1.
Fleet admiral (United States)
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Fleet admiral, officially known as Fleet Admiral of the United States Navy, is a five-star flag officer rank in the United States Navy. Fleet admiral ranks immediately above admiral and is equivalent to General of the Army and General of the Air Force. Although it is a current and authorized rank, no U. S. Navy officer presently holds it, with the last living U. S. Navy fleet admiral being Chester W. Nimitz, who died in 1966. The United States Navy did not create admiral ranks until the American Civil War, David Farragut was the first admiral in the U. S. Navy and wore a variety of elaborate sleeve insignia to denote his rank and position. Farragut was succeeded by David Dixon Porter, after the deaths of two men the United States Navy had no rank greater than rear admiral. The rank of Admiral of the Navy was then created in 1903 for George Dewey in recognition of his victory in the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish–American War. George Dewey held the authority of a fleet admiral while three permanent admiral positions also existed in the U. S. Navy for the Atlantic, Pacific. Throughout the 1920s and 30s, the highest rank in the U. S. Navy was that of admiral, in 1944 the Navy Department declared Deweys rank to be senior to the then newly created five-star rank of fleet admiral. The proper rank of admiral was created in 1944 in order to give United States military officers comparable rank to five-star officers of allied nations. The rank of admiral was created by Congress to be granted to four people during the World War II era. The United States rank of admiral was created by an Act of Congress for four officers to hold on a temporary basis under Pub. L. The rank was made permanent for the four individual holders by Pub. L, 79–333 on March 23,1946, but that law made no provision to establish the rank itself permanently. He would later be promoted to general of the Air Force on May 7,1949 after the Air Force was created as a separate service as part of the National Defense Act of 1947. The insignia for an admiral was composed of five silver stars in a pentagonal design. Worn on the dress uniform sleeve was a gold stripe two inches wide surrounding the sleeve two inches from the cuff with four half-inch stripes placed at 1/4 inch intervals. The single gold five-pointed star, one ray down, worn above the top stripe was not part of the rank per se, a close contender to receive the rank of fleet admiral was Admiral Raymond A. Spruance. Representative Carl Vinson, a supporter of Admiral Halsey, reportedly blocked the final promotion of Spruance to fleet admiral on several occasions. The first fleet admiral to leave active duty was Ernest King who retired immediately after the conclusion of World War II, Chester Nimitz and William Halsey both retired two years later while William Leahy was the last fleet admiral to leave active duty in 1949
2.
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
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The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is, by U. S. The post of a statutory and permanent Joint Chiefs of Staff chair was created by the 1949 amendments to the National Security Act of 1947, the 1986 Goldwater-Nichols Act elevated the Chairman from the first among equals to becoming the principal military advisor to the President and Secretary of Defense. The National Military Command Center is part of the Joint Staff operations directorate, the Goldwater-Nichols Act places the chain of command from the President to the Secretary of Defense directly to the commanders of the Unified Combatant Commands. However the services chiefs do have authority over personnel assignments and oversight over resources, the Chairman may also transmit communications to the combatant commanders from the President and Secretary of Defense as well as allocate additional funding to the combatant commanders if necessary. He also performs all other functions prescribed under 10 U. S. C. §153 or allocates those duties and responsibilities to other officers in the joint staff under his name. The principal deputy to the Chairman is the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, another 4-star general or admiral, who among many duties chairs the Joint Requirements Oversight Council. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is assisted by the Joint Staff, led by the Director of the Joint Staff, the National Military Command Center is part of the Joint Staff operations directorate. Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy, USN, served as the Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief from July 20,1942 to March 21,1949. He presided over meetings of what was called the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Chairman is nominated by the President for appointment and must be confirmed via majority vote by the Senate. The Chairman and Vice Chairman may not be members of the armed force service branch. However, the President may waive that restriction for a period of time in order to provide for the orderly transition of officers appointed to serve in those positions. However, in a time of war or national emergency, there is no limit to how many times an officer can be reappointed to serve as Chairman, historically, the Chairman has served two terms. By statute, the Chairman is appointed as a general or admiral while holding office. All pay for officers, however, is limited by Level II of the Executive Schedule which is $15,125.10.1, Functions of the Department of Defense. Department of Defense Directive 5100.01 Functions of the Department of Defense, office of the Secretary Defense, Director of Administration and Management, Directorate for Organizational & Management Planning. Official Joint Chiefs of Staff site
3.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
4.
Harry S. Truman
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Harry S. Truman was an American politician who served as the 33rd President of the United States, assuming the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt during the waning months of World War II. In domestic affairs, he was a moderate Democrat whose liberal proposals were a continuation of Franklin Roosevelts New Deal, but the conservative-dominated Congress blocked most of them. He also used weapons to end World War II, desegregated the U. S. armed forces, supported a newly independent Israel. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, and spent most of his youth on his familys 600-acre farm near Independence, in the last months of World War I, he served in combat in France as an artillery officer with his National Guard unit. After the war, he owned a haberdashery in Kansas City, Missouri, and joined the Democratic Party. Truman was first elected to office as a county official in 1922. After serving as a United States Senator from Missouri and briefly as Vice President, he succeeded to the presidency on April 12,1945, upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Germany surrendered on Trumans 61st birthday, just a few weeks after he assumed the presidency, but the war with Imperial Japan raged on and was expected to last at least another year. Although this decision and the issues that arose as a result of it remain the subject of debate to this day. Truman presided over a surge in economic prosperity as America sought readjustment after long years of depression. His presidency was a point in foreign affairs, as the United States engaged in an internationalist foreign policy. Truman helped found the United Nations in 1945, issued the Truman Doctrine in 1947 to contain Communism and his political coalition was based on the white South, labor unions, farmers, ethnic groups, and traditional Democrats across the North. Truman was able to rally groups of supporters during the 1948 presidential election. The Soviet Union became an enemy in the Cold War, Truman oversaw the Berlin Airlift of 1948 and the creation of NATO in 1949, but was unable to stop Communists from taking over China. When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, he sent U. S. troops, after initial successes in Korea, however, the UN forces were thrown back by Chinese intervention, and the conflict was stalemated throughout the final years of Trumans presidency. Scholars, starting in 1962, ranked Trumans presidency as near great, Harry S. Truman was born on May 8,1884, in Lamar, Missouri, the oldest child of John Anderson Truman and Martha Ellen Young Truman. His parents chose the name Harry after his mothers brother, Harrison Harry Young, while the S did not stand for any one name, it was chosen as his middle initial to honor both of his grandfathers, Anderson Shipp Truman and Solomon Young. The initial has been written and printed followed by a period
5.
