1.
Hamilton, South Lanarkshire
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Hamilton is a town in South Lanarkshire, in the central Lowlands of Scotland. It serves as the administrative centre of the South Lanarkshire council area. It is the fourth-biggest town in Scotland and it sits 12 miles south-east of Glasgow,35 miles south-west of Edinburgh and 74 miles north of Carlisle, Cumbria. It is situated on the bank of the River Clyde at its confluence with the Avon Water. Hamilton is the county town of Lanarkshire which was preceded anciently by Lanark. The town of Hamilton was originally known as Cadzow or Cadyou, during the Wars of Scottish Independence the Hamilton family initially supported the English and Walter fitz Gilbert was governor of Bothwell Castle on behalf of the English. However, he later changed loyalty to Robert the Bruce, following the Battle of Bannockburn, and ceded Bothwell to him. For this act, he was rewarded with a portion of land which had been forfeited by the Comyns at Dalserf and later the Barony and lands of Cadzow, which in time would become the town of Hamilton. Cadzow was renamed Hamilton in the time of James, Lord Hamilton, who was married to Princess Mary, the Hamilton family themselves most likely took their name from the lands of Humbleton or Homildon in Northumberland, or perhaps from a place near Leicester. The Hamiltons constructed many buildings in the area including the Hamilton Mausoleum in Strathclyde Park. The Hamilton family are major land-owners in the area to this day, Hamilton Palace was the seat of the Dukes of Hamilton until the early-twentieth century. Other historic buildings in the area include Hamilton Old Parish Church, a Georgian era building completed in 1734, the graveyard of the old parish church contains some Covenanter remains. The former Edwardian Town Hall now houses the library and concert hall, the Townhouse complex underwent a sympathetic modernization in 2002 and opened to the public in summer 2004. The ruins of Cadzow Castle also lie in Chatelherault Country Park,2 miles from the town centre, Hamilton Palace was the largest non-royal residence in the Western world, located in the north-east of the town. A former seat of the Dukes of Hamilton, it was built in 1695, subsequently much enlarged and it is widely acknowledged as having been one of the grandest houses in Scotland, was visited and admired by Queen Victoria, and was written about by Daniel Defoe. Hamilton Barracks was formerly the Depot of the Cameronians and the home of the 1st Battalion of the Regiment, the Regimental Museum is part of the Low Parks Museum. The Low Parks Museum is housed in what was a 16th-century inn, recently refurbished, it is the oldest building in Hamilton and is to the north of the Palace Grounds. Renowned explorer and missionary Dr. David Livingstones house still stands at 17 Burnbank Road and has a plaque about him, by road the town is to the west of the M74 motorway, the main southerly link to England, which joins the M6 just north of Carlisle
2.
Lanarkshire
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Lanarkshire, also called the County of Lanark is a historic county in the central Lowlands of Scotland. Historically, Lanarkshire was the most populous county in Scotland and, in times, had considerably greater boundaries. Lanarkshire was historically divided between two administrative areas, other significant settlements include Coatbridge, East Kilbride, Motherwell, Airdrie, Blantyre, Cambuslang, Rutherglen, Wishaw and Carluke. In 1975, the county council was abolished and the area absorbed into the larger Strathclyde region, there is also a joint health board, which does not cover Rutherglen and the surrounding area in South Lanarkshire. Without the northern portion of North Lanarkshire, this is also a Lieutenancy area, from the mid-eighteenth century to the early twentieth century Lanarkshire profited from its rich seams of coal in places such as Glenboig. Unfortunately, as the industry developed around Glasgow in the 1700s the price of coal to the city rose under the control of a cartel of coal owners. The solution was to out a canal to take advantage of the good coal deposits of the Monklands area. By 1793, the Monklands canal was completed and the Lanarkshire coal industry thrived, the resulting boom lasted for over 100 years but reached its peak by the second decade of the twentieth century and even two world wars failed to halt the contraction. Output in the county continued to fall and the National Coal Board concentrated investment in Ayrshire, Fife, by 1970 there were only four collieries left in Lanarkshire and the closure of Cardowan in 1983 brought the long decline to an end. Lanarkshire hosted the International Childrens Games in August 2011, a total of 1,300 competitors and coaches, along with administrators and delegates, representing 77 cities from 33 countries worldwide attended
3.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
4.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
5.
University of Glasgow
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The University of Glasgow is the fourth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands four ancient universities. Along with the University of Edinburgh, the University was part of the Scottish Enlightenment during the 18th century and it is currently a member of Universitas 21, the international network of research universities, and the Russell Group. Glasgow University served all of students by preparing them for professions, the law, medicine, civil service, teaching. It also trained smaller but growing numbers for careers in science, originally located in the citys High Street, since 1870 the main University campus has been located at Gilmorehill in the West End of the city. Additionally, a number of university buildings are located elsewhere, such as the Veterinary School in Bearsden, and it is the second-oldest university in Scotland after St Andrews and the fourth-oldest in the English-speaking world. The universities of St Andrews, Glasgow and Aberdeen were ecclesiastical foundations, as one of the Ancient Universities of the United Kingdom, Glasgow University is one of only eight institutions to award undergraduate masters degrees in certain disciplines. The University has been without its original Bull since the mid-sixteenth century, in 1560, during the political unrest accompanying the Scottish Reformation, the then chancellor, Archbishop James Beaton, a supporter of the Marian cause, fled to France. He took with him, for safe-keeping, many of the archives and valuables of the Cathedral and the University, including the Mace, although the Mace was sent back in 1590, the archives were not. If they had not been lost by time, they certainly went astray during the French Revolution when the Scots College was under threat. Its records and valuables were moved for safe-keeping out of the city of Paris, the Bull remains the authority by which the University awards degrees. Teaching at the University began in the chapterhouse of Glasgow Cathedral, subsequently moving to nearby Rottenrow, the University was given 13 acres of land belonging to the Black Friars on High Street by Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1563. The Lion and Unicorn Staircase was also transferred from the old site and is now attached to the Main Building. To continue this work in his will he founded Andersons College, in 1973, Delphine Parrott became its first woman professor, as Gardiner Professor of Immunology. In October 2014, the university court voted for the University to become the first academic institution in Europe to divest from the fuel industry. The University is currently spread over a number of different campuses, the main one is the Gilmorehill campus, in Hillhead. The University has also established joint departments with the Glasgow School of Art, the Universitys initial accommodation including Glasgow University Library was part of the complex of religious buildings in the precincts of Glasgow Cathedral. In the mid-seventeenth century, the Hamilton Building was replaced with a very grand two-court building with a decorated west front facing the High Street, called the Nova Erectio, over the following centuries, the Universitys size and scope continued to expand. In 1757 it built the Macfarlane Observatory and later Scotlands first public museum and it was a centre of the Scottish Enlightenment and subsequently of the Industrial Revolution, and its expansion in the High Street was constrained
6.
University of Edinburgh
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The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582, is the sixth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands ancient universities. The university is deeply embedded in the fabric of the city of Edinburgh, the University of Edinburgh was ranked 17th and 21st in the world by the 2014–15 and 2015-16 QS rankings. It is now ranked 19th in the according to 2016-17 QS Rankings. It is ranked 16th in the world in arts and humanities by the 2015–16 Times Higher Education Ranking and it is ranked the 23rd most employable university in the world by the 2015 Global Employability University Ranking. It is ranked as the 6th best university in Europe by the U. S. News Best Global Universities Ranking and it is a member of both the Russell Group, and the League of European Research Universities, a consortium of 21 research universities in Europe. It has the third largest endowment of any university in the United Kingdom, after the universities of Cambridge and it continues to have links to the British Royal Family, having had the Duke of Edinburgh as its Chancellor from 1953 to 2010 and Princess Anne since 2011. Edinburgh receives approximately 50,000 applications every year, making it the fourth most popular university in the UK by volume of applicants, after St Andrews, it is the most difficult university to gain admission into in Scotland, and 9th overall in the UK. This was a move at the time, as most universities were established through Papal bulls. Established as the Tounis College, it opened its doors to students in October 1583, instruction began under the charge of another St Andrews graduate Robert Rollock. It was the fourth Scottish university in a period when the more populous. It was renamed King Jamess College in 1617, by the 18th century, the university was a leading centre of the Scottish Enlightenment. The universitys first custom-built building was the Old College, now Edinburgh Law School and its first forte in teaching was anatomy and the developing science of surgery, from which it expanded into many other subjects. From the basement of a nearby house ran the anatomy tunnel corridor and it went under what was then North College Street, and under the university buildings until it reached the universitys anatomy lecture theatre, delivering bodies for dissection. It was from this tunnel the body of William Burke was taken after he had been hanged, towards the end of the 19th century, Old College was becoming overcrowded and Robert Rowand Anderson was commissioned to design new Medical School premises in 1875. The medical school was more or less built to his design and was completed by the addition of the McEwan Hall in the 1880s. The building now known as New College was originally built as a Free Church college in the 1840s and has been the home of divinity at the university since the 1920s. The two oldest schools – law and divinity – are both well-esteemed, with law being based in Old College and divinity in New College on the Mound and they are also represented by the Edinburgh University Sports Union which was founded in 1866. The medical school is renowned throughout the world and it was widely considered the best medical school in the English-speaking world throughout the 18th century and first half of the 19th century
7.
