, highways department depot, barber shop. The Jubilee Lamp was erected in this road in 1987 following relocation from White City, in the early twentieth century development was taking place in the Port Jack area as part of the Douglas Bay Estate Company’s promotion of land sales on the Howstrake Farm. Coupled with this they built an urban railway which later became a coastal railway to Ramsey. However, it never achieved its goal of connecting with the heart of Douglas to act as a commuter run, there was then a mixture of private houses, terraced houses and guest houses to take the overflow of visitors to Douglas. Further development took place in the 1930s, during the Victorian and Edwardian tourism boom Onchan made a bid to become the islands second resort, encouraging the building of hotels and guest houses. After World War II development gradually continued and in the 1960s the village commissioners built local authority housing. The official residence of the Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Man, there are two Manx Electric Railway line stopping places in Onchan. Onchan Head railway station was the first official stopping place on the line, there is also a stop at Port Jack
36.
French frigate Belle Poule (1765)
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Belle Poule was a French frigate of the Dédaigneuse class, which Léon-Michel Guignace built. She is most famous for her duel with the British frigate HMS Arethusa on 17 June 1778, Belle Poule was built in Bordeaux between March 1765 and early 1767. She served in two campaigns in the West Indies, where due to her sailing performance she was selected for the first French attempt at covering her hull with copper to resist marine growths. From 1772 to 1776, she was sent on hydrographic missions, on 12 December 1776, she left India to return to Brest. At the time, France was not yet engaged in the American War of Independence, indeed, on 27 April 1777, Belle Poule was chased by a British ship of the line, which she easily evaded to reach Brest. In January 1778, Belle Poule was selected to ferry Silas Deane back to America, on 7 January, the British ships of the line Hector and Courageous stopped her and demanded to inspect her. In spite of the superiority of the British forces, her captain, Charles de Bernard de Marigny, answered, The British offered apologies. However, opposing winds prevented the ship from crossing the Atlantic, franklin later sailed to America aboard Sensible. They encountered the British squadron, which chased them, Arethusa caught up with the French and a furious battle ensued. Eventually, Arethusa had to break off the fight, having lost her main mast, the British captured the smaller French ships, but the two frigates escaped the numerous ships of the line pursuing them. Belle Poule lost 30 killed and 72 wounded, among which her captain, Arethusa had eight men killed and 36 wounded. The battle was so famous that ladies of the high society invented the hairstyle Belle Poule, between September and October 1778, Belle Poule teamed up with French ship Vengeur and captured five privateers. In 1779, Belle Poule served as coast guard and convoy escort, on the evening of 14 July 1780 Captain Sir James Wallace of the 64-gun ship of the line Nonsuch was off the Loire where her boats were burning the French frigate Legere. He observed three vessels to the north west, signalling each other and immediately gave chase, at about midnight Nonsuch caught up with one of the three off Île dYeu and commenced a two-hour action. When the French vessel struck she turned out to be Belle Poule and she was armed with thirty-two 12-pounder guns, had a crew of 275 men and was under the command of Chevalier Kergariou-Coatlès. In the engagement Belle Poule lost 25 men killed, including Kergariou, Nonsuch had lost three men killed and ten wounded, two of whom died later. The two French vessels that escaped were the frigate Aimable, of thirty-two 8-pounder guns, and the corvette Rossinolle and she was commissioned in February 1781 into the British Royal Navy, retaining her name. She served for the next 21 months under Captain Philip Patton with William Bligh as the ships Master, on 17 April she, with Berwick, captured the privateer Calonne, under the command of Luke Ryan
37.