Omar Bradley
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After the war, Bradley headed the Veterans Administration and became Army Chief of Staff. In 1949, Bradley was appointed the first Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Bradley was the last of only nine people to hold a five-star rank in the United States Armed Forces. Bradley, the son of schoolteacher John Smith Bradley and Mary Elizabeth Hubbard, was born into poverty in rural Randolph County, near Clark, Bradley was named after Omar D. Gray, a local newspaper editor admired by his father, and a local doctor called Nelson. He was of British ancestry, his ancestors having migrated from Great Britain to Kentucky in the mid-1700s and he attended country schools where his father taught. When Omar was 15 his father, with whom he credited passing on to him a love of books, baseball and shooting and his mother moved to Moberly, Missouri and remarried. Bradley graduated from Moberly High School in 1910, an outstanding student, Bradley had been planning on saving his money to enter the University of Missouri in Columbia, where he intended to study law. He finished second in the West Point placement exams at Jefferson Barracks Military Post in St. Louis, the first-place winner was unable to accept the Congressional appointment, and so Bradley took his place. While at the academy, Bradleys devotion to sports prevented him from excelling academically and he was a baseball star, and often played on semi-pro teams for no remuneration. While stationed at West Point as an instructor, Bradley became a Freemason in 1923, becoming a member of the West Point Lodge #877, Highland Falls, Bradleys first wife, Mary Quayle, grew up across the street from him in Moberly. The pair attended Central Christian Church and Moberly High School together, Moberly called Bradley its favorite son and throughout his life Bradley called Moberly his hometown and his favorite city in the world. At West Point, Bradley played three years of varsity baseball including on the 1914 team, from every player who remained in the army ultimately became a general. He graduated from West Point in 1915 as part of a class that contained many future generals, woodruff, John French Conklin, Walter W. Hess, and Edwin A. Zundel. Bradley was commissioned as a lieutenant into the Infantry Branch of the United States Army and was first assigned to the 14th Infantry Regiment. He served on the Mexico–United States border in 1915, when the United States entered World War I, in April 1917, he was promoted to captain and sent to guard the Butte, Montana copper mines. Bradley joined the 19th Infantry Division in August 1918, which was scheduled for European deployment, but the influenza pandemic, between the wars, he taught and studied. From 1920 to 1924, he taught mathematics at West Point and he was promoted to major in 1924 and took the advanced infantry course at Fort Benning, Georgia. After brief duty in Hawaii, he studied at the U. S. Army Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas in 1928–29. Upon graduating from the U. S. Army Command and General Staff College at Leavenworth, there the assistant commandant, Lieutenant Colonel George Marshall called him quiet, unassuming, capable, with sound common sense
6.
United States Ambassador to France
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The United States Ambassador to France is the official representative of the President of the United States to the head of state of France. There has been a U. S. Ambassador to France since the American Revolution, the United States sent its first envoys to France in 1776, towards the end of the four-centuries-old Bourbon dynasty. The American diplomatic relationship with France has continued throughout that countrys five republican regimes, two periods of French empire, the Bourbon Restoration, and its July Monarchy. Livingston,1801 –1804 John Armstrong,1804 –1810 Joel Barlow,1811 –1812 William H. Crawford,1813 –1815 Albert Gallatin July 16,1816 – May 16,1823 James Brown,1824 –1829 William C. Mason,1853 –1859 William L. Dayton,1861 –1864 John Bigelow,1864 –1866 John Adams Dix,1866 –1869 Elihu B, Ambassador to France from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
7.
William Christian Bullitt Jr.
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William Christian Bullitt, Jr. was an American diplomat, journalist, and novelist. Although in his youth he was considered something of a radical, Bullitt was born to a prominent, well-to-do Philadelphia family, the son of Louisa Gross and William Christian Bullitt, Sr. His grandfather was John Christian Bullitt, founder of the law firm known as Drinker Biddle & Reath. He graduated from Yale University in 1913, after having been voted most brilliant in his class and he briefly attended Harvard Law School but dropped out on the death of his father in 1914. At Yale he was a member of Scroll and Key and he married socialite Aimee Ernesta Drinker in 1916. She gave birth to a son in 1917, but the baby died two days. In 1924 he married Louise Bryant, journalist author of Six Red Months in Russia, Bullitt divorced Bryant in 1930 and took custody of their daughter, after he discovered Bryants affair with English sculptor Gwen Le Gallienne. The Bullitts daughter, Anne Moen Bullitt, was born in February 1924, in 1967, she married her fourth husband, U. S. Bullitt became a correspondent in Europe and later a novelist. In 1926, he published Its Not Done, a novel that lampooned the dying aristocracy of Chesterbridge. Working for Woodrow Wilson at the Paris Peace Conference, in 1919, Bullitt was a supporter of legalistic internationalism. Having failed to convince Wilson to support the establishment of relations with the Bolshevik government and he later returned to the United States and testified in the Senate against the Treaty of Versailles and had his report of his Russian trip placed into the record. Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Bullitt the first US ambassador to the Soviet Union, at the time of his appointment, Bullitt was known as a liberal and thought by some to be something of a radical. The Soviets welcomed him as an old friend because of his efforts at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. Though Bullitt arrived in the Soviet Union with high hopes for Soviet–American relations, by the end of his tenure he was openly hostile to the Soviet government. He remained an outspoken anti-communist for the rest of his life, Bullitt was recalled after US journalist Donald Day had disclosed that he had been involved in illegal exchange of and trading with Torgsin rubles. During this period, he was engaged to Roosevelts personal secretary. However, she broke off the engagement after a trip to Moscow, during which she discovered him to be having an affair with Olga Lepeshinskaya
8.
Governor of Puerto Rico
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The governor of Puerto Rico is the head of government of Puerto Rico and, by its nature, constitutes the executive branch of the government of the island. He is also the commander-in-chief of the military forces, the Puerto Rico National Guard. Since 1948, the governor has been elected by the people of Puerto Rico, prior to that, the governor was appointed either by the King of Spain or the President of the United States. Article IV of the Constitution of Puerto Rico vests the executive power on the governor, law No.104 of 1956 empowers him with the faculty to delegate functions. These two faculties in conjunction allow the governor to delegate most of his functions while continuing to be the maximum officer, most of the governors functions are delegated to the Chief of Staff, who is charged with managing and overseeing all the executive departments and almost all executive agencies. The budget is delegated to the Director of the Office of Management, historically, however, governors tend to be heavily involved in the day-to-day operations of the government in both internal and external affairs. It is believed that the rank was apparently established through democratic means. His importance in the tribe was determined by the size of his rather than his warlord skills. Agüeybaná I is the most-well known cacique as he was the one governing all others when the Spaniards arrived in 1493 although many others existed during his period, as well as before and after him. Juan Ponce de León was appointed as the first Governor of Puerto Rico in 1508, in 1579, after several others had already served as governor, Juan Ponce de León II became the first person born in Puerto Rico to assume, temporarily, the governorship of Puerto Rico. He served until, who assumed the governorship of the island that same year, in 1914 Howard Lewis Kern from Charles City, Iowa was appointed by Woodrow Wilson to be the attorney general. The acting governor fell ill and Kern served as the acting governor off and on from 1914 to 1916, during that time Governor Kern focused on cleaning up the riff-raff, educating women and children, providing public health and welfare. Kern was partner in starting the International Telephone and Telegraph Company from the failing Puerto Rican Radio and his wife, Edna Francis and their first daughter, Myrna Quail resided in the governors mansion across the street from Fortaleza. Their second daughter, Virginia was born in Newark after their return to the north, ref. cited-Whos Who in America and the San Juan Islander Newspaper 1916-1924. It is believed that Juan Bernardo Huyke may have served as an interim or acting governor in the absence of Kern, who resigned in 1924. Emmet Montgomery Reily and Horace Mann Towner also served in the appointment of governorship, in 1946, President Harry Truman appointed Jesús T. Piñero to the governors seat. Piñero remained in office until 1948, when Puerto Ricans were allowed to choose their governor for the first time in history, in 1948, Luis Muñoz Marín became the first Puerto Rican elected Governor of Puerto Rico. The governor is head of the government of Puerto Rico and he has the power to veto any number of projects that the Puerto Rican Legislature wishes to pass
9.