Edinburgh Medical School
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Moira Whyte has been head of the school since 2016. It was established in 1726, during the Scottish Enlightenment, and is one of the oldest medical schools in the English-speaking world and it ranked 21st in the world by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2013–14 and 22nd in the world by the QS World University Rankings 2014. According to a Healthcare Survey run by Saga in 2006, the schools main teaching hospital. As of 2013 the school accepts 190 European Union medical students per year, admission is very competitive, with an acceptance rate of 11. 5% for the 2012–13 admissions year. The matriculation rate, the percentage of people who are accepted who choose to attend, is 71% for the 2012–13 admissions year, the school requires the 3rd highest entry grades in the UK according to the Guardian University Guide 2014. The medical school is associated with 3 Nobel Prize winners,2 winners of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine and 1 winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Although the University of Edinburghs Faculty of Medicine was not formally organised until 1726 and its formation was dependent on the incorporation of the Surgeons and Barber Surgeons, in 1505 and the foundation of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1681. Since the Renaissance the primary facet of medical teaching here was anatomy and, therefore, later his son and grandson would hold the position, establishing a reign of Professor Alexander Monros lasting 128 years. In subsequent years four further chairs completed the faculty allowing it to grant the qualification of Doctor of Medicine without the assistance of the Royal College of Physicians. Success in the teaching of medicine and surgery through the century was achieved thanks to the first teaching hospital, town physicians. By 1764 the number of students was so great that a new 200-seat Anatomy Theatre was built in the College Garden. Throughout the 18th century until the First World War the Edinburgh Medical School was widely considered the best medical school in the English speaking world. The first voluntary hospital to be established in Scotland was the Edinburgh Infirmary for the Sick Poor, the project was led by Alexander Monro, supported by influential Edinburgh politician George Drummond who was keen to establish Edinburgh as a centre for medical excellence. The Royal College of Physicians conducted an appeal, attracting £2000 for the hospital by 1728. The Edinburgh Royal Infirmary began operating from a small house—leased from the University of Edinburgh—which was located opposite the head of Robertsons Close, resident staff included a matron, one domestic servant, and volunteer physicians and surgeons who attended in fortnightly rotations. Only four beds were available from 6 August 1729 and medical students visits were limited to two tickets only per student, in addition to medical and surgical wards this new hospital included cells for lunatic patients and surgical operation theatre seats for 200 students. In 2003 a new 900-bed Royal Infirmary opened at Little France, in the south-east of the city, the Edinburgh Botanic Garden was created in 1670 for study of medicinal plants by Dr Robert Sibbald and Dr Andrew Balfour. It gave a base for the development of study of Pharmacology, originally at St Annes Yards adjacent to Holyrood Palace, the garden measured a meagre 40 square feet
8.
Scottish Enlightenment
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The Scottish Enlightenment was the period in 18th and early 19th century Scotland characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments. By the eighteenth century, Scotland had a network of schools in the Lowlands. Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, political economy, engineering, architecture, medicine, geology, archaeology, law, agriculture, chemistry, the Scottish Enlightenment of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was a natural development of this earlier engagement and advancement of knowledge. Union with England in 1707 meant the end of the Scottish Parliament, the parliamentarians, politicians, aristocrats, and placemen moved to London. Scottish law, however, was separate from English law, so the civil law courts, lawyers. The headquarters and leadership of the Church of Scotland also remained, as did the universities, at the union of 1707, England had about five times the population of Scotland and about 36 times as much wealth. Scotland experienced the beginnings of economic expansion that allowed it to close this gap, contacts with England led to a conscious attempt to improve agriculture among the gentry and nobility. Although some estate holders improved the quality of life of their workers, enclosures led to unemployment. The major change in trade was the rapid expansion of the Americas as a market. Glasgow particularly benefited from this new trade, initially supplying the colonies with manufactured goods, it emerged as the focus of the tobacco trade, the merchants dealing in this lucrative business became the wealthy tobacco lords, who dominated the city for most of the eighteenth century. Banking also developed in this period, the Bank of Scotland, founded in 1695 was suspected of Jacobite sympathies, and so a rival Royal Bank of Scotland was founded in 1727. Local banks began to be established in burghs like Glasgow and Ayr and these made capital available for business, and the improvement of roads and trade. By the late 17th century there was a complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands. By the 17th century, Scotland had five universities, compared with Englands two, all saw the establishment or re-establishment of chairs of mathematics. Observatories were built at St. Andrews and at Kings and Marischal colleges in Aberdeen, Robert Sibbald was appointed as the first Professor of Medicine at Edinburgh, and he co-founded the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1681. These developments helped the universities to major centres of medical education. By the 18th century, access to Scottish universities was probably more open than in contemporary England, attendance was less expensive and the student body more socially representative. In the eighteenth century Scotland reaped the benefits of this system
9.
Joseph Black
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Joseph Black FRSE FRCPE FPSG was a Scottish physician and chemist, known for his discoveries of magnesium, latent heat, specific heat, and carbon dioxide. The chemistry buildings at both the University of Edinburgh and the University of Glasgow are named after Black, Black was born in Bordeaux, France, where his father, who was from Belfast, Ireland, was engaged in the wine trade. His mother was from Aberdeenshire, Scotland, and her family was also in the wine business, Joseph had twelve brothers and sisters. During his studies he wrote a thesis on the treatment of kidney stones with the salt magnesium carbonate. Like most eighteenth-century experimentalists, Blacks conceptualisation of chemistry was based on five principles of matter, Water, Salt, Earth, Fire and he added the principle of Air when his experiments definitely confirmed the presence of carbon dioxide. Blacks research programme was guided by questions relating to how the foregoing principles combined with other in various different forms. He used the term affinity to describe the force that held such combinations together, throughout his career he used a variety of diagrams and formulas to teach his Edinburgh students how to manipulate affinity through different kinds of experimentation. In about 1750, while still a student, Black developed the analytical balance based on a beam balanced on a wedge-shaped fulcrum. Each arm carried a pan on which the sample or standard weights was placed and it far exceeded the accuracy of any other balance of the time and became an important scientific instrument in most chemistry laboratories. In 1757, Black was appointed Regius Professor of the Practice of Medicine at the University of Glasgow. Additionally, Black observed that the application of heat to boiling water does not result in a rise in temperature of a water/steam mixture, from these observations, he concluded that the heat applied must have combined with the ice particles and boiling water and become latent. The theory of latent heat marks the beginning of thermodynamics, Blacks theory of latent heat was one of his more-important scientific contributions, and one on which his scientific fame chiefly rests. He also showed that different substances have different specific heats, the theory ultimately proved important not only in the development of abstract science but in the development of the steam engine. The latent heat of water is large compared with other liquids. Black and Watt became friends after meeting around 1757 while both were at Glasgow, Black provided significant financing and other support for Watts early research in steam power. Black also explored the properties of a gas produced in various reactions and he found that limestone could be heated or treated with acids to yield a gas he called fixed air. He observed that the air was denser than air and did not support either flame or animal life. Black also found that when bubbled through a solution of lime
10.
Chemistry
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Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
11.
Benjamin Rush
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Benjamin Rush was a Founding Father of the United States. Rush was a leader in Philadelphia, where he was a physician, politician, social reformer, educator and humanitarian. Rush attended the Continental Congress and signed the Declaration of Independence and his later self-description there was, He aimed right. He served as Surgeon General of the Continental Army, and became a professor of chemistry, medical theory, Rush was a leader of the American Enlightenment, and an enthusiastic supporter of the American Revolution. He was a leader in Pennsylvanias ratification of the Constitution in 1788 and he was prominent in many reforms, especially in the areas of medicine and education. He opposed slavery, advocated free public schools, and sought improved education for women, as a leading physician, Rush had a major impact on the emerging medical profession. As an Enlightenment intellectual, he was committed to organizing all medical knowledge around explanatory theories, Rush argued that illness was the result of imbalances in the bodys physical system and was caused by malfunctions in the brain. His approach prepared the way for medical research, but Rush himself undertook none of it. He promoted public health by advocating clean environment and stressing the importance of personal and his study of mental disorder made him one of the founders of American psychiatry. Benjamin Rush was born to John Rush and Susanna Hall on January 4,1746, the family which included seven children lived on a plantation in the Township of Byberry in Philadelphia County, then about 14 mi outside Philadelphia. Benjamin was the fourth of the seven children, John Rush died in July 1751 at the age of thirty-nine. He went peacefully, saying over and over, Lord, and his wife saw him buried as he wished in the cemetery behind Christ Church. Leaving his mother, who ran a store, to care for the large family. At eight years of age, Benjamin was sent to live with an aunt and uncle, Benjamin and his older brother Jacob attended a school in Cecil County, Maryland, run by the Rev. Samuel Finley, which would later become West Nottingham Academy. In 1760, after studies at the College of New Jersey. From 1761 to 1766, Rush apprenticed under Dr. John Redman in Philadelphia, Redman encouraged him to further his studies at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, where Rush studied from 1766 to 1768 and earned a M. D. degree. Rush became fluent in French, Italian, and Spanish as a result of his studies, while at Edinburgh, he became a friend of the Earl of Leven and his family, including William Leslie. Returning to the Colonies in 1769, Rush opened a practice in Philadelphia
12.
John Walker (natural historian)
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Very Rev Prof John Walker DD MD FRSE was a Scottish minister and natural historian. He was Regius Professor of Natural history at the University of Edinburgh from 1779 to 1803 and he was joint founder of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1783 and Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1790. Many of his students went on to leading scientists in nineteenth century Scotland, England, Ireland. He was a pioneer in introducing agricultural topics into a university curriculum and he was elected as Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1790. Born in Canongate, Edinburgh to a father, he matriculated at the University of Edinburgh in 1746. Like many aspiring men in Scotland at this time, he took a divinity degree in 1749 and he was soon ordained into the Church of Scotland and spent the next thirty years as a parish minister. However, his duties did not stop him from pursuing scientific subjects in his spare time, while at university he had taken natural philosophy courses and had collected natural history specimens in and around the Lothians. During the 1750s he continued to pursue scientific subjects by studying chemistry under Prof. William Cullen and he distinguished himself not only by winning awards from the society but also by publishing an article in the 1757 edition of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. During the 1760s he used his connections to tour mines throughout the Lowlands. By the mid-1760s, Walker was known as one of Scotlands leading lay naturalists and this motivated the Church of Scotland and the Board of Annexed Estates to send him on exploratory tours of the Highland and Hebrides in 1764 and 1771. These tours allowed him to religious and ethnographic observations for the church and to take scientifically oriented notes on northern Scotlands minerals, plants, animals. During the 1770s Walker published articles in the Scots Magazine and the Philosophical Transactions, by the mid part of the decade, it became clear that Robert Ramsey, the University of Edinburghs ailing Professor of Natural History, would soon need to be replaced. After much wrangling, Walker won the contest and was appointed in 1779 and he held the position until his death in 1803. Walkers natural history lectures spanned the year and were divided into two sections. The first half of the year he gave his Hippocratean lectures, the second half of the year was devoted to the three kingdoms of nature, minerals, plants, and animals. During the 1760s, he had accepted Linnaeus binomial classification system, however, he did not agree with Linnaeus classification of minerals and animals and therefore he developed his own unique system for both of these subjects. As shown by Matthew Daniel Eddy, Walker developed a theory of the earth based on evidence gathered from geochemistry. Throughout his entire career he kept his ties with the Kirk and in 1790 he was elected to be Moderator, its highest position
13.