Battle of Dogger Bank (1781)
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The Battle of the Dogger Bank was a naval battle that took place on 5 August 1781 during the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, contemporaneously related to the American Revolutionary War, in the North Sea. It was an encounter between a British squadron under Vice Admiral Sir Hyde Parker, 5th Baronet and a Dutch squadron under Vice Admiral Johan Zoutman. In December 1780, Great Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic, the Dutch had for many years been supplying the Americans, and shipping French supplies to the Americans, in support of the American war effort. The Dutch were politically in turmoil, and were unable to mount any sort of effective actions against the British. The result of inaction was the collapse of their economically important trade. It was finally decided that a merchant fleet had to be launched, on 1 August 1781, Admiral Johan Zoutman led a fleet of some 70 merchantmen from the Texel, protected by seven ships of the line as well as a number of frigates and smaller armed vessels. Admiral Hyde Parker was accompanying a convoy of ships from the Baltic when he spotted the sails of the Dutch fleet at 4am on the morning of 5 August. He immediately despatched his convoy toward the English coast, and ordered his line to give rather than prepare for battle. Zoutman, whose ships had been interspersed with the merchantmen, signalled his line to form in between Parker and the convoy, some ships were in such poor condition that the number of guns available to fire was reduced from its normal complement. The ships had had no time to practice the normal fleet manoeuvers, in spite of this, Berwick and Parkers flagship Fortitude, both 74 guns, were both relatively new and in good shape. The Dutch fleet had not seen any significant action due to the British blockade, with a calm sea and a breeze from the northeast, Zoutman maneuvered his line onto a port tack, heading east-southeast, and awaited Parker, who held the weather gage. The British fleet closed, raggedly at first due to the condition of some of the ships into line of battle abreast in accordance with the signal raised at 6.10 am. Two ships were told to change places, which led to a mistake and placed the Dolphin against one of the largest Dutch ships and the Bienfaisant without an opponent. Zoutman then also raised his flag, and when both commanders raised red flags at the time, to signal the commencement of firing, opened fire. Close action ensued, lasting for three hours and forty minutes, around mid-morning the Dutch merchantmen moved away from the action and headed back to the Texel. At 11.35 am Parker gave the signal to reform his line as the ships had become unmanageable, casualties on both sides were high, considering the number of ships involved. The British claimed 104 killed and 339 wounded, while the Dutch claimed 142 killed and 403 wounded, there were private reports made that the Dutch casualties were actually much higher, possibly reaching 1,100. The Hollandia sank the same night and her flag, which was kept flying, was taken away by the Belle Poule, and carried to Admiral Parker
38.
Sir Hyde Parker, 5th Baronet
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Vice-Admiral Sir Hyde Parker, 5th Baronet was a British naval commander. His father, a clergyman, was a son of Sir Henry Parker and his paternal grandfather had married a daughter of Alexander Hyde, Bishop of Salisbury. He began his career at sea in the merchant service, entering the Royal Navy at the age of 24, he was made lieutenant in 1744, and in 1748 he was made post-captain. During the latter part of the Seven Years War he served in the East Indies, taking part in the capture of Pondicherry in 1761, in the latter year Parker with two ships captured one of the valuable Spanish plate ships in her voyage between Acapulco and Manila. In 1778 he became Rear-Admiral and went to North American waters as second-in-command, for some time before George Rodneys arrival he was in command on the Leeward Islands station, and conducted a skilful campaign against the French at Martinique. In 1781, having returned home and become Vice-Admiral, he fell in with a Dutch fleet of about his own force, though far better equipped, after a fiercely contested battle, in which neither combatant gained any advantage, both sides drew off. Parker considered that he had not been equipped for his task. In 1782 he accepted the East Indies command, though he had just succeeded to the family baronetcy, on the outward voyage his flagship Cato was lost with all on board. He was succeeded by his older son Harry, the sixth Baronet, parkers second son was Admiral Sir Hyde Parker. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Parker
39.
Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe
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Admiral of the Fleet Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe, KG was a British naval officer. He also took part, as a captain, in the decisive British naval victory at the Battle of Quiberon Bay in November 1759. Howe later commanded the victorious British fleet during the Glorious First of June in June 1794 during the French Revolutionary Wars, after education at Eton College, Richard Howe entered the navy in the fourth-rate HMS Pearl in July 1739. He then transferred to the fourth-rate HMS Severn, one of the squadron sent into the seas with Admiral George Anson in 1740. The Severn sailed to Cape Horn and then, after encountering storms, promoted to lieutenant on 25 May 1744, he joined the bomb vessel HMS Comet and then transferred to the first-rate HMS Royal George, flagship of Admiral Edward Vernon, in August 1745. Promoted to post-captain on 10 April 1746, he was given command of the sixth-rate HMS Triton and took part in convoy duties off Lisbon. He was given command of the fifth-rate HMS Glory off the coast of West Africa in March 1751 and he was elected Member of Parliament for Dartmouth in May 1757 and became commanding officer of the third-rate HMS Magnanime in the Channel in July 1757. After the death of his brother, killed near Ticonderoga on 6 July 1758. On 20 November 1759, he led Admiral Edward Hawkes fleet at the Battle of Quiberon Bay where the British won a decisive victory and he became Flag Captain to Rear-Admiral the Duke of York in the third-rate HMS Princess Amelia in June 1762. Howe was appointed a Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty on the Admiralty Board led by John Montagu and he became Treasurer of the Navy in 1765 and, having been promoted to rear admiral on 18 October 1770, went on to be Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean Fleet in November 1770. Promoted to vice admiral on 5 February 1776, he became Commander-in-Chief, at the beginning of the American War of Independence, Howe was known to be sympathetic to the colonists. He had known Benjamin Franklin since late 1774 and was joined in a commission with his brother, General Sir William Howe, head of the land forces, Howe was ordered to institute a naval blockade of the American coastline, but this proved to be ineffective. Howe claimed to have too few ships to successfully accomplish this, as a result, large amounts of covert French supplies and munitions were smuggled to America. It has been suggested that Howes limited blockade at this point was driven by his sympathy with, by 1778 the blockade was looking more promising, with many merchant ships being taken. Howe complained to London that while his ships were able to guard the southern colonies. The strategy of the British in North America was to deploy a combination of operations aimed at capturing major cities and a blockade of the coast. The British took Long Island in August 1776 and captured New York City in September 1776 in combined operations involving the army and the navy during the New York and New Jersey campaign. In 1777 Howe provided support to his brothers operation to capture Philadelphia, ferrying General Howes army to a point from which they successfully marched
40.