Blanton Winship
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Winship was an American military lawyer and veteran of both the Spanish–American War and World War I. During his long career, he served both as Judge Advocate General of the United States Army and as the Governor of Puerto Rico, blanton Winship was born in Macon, Georgia and graduated from Mercer University in 1889. He received a law degree from the University of Georgia in 1893, during the Spanish–American War, Winship joined the 1st Georgia Infantry, a volunteer force. After the war, he elected to join the United States Army as a judge advocate and he remained in the military through 1914, when he began to teach law at the Army Service School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. When World War I broke out, he fought in France, for his service during that war, Winship was awarded both a Distinguished Service Cross and Silver Star. Following the war, Winship returned to military law and he was appointed to serve as a military aide to President Calvin Coolidge. Eventually he became the Judge Advocate General of the Army, a position he held from 1931 to his retirement from service in 1933, during World War II, Winship returned to active duty. During this time, he set precedents for military tribunals in the United States during participation in the commission to try Nazi saboteurs arrested in this country. Winship retired for good in 1944, at 75, he was at that time the oldest Army officer on active duty. In 1934, Winship was appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt as governor of Puerto Rico and this was in part due to major strikes that had taken place that year, causing the administration to fear social unrest. Colonel Francis Riggs accompanied Winship as chief of police, Riggs had formerly assisted Nicaraguas dictator, Anastasio Somoza. As Governor, Winships primary mission was to crush the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, by imprisoning its leadership, upon arrival he immediately set out to militarize the Insular Police force, arming it with machine guns and riot control equipment. Winship also recruited a new Police Chief, E. Francis Riggs, whose background was in military intelligence, together, Winship and Riggs spent their weekends inspecting the new vigorous police training camps which they created throughout the island. Winship criticized many of Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickess policies toward the island, relief spending during the Great Depression for Puerto Rico was far below either that of the mainland or Hawaii. This lack of spending contributed to the poverty of the island, in October 1935, the Insular Police killed four Puerto Rican Nationalist Party members at the University of Puerto Rico in Rio Piedras, a neighboring town next to San Juan. The event became known as the Rio Piedras Massacre, ramón S. Pagan, Pedro Quiñones, Eduardo Rodríguez Vera, José Santiago Barea and a bystander were killed. On February 23,1936, the nationalists Hiram Rosado and Elias Beauchamp retaliated by killing Col. Riggs in San Juan, captured, both Rosado and Beauchamp were executed at the police headquarters without trial. No law enforcement officer ever stood trial for the executions, following these events, the government rounded up numerous Nationalist Party members and charged them with sedition
10.
Chief of Naval Operations
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The Chief of Naval Operations is a statutory office held by a four-star admiral in the United States Navy, and is the most senior naval officer assigned to serve in the Department of the Navy. The office is an adviser and deputy to the Secretary of the Navy. The current Chief of Naval Operations is Admiral John M. Richardson, under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, the CNO also designates naval personnel and naval resources to the commanders of Unified Combatant Commands. The CNO also performs all other functions prescribed under 10 U. S. C. §5033, the CNO is typically the highest-ranking officer on active duty in the Navy unless the Chairman and/or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are naval officers. Like the other joint chiefs, the CNO is a position and has no operational command authority over United States naval forces. The Chief of Naval Operations is nominated by the President for appointment, however, the president may waive those requirements if he determines that appointing the officer is necessary for the national interest. By statute, the CNO is appointed as a four-star admiral, number One Observatory Circle, located on the northeast grounds of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, DC, was built in 1893 for its superintendent. The Chief of Naval Operations liked the house so much that in 1923 he took over the house as his own official residence and it remained the residence of the CNO until 1974, when Congress authorized its transformation to an official residence for the Vice President. The Chief of Naval Operations currently resides in Quarters A in the Washington Naval Yard, the position of CNO replaced the position of Aide for Naval Operations, which was a position established by regulation rather than statutory law. Lists of Commanding Officers and Senior Officials of the US Navy, archived from the original on 18 December 2007
11.
William Harrison Standley
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William Harrison Standley was a U. S. admiral. He served as the Chief of Naval Operations between 1933 and 1937 and he also served as the U. S. ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1941 until 1943. Standley was born in Ukiah, California, where his grandfather operated a hotel and his father and he graduated from the US Naval Academy in 1895. He then served the two years sea duty in the cruiser Olympia before he received his commission as an ensign in 1897. During the Spanish–American War, he served in the monitor Monterey, after the fighting with Spain had ended, he joined the gunboat Yorktown, during the Philippine–American War. He won a commendation for bravery during a reconnaissance mission carried out at Baler. In conjunction with a feint conducted by Lt. J. C, gilmore, Standley, then an ensign, ventured into enemy territory to reconnoiter insurgent positions. Ordered to the gunboat Marietta on 29 May 1901, Standley later became Officer in Charge, Branch Hydrographic Office, San Francisco, California, in October of the same year. Assigned to the training ship Pensacola in June 1902, he served as engineer in the ship Adams and as aide to the Commandant of the Naval Station at Tutuila. Reporting to the receiving ship Independence in January 1907, Standley served as officer of the cruiser Albany from February 1909 to August 1910. From January 1910, he discharged duties as Albanys navigator as well. Standley then reported to the armored cruiser Pennsylvania on 3 November 1910 and was navigator of that ship until becoming aide to the Commandant of the Mare Island Navy Yard at Vallejo, California. After three years in that post, Standley became executive officer of the battleship New Jersey and later command of the gunboat Yorktown on 15 May 1915. Returning to the Naval Academy on 14 October 1916, as Assistant to the Superintendent in charge of Building and Grounds, for his highly meritorious service in those posts at Annapolis, Standley received a special letter of commendation from the Secretary of the Navy. Detached from the Naval Academy in July 1919, Standley soon thereafter assumed command of the pre-dreadnought battleship Virginia and, completing the latter tour on 1 February 1926, Standley then commanded California from 15 February 1926 to 11 October 1927. He returned to duty in Washington, D. C. as Director of the Fleet Training Division, Office of the CNO. Appointed vice admiral, on 20 January 1932 while in command of the Battle Forces cruisers, Standley was placed in command of the Battle Force, U. S. Fleet, with the rank of admiral, on 20 May 1933. Breaking his flag in his command, California, the admiral remained at sea until 1 July 1933
12.