John Morgan (physician)
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He also founded the American Philosophical Society in 1766 in Philadelphia. The first son of Evan Morgan, an immigrant from Wales, after a classical education at Nottingham Academy in Maryland, he graduated from the College of Philadelphia in 1757. He fought for the British during the Seven Years War, commissioned as a lieutenant, after that he studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, where he earned his degree in 1763. He did some touring in Europe, studying medical practice in Paris, during this time, he was elected to the Royal Academy of Surgery at Paris in 1764 and the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh and of London in 1765. That year with Dr. William Shippen, another Edinburgh graduate, Morgan co-founded the College of Philadelphia Medical School, Morgan served as Chief Physician to the Continental Army from October 1775 to January 1777. He was empowered by the U. S. Congress to inspect regimental hospitals and transfer patients if warranted, rancor with the regimental surgeons became so bad that Morgan quit when the Army moved from Boston to New York. He was a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1766. John Morgan founder of American medical education, JAMA,194, pp. 825–6,1965, doi,10. 1001/jama.194.7.825, PMID5321359 Works written by or about John Morgan at Wikisource Biographical sketch at the University of Pennsylvania
14.
George Fordyce
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George Fordyce was a distinguished Scottish physician, lecturer on medicine, and chemist, who was a Fellow of the Royal Society and a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. George Fordyce was born at Aberdeen in 1736, a time after the death of his father, George Fordyce, proprietor of a small landed estate called Broadford. He was taken from home at the age of two following his mothers remarriage and was sent to Foveran, Aberdeenshire, where he received his schooling, following that he attended the University of Aberdeen where he attained the degree of Master of Arts at the age of 14. Fordyce had decided to study medicine and was apprenticed to his uncle, Dr. John Fordyce, in Uppingham and he later returned to Edinburgh, where he took his degree of M. D. in 1758, his inaugural dissertation was on catarrh. From Edinburgh he went to Leyden, where he studied anatomy under the famous anatomist Bernhard Siegfried Albinus, in 1759 he returned to England, having decided to settle in London as a teacher and medical practitioner. Despite his relations disapproval, he persisted, and by the end of 1759 had commenced a course of lectures upon chemistry, in 1764, he also began to lecture upon Materia medica and the practice of physic. He delivered these lectures for nearly 30 years, in 1765 he became a licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians and in 1770 was elected physician to St Thomas Hospital. In 1774 he was chosen as a member of the Literary Club, in 1776 a Fellow of the Royal Society and this latter was chiefly to secure his assistance with a new edition of the Colleges Pharmacopoeia. He was Harveian Orator in 1791, in 1762 he married the daughter of Charles Stuart, Esq. conservator of Scottish privileges in the United Netherlands, by whom he had four children, two sons and two daughters. His daughter Sophia Fordyce married Samuel Bentham and he died in London in 1802 and was buried at St Annes, Soho. This was a collection of a course of lectures assembled by one of his listeners, Fordyce corrected the copy, and afterwards published it under this title. Elements of the practice of Physic and this was used by him as a textbook for a part of his course of lectures on that subject. A Treatise on the Digestion of Food and it was originally read before the College of Physicians, as the Guelstonian Lecture. A fifth, which completed the subject, was left by him in manuscript form, published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Of the Light produced by Inflammation. Examination of various Ores in the Museum of Dr W. Hunter, a New Method of assaying Copper Ores. An Account of some Experiments on the Loss of Weight in Bodies on being melted or heated, an Account of an Experiment on Heat. The Cronian Lecture on Muscular Motion, on the Cause of the additional Weight which Metals acquire on being calcined. Account of a New Pendulum, being the Bakerian Lecture, published in the Medical and Chirurgical Transactions, Observations on the Small-pox, and Causes of Fever
15.
William Withering
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William Withering FRS was an English botanist, geologist, chemist, physician and the discoverer of digitalis. Withering was born in Wellington, Shropshire, trained as a physician and he worked at Birmingham General Hospital from 1779. The active ingredient is now known as digitalis, after the scientific name. In 1785, Withering published An Account of the Foxglove and some of its Medical Uses, born in Wellington, Shropshire, England, he attended Edinburgh Medical School from 1762 to 1766. In 1767 he started as a consultant at Stafford Royal Infirmary and he married Helena Cookes in 1772, they had three children. On the way home from his trip there, the ship he was in was chased by pirates. In 1785 he was elected a Fellow of the prestigious Royal Society, the following year he leased Edgbaston Hall, in Birmingham, England. He was one of the members of the Lunar Society, during the Birmingham riots of 1791 he prepared to flee from Edgbaston Hall, but his staff kept the rioters at bay until the military arrived. After moving to The Larches on 28 September, he died on 6 October 1799, in 1776, he published The botanical arrangement of all the vegetables naturally growing in Great Britain, an early and influential British Flora. It was the first in English based on the then new Linnaean taxonomy — a classification of all living things — devised by the eminent Swedish botanist and physician Carl Linnaeus. However he found plenty of support for his position, and botany was considered a subject unsuitable for women during the next century. Withering wrote two editions of this work in 1787 and 1792, in collaboration with fellow Lunar Society member Jonathan Stokes. It continued being published under various authors until 1877, Withering senior also carried out pioneering work into the identification of fungi and invented a folding pocket microscope for use on botanical field trips. He also introduced to the audience the screw down plant press. In 1787 he was elected a Fellow of the Linnaean Society in recognition of his contribution to botany, subsequently the plant Witheringia solanacea was named in his honour, and he became known on the continent of Europe as The English Linnaeus. The William Withering Chair in Medicine at the University of Birmingham Medical School is named after him, at least one of these cases was a patient for whom Erasmus Darwin had asked Withering for his second opinion. A postscript at the end of the volume of transactions containing Darwins paper states that Whilst the last pages of this volume were in the press. Published a numerous collection of cases in which foxglove has been given and this is a very early example of medical academic plagiarism
16.
John Haygarth
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John Haygarth FRS FRSE was an important 18th-century British physician who discovered new ways to prevent the spread of fever among patients and reduce the mortality rate of smallpox. Haygarth was born to William Haygarth and Magdalen Metcalfe at Garsdale, near Sedbergh, West Riding of Yorkshire and he attended Sedbergh School and was tutored by John Dawson, a fellow Sedberghian and a surgeon and mathematician. He attended St. Johns College, Cambridge from 1759 to 1766, Haygarth matriculated at the University of Edinburgh Medical School in 1762 studying medicine for three years and leaving without a degree in 1765. A decade later he married Sarah Vere Widdons on 23 January 1776, together they had four daughters, haygarths descendents now reside in Perth, Australia. Haygarth spent 30 years at Chester and became known as one of the best physicians of his time, like William Cullen, James Currie and Thomas Percival, he was interested in a wide array of medical and social justice issues. He was particularly interested in the treatment of patients and the prevention of smallpox. Although he was an Anglican, Haygarth was supported by a network of Dissenting men of science, in 1774, as part of a census he administered in Chester, he asked residents about their medical history. He wrote up these findings in a paper, Observations on the Population, only four years after this effort began, Chesters smallpox mortality rate had been reduced by almost 50%. Soon other towns, such as Leeds and Liverpool, adopted the Societys methods and they were assisted by his Inquiry how to Prevent the Small Pox which included statistical calculations supported by John Dawson. The book was translated into French and German and made Haygarth an internationally-known figure and he further elaborated his ideas in Sketch of a plan to exterminate the casual small pox from Great Britain and to introduce general inoculation. Unfortunately, his plan to inspect homes and provide general inoculation was resisted in the increasingly conservative 1790s, for his important work on smallpox, Haygarth was elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1781. Haygarth did not abandon his research into fever patients, however and he performed several experiments and determined that separating fever patients within a hospital reduced mortality rates. When his plan was put into effect in Chester in 1783, the following year, his precautions helped to stop the spread of typhus in the town. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts, in 1798 Haygarth moved to Bath and continued his research. After analyzing his records from Chester, he published a treatise on rheumatic fever and he continued publishing medical papers in the journal of the Royal Society, Philosophical Transactions. Haygarth also promoted free, universal education, a position he supported in his Letter to Bishop Porteous and he also helped found banks that would allow people to save money more efficiently and safely. In 1799, Haygarth investigated the efficacy of medical instruments called Perkins tractors and these were metal pointers which were supposedly able to draw out disease. They were sold at the high price of five guineas
17.
John Moore (Scottish physician)
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John Moore was a Scottish physician and writer. He was born at Stirling, the son of a minister, in 1792 he accompanied Lord Lauderdale to Paris, and witnessed some of the principal scenes of the Revolution. His Journal during a Residence in France is the record of an eye-witness. He died in London on 21 January 1802, byron said that he intended Childe Harold to be a poetical Zeluco, and the most striking features of the portrait were undoubtedly taken from that character. It also offers detailed accounts of John Moores observations as he travelled throughout Europe in the last years of the 18th century. There are gripping accounts of the feats of a dashing British Officer included. This novel is difficult to find on the world market today. He had five sons, by a daughter of John Simson, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
18.
John Brown (doctor)
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John Brown was a Scottish physician and the creator of the Brunonian system of medicine. In 1759 he discontinued his studies and began the study of medicine. After a dispute with Cullen and the professors of the university, Browns public lectures contained attacks on preceding systems of medicine and he received his medical degree from St Andrews in 1779. In 1780 he published his Elementa Medicinae, which for a time was an influential text and it set out his theories, often called the Brunonian system of medicine, which essentially understood all diseases as a matter of over or under-stimulation. John Browns theory focused on outside factors, which would excite the body and lead to different diseases, the stimulation was seen as excitability, hence the relation of Brunonian medicine and excitants. John Brown argued that any symptoms of disease or behavior which strayed from that of a healthy individual suggested over-excitement of the body, for instance, even a person presenting as weak had been over-excited. Brown labeled over-stimulation as the state and under-stimulation as the asthenic state. For sthenic diseases, Browns treatments included vomiting, cold air, for asthenic diseases, Brown prescribed opium, roast beef, and alcoholic beverages. He wrote that all life consists in stimulus, and both over-abundance and deficiency is productive of diseases, Brown described medicine as related to excitement and his medicine was seen as mechanical to certain individuals and dynamic to others. For instance, Immanuel Kant perceived the system as highly mechanical and this system explained disease as the imbalance of excitants and could be quantified. Kant believed that this quantification could be used to explain the cause of disease, on the other hand, avid follower in Germany, Andreas Röschlaub, perceived Brunonian medicine as an example of natural philosophy and as a changing theory. He saw this practice of medicine as a way to explain relationships between nature and man and this notion was rooted in pathology and relation of the outside world to man and his disease or illness. In his work, Brown outlined and explained which excitants were good, the Brunonian system of treatment was intended to outline specific treatments for symptoms and to simplify medicine. Due to this simplicity, it very popular in countries such as Germany. His medical ideas proved highly influential for the few decades, especially in Italy. His medical theory was based on the principle that all disease was caused by an unbalance of excitability, Brown believed that excitement could be measured mathematically similar to the use of degrees on a thermometer. At this time in Germany, many physicians were attempting to change and revamp the medical curriculum, Germany physicians wanted a system rooted in science which would give a scientific explanation to diseases, as the medical world began to emphasize science. John Browns theory explained the relationship between the world, causing excitement, and the body, which was stimulated from the world
19.