Great Siege of Gibraltar
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The Great Siege of Gibraltar was an unsuccessful attempt by Spain and France to capture Gibraltar from the British during the American War of Independence. This was the largest action fought during the war in terms of numbers, at three years and seven months, it is the longest siege endured by the British Armed Forces. In 1738 a dispute between Spain and Great Britain arose over commerce between Europe and the Americas, a short time later, the War of Jenkins Ear began, and both countries declared war on 23 October 1739, each side drawing up plans to establish trenches near Gibraltar. Seeing these first movements, Britain ordered Admiral Vernon to sail from Portobello, the passage of years failed to break the hostilities in the region. Then on 9 July 1746, King Philip V of Spain died in Madrid and his successor, Ferdinand VI, soon began negotiations with Britain on trade. The British Parliament was amenable to such negotiations, and even looked favourably upon lifting the British embargo on Spain, the neutrality adopted by Ferdinand VI quickly ended with his death in 1759. The new king, Charles III, was willing to negotiate with Great Britain. Instead, he signed a Family Compact with Louis XV of France on 15 August 1761, at that time France was at war with Britain, so Britain responded by declaring war on Spain and capturing the Spanish colonial capitals of Manila and Havana. Two years later, after cessation of hostilities, Spain recovered Manila, in the years of peace that followed both France and Spain hoped for an opportunity to launch a war against Britain on more favourable terms and recover their lost colonial possessions. Following the outbreak of the American War of Independence, both states supplied funding and arms to the American rebels, and drew up a strategy to intervene on the American side and defeat Britain. On 12 April 1779, France and Spain signed the Treaty of Aranjuez wherein they agreed to aid one another in recovering lost territory from Britain, then, in June 1779, Spain declared war on Great Britain, France having done so the year before. The Spanish blockade was directed by Martín Álvarez de Sotomayor, Spanish ground forces were composed of two battalions of Royal Guards, another two of Walloon Guards, with artillery and cavalry, about 13,000 in all. The artillery was commanded by Rudesindo Tilly, while the cavalry, antonio Barceló commanded the maritime forces responsible for blockading the bay, and established his base in Algeciras, commanding a fleet of several xebecs and gunboats. A fleet of 11 ships and two frigates were placed in the Gulf of Cadiz under the command of Luis de Córdova y Córdova to block the passage of British reinforcements. All the defences were strengthened, and many of the infantry, including picked men, the garrison included contingents of Hanoverian and Corsican troops. The British had anticipated an attack for some time, and a number of ships had sailed to reinforce and supply Gibraltar. The combined Spanish and French fleets blockaded Gibraltar from the sea, while on the side a enormous army constructed forts, redoubts, entrenchments. General Eliott formed a corps of sharpshooters, as the winter of 1779 came down the garrison began to suffer from want of fresh provisions, which became very scarce and dear
41.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
42.