Harold Rainsford Stark
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Harold Rainsford Stark served as an officer in the United States Navy during World War I and World War II. Stark was the US Navys 8th Chief of Naval Operations, from August 1,1939 to 26 March 1942, Stark enrolled in the United States Naval Academy in 1899 and graduated with the class of 1903. As a plebe there he received the nickname Betty, from 1907 to 1909, Stark served on the battleship USS Minnesota before and during the U. S. Atlantic Fleets cruise around the world, Stark served on the staff of Commander, US Naval Forces operating in Europe from November 1917 to January 1919. From 1934 to 1937, Rear Admiral Stark was Chief of the Bureau of Ordnance and he then from July 1938 served at sea as Commander Cruiser Division Three and Commander of Cruisers in the Battle Fleet, with the rank of Vice Admiral. In August 1939, Stark became Chief of Naval Operations with the rank of Admiral, in that position, he oversaw the expansion of the Navy during 1940 and 1941, and its involvement in the Neutrality Patrols against German submarines in the Atlantic during the latter part of 1941. It was at time that he authored the Plan Dog memo. It appears the decision was taken without the knowledge or prior consent of the government and it violated the London Naval Treaty, to which the U. S. was signatory. His most controversial service involved the growing menace of Japanese forces in the period before America was bombed into the war by the attack on Pearl Harbor, captain Edwin T. Layton was Kimmels chief intelligence officer at the time of the attack. John Costello, in Days of Infamy, points out MacArthur had complete access to both PURPLE and JN-25, plus over eight hours warning, and was caught by surprise. Moreover, as SCAP official historian Gordon Prange and his colleagues note in December 7,1941, defense of the fleet was General Shorts responsibility, among others, Morison and Layton agree Turner was most responsible for the debacle, as does Ned Beach in Scapegoats. In addition, there was confusion over where Japan might strike. As CNO, Stark oversaw combat operations against Japan and the European Axis Powers that officially began in December 1941, in March 1942, Stark was relieved as CNO by Admiral Ernest King. He went to England the next month to become Commander of U. S. Naval Forces in Europe. From his London headquarters, Admiral Stark directed the naval part of the buildup in England and U. S. naval operations. He received the title of Commander of the Twelfth Fleet in October 1943. Admiral Stark built and maintained relations with British civilian and naval leaders, who generally adored him. Stark was particularly important in dealing with Charles de Gaulle, it was thanks to Stark the U. S. -British-Free French relationship continued to work and he earned high praise from King for his work
13.
Hampton, Iowa
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Hampton is a city in Franklin County, Iowa, United States. The population was 4,461 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Franklin County. William A. Krause and Tony S. Gentle, founded the Hampton Oil Company in Hampton, Hampton Oil eventually became the Krause Gentle Corporation, which is Kum & Gos parent company. In 1963, Krause Gentle introduced the companys first convenience stores, the Kum & Go brand has expanded to become a dominating competitor in the Midwestern United States convenience store market and as of 2010 is ranked 23rd largest in the entire nation with 434 stores. In 1988, the headquarters were moved to West Des Moines, hamptons longitude and latitude coordinates in decimal form are 42.743164, -93.207872. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 4.43 square miles. As of the census of 2010, there were 4,461 people,1,752 households, the population density was 1,007.0 inhabitants per square mile. There were 1,971 housing units at a density of 444.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 89. 1% White,0. 6% African American,0. 2% Native American,0. 3% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,7. 2% from other races, and 2. 6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 21. 5% of the population,30. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 15. 4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the family size was 3.05. The median age in the city was 38.9 years. 26% of residents were under the age of 18,7. 4% were between the ages of 18 and 24,23. 7% were from 25 to 44,23. 9% were from 45 to 64, and 19% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49. 4% male and 50. 6% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 4,218 people,1,766 households, and 1,110 families residing in the city. The population density was 986.4 people per square mile, there were 1,928 housing units at an average density of 450.9 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 90. 90% White,0. 14% African American,0. 26% Native American,0. 19% Asian,7. 68% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 10. 98% of the population. 32. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 18. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 2.89. Age spread,23. 2% under the age of 18,8. 3% from 18 to 24,24. 3% from 25 to 44,22. 1% from 45 to 64, the median age was 41 years
14.
Bethesda, Maryland
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Bethesda is a census-designated place in southern Montgomery County, Maryland, United States, located just northwest of the U. S. capital of Washington, D. C. It takes its name from a church, the Bethesda Meeting House. In Aramaic, ܒܝܬ ܚܣܕܐ beth ḥesda means House of Mercy and in Hebrew, the National Institutes of Health main campus and the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center are in Bethesda, as are a number of corporate and government headquarters. In 2014 it placed first in Forbes list of Americas most educated small towns, as an unincorporated area, Bethesda has no official boundaries. The United States Census Bureau defines a place named Bethesda whose center is located at 38°59′N 77°7′W. The United States Geological Survey has defined Bethesda as an area whose center is at 38°58′50″N 77°6′2″W, other definitions are used by the Bethesda Urban Planning District, the United States Postal Service, and other organizations. According to estimates released by the U. S. Census Bureau in 2013, Most of Bethesdas residents are in Maryland Legislative District 16. Bethesda is situated along a thoroughfare that was originally the route of an ancient Native American trail. Henry Fleet, an English fur trader, was the first European to travel to the area, Most early settlers in Maryland were tenant farmers who paid their rent in tobacco. A small settlement grew around a store and tollhouse along the turnpike, by 1862, the community was known as Darcys Store after the owner of a local establishment, William E. Darcy. The church burned in 1849 and was rebuilt the same year about 100 yards south at its present site. Throughout most of the 19th century, Bethesda never developed beyond a small village, consisting of a post office, a blacksmith shop, a church and school. It was not until the installation of a line in 1890. Until that time, dependence on proximity to rail lines insulated Bethesda from growth, the arrival of the personal automobile ended this dependency, and Bethesda planners grew the community with the newest transportation revolution in mind. Subdivisions began to appear on old farmland, becoming the neighborhoods of Drummond, Woodmont, Edgemoor, further north, several wealthy men made Rockville Pike famous for its mansions. These included Brainard W. Parker, James Oyster, George E. Hamilton, wilson, Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor, and George Freeland Peter. In 1930, Dr Armistead Peters pioneering manor house Winona became the clubhouse of the original Woodmont Country Club, merle Thorpes mansion, Pooks Hill —on the site of the current neighborhood of the same name—became the home-in-exile of the Norwegian Royal Family during World War II. That war, and the expansion of government that it created, both the National Naval Medical Center and the NIH complex were built just to the north of the developing downtown
15.