Robert Willan
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Robert Willan FRS was an English physician and the founder of dermatology as a medical specialty. Willan was educated at Sedbergh School, and received his M. D and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1809. Following the example of Carl Linnaeus, Willan attempted a taxonomic classification of diseases, describing impetigo, lupus, psoriasis, scleroderma, ichthyosis, sycosis. Willans portrait was reproduced on the cover of the British Journal of Dermatology for many years, Willan and Bateman working together provided the worlds first attempt to classify skin diseases from an anatomical standpoint. In 1790, Willan received the Fothergill Gold Medal from the Medical Society of London for his classification of skin diseases, a copy of one of his works was translated into German and published in Breslau in 1799. The English version has been lost, Willans 1808 book, On Cutaneous Diseases is a landmark in the history of dermatology and in medical illustration and contains the first use of the word lupus to describe cutaneous tuberculosis. His study of the water at Croft-on-Tees, published in 1782 London, has recently been republished. William Cullen Evans, A. S. and Kaslow, R. A, ISBN 0-306-44856-4 Lee, H. S. J. Dates in Infectious Diseases, A Chronological Record of Progress in Infectious Diseases Over the Last Millennium. ISBN 1-84214-150-3 Levere, T. Turner LE, G, discussing Chemistry and Steam, The Minutes of a Coffee House Philosophical Society 1780-1787. ISBN 0-19-851530-8 Porter, R. and Bynum, W. F. William Hunter, ISBN 1-85070-095-8 Silverman, J. A. Anorexia Nervosa in the Male, Early Historic Cases. In Andersen, A. E. Males with Eating Disorders, ISBN 0-87630-556-7 Biography Robert Willans Description and Treatment of Cutaneous Diseases 1797/1798 A Bicentennial
20.
Gilbert Blane
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Sir Gilbert Blane of Blanefield, 1st Baronet FRSE FRS MRCP was a Scottish physician who instituted health reform in the Royal Navy. He saw action against both the French and Spanish fleets, and later served as a Commissioner on the Sick, born in Blanefield, by Kirkoswald, in Ayrshire, he was the fourth son of Gilbert Blane of Blanefield and Agnes McFadzen. He studied medicine at Edinburgh University and Glasgow University before moving to London, dr William Hunter introduced Blane to Lord Rodney who appointed Blane as his personal physician aboard HMS Sandwich. Blane did much to improve the health of sailors by improving their diet and he demanded monthly reports from other ships surgeons which enabled him to build up a detailed picture of the high levels of sickness that affected the squadron. Blane published a pamphlet for the benefit of ships surgeons in 1780 entitled On the most effective means for preserving the health of seamen, particularly in the Royal Navy. Later lemons were replaced by limes which could be obtained from Britains Caribbean colonies, on his return to Britain, he became Physician to St Thomas Hospital, Physician Extraordinary to the Prince of Wales and Physician in Ordinary to the King. He was a member of the Fellow of the Royal Society in 1784 and delivered their Croonian lecture in 1788 On the Nature of the Muscles. By virtue of court and hospital appointments, he built up a good practice for himself in London. He was an advisor to the government in the drafting of the 1799 Quarantine Act. Blane left the Commission in 1802, in 1809 Blane provided expert medical advice with regards to the Walcheren expedition. This involved a British occupation of Walcheren Island with 40,000 men, the island was surrounded by marshland and many troops were struck down with Walcheren Fever, most likely malaria. The General Staff heeded Blanes advice that the forces should be evacuated due to the likelihood of sickness. In reward for his services to the Walcheren expedition and his other Naval contributions he was baronet, of Blanefield in the County of Ayr. His printed works include Observations on the Diseases of Seamen and Elements of Medical Logic and he was an advocate for issuing each Royal Navy sailor with a tourniquet to stem catastrophic bleeding in battle. Blane lived at Burghfield in Berkshire and at Kirkoswald in Ayrshire and he died at Sackville Street in the Piccadilly area of London on 26 June 1834. Blane married Elizabeth Gardiner in 1786, the medal was designed by Benedetto Pistrucci who had designed the 1817 St George and dragon reverse of the British gold sovereign which is still used today. It is currently struck in gold-plated Sterling silver, the side is inscribed with the motto Mente Manuque. Under the original terms, a pair of medals would be awarded biennially and these were the only medals adjudicated by Blane prior to his death in 1834
21.
John Coakley Lettsom
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John Coakley Lettsom was an English physician and philanthropist. He was born on Little Jost Van Dyke in the British Virgin Islands, into one of the early Quaker settlements in the territory and his surname is sometimes spelled Lettsome. Lettsom founded the Medical Society of London in 1773, convinced that a membership of physicians, surgeons. His revolutionary idea met with success and the Society has provided a forum for all branches of the profession from its inception to the present. Situated at the heart of Londons medical community at Lettsome House, Chandos Street, near Cavendish Square, as founder, president, and benefactor Lettsom was the mainstay of the Society from 1773 until his death in 1815. John Coakley Lettsom was born into the Quaker community on the island of Little Jost Van Dyke in the British Virgin Islands, John and his brother were the sole survivors of seven sets of male twins, sons of Edward and Mary Lettsom. John alone was sent to England at the age of six to be educated, having completed an apprenticeship to a Yorkshire apothecary, Lettsom came to London in 1766 when, through the influence of Dr Fothergill, he commenced his medical training at St Thomas Hospital. As the only doctor in the islands at that time, he was able to earn a considerable sum, diligence and industry earned him a fortune, enabling him to resume his studies in Europe. John Coakley Lettsom matriculated at the Leyden University 8 June 1769 He received his Medical Doctor degree 20 Juni 1769 and his thesis concerns the natural history of the tea-tree. The title description of his thesis is, Dissertatio inauguralis medica, quam … pro gradu Doctoratus summisque in Medicina Honoribus & Privilegiis, ritè ac legitimè consequendis, eruditorum examini submittit Joannes Coakley Lettsom, Tortola – Americanus. - Lugduni Batavorum, apud Theodorum Haak,1769, Lettsom was also a close friend of Benjamin Franklin and William Thornton. Lettsoms career accelerated with the LRCP and marriage to an heiress, by the age of 30 his reputation as a physician, author, and Fellow of the Royal Society was established. Furthermore, he had founded the General Dispensary in Aldersgate Street, as founder, President and benefactor of the London Medical Society, Lettsom was the mainstay of the society from 1773 until his death in 1815. In 1791 Lettsom won the societys Fothergillian prize for a treatise entitled Diseases of Great Towns and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1788. For at least a portion of his years working in London, he lived in Newington Green, there he met the young Mary Wollstonecraft and others intent on social reform. Lettsom is reported to have written himself, I, John Lettsome, Blisters, bleeds. If, after that, they please to die, I, Lettsom was also a noted abolitionist. In 1767 he had returned to the British Virgin Islands after the death of his father, and found himself the owner of a share of his fathers slaves, however, towards the end of his life, something ironic happened
22.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
23.
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
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Fellowship of the Royal Society of Edinburgh is an award granted to individuals that the Royal Society of Edinburgh judges to be eminently distinguished in their subject. Around 50 new fellows are elected each year in March, as of 2016 there are around 1650 Fellows, including 71 Honorary Fellows and 76 Corresponding Fellows. Fellows are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRSE, examples of fellows include Peter Higgs and Jocelyn Bell Burnell. Previous fellows have included Melvin Calvin and Benjamin Franklin, see the Category, Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for more examples
24.
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh
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The Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh is a Medical Royal College in Scotland. It is one of three organisations that sets the specialty training standards for physicians in the United Kingdom and it was established by Royal Charter in 1681. The college claims to have 12,000 fellows and members worldwide, the RCPE was formed by a Royal Charter, granted in 1681, with Sir Robbert Sibbald recognised as playing a key part in the negotiations. Three applications preceded this and had been unsuccessful, there were 21 original Fellows, eleven of whom were graduates or students of the University of Leiden. The Universities Act 1858 resulted in several items from the College’s Charter becoming obsolete, in 1920 the College enacted changes that allowed women to be admitted on the same terms as men. The charter was amended on 7 May 2005, in 1704 the College acquired a house and grounds on Fountain Close, on the Cowgate, in the Old Town. On 27 November 1775 William Cullen laid the stone for a new hall. Architect James Craig, had ideas about expansion but the builders of neighbouring properties found favour instead, the hall was not fully completed until 1830. Unfortunately the great cost of the hall’s exterior exhausted the College’s finances leaving no money to finish the interior of a building, the Colleges debt was so much that there was talk of selling the Hall before it was even occupied. The Hall was sold to the Commercial Bank of Scotland in 1841 and was demolished, between 1843 and 1846 the College did not own a meeting place, instead renting a premises at 119 George Street. The foundation stone of a new Hall at 9 Queen Street was laid on 8 August 1844, the new Queen Street Hall was designed by Thomas Hamilton. The Queen Street Hall was completed in 1846, an adjacent building, Number 8 Queen Street was designed by Robert Adam as a house for Robert Ord and built between 1770 and 1771, one of the earliest New Town constructions. In 1868 it was purchased by the College, who leased it to other organisations until 1957. A restoration project began in 1990 and lasted seven years, numbers 11 and 12 were built around 1780. They were purchased by the college in the 20th century, the space behind 11 was used for the Conference Centre and 12 contains flexible meeting rooms and office space. In 1984 the college put Richard Dadds painting of Alexander Morison up for sale, in 1682, Robert Sibbald donated around one hundred books to the college. At the end of the 18th century the library was located at the Royal Infirmary, the college’s library in Queen Street bears Sibbald’s name in commemoration. The library also has artefacts, such as a medicine chest that belonged to Stuart Threipland, in the 1960s, the information held by the library was modern
25.