Vice admiral
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Vice admiral is a senior naval flag officer rank, equivalent to lieutenant general and air marshal. A vice admiral is typically senior to an admiral and junior to an admiral. The rank insignia for a vice admiral often involves three stars, but this is not always the case, in the navy of Iraq, vice admiral insignia involves one star. Vice admiral is the equivalent of air marshal in the Royal Australian Air Force, in the Royal Canadian Navy, the rank of vice-admiral is equivalent to lieutenant-general of the Canadian Army and Royal Canadian Air Force. A vice-admiral is an officer, the naval equivalent of a general officer. A vice-admiral is senior to a rear-admiral and major general, two rows of gold oak leaves are located on the black visor of the white service cap. Vice-admirals are addressed by rank and name, thereafter by subordinates as Sir or Maam, vice-admirals are normally entitled to a staff car, the car will normally bear a flag, dark blue with three gold maple leaves arranged one over two. A vice-admiral generally holds only the most senior command or administrative appointments, barring only Chief of Defence Staff, charles, Prince of Wales holds the honorary rank of vice admiral in the Royal Canadian Navy. The vice-amiral rank used to be an OF-8 rank in NATO charts, the rank of vice-amiral descadre equals a NATO OF-8 rank. In the ancien régime Navy, between 1669 and 1791, the office of Vice-Admiral of France was the highest rank, the supreme office of Admiral of France being purely ceremonial. Distinct offices were, 1669-1791 Vice-admiral of the West, 1778-1791 Vice-admiral of the Asian and American Seas. 1784-1788 Vice-admiral of the Indian Seas, vizeadmiral is an OF-8 three-star rank equivalent to the German Heer and Luftwaffe rank of Generalleutnant. In India, vice admiral is a three star admiral, in Italy, the equivalent to vice admiral is the ammiraglio di squadra or squadron admiral. In the Philippines, the vice admiral is the highest-ranking official of the Philippine Navy. He is recognized as the flag officer in-charge of the Navy, the rank vice-admiral in the Philippines, has the same ranking in the U. S Navy. In Vietnam, the equivalent to vice admiral is the phó đô đốc
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Fletcher Christian
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Fletcher Christian was masters mate on board HMS Bounty during Lieutenant William Blighs voyage to Tahiti for breadfruit plants. In the mutiny on the Bounty, Christian seized command of the ship from Bligh on 28 April 1789, Christian was born on 25 September 1764, at his family home of Moorland Close, Eaglesfield, near Cockermouth in Cumberland. Fletchers fathers side had originated from the Isle of Man and most of his paternal great-grandfathers were historic Deemsters, charless marriage to Ann brought with it the small property of Moorland Close, a quadrangle pile of buildings. The property can be seen to the north of the Cockermouth to Egremont A5086 road, Charles died in 1768 when Fletcher was not yet four. Ann proved herself grossly irresponsible with money, by 1779, when Fletcher was fifteen, Ann had run up a debt of nearly £6,500, and faced the prospect of debtors prison. Moorland Close was lost and Ann and her three children were forced to flee to the Isle of Man, to their relatives estate. The three elder Christian sons managed to arrange a £40 per year annuity for their mother, allowing the family to live in genteel poverty, Christian spent seven years at the Cockermouth Free School from the age of nine. One of his contemporaries there was Cockermouth native William Wordsworth. It is commonly misconceived that the two were friends, Christian was six years the senior of the future Poet Laureate. His mother Ann died on the Isle of Man in 1819, see here for a comparison of assignments to William Bligh Fletcher Christian began his naval career at a late age, joining the Royal Navy as a cabin boy when he was already seventeen years old. He served for over a year on a third-rate frigate along with his commander, William Bligh. Christian next became a Midshipman on the sixth-rate post ship HMS Eurydice and was made masters mate six months after the ship put to sea, the muster rolls of HMS Eurydice indicate Christian was signed on for a 21-month voyage to India. The ships muster shows Christians conduct was more than satisfactory because some seven months out from England, after the Eurydice had returned from India, Christian was reverted to Midshipman and paid off from the Royal Navy. Unable to find another Midshipman assignment, Christian decided to join the British merchant fleet, Bligh had himself been discharged from the Royal Navy and was now a merchant captain. Bligh accepted Christian on the books as an Able Seaman. On a second voyage to Jamaica with Bligh, Christian was rated as the ships Second Mate, Christian was retained as Masters Mate. The following year, halfway through the Bountys voyage, Bligh appointed Christian as Acting lieutenant, on 28 April 1789, Fletcher Christian led a mutiny on-board the Bounty and from this point forward was considered an outlaw. He was formally stripped of his rank in March 1790 and discharged after Bligh returned to England
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HMS Monmouth (1667)