William D. Leahy
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Fleet Admiral William Daniel Leahy was an American naval officer who served as the senior-most United States military officer on active duty during World War II. He held multiple titles and was at the center of all the military decisions the United States made in World War II. As Chief of Naval Operations from 1937 to 1939, he was the officer in the navy. After retiring from the navy, he was appointed in 1939 by his close friend President Franklin D. Roosevelt as Governor of Puerto Rico. In his most controversial role, he served as the United States Ambassador to France 1940–42, Leahy was recalled to active duty as the personal Chief of Staff to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1942 and served in that position throughout World War II. He chaired the Chiefs of Staff and was a major decision-maker during the war and he continued under President Harry S. Truman until finally retiring in 1949. From 1942 until his retirement in 1949, he was the member of the U. S. military. As Fleet Admiral, Leahy was the first U. S. naval officer ever to hold a rank in the U. S. The USS Leahy was named in his honor, from an Irish-American family, Leahy was born in Hampton, Iowa, and moved with his parents to Ashland, Wisconsin, as a child. His father Michael Arthur Leahy was a lawyer and Civil War veteran. However, he attended the United States Naval Academy, graduating 14th in his class of 47 in 1897, midshipman Leahy was assigned to USS Oregon, then in the Pacific. This was the only battle Leahy ever saw in person, having completed the two years of sea duty then required by law, Leahy was commissioned Ensign on July 1,1899. At that time, he was on the Asiatic Station, where, during the Philippine–American War and he returned to the United States in 1902 and became a member of the Military Order of the Dragon. For the next five years, he did duty on board the training ship USS Pensacola, Tacoma and Boston and his first shore duty was at the Naval Academy. Beginning in 1907, he served as instructor in the Department of Physics and he went to sea in 1909 and served as navigator of the armored cruiser California in the Pacific Fleet. On October 18,1911, Lt. Cmdr. Leahy served as aide to President William Howard Taft, at the laying of the keel of USS Jupiter. During the American Occupation of Nicaragua in 1912, he was Chief of Staff to the Commander, late in 1912, he came ashore in Washington as Assistant Director of Gunnery Exercises and Engineering Competitions. In 1913, he was assigned to the Bureau of Navigation as a detail officer and he was in that assignment in early 1917 in West Indian waters and had additional duty as Senior Aide on the Staff of Commander Squadron Three of the Patrol Force Atlantic Fleet
16.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
17.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
18.
Battle of Santiago de Cuba
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Cuban revolutionaries had staged revolts against Spanish colonial authority in the Ten Years War, the Little War, and the Cuban War of Independence. As a consequence, many Cubans died of disease and malnutrition, enrique Dupuy de Lȏme was appointed the Spanish Minister to the United States in 1892. In this capacity, it was his duty to refrain from allowing his personal beliefs to intervene with his duty to support peaceful diplomatic relations between the United States and Spain. However, a letter that expressed his opposition to McKinley’s foreign policy decisions was exposed, many Americans considered it an insult to the nation and to the president. Although Spain apologized, on February 13,1898, the Maine exploded and sank in Havana Harbor, Cuba, after a hasty naval court of inquiry, the American press blamed Spain and accused them of planting a mine that sank the battleship. The war with Spain became known as the “Correspondents’ War”, journalists not only wrote stories about the conflict, but took part in the fight. In 1898, the prestige of the press ran high, American society was changing as literacy rates increased. There was a new revolution of readers, as war zones became more open to the press, journalists wrote eyewitness accounts of what was happening. In an era before radio and television, newspapers were the source of information, opinion. You furnish the pictures and Ill furnish the war, newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst declared, in New York City, where the population was about 2,800,000, the combined circulation of daily papers was about 2,000,000. In response to the outcry, McKinley took action against Spain. On April 25, the United States declared war, moreover, the United States sought to expand economic ties with Cuba for its resources in sugar and tobacco, all of which influenced America’s decision to intervene. It was evident that gaining territories across the globe would increase the strength and influence of the United States, Spanish Prime Minister Práxedes Mateo Sagasta did not seek war with the United States. He did not expect victory, but he knew Spanish citizens would revolt if he conceded to American demands in Cuba. Meanwhile, Spanish naval leaders tried to employ a strategy where they would not win the war outright, on May 1,1898, American and Spanish naval forces met in the Philippines at the Battle of Manila Bay, which resulted in a decisive victory for the United States. The Spanish government sent their fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete to defend Cuba and keep a line of communication with the Spanish garrison there. Indeed, that surprise is well justified, for nothing can be expected of this expedition except the total destruction of the fleet or its hasty and demoralized return. Lacking a clear strategy, the Spanish may have hoped to end the war quickly in a defeat against the more powerful U. S. Navy
19.
Boxer Rebellion
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The Boxer Rebellion, Boxer Uprising or Yihequan Movement a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising that took place in China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty. The uprising took place against a background of severe drought and the disruption caused by the growth of foreign spheres of influence, Foreigners and Chinese Christians sought refuge in the Legation Quarter. Diplomats, foreign civilians and soldiers as well as Chinese Christians in the Legation Quarter were placed under siege by the Imperial Army of China, Chinese officialdom was split between those supporting the Boxers and those favoring conciliation, led by Prince Qing. The supreme commander of the Chinese forces, the Manchu General Ronglu, the Eight-Nation Alliance, after being initially turned back, brought 20,000 armed troops to China, defeated the Imperial Army, and captured Beijing on August 14, lifting the siege of the Legations. Uncontrolled plunder of the capital and the surrounding countryside ensued, along with the execution of those suspected of being Boxers. The Empress Dowager then sponsored a set of institutional and fiscal changes in an attempt to save the dynasty by reforming it. The Righteous and Harmonious Fists arose in the sections of the northern coastal province of Shandong long known for social unrest, religious sects. American Christian missionaries were probably the first to refer to the well-trained, athletic men as Boxers, because of the martial arts. Their primary practice was a type of possession which involved the whirling of swords, violent prostrations. The opportunities to fight back Western encroachment and colonization were especially attractive to unemployed village men, the tradition of possession and invulnerability went back several hundred years but took on special meaning against the powerful new weapons of the West. The Boxers, armed with rifles and swords, claimed supernatural invulnerability towards blows of cannon, rifle shots, furthermore, the Boxer groups popularly claimed that millions of soldiers of Heaven would descend to assist them in purifying China of foreign oppression. The Big Swords, emboldened by this support, also attacked their local Catholic village rivals. The Big Swords responded by attacking Catholic churches and burning them, the line between Christians and bandits, remarks one recent historian, became increasingly indistinct. As a result of pressure in the capital, Yuxian executed several Big Sword leaders. More martial secret societies started emerging after this, the early years saw a variety of village activities, not a broad movement or a united purpose. Martial folk religious societies such as the Baguadao prepared the way for the Boxers, like the Red Boxing school or the Plum Flower Boxers, the Boxers of Shandong were more concerned with traditional social and moral values, such as filial piety, than with foreign influences. One leader, for instance, Zhu Hongdeng, started as a healer, specializing in skin ulcers. Zhu claimed descent from Ming dynasty emperors, since his surname was the surname of the Ming imperial family and he announced that his goal was to Revive the Qing and destroy the foreigners
20.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
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World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
22.