David Hume
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David Hume was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, who is best known today for his highly influential system of radical philosophical empiricism, skepticism, and naturalism. Humes empiricist approach to philosophy places him with John Locke, Francis Bacon, beginning with his A Treatise of Human Nature, Hume strove to create a total naturalistic science of man that examined the psychological basis of human nature. Humes compatibilist theory of free will takes causal determinism as fully compatible with human freedom, Kant himself credited Hume as the spur to his philosophical thought who had awakened him from his dogmatic slumbers. Arthur Schopenhauer once declared there is more to be learned from each page of David Hume than from the collected philosophical works of Hegel, Herbart. Hume is thus regarded as a pivotal figure in the history of philosophical thought. David Hume was the second of two born to Joseph Home of Ninewells, an advocate, and his wife The Hon. Katherine. He was born on 26 April 1711 in a tenement on the side of the Lawnmarket in Edinburgh. Humes father died when Hume was a child, just after his birthday, and he was raised by his mother. He changed the spelling of his name in 1734, because of the fact that his surname Home, throughout his life Hume, who never married, spent time occasionally at his family home at Ninewells in Berwickshire, which had belonged to his family since the sixteenth century. His finances as a man were very slender. His family was not rich and, as a younger son and he was therefore forced to make a living somehow. Hume attended the University of Edinburgh at the early age of twelve at a time when fourteen was normal. He had little respect for the professors of his time, telling a friend in 1735 that there is nothing to be learnt from a Professor, which is not to be met with in Books. Aged around 18, he made a discovery that opened up to him a new Scene of Thought. He did not recount what this scene was, and commentators have offered a variety of speculations, due to this inspiration, Hume set out to spend a minimum of ten years reading and writing. He soon came to the verge of a breakdown, suffering from what a doctor diagnosed as the Disease of the Learned. Hume wrote that it started with a coldness, which he attributed to a Laziness of Temper, later, some scurvy spots broke out on his fingers. This was what persuaded Humes physician to make his diagnosis, Hume wrote that he went under a Course of Bitters and Anti-Hysteric Pills, taken along with a pint of claret every day
26.
Adam Smith
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Adam Smith FRSA was a Scottish economist, philosopher, and author. He was a philosopher, a pioneer of political economy. He is best known for two works, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, and An Inquiry into the Nature. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and at Balliol College, Oxford, after graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote, in his later life, he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith laid the foundations of free market economic theory. The Wealth of Nations was a precursor to the academic discipline of economics. In this and other works, he developed the concept of division of labour, Smith was controversial in his own day and his general approach and writing style were often satirised by Tory writers in the moralising tradition of William Hogarth and Jonathan Swift. In 2005, The Wealth of Nations was named among the 100 Best Scottish Books of all time, the minor planet 12838 Adamsmith was named in his memory. Smith was born in Kirkcaldy, in the County of Fife and his father, also Adam Smith, was a Scottish Writer to the Signet, advocate, and prosecutor and also served as comptroller of the Customs in Kirkcaldy. In 1720 he married Margaret Douglas, daughter of the landed Robert Douglas of Strathendry and his father died two months after he was born, leaving his mother a widow. The date of Smiths baptism into the Church of Scotland at Kirkcaldy was 5 June 1723, and this has often been treated as if it were also his date of birth, Smith was close to his mother, who probably encouraged him to pursue his scholarly ambitions. He attended the Burgh School of Kirkcaldy—characterised by Rae as one of the best secondary schools of Scotland at that period—from 1729 to 1737, he learned Latin, mathematics, history, Smith entered the University of Glasgow when he was fourteen and studied moral philosophy under Francis Hutcheson. Here, Smith developed his passion for liberty, reason, in 1740 Smith was the graduate scholar presented to undertake postgraduate studies at Balliol College, Oxford, under the Snell Exhibition. Adam Smith considered the teaching at Glasgow to be far superior to that at Oxford, according to William Robert Scott, The Oxford of time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework. Nevertheless, Smith took the opportunity while at Oxford to teach several subjects by reading many books from the shelves of the large Bodleian Library. When Smith was not studying on his own, his time at Oxford was not a happy one, near the end of his time there, Smith began suffering from shaking fits, probably the symptoms of a nervous breakdown
27.
Henry Home, Lord Kames
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Henry Home, Lord Kames was a Scottish advocate, judge, philosopher, writer and agricultural improver. Born at Kames House, between Eccles and Birgham, Berwickshire, he was educated at home by a private tutor and he studied law at Edinburgh, was called to the bar in 1724, and became an advocate. He soon acquired reputation by a number of publications on the civil and Scottish law, in 1752, he was raised to the bench, thus acquiring the title of Lord Kames. Home was on the panel of judges in the Joseph Knight case which ruled that there could be no slavery in Scotland and his address in 1775 is shown as New Street on the Canongate. Home wrote much about the importance of property to society, in Historical Law Tracts and later in Sketches on the History of Man he described human history as having four distinct stages. The first was as a hunter-gatherer where people avoided each other out of competition, the second stage he described was a herder of domestic animals which required forming larger societies. No laws were needed at these stages except those given by the head of the family or society, agriculture was the third stage requiring greater cooperation and new relationships to allow for trade or employment. He argued that the union among a multitude of individuals, occasioned by agriculture required a new set of rights. This requires laws and law enforcers, a fourth stage moves from villages and farms to seaports and market towns requiring yet more laws and complexity but also much to benefit from. Kames could see these stages within Scotland itself, with the highlands, the agricultural/industrial lowlands. Home was a polygenist, he believed God had created different races on earth in separate regions, the above studies created the genre of the story of civilization and defined the fields of anthropology and sociology and therefore the modern study of history for two hundred years. The late eighteenth-century tradition of writing was associated with his notion that the genuine rules of criticism are all of them derived from the human heart. Prof Neil Rhodes has argued that Lord Kames played a significant role in the development of English as a discipline in the Scottish Universities. He enjoyed intelligent conversation and cultivated a number of intellectual associates, among them John Home, David Hume. Lord Monboddo was also a frequent debater of Kames, although these two usually had a competitive and adversarial relationship. Principles of Equity Introduction to the Art of Thinking Elements of Criticism Published by two Scottish booksellers, Andrew Millar and Alexander Kincaid, henry Home, Lord Kames at James Boswell - a Guide
28.
John Millar (philosopher)
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John Millar of Glasgow was a Scottish philosopher, historian and Regius Professor of Civil Law at the University of Glasgow from 1761 to 1800. For a short time in the 1750s he was tutor in the household of Henry Home, in 1760 he was admitted to the Faculty of Advocates. From 1761 to 1800, Millar was Regius Professor of Civil Law at Glasgow and his colleagues and supporters included Smith, Kames, and David Hume. Millar was elected Clerk of the Senate of the University of Glasgow in 1772, millars Origin of the Distinction of Ranks, published in 1778, advanced the view that economic system determines all social relations, even those between the genders. Such a view became known as economic determinism, and was an important influence on Marxism. His Historical View of the English Government, published from 1787, was an important contemporary history of England, Millar lost a daughter by consumption in 1791, and his wife in 1795. His eldest son, John, a young man, went to the bar. He published a book upon the Law relating to Insurances in 1787, ill-health and the unpopularity of the Whiggism which he inherited from his father induced him to emigrate in the spring of 1795 to America, where he died soon afterwards from a sunstroke. Three sons and six daughters survived their father, of these James became professor of mathematics at Glasgow, the second, William joined the Royal Artillery, the third was a writer to the signet. One daughter, Agnes was married to James Mylne, professor of philosophy at Glasgow. He left his manuscripts to his eldest son, to Professor Mylne, in 1985 the John Millar Chair of Law at the University of Glasgow was established in his memory. Observations concerning the Distinction of Ranks in Society,1771, an Historical View of the English Government,1787. An Historical View of the English Government from the Settlement of the Saxons in Britain to the Revolution in 1688. To which are subjoined some Dissertations Connected with the History of the Government from the Revolution to the Present Time, 3rd ed. ed. J. Mylne & J. Millar, london, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 401–403. Endnotes, Life, by John Craig, prefixed to Origin of Ranks,1806 Scots Mag,1801, pp. 527–8 A. Carlyles Autobiog. 1860, p.492 Life of Lord Minto,1879, ii.26 Edinburgh Review, 83–92 Haakonssen, Knud, Cairns, John W. Millar, John. John Millar and the Scottish Enlightenment, Family Life and World History, ISBN 978-0-7294-1192-9 Selected primary works Full text of The Origin of The Distinction of Ranks John Millar at The Online Library of Liberty Works by or about John Millar in libraries
29.
Adam Ferguson
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Adam Ferguson, FRSE, also known as Ferguson of Raith, was a Scottish philosopher and historian of the Scottish Enlightenment. Ferguson was sympathetic to traditional societies, such as the Highlands, for producing courage and he criticized commercial society as making men weak, dishonourable and unconcerned for their community. Ferguson has been called the father of sociology for his contributions to the early development of the discipline. His most well known work is his Essay on the History of Civil Society. It remains a matter of debate as to whether, at the Battle of Fontenoy, Ferguson fought in the ranks throughout the day, nevertheless, he certainly did well, becoming principal chaplain in 1746. He continued attached to the regiment till 1754, when, disappointed at not obtaining a living, he left the clergy, in 1759 Ferguson became professor of natural philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, and in 1764 transferred to the chair of pneumatics and moral philosophy. In 1767, he published his Essay on the History of Civil Society, in the mid-1770s he travelled again to the Continent and met Voltaire. His membership of The Poker Club is recorded in its book of 1776. In 1778 Ferguson was appointed secretary to the Carlisle Peace Commission which endeavoured, in 1780 he wrote the article History for the second edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica. The article is 40 pages long and replaced the article in the first edition, in 1783 appeared his History of the Progress and Termination of the Roman Republic, it became very popular and went through several editions. Ferguson believed that the history of the Roman Republic during the period of their greatness formed a practical illustration of those ethical and political doctrines which he studied especially, the history reads well and impartially, and displays conscientious use of sources. The influence of the military experience shows itself in certain portions of the narrative. Tired of teaching, he resigned his professorship in 1785, and devoted himself to the revision of his lectures, which he published under the title of Principles of Moral and Political Science. In his seventieth year, Ferguson, intending to prepare a new edition of the history, visited Italy and some of the cities of Europe. From 1795 he resided successively at Neidpath Castle near Peebles, at Hallyards on Manor Water, and at St Andrews and he is buried in the churchyard of St Andrews Cathedral, against the north wall, just east of the eastmost fragments of the cathedral. The very large monument includes a profile portrait in marble. In his ethical system Ferguson treats man as a social being, illustrating his doctrines by political examples, as a believer in the progression of the human race, he placed the principle of moral approbation in the attainment of perfection. Victor Cousin criticised Fergusons speculations, We find in his method the wisdom and circumspection of the Scottish school, with something more masculine and decisive in the results
30.