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HMS Monmouth was a 66-gun third-rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy, and was likely named for James, Duke of Monmouth. She served from 1667 to 1767, winning ten battle honours over a century of active service and she was rebuilt a total of three times during her career—each time effectively becoming a completely new ship. She fought at the Battle of Barfleur in 1692, Monmouth underwent her first rebuild at Woolwich Dockyard in 1700, remaining a 66-gun ship. She fought at the Battle of Vigo Bay in 1702 under Admiral John Baker who was captain at the Capture of Gibraltar. In 1707, she had belonged to Admiral Sir Cloudesley Shovells fleet, Monmouth suffered little to no damage and finally managed to reach Portsmouth. Her second rebuild was carried out at Portsmouth Dockyard, where she was increased to a 70-gun ship built according to the 1706 Establishment, and relaunched on 3 June 1718. On 7 September 1739 Monmouth was ordered to be taken to pieces and she was relaunched on 6 September 1742. In 1747, she fought at Finisterre and Ushant, on 2 March 1747 Monmouth, Captain Henry Harrison, brought into Plymouth a French privateer of 20 carriage guns and eight swivel guns. The privateer was the Comte de Maurepas and capturing her required a chase of three days, at about the same time Monmouth captured the privateer Queen of Hungary. In 1758 Monmouth captured the larger French ship Foudroyant, after Monmouths captain was severely wounded and taken below, the two ships lieutenants fought the vessel. Lt Hammick was the captain of the main gundeck and a poem was composed by the company which ran, Whilst gallant Hammick points his guns with care. The captain of the Foudroyant, after surrendering his ship to the Monmouth, in a small twist of fate, the Foudroyant was later to be commanded by Nelson - who was a cousin of Lt Hammick. Monmouth was also present at Belle Île in 1761, after a hundred years of service, she was finally broken up in 1767, a newspaper of the time gave her epitaph as
45.
Master's mate
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Masters mate is an obsolete rating which was used by the Royal Navy, United States Navy and merchant services in both countries for a senior petty officer who assisted the master. Masters mates evolved into the rank of Sub-Lieutenant in the Royal Navy. Originally, a mate was an experienced petty officer, who assisted the master. Six masters mates were allowed on a first rate, three on a rate, and two on most frigates. Masters mates were allowed to command vessels, walk the quarterdeck, masters mates were responsible for fitting out the ship, and making sure they had all the sailing supplies necessary for the voyage. They hoisted and lowered the anchor, and docked and undocked the ship and they would examine the ship daily, notifying the master if there were problems with the sails, masts, ropes, or pulleys. They executed the orders of the master, and would command in his place if he was sick or absent, normally masters mates worked on a three-watch system, with the lieutenants, so that one served as the deputy to the lieutenant on each watch. Masters mates generally assisted the master in navigating the ship and directly supervised the quartermasters in steering the ship, the masters mate with the highest seniority was appointed the head of the midshipmans berth and was responsible for teaching mathematics, navigation, and sailing lore. Masters mates had to keep detailed logs similar to midshipmen and they were also responsible for the division of the crew that included the petty officers. Second master was a rating introduced in 1753 that indicated a deputy master on 3rd rate ships of the line or larger, masters mates also acted as Second Master of vessels too small to be allocated a warranted Master. They were paid more than masters mates, £5 5s per month. A second master was generally a masters mate who had passed his examination for master and was deemed worthy of being master of a vessel, Second masters were given the first opportunity for master vacancies as they occurred. Passed midshipmen awaiting promotion often elected to become masters mates, though formally the rating did not lead to promotion to lieutenant, masters mates were paid more than any other rating and were the only ratings allowed to command any sort of vessel. A midshipman who became masters mate earned an increase in pay from £1 13s 6p to £3 16s per month, by the first years of the nineteenth century, the prefix masters was dropped for passed midshipman, to distinguish them from masters mates in the navigators branch. In 1824 two further grades were introduced, consisting of masters assistants and second-class volunteers. These corresponded to midshipmen and first-class volunteers respectively in the executive line, from this point, passed midshipmen had the rating masters mate, abbreviated as mate, and prospective masters had the rating masters assistant. These changes helped eliminate the confusion caused by the mingling of midshipmen in the navigators branch, in 1838 a Royal Commission, presided over by the Duke of Wellington, recommended the institution of the rank of mate as an official step between midshipman and lieutenant. By 1840 there were two completely separate ladders for promotion, In 1861 mate was abolished in favor of sub-lieutenant and this made no practical difference to the officers in question since they continued to receive the same pay as before