Vichy France
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Vichy France is the common name of the French State headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. In particular, it represents the southern, unoccupied Free Zone that governed the southern part of the country, from 1940 to 1942, while the Vichy regime was the nominal government of France as a whole, Germany militarily occupied northern France. Thus, while Paris remained the de jure capital of France, following the Allied landings in French North Africa in November 1942, southern France was also militarily occupied by Germany and Italy. The Vichy government remained in existence, but as a de facto client and it vanished in late 1944 when the Allies occupied all of France. After being appointed Premier by President Albert Lebrun, Marshal Pétain ordered the French Governments military representatives to sign an armistice with Germany on 22 June 1940, Pétain subsequently established an authoritarian regime when the National Assembly of the French Third Republic granted him full powers on 10 July 1940. At that point, the Third Republic was dissolved, calling for National Regeneration, the French Government at Vichy reversed many liberal policies and began tight supervision of the economy, with central planning a key feature. Labour unions came under government control. The independence of women was reversed, with a put on motherhood. Paris lost its status in European art and culture. The media were tightly controlled and stressed virulent anti-Semitism, and, after June 1941, the French State maintained nominal sovereignty over the whole of French territory, but had effective full sovereignty only in the unoccupied southern zone libre. It had limited and only civil authority in the zones under military occupation. The occupation was to be a state of affairs, pending the conclusion of the war. The French Government at Vichy never joined the Axis alliance, Germany kept two million French soldiers prisoner, carrying out forced labour. They were hostages to ensure that Vichy would reduce its forces and pay a heavy tribute in gold, food. French police were ordered to round up immigrant Jews and other such as communists. Public opinion in some quarters turned against the French government and the occupying German forces over time, when it became clear that Germany was losing the war, and resistance to them increased. Most of the legal French governments leaders at Vichy fled or were subject to show trials by the GPRF, thousands of collaborators were summarily executed by local communists and the Resistance in so-called savage purges. The last of the French State exiles were captured in the Sigmaringen enclave by de Gaulles French 1st Armoured Division in April 1945, in 1940, Marshal Pétain was known as a First World War hero, the victor of the battle of Verdun
23.
Combined Chiefs of Staff
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The Combined Chiefs of Staff was the supreme military staff for the Western Allies during World War II. It emerged from the meetings of the Arcadia Conference in December 1941. S. military operations between War and Navy Departments, the CCS charter was approved by President Roosevelt 21 April 1942. The American members of the CCS were General George C, Marshall, the United States Army chief of staff, the Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral Harold R. Stark, and the Chief of the Army Air Forces, Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold. In July 1942 a fourth member was added, the Presidents personal Chief of Staff, on the British side the Chiefs of Staff only normally attended during the heads of states conferences. Instead the British Joint Staff Mission was permanently situated in Washington, the representative of the Prime Minister was Field Marshal Sir John Dill and after his death Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson. Sir Coville Wemyss and Lt. Gen. G. N. Macready, and the Chief of the Air Staff was represented by Air Marshal D. C. S. Evill, Air Marshal Sir William L. Welsh, and Air Marshal Douglas Colyer. Dill, a friend of Marshall, often took the American position. The Combined Chiefs of Staff organization included the Combined Secretariat and a number of committees, in the Northern hemisphere spring of 1942, Britain and the United States agreed on a worldwide division of strategic responsibility. On 24 March 1942, the U. S, china was designated a separate theater commanded by its chief of state, Chiang Kai-shek, though within the United States sphere of responsibility. Six days later the Joint Chiefs of Staff divided the Pacific theater into three areas, the Pacific Ocean Areas, the South West Pacific Area, and the Southeast Pacific Area, the Pacific Ocean Area command formally became operational on 8 May. The CCS usually held its meetings in Washington, the full CCS usually met only during the great wartime conferences on grand strategy, such as at Casablanca. The meetings of heads of government at conferences were designed to reach formal agreement on issues thoroughly staffed by the CCS. At the Casablanca Conference in January 1943, General Frank Maxwell Andrews was appointed commander of all United States forces in the European Theater of Operations. Although it was responsible to both the British and American governments, the CCS controlled forces from different countries in all theaters, including the Pacific, India. Representatives of allied nations were not members of the CCS but accepted procedure included consultation with Military Representatives of Associated Powers on strategic issues. Both the US Joint Chiefs of Staff and the UKs Chiefs of Staff Committee met as a Combined Chiefs of Staff Committee around March 2013 and this was held in Washington DC. Subsequent meetings were held in London 2014 and in the National Defense University, witness to Power, The Life of Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy Butler, J. R. M. September 1939 - June 1941, official British history Cline, Ray S. Washington Command Post, office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army,1951
24.
Five-star rank
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A five-star rank is a very senior military rank, first established in the United States in 1944, with a five-star insignia, and corresponding ranks in other countries. The rank is that of the most senior military commanders. Not all armed forces have such a rank, and in those that do the actual insignia of the five-star ranks may not contain five stars. Typically, five-star officers hold the rank of general of the army, admiral of the fleet, field marshal, marshal of the air force, general of the air force, five-star ranks are extremely senior—usually the highest ranks. As an active rank, the position only in a minority of countries and is usually held by only a very few officers during wartime. In times of peace, it is held only as an honorary rank. Despite the rarity and seniority of officers, even more senior ranks have been adopted in the United States, namely, admiral of the navy. Other names for highly senior ranks from the century include généralissime, generalisimo. Admiral of the fleet Field marshal Marshal of the Royal Australian Air Force Only one Australian born officer has held a substantive Australian five-star rank, five-star ranks in Brazil are only used in wartime. Marshal Grand Admiral Marshal of the Air Stožerni general awarded to six men, the rank was called stožerni admiral until 1999, only Sveto Letica was awarded this rank – in March 1996, three months before his retirement. For marshals of the Indian Air Force, the patches display five stars, there are today no living marshals of Poland, since this rank is bestowed only on military commanders who have achieved victory in war. Captain general Captain general of the Spanish Navy Captain general of the Spanish Air Force These ranks have been reserved for the reigning monarch, since 1973 the three ranks have been reserved for members of the royal family. The worn insignia of British five-star commanders do not contain stars, promotion to the rank of field marshal was generally stopped in 1995 as a cost-cutting measure but is still made in some cases. In 2014 the former Chief of the Defence Staff Lord Stirrup was promoted to the rank of marshal of the RAF. In 1944 the Navy and Army specified that these officers were considered senior to any officers promoted to the ranks within their services. US officers holding five-star rank never retire, they draw full active duty pay for life, the five-star ranks were retired in 1981 on the death of General of the Army Omar Bradley. Nine Americans have been promoted to rank, one of them, Henry H. Arnold. The appointment stated he was to have rank and precedence over all grades of the Army
25.
United States Armed Forces
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
26.