Royal charter
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A royal charter is a formal document issued by a monarch as letters patent, granting a right or power to an individual or a body corporate. They were, and are still, used to establish significant organisations such as cities or universities, Charters should be distinguished from warrants and letters of appointment, as they have perpetual effect. Typically, a Royal Charter is produced as a high-quality work of calligraphy on vellum, the British monarchy has issued over 980 royal charters. Of these about 750 remain in existence, the earliest was to the town of Tain in 1066, making it the oldest Royal Burgh in Scotland, followed by the University of Cambridge in 1231. Charters continue to be issued by the British Crown, a recent example being that awarded to the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, Charters have been used in Europe since medieval times to create cities. The date that such a charter is granted is considered to be when a city is founded, at one time, a royal charter was the sole means by which an incorporated body could be formed, but other means are generally used nowadays instead. In the period before 1958,32 higher education institutes had been created by royal charter and these were typically engineering or technical institutions rather than universities. Royal decrees can therefore no longer grant higher education status or university status. A Royal Charter is granted by Order in Council, either creating an incorporated body and this is an exercise of the Royal Prerogative, and, in Canada, there are hundreds of organisations under Royal Charters. Such organisations include charities, businesses, colleges, universities, today, it is mostly charities and professional institutions who receive Royal Charters. Application for a charter is a petition to the Queen-in-Council, however, meeting these benchmarks does not guarantee the issuance of a Royal Charter. Companies, corporations, and societies in Canada founded under or augmented by a Royal Charter include, Royal Charter was issued in August 1826 to purchase and develop lands. Purchased the Crown Reserve of 1,384,413 acres, cities under Royal Charter are not subject to municipal Acts of Parliament applied generally to other municipalities, and instead are governed by legislation applicable to each city individually. The Royal Charter codifies the laws applied to the particular city, the Universitys Pontifical Charter was granted by Pope Leo XIII in 1889. Several Canadian private schools were founded or reconstituted under Royal Charter, the Royal Gibraltar Post Office was granted Royal Charter in 2005. The Royal Hong Kong Jockey Club obtained Royal Charter in 1959 and it is one of the three banknote-issuing banks in Hong Kong. The Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch Chartered originally in 1847, disbanded 1859, the Institution of Engineers was incorporated by royal charter in 1935. A number of Irish institutions retain the Royal prefix, even though Republic of Ireland severed all remaining connections between the state and the British monarch in 1949, the University of South Africa received a Royal Charter in 1877
31.
Royal Society of Edinburgh
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The Royal Society of Edinburgh is Scotlands national academy of science and letters. It is a charity, operating on a wholly independent and non-party-political basis. As of 2014 it has more than 1,500 Fellows, the Society covers a broader selection of fields than the Royal Society of London including literature and history. Fellowship includes people from a range of disciplines – science & technology, arts, humanities, medicine, social science, business. The Medals were instituted in 2000 by Queen Elizabeth II, whose permission is required to make a presentation, past winners include, The Lord Kelvin Medal is the Senior Prize for Physical, Engineering and Informatics Sciences. It is awarded annually to a person who has achieved distinction nationally and internationally, winners receive a silver medal and are required to deliver a public lecture in Scotland. The award is named after William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, who was a mathematical physicist and engineer. Senior Prize-winners are required to have a Scottish connection but can be based anywhere in the world, the Keith medal has been historically awarded every four years for a scientific paper published in the societys scientific journals, preference being given to a paper containing a discovery. It is awarded alternately for papers on Mathematics or Earth and Environmental Sciences, the medal was founded in 1827 as a result of a bequest by Alexander Keith of Dunottar, the first Treasurer of the Society. The prize was founded in 1855 by Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, the cumbersome name was changed the following year to the Edinburgh Philosophical Society. Under the leadership of Prof. Thus, for the first four decades of the 19th century, by the 1850s, the society once again unified its membership under one journal. During the 19th century the society produced many scientists whose ideas laid the foundation of the modern sciences, from the 20th century onward, the society functioned not only as a focal point for Scotlands eminent scientists, but also the arts and humanities. It still exists today and continues to promote research in Scotland. In February 2014, Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell was announced as the societys first female president, taking up her position in October
32.
Academy and College of Philadelphia
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The Academy and College of Philadelphia in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States was a secondary school and later University located in Philadelphia. Franklin, the first president of the board of trustee drew up the constitution for the academy, the academy opened for the secondary schooling of boys on August 13,1751 with a charity school opening shortly afterwards. William Smith became the Provost in 1756, in 1765, John Morgan and William Shippen, Jr. founded the Medical School of the College of Philadelphia, the first medical school in North America. That same year the first dormitory was built, the college educated many of the future leaders of the United States. Twenty-one members of the Continental Congress were graduates of the school, following repeated lawsuits by Smith and the original trustees, the state restored the Colleges charter in 1789, but the University continued to operate on the original campus. The two competing institutions merged in 1791, forming the University of Pennsylvania
33.
Digitalis
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Digitalis is a genus of about 20 species of herbaceous perennials, shrubs, and biennials commonly called foxgloves. This genus was placed in the figwort family Scrophulariaceae. This genus is native to western and southwestern Europe, western and central Asia, the scientific name means finger-like and refers to the ease with which a flower of Digitalis purpurea can be fitted over a human fingertip. The flowers are produced on a spike, are tubular, and vary in colour with species, from purple to pink, white. The best-known species is the common foxglove, Digitalis purpurea and this biennial plant is often grown as an ornamental plant due to its vivid flowers which range in colour from various purple tints through various shades of light gray, and to purely white. The flowers can also possess various marks and spottings, the first year of growth of the common foxglove produces only the stem with its long, basal leaves. During the second year of the life, a long. Larvae of the pug, a moth, consume the flowers of the common foxglove for food. Other species of Lepidoptera eat the leaves, including the lesser yellow underwing, the term digitalis is also used for drug preparations that contain cardiac glycosides, particularly one called digoxin, extracted from various plants of this genus. The name is recorded in Old English as foxes glofe/glofa foxs glove, although the elements of the name are transparent, their meaning is not. Because it is not clear why the flower should be called foxglove, henry Fox Talbot proposed folks glove, where folk means fairy. Prior suggested an etymology of foxes-glew, meaning fairy music, however, neither of these suggestions account for the Old English form foxes glofa. It is commonly found on sites where the ground has been disturbed, such as recently cleared woodland, a group of medicines extracted from foxglove plants are called digitalin. It is used to increase cardiac contractility and as an agent to control the heart rate. Digitalis is hence often prescribed for patients in atrial fibrillation, especially if they have been diagnosed with heart failure. Digoxin was approved for heart failure in 1998 under current regulations by the Food and Drug Administration on the basis of prospective, randomized study and it was also approved for the control of ventricular response rate for patients with atrial fibrillation. Heart Failure Society of America guidelines for heart failure provide similar recommendations, safety concerns regarding a proposed link between digoxin therapy and increased mortality in women may be contributing to the decline in therapeutic use of digoxin. The two drugs differ in that digoxin has a hydroxyl group at the C-3 position on the B-ring
34.
Royal Navy
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The Royal Navy is the United Kingdoms naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the medieval period. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century, from the middle decades of the 17th century and through the 18th century, the Royal Navy vied with the Dutch Navy and later with the French Navy for maritime supremacy. From the mid 18th century it was the worlds most powerful navy until surpassed by the United States Navy during the Second World War. The Royal Navy played a key part in establishing the British Empire as the world power during the 19th. Due to this historical prominence, it is common, even among non-Britons, following World War I, the Royal Navy was significantly reduced in size, although at the onset of the Second World War it was still the worlds largest. By the end of the war, however, the United States Navy had emerged as the worlds largest, during the Cold War, the Royal Navy transformed into a primarily anti-submarine force, hunting for Soviet submarines, mostly active in the GIUK gap. The Royal Navy is part of Her Majestys Naval Service, which includes the Royal Marines. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, the Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence. The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the power in the 10th century. English naval power declined as a result of the Norman conquest. Medieval fleets, in England as elsewhere, were almost entirely composed of merchant ships enlisted into service in time of war. Englands naval organisation was haphazard and the mobilisation of fleets when war broke out was slow, early in the war French plans for an invasion of England failed when Edward III of England destroyed the French fleet in the Battle of Sluys in 1340. Major fighting was confined to French soil and Englands naval capabilities sufficed to transport armies and supplies safely to their continental destinations. Such raids halted finally only with the occupation of northern France by Henry V. Henry VII deserves a large share of credit in the establishment of a standing navy and he embarked on a program of building ships larger than heretofore. He also invested in dockyards, and commissioned the oldest surviving dry dock in 1495 at Portsmouth, a standing Navy Royal, with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, the new regimes introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War, the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive
35.
Medical Society of London
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The Medical Society of London is one of the oldest surviving medical societies in the United Kingdom. It was founded in 1773 by the Quaker physician and philanthropist Dr John Coakley Lettsome for physicians, surgeons and apothecaries who met to exchange medical news, Lettsome himself served as president of the new society in 1775-1776, 1784–1785, 1809–1811 and 1813-1815. The Society’s wide appeal, the possession of a library and freehold property has helped to ensure the societys success. Originally based in the City of London, it moved in 1873 to its present location in Lettsom House, Chandos Street and this early 19th-century building was originally owned by the Earl of Gainsborough, and is now also home to several related societies who share the facilities. The library has since purchased by the Wellcome Trust. The Lettsomian lecture is delivered annually by a fellow of the society, the Fothergill gold medal, named in honour of physician John Fothergill, Lettsomes patron, is awarded every three years in consultation with the Royal College of Physicians. The present prize, founded in 1824, is funded by the will of Anthony Fothergill, the original award, sponsored by Lettsome, was introduced in 1787 and awarded until 1803. The Presidents are listed below with their year of election to the position, source, Medical Society of London - website
36.
Duke of Hamilton
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Duke of Hamilton is a title in the Peerage of Scotland, created in 1643. It is the senior dukedom in that Peerage, and as such its holder is the Premier Peer of Scotland, the title, the town of Hamilton in Lanarkshire, and many places around the world are named after members of the Hamilton family. The Ducal familys surname, originally Hamilton, is now Douglas-Hamilton, traditionally, the Duke of Hamilton enjoys the exclusive right to remove the Scottish Crown Jewels from the City of Edinburgh. He also regularly attends sittings in the Court of Lord Lyon as an hereditary assessor, the courtesy titles used by heirs apparent are Marquess of Douglas and Clydesdale and Earl of Angus. No Duke has had a great-grandson in direct line to the titles, before the Dukes succeeded to the Marquessate of Douglas and its subsidiary titles, the heirs apparent were styled initially Earl of Arran and later Marquess of Clydesdale. The heir apparent to the Earldom of Lanark was styled Lord Polmont, Gilbert de Hameldun is recorded as witnessing a charter confirming the gift of the church at Cragyn to the Abbey of Paisley in 1271. His ancestry is uncertain but he may have been the son of William de Hamilton, Gilbert de Hameldun married Isabella Randolph, daughter of Thomas Randolph of Strathdon, Chamberlain of Scotland. His heir was Walter fitz Gilbert and he was governor of Bothwell Castle for the English Crown during the First War of Scottish Independence. Following the Battle of Bannockburn in 1314, he gave refuge to the Earl of Hertford and other escapees, only to deliver them and he then became a Bruce partisan. Sometime between 1315 and 1329, Robert the Bruce knighted him and granted him lands in Renfrewshire, the lands had previously belonged to John Comyn, who was murdered by Robert the Bruce. The 1st laird of Cadzow was succeeded as 2nd laird by his son Sir David fitz Walter and he was a supporter of King David II and fought at the Battle of Nevilles Cross where he was captured along with the King. His son David Hamilton, the 3rd laird, was the first to establish Hamilton as the family name, David Hamiltons son Sir John Hamilton became the 4th laird and was in turn succeeded as 5th laird by his son James Hamilton. The 5th laird was succeeded as 6th laird by his son, Sir James Hamilton, in early 1474, he married Princess Mary, Countess of Arran, daughter of King James II and widow of Thomas Boyd, 1st Earl of Arran. He was succeeded by his legitimate son, James, 2nd Lord Hamilton. However, it was discovered that Sir Thomas Hay was still alive. The 2nd Lord married secondly Janet, Lady Livingstone, daughter of Sir David Beaton of Creich and widow of Sir Robert Livingstone of Easter Wemyss and Drumry. He became a Privy Counsellor to King James IV, and helped to arrange his marriage to Princess Margaret, as a reward he was created Earl of Arran on 8 August 1503. He was succeeded by his son from his second marriage, James
37.
Hamilton Academy
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Hamilton Academy was a school in Hamilton, South Lanarkshire, Scotland. No longer existing as an independent institution, Hamilton Academy had a going back to 1588 when it was endowed by Lord John Hamilton. In 1847 this old building on Grammar School Square was sold for £253. The Report on Schools in Scotland,1868, notes that Hamilton Academy was unusual in this respect, being a parochial, burgh, by 1900 the school had not only outgrown the Hope Street building, but the building was also subsiding. The schools old site on Hope Street being considered too small, of particular note were the Central Hall, the large lecture hall and library, with reading rooms for girls and boys respectively. In addition, a science block was erected in the same style to the south of the main building. This new Hamilton Academy building was opened on 22 September 1913. This building remains and is a building, category B. Due to the outbreak of the Second World War in September, Hamilton Academy continued at the new Academy building from 1913 to 1972 when it ceased to exist as an independent institution. Pupils in the last intake to the former Hamilton Academy are now in their early 50s, what would have been Hamilton Academys quadricentenary was celebrated in 1988 by a reunion in Hamilton of remaining former pupils and staff. Hamilton Academy was a senior and junior fee-paying day and boarding school, the 1871 Census and the schools registers 1848–1900 list, among others, pupils from Glasgow, Edinburgh, Paisley, Bridge of Weir, Stewarton, England and Australia. Given the size of the catchment area, places at Hamilton Academy were at a premium. The Hamilton Academy prep school continued to operate until 1952, the County-wide selective intake and the academic bias of the teaching meant that Hamilton Academy achieved excellent results in competitions. It usually beat all other schools, by this measure at least, between 1940 and 1950, Hamilton Academy headed the annual Glasgow University Bursary list on three occasions. Leading the Glasgow University Bursary list again in 1958, in 1959 the Evening Times newspaper noted that Hamilton Academy have scored a triumph by securing 16 places in the first 100, last year they led the field with 13 places in the first 100. Next best are Hutchesons Boys Grammar School, Glasgow, with eight places, topping the Glasgow University Bursary List in 1964 and again in 1965, the Evening Times wrote that Hamilton Academys reputation is among the highest in the country. In 1966 the same newspaper reported that for the year in succession Hamilton Academy has gained the highest number of places in the Glasgow University Bursary Competition. In 1969 Hamilton Academy pupils took five of the top ten places in the Glasgow University Bursary List, on his return from Africa in 1864, the celebrated missionary and explorer David Livingstone presented the awards at the schools prize-giving ceremony of that year
38.
Glasgow
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Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and third largest in the United Kingdom. Historically part of Lanarkshire, it is now one of the 32 council areas of Scotland and it is situated on the River Clyde in the countrys West Central Lowlands. Inhabitants of the city are referred to as Glaswegians, Glasgow grew from a small rural settlement on the River Clyde to become the largest seaport in Britain. From the 18th century the city grew as one of Great Britains main hubs of transatlantic trade with North America. Glasgow was the Second City of the British Empire for much of the Victorian era and Edwardian period, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Glasgow grew in population, reaching a peak of 1,128,473 in 1939. The entire region surrounding the conurbation covers about 2.3 million people, at the 2011 census, Glasgow had a population density of 8, 790/sq mi, the highest of any Scottish city. Glasgow hosted the 2014 Commonwealth Games and is well known in the sporting world for the football rivalry of the Old Firm between Celtic and Rangers. Glasgow is also known for Glasgow patter, a dialect that is noted for being difficult to understand by those from outside the city. Glasgow is the form of the ancient Cumbric name Glas Cau. Possibly referring to the area of Molendinar Burn where Glasgow Cathedral now stands, the later Gaelic name Baile Glas Chu, town of the grey dog, is purely a folk-etymology. The present site of Glasgow has been settled since prehistoric times, it is for settlement, being the furthest downstream fording point of the River Clyde, the origins of Glasgow as an established city derive ultimately from its medieval position as Scotlands second largest bishopric. Glasgow increased in importance during the 10th and 11th centuries as the site of this bishopric, reorganised by King David I of Scotland and John, there had been an earlier religious site established by Saint Mungo in the 6th century. The bishopric became one of the largest and wealthiest in the Kingdom of Scotland, bringing wealth, sometime between 1189 and 1195 this status was supplemented by an annual fair, which survives as the Glasgow Fair. Glasgow grew over the following centuries, the first bridge over the River Clyde at Glasgow was recorded from around 1285, giving its name to the Briggait area of the city, forming the main North-South route over the river via Glasgow Cross. The founding of the University of Glasgow in 1451 and elevation of the bishopric to become the Archdiocese of Glasgow in 1492 increased the towns religious and educational status and landed wealth. Its early trade was in agriculture, brewing and fishing, with cured salmon and herring being exported to Europe, Glasgow was subsequently raised to the status of Royal Burgh in 1611. The citys Tobacco Lords created a water port at Port Glasgow on the Firth of Clyde. By the late 18th century more than half of the British tobacco trade was concentrated on Glasgows River Clyde, at the time, Glasgow held a commercial importance as the city participated in the trade of sugar, tobacco and later cotton
39.
West Indies
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Indigenous peoples were the first inhabitants of the West Indies. In 1492, Christopher Columbus became the first European to arrive at the islands, after the first of the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, Europeans began to use the term West Indies to distinguish the region from the East Indies of South Asia and Southeast Asia. In the late century, French, English and Dutch merchants and privateers began their operations in the Caribbean Sea, attacking Spanish and Portuguese shipping. These African slaves wrought a demographic revolution, replacing or joining with either the indigenous Caribs or the European settlers who were there as indentured servants. The Dutch, allied with the Caribs of the Orinoco would eventually carry the struggles deep into South America, first along the Orinoco and these interconnected commercial and diplomatic relations made up the Western Caribbean Zone which was in place in the early eighteenth century. In 1916, Denmark sold the Danish West Indies to the United States for US$25 million in gold, the Danish West Indies became an insular area of the US, called the United States Virgin Islands. Between 1958 and 1962, the United Kingdom re-organised all their West Indies island territories into the West Indies Federation and they hoped that the Federation would coalesce into a single, independent nation. West Indian is the term used by the U. S. government to refer to people of the West Indies. Tulane University professor Rosanne Adderly says he phrase West Indies distinguished the territories encountered by Columbus, … The term West Indies was eventually used by all European nations to describe their own acquired territories in the Americas. Despite the collapse of the Federation … the West Indies continues to field a joint cricket team for international competition, the West Indies cricket team includes participants from Guyana, which is geographically located in South America. More than Slaves and Sugar, Recent Historiography of the Trans-imperial Caribbean, a Concise History of the Caribbean. Martin, Tony, Caribbean History, From Pre-colonial Origins to the Present
40.
Shotts
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Shotts is a small rural town in North Lanarkshire, Scotland. It is located almost halfway between Glasgow and Edinburgh, at the 2001 census, the population was 8,235. A local story has Shotts being named after the legendary giant Bertram de Shotts, Shotts is the home of the 2015 world champion pipe band, Shotts and Dykehead Caledonia Pipe Band. Shotts was known for its mining and ironworks, in the years leading up to World War II there were 22 coal mines in the area, but the last of these closed in the 1960s. Shotts Golf Club, an 18-hole course founded in 1895, is to the North-East of the town, on the first Saturday in June each year, Shotts hosts its own Highland Games in Hannah Park. Shotts Bon Accord Shotts Vics Shotts YMCA Springhill AFC Dykehead F. C. Torbothie Rose Shotts Albion Shotts Thistle HMP Shotts, the town is served by Shotts railway station, which is connected on the Shotts Line between Glasgow and Edinburgh. St. Patricks Primary Stane Primary Dykehead Primary Calderhead High School Matthew Baillie anatomist Michelle Barr, gavin Hamilton, George MacBeth, writer Andrew Keir, actor Margaret Herbison, Member of Parliament Catriona Shearer, newsreader, journalist and television presenter
41.