USS Leahy (DLG-16)
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USS Leahy was the lead ship of a new class of destroyer leaders in the United States Navy. Named for Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy, she was commissioned on 4 August 1962 as DLG-16, a guided missile frigate, and reclassified as CG-16, a guided missile cruiser, on 30 June 1975. From 1962 to 1976, Leahy operated as a unit of the Atlantic Fleet and she made six Mediterranean deployments, two UNITAS Latin America cruises and eight Western Pacific deployments, completed three Panama Canal transits, and crossed the equator over a dozen times. She traveled the seas from the easternmost end of the Mediterranean to the westernmost edge of the Indian Ocean and she steamed far north to Leningrad, Russia, and the Aleutian Islands, and far south for two passages through the Straits of Magellan. Over the course of her sixteen major deployments, Leahy made port calls on six continents—North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Leahy served longer than any other ship of her class. After more than 31 years of service all over the globe. After another 11 years in the fleet, she was scrapped in Brownsville, Texas. The gun armament was reduced in order to carry a larger missile load, other features included an expanded electrical plant and increased endurance. A major design innovation was the use of macks—combined masts and stacks—on which the radars could be mounted without smoke interference, close-in anti-aircraft defense consisted of a pair of twin MK22 3-inch/50 caliber guns, anti-submarine armament consisted of ASROC and two triple MK32 torpedo mounts. The 3-inch gun mounts were replaced with Harpoon anti-ship missiles and the Phalanx CIWS during an overhaul in 1981, Leahy was laid down by Bath Iron Works Corp. After shakedown in the Caribbean, Leahy departed Boston on 19 September 1963 and reported to Charleston, where Rear Adm. E. E. Grimm, Commander Cruiser-Destroyer Flotilla 6, selected her as his flagship. She then proceeded to the Jacksonville, Florida operating areas for type training and she briefly put into home port in November, then returned to the Caribbean to participate in AA warfare exercises. On 2 January 1964, the DLG was again bound for the Caribbean for missile training, from 1 April to 10 April, she joined in an amphibious exercise, Quick Kick V, and on 1 June was permanently assigned to Destroyer Squadron 6. She then carried out independent training in the eastern Mediterranean before departing from Naples, Italy, on 22 September to join in NATO exercise FALLEX-64. She returned to Naples on 26 October and, in November, participated in another fleetwide exercise, POOPDECK-IV, which brought some 40 ships of Task Force 60 together off the coast of Spain. Leahy departed from Barcelona, Spain, on 2 December 1964 for replenishment and she arrived at Charleston on 22 December and began a period of restricted availability in preparation for extensive tests to evaluate the Terrier Missile System. During these tests, which were completed in September 1965, Leahy was briefly deployed for the Dominican Republic Crisis from 28 April to 7 May 1965 as a unit of the Strike and Covering Force. The vessel departed from Charleston on 30 November 1965 for the Mediterranean and relieved the destroyer William V. Pratt at Pollensa, Leahy returned home to Charleston on 8 April 1966
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Ashland, Wisconsin
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Ashland is a city in Ashland and Bayfield counties in the U. S. state of Wisconsin. The city is a port on Lake Superior, near the head of Chequamegon Bay, the population was 8,216 at the 2010 census, all of which resided in the Ashland County portion of the city. The tiny unpopulated Bayfield County portion is located in the citys southwest, the city is situated at the junction of U. S. Route 2 and Wisconsin Highway 13. It is the home of Northland College, Wisconsin Indianhead Technical College, four flags have flown over the area around Ashland, Spanish, French, English and American. Eight Indian nations have lived on Chequamegon Bay, about the time Christopher Columbus arrived in the New World, the Ojibwe people came to the land they called Sha-ga-waun-il-ong. This term has been translated numerous ways, lowlands, the needle, the region of water. Each is descriptive and suitably accurate, the Ojibwe stayed on Chequamegon Point for about a century before leaving, first to settle on Madeline Island and then to move to the Sault region. French fur traders Pierre dEsprit, le Sieur Radisson and Medard Chouart and they arrived in 1659 and built what has been called the first European dwelling place in Wisconsin. A historical marker is located at Maslowski Beach on U. S. Route 2 on the west end of Ashland, the monument was erected in 1929 by the Old Settlers Club. The Ojibwe heartily welcomed the Frenchmen, five years later, Father Claude-Jean Allouez arrived. A Jesuit missionary, he brought the first word of Christianity to Wisconsins shores, Allouez built a chapel not far from Radissons and Groseilliers stockade and remained at the Bay until 1669. In 1854, Ohioans Asaph Whittlesey and George Kilborn set out from La Pointe to explore the head of Chequamegon Bay, Whittlesey built a 10 ft ×14 ft cabin in Ashland. His wife, Lucy, and daughter, Eugenia, joined him in August, the first community dance was held at their house. The Reverend L. H. Wheeler preached the first sermon on the first Independence Day that was observed there and it was the location of the first post office and polling place for county offices. Sunday school was conducted on the premises. It became a paper, over a decade later. The first issue of the Ashland Daily Press was March 5,1888, second Street was later renamed Main Street. 1998 — Northern Great Lakes Visitor Center is built 2009 — Ore dock slated for demolition, attempts by some community members to help save the historic structure were not successful
28.
United States Military Academy
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It sits on scenic high ground overlooking the Hudson River,50 miles north of New York City. It is one of the four U. S. military service academies, the entire central campus is a national landmark and home to scores of historic sites, buildings, and monuments. The majority of the campuss Norman-style buildings are constructed from gray, the campus is a popular tourist destination complete with a large visitor center and the oldest museum in the United States Army. Candidates for admission must both apply directly to the academy and receive a nomination, usually from a member of Congress or Delegate/Resident Commissioner in the case of Washington, puerto Rico, Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Virgin Islands. Other nomination sources include the President and Vice President of the United States, students are officers-in-training and are referred to as cadets or collectively as the United States Corps of Cadets. Tuition for cadets is fully funded by the Army in exchange for an active duty service obligation upon graduation, approximately 1,300 cadets enter the Academy each July, with about 1,000 cadets graduating. Cadets are required to adhere to the Cadet Honor Code, which states that a cadet will not lie, cheat, steal, the academy bases a cadets leadership experience as a development of all three pillars of performance, academics, physical, and military. Most graduates are commissioned as lieutenants in the Army. Foreign cadets are commissioned into the armies of their home countries, since 1959, cadets have also been eligible to cross-commission, or request a commission in one of the other armed services, provided that they meet that services eligibility standards. Every year, a small number of cadets do this. The academys traditions have influenced other institutions because of its age and it was the first American college to have an accredited civil-engineering program and the first to have class rings, and its technical curriculum was a model for later engineering schools. West Points student body has a rank structure and lexicon. All cadets reside on campus and dine together en masse on weekdays for breakfast, the academy fields fifteen mens and nine womens National Collegiate Athletic Association sports teams. Cadets compete in one sport every fall, winter, and spring season at the intramural, club and its football team was a national power in the early and mid-20th century, winning three national championships. The Continental Army first occupied West Point, New York, on 27 January 1778, between 1778 and 1780, the Polish engineer and military hero Tadeusz Kościuszko oversaw the construction of the garrison defenses. While the fortifications at West Point were known as Fort Arnold during the war, as commander, Benedict Arnold committed his act of treason, after Arnold betrayed the patriot cause, the Army changed the name of the fortifications at West Point, New York, to Fort Clinton. With the peace after the American Revolutionary War, various ordnance, Cadets underwent training in artillery and engineering studies at the garrison since 1794. In 1801, shortly after his inauguration as president, Thomas Jefferson directed that plans be set in motion to establish at West Point the United States Military Academy and he selected Jonathan Williams to serve as its first superintendent
29.