Royal Medical Society
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The Royal Medical Society is a society run by students at the University of Edinburgh Medical School, Scotland. It claims to be the oldest medical society in the United Kingdom although this claim is made by the earlier London-based Society of Apothecaries which is permitted to award medical degrees. The current President of the 280th session, is fourth year medical student, the RMS is a professional society engaged in the advancement of medical knowledge and provision of assistance to medical students and professionals. In 1737 it was established as the Medical Society in 1737 and it was granted a Royal Charter in 1778. Earlier the Society was conceived in 1734 by a group of students who dissected the body in the anatomy dissection room. They included Dr Cleghorn, Dr Cuming, Dr Russell, Dr Hamilton, Mr Archibald Taylor and Dr James Kennedy and perhaps Dr Fothergill. The source is a letter to Dr Fothergill from Dr Cuming in 1782 The RMS sold its library, built up throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. Much of the collection was purchased by the University of Wisconsin–Madison, res Medica is the journal of the Royal Medical Society. It was first published in 1957 which means that it one of the longest-running student-led publications in Britain, the RMS owns rooms above Potterrow, the Edinburgh Students Union building, on Bristo Square. During the Edinburgh International Festival, the rooms are used as a venue for Pleasance promoters. The estate, is managed by the RMS Trust, which has charitable status, the day-to-day running of the Society is managed by the RMS Council - consisting of a Senior President, three Junior Presidents and 11 Conveners, each concerned with particular areas of the Society. History of the Royal Medical Society, 1737-1937
42.
Natural science
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Natural science is a branch of science concerned with the description, prediction, and understanding of natural phenomena, based on observational and empirical evidence. Mechanisms such as review and repeatability of findings are used to try to ensure the validity of scientific advances. Natural science can be divided into two branches, life science and physical science. Physical science is subdivided into branches, including physics, space science, chemistry and these branches of natural science may be further divided into more specialized branches. Modern natural science succeeded more classical approaches to natural philosophy, usually traced to ancient Greece, galileo, Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Newton debated the benefits of using approaches which were more mathematical and more experimental in a methodical way. Still, philosophical perspectives, conjectures, and presuppositions, often overlooked, systematic data collection, including discovery science, succeeded natural history, which emerged in the 16th century by describing and classifying plants, animals, minerals, and so on. Today, natural history suggests observational descriptions aimed at popular audiences, philosophers of science have suggested a number of criteria, including Karl Poppers controversial falsifiability criterion, to help them differentiate scientific endeavors from non-scientific ones. Validity, accuracy, and quality control, such as peer review and this field encompasses a set of disciplines that examines phenomena related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component biophysics up to complex ecologies, biology is concerned with the characteristics, classification and behaviors of organisms, as well as how species were formed and their interactions with each other and the environment. The biological fields of botany, zoology, and medicine date back to periods of civilization. However, it was not until the 19th century that became a unified science. Once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things, it was decided they were best studied as a whole, modern biology is divided into subdisciplines by the type of organism and by the scale being studied. Molecular biology is the study of the chemistry of life, while cellular biology is the examination of the cell. At a higher level, anatomy and physiology looks at the internal structures, constituting the scientific study of matter at the atomic and molecular scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as gases, molecules, crystals, and metals. The composition, statistical properties, transformations and reactions of these materials are studied, chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms and molecules for use in larger-scale applications. Most chemical processes can be studied directly in a laboratory, using a series of techniques for manipulating materials, chemistry is often called the central science because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences. Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of Alchemy, the science of chemistry began to develop with the work of Robert Boyle, the discoverer of gas, and Antoine Lavoisier, who developed the theory of the Conservation of mass. The success of science led to a complementary chemical industry that now plays a significant role in the world economy
43.
William Hunter (anatomist)
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William Hunter FRS was a Scottish anatomist and physician. He was a teacher of anatomy, and the outstanding obstetrician of his day. His guidance and training of his more famous brother, John Hunter, was also of great importance. He was born at Long Calderwood – now a part of East Kilbride, after studying divinity at the University of Glasgow, he went into medicine in 1737, studying under William Cullen at the University of Edinburgh. Arriving in London, Hunter became resident pupil to William Smellie and he was trained in anatomy at St Georges Hospital, London and he followed the example of Smellie in giving a private course on dissecting, operative procedures and bandaging, from 1746. His courtly manners and sensible judgement helped him to advance until he became the leading obstetric consultant of London, unlike Smellie, he did not favour the use of forceps in delivery. Stephen Paget said of him, He never married, he had no house, he looks, in his portraits, a fastidious, fine gentleman. To orthopaedic surgeons he is famous for his studies on bone, in 1764, he became physician to Queen Charlotte. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767, in 1768 he built the famous anatomy theatre and museum in Great Windmill Street, Soho, where the best British anatomists and surgeons of the period were trained. His greatest work was Anatomia uteri umani gravidi, with plates engraved by Rymsdyk, to aid his teaching of dissection, in 1775 Hunter commissioned sculptor Agostino Carlini to make a cast of the flayed but muscular corpse of a recently executed criminal, a smuggler. He was professor of anatomy at the Royal Academy of Arts in London from 1769 until 1772 and he was interested in arts, and had strong connections to the artistic world. In 1770 he built himself a house in Glasgow fully equipped for the practice of his science, and it has been alleged that Hunter were involved with either commissioning the murder or showing a callous disregard for where his corpses came from. William Hunter was an antique coin collector and the Hunter Coin Cabinet in the Hunterian Museum is one of the worlds great collections. According to the Preface of Catalogue of Greek Coins in the Hunterian Collection, Hunter purchased many important collections, including those of Horace Walpole, king George III even donated an Athenian gold piece. He died in 1783, aged 64, and was buried in London at St Jamess, Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery Hunterian Collection Hunter House Museum, his birthplace Buchanan WW. Dr William Hunter and the gravid uterus, james T. William Hunter, surgeon and Edward Gibbon, historian, an 18th century connection. True to their natures, Sir Joshua Reynolds and Dr William Hunter at the Royal Academy of Arts, notes and Records of the Royal Society of London. Contributions of William Hunter to dental science, rey R. William Hunter and the medical world of his time
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Refrigeration
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Refrigeration is a process of moving heat from one location to another in controlled conditions. The work of heat transport is driven by mechanical work. Refrigeration has many applications, including, but not limited to, household refrigerators, industrial freezers, cryogenics, heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units. Refrigeration has had a impact on industry, lifestyle, agriculture. The idea of preserving food dates back to at least the ancient Roman, however, mechanical refrigeration technology has rapidly evolved in the last century, from ice harvesting to temperature-controlled rail cars. Settlements were also developing in parts of the country, filled with new natural resources. These new settlement patterns sparked the building of cities which are able to thrive in areas that were otherwise thought to be inhospitable, such as Houston, Texas and Las Vegas. In most developed countries, cities are heavily dependent upon refrigeration in supermarkets, the increase in food sources has led to a larger concentration of agricultural sales coming from a smaller percentage of existing farms. Farms today have a larger output per person in comparison to the late 1800s. This has resulted in new food sources available to entire populations, the seasonal harvesting of snow and ice is an ancient practice estimated to have begun earlier than 1000 B. C. A Chinese collection of lyrics from this period known as the Shih king. However, little is known about the construction of these ice cellars or what the ice was used for. ”Historians have interpreted this to mean that the Jews used ice to cool beverages rather than to preserve food. Other ancient cultures such as the Greeks and the Romans dug large snow pits insulated with grass, chaff, like the Jews, the Greeks and Romans did not use ice and snow to preserve food, but primarily as a means to cool beverages. Slaves would moisten the outside of the jars and the resulting evaporation would cool the water, the ancient people of India used this same concept to produce ice. The Persians stored ice in a pit called a Yakhchal and may have been the first group of people to use storage to preserve food. In the Australian outback before a reliable electricity supply was available where the weather could be hot and dry and this consisted of a room with hessian curtains hanging from the ceiling soaked in water. The water would evaporate and thereby cool the hessian curtains and thereby the air circulating in the room and this would allow many perishables such as fruit, butter, and cured meats to be kept that would normally spoil in the heat. Before 1830, few Americans used ice to refrigerate foods due to a lack of ice-storehouses and iceboxes, as these two things became more widely available, individuals used axes and saws to harvest ice for their storehouses
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Vacuum
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Vacuum is space void of matter. The word stems from the Latin adjective vacuus for vacant or void, an approximation to such vacuum is a region with a gaseous pressure much less than atmospheric pressure. In engineering and applied physics on the hand, vacuum refers to any space in which the pressure is lower than atmospheric pressure. The Latin term in vacuo is used to describe an object that is surrounded by a vacuum, the quality of a partial vacuum refers to how closely it approaches a perfect vacuum. Other things equal, lower gas pressure means higher-quality vacuum, for example, a typical vacuum cleaner produces enough suction to reduce air pressure by around 20%. Ultra-high vacuum chambers, common in chemistry, physics, and engineering, operate below one trillionth of atmospheric pressure, outer space is an even higher-quality vacuum, with the equivalent of just a few hydrogen atoms per cubic meter on average. In the electromagnetism in the 19th century, vacuum was thought to be filled with a medium called aether, in modern particle physics, the vacuum state is considered the ground state of matter. Vacuum has been a frequent topic of debate since ancient Greek times. Evangelista Torricelli produced the first laboratory vacuum in 1643, and other techniques were developed as a result of his theories of atmospheric pressure. A torricellian vacuum is created by filling a glass container closed at one end with mercury. Vacuum became an industrial tool in the 20th century with the introduction of incandescent light bulbs and vacuum tubes. The recent development of human spaceflight has raised interest in the impact of vacuum on human health, the word vacuum comes from Latin an empty space, void, noun use of neuter of vacuus, meaning empty, related to vacare, meaning be empty. Vacuum is one of the few words in the English language that contains two consecutive letters u. Historically, there has been dispute over whether such a thing as a vacuum can exist. Ancient Greek philosophers debated the existence of a vacuum, or void, in the context of atomism, Aristotle believed that no void could occur naturally, because the denser surrounding material continuum would immediately fill any incipient rarity that might give rise to a void. Almost two thousand years after Plato, René Descartes also proposed a geometrically based alternative theory of atomism, without the problematic nothing–everything dichotomy of void, by the ancient definition however, directional information and magnitude were conceptually distinct. The explanation of a clepsydra or water clock was a topic in the Middle Ages. Although a simple wine skin sufficed to demonstrate a partial vacuum, in principle and he concluded that airs volume can expand to fill available space, and he suggested that the concept of perfect vacuum was incoherent. However, according to Nader El-Bizri, the physicist Ibn al-Haytham and the Mutazili theologians disagreed with Aristotle and Al-Farabi, using geometry, Ibn al-Haytham mathematically demonstrated that place is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cullen, William". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 616–617.
. PMID 4929623.