United States Naval Academy
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The United States Naval Academy is a four-year coeducational federal service academy in Annapolis, Maryland, United States. The entire campus is a National Historic Landmark and home to historic sites, buildings. It replaced Philadelphia Naval Asylum, in Philadelphia, that served as the first United States Naval Academy from 1838 to 1845 when the Naval Academy formed in Annapolis. Candidates for admission generally must both apply directly to the academy and receive a nomination, usually from a Member of Congress, students are officers-in-training and are referred to as midshipmen. Tuition for midshipmen is fully funded by the Navy in exchange for an active duty service obligation upon graduation, approximately 1,200 plebes enter the Academy each summer for the rigorous Plebe Summer, but only about 1,000 midshipmen graduate. The United States Naval Academy has some of the highest paid graduates in the according to starting salary. Midshipmen are required to adhere to the academys Honor Concept, the United States Naval Academys campus is located in Annapolis, Maryland, at the confluence of the Severn River and the Chesapeake Bay. In its 2016 edition, U. S. News & World Report ranked the U. S. Naval Academy as the No.1 public liberal arts college and tied for the 9th best overall liberal arts college in the U. S. In the category of High School Counselor Rankings of National Liberal Arts Colleges, Military Academy and the U. S. Air Force Academy, and is tied for the No.5 spot for Best Undergraduate Engineering program at schools where doctorates not offered. In 2016, Forbes ranked the U. S. Naval Academy as No.24 overall in its report Americas Top Colleges, nominations may be made by members of and delegates to Congress, the President or Vice-President, the Secretary of the Navy or certain other sources. Candidates must also pass a fitness test and a thorough medical exam as part of the application process. In the 21st century, there have been about 1,200 students in each new class of plebes, the U. S. government pays for tuition, room, and board. Midshipmen receive monthly pay of $1,017.00, as of 2015, from this amount, pay is automatically deducted for the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, services, and other miscellaneous expenses. Midshipmen only receive a portion of their pay in cash while the rest is released during firstie year. Midshipmen fourth-class to midshipmen second-class receive monthly stipends of $100, $200, $300, Midshipmen first-class receive the difference between pay and outstanding expenses. Students at the academy are addressed as Midshipman, an official military rank. The same term comprises both males and females, upon graduation, most naval academy midshipmen are commissioned as ensigns in the Navy or second lieutenants in the Marine Corps and serve a minimum of five years after their commissioning. If they are selected to serve as a pilot, they will serve 8–11 years minimum from their date of winging, Foreign midshipmen are commissioned into the armed forces of their native countries
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Midshipman
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A midshipman is an officer cadet or a commissioned officer candidate of the junior-most rank, in the Royal Navy, United States Navy, and many Commonwealth navies. Commonwealth countries which use the rank include Canada, Australia, Bangladesh, Namibia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and Kenya. Beginning in the 18th century, an officer candidate was rated as a midshipman. After serving at least three years as a midshipman or masters mate, he was eligible to take the examination for lieutenant, promotion to lieutenant was not automatic, and many midshipmen took positions as masters mates for an increase in pay and responsibility aboard ship. Midshipman began to mean an officer cadet at a naval college, trainees now spent around four years in a college and two years at sea prior to promotion to commissioned officer rank. Between the mid-19th and mid-20th centuries, time at sea declined to less than a year as the age was increased from 12 to 18. Ranks equivalent to midshipman exist in other navies. Using US midshipman or pre-fleet board UK midshipman as the basis for comparison, using post-fleet board UK midshipman for comparison, the rank would be the most junior commissioned officer in the rank structure, and similar to a US ensign in role and responsibility. Today, these ranks all refer to cadets, but historically they were selected by the monarchy. The first published use of the term midshipman was in 1662, the word derives from an area aboard a ship, amidships, but it refers either to the location where midshipmen worked on the ship, or the location where midshipmen were berthed. By the 18th century, four types of midshipman existed, midshipman, midshipman extraordinary, midshipman, by 1794, all midshipmen were considered officer candidates, and the original rating was phased out. Beginning in 1661, boys who aspired to become officers were sent by their families to serve on ships with a letter of service from the crown, and were paid at the same rate as midshipmen. Their official rating was volunteer-per-order, but they were known as Kings letter boys. Beginning in 1677, Royal Navy regulations for promotion to lieutenant required service as a midshipman, by the Napoleonic era, the regulations required at least three years of services as a midshipman or masters mate and six years of total sea time. Sea time was earned in various ways, most boys served this period at sea in any lower rating, either as a servant of one of the ships officers, a volunteer, or a seaman. By the 1730s, the rating volunteer-per-order was phased out and replaced with a system where prospective midshipmen served as servants for officers. For example, a captain was allowed four servants for every 100 men aboard his ship, the school was unpopular in the Navy, because officers enjoyed the privilege of having servants and preferred the traditional method of training officers via apprenticeship. Volunteers were paid £6 per year, by 1816, the rating of midshipman ordinary was phased out, and all apprentice officers were rated as midshipmen
31.
USS Oregon (BB-3)
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USS Oregon was a pre-dreadnought Indiana-class battleship of the United States Navy. Her construction was authorized on 30 June 1890, and the contract to build her was awarded to Union Iron Works of San Francisco and her keel was laid exactly one year later. She was launched on 26 October 1893, sponsored by Miss Daisy Ainsworth, delivered to the Navy on 26 June 1896, later she was commanded by Captains Albert S. Barker and Alexander H. McCormick. Captain Charles E. Clark assumed command 17 March 1898 throughout the Spanish–American War, Oregon served for a short time with the Pacific Squadron before being ordered on a voyage around South America to the East Coast in March 1898 in preparation for war with Spain. She departed from San Francisco on 19 March, and reached Jupiter Inlet 66 days later and this was considered a remarkable achievement at the time. The journey popularized the ship with the American public and demonstrated the need for a shorter route, after completing her journey Oregon was ordered to join the blockade at Santiago as part of the North Atlantic Squadron under Rear Admiral Sampson. She took part in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba, where she, after the war Oregon was refitted and sent back to the Pacific. She served for a year in the Philippines during the Philippine–American War, in March 1903 Oregon returned to Asiatic waters and stayed there for three years, decommissioning in April 1906. Oregon was recommissioned in August 1911, but saw little activity and was placed on reserve status in 1914. After the United States joined World War I in 1917 Oregon acted as one of the escorts for transport ships during the Siberian Intervention, in October 1919, she was decommissioned for the final time. As a result of the Washington Naval Treaty, Oregon was declared incapable of further service in January 1924. In June 1925 she was loaned to the State of Oregon, in February 1941, Oregon was redesignated IX–22. Due to the outbreak of World War II it was decided that the value of the ship was more important than her historical value. Her stripped hulk was later returned to the Navy and used as a barge during the battle of Guam. USCGC Tupelo assisted towing Oregon to Guam, during a typhoon in November 1948, she broke loose and drifted out to sea. She was located 500 miles southeast of Guam and towed back and she was sold on 15 March 1956 and scrapped in Japan. Oregon was constructed from a version of a design drawn up by a policy board in 1889 for a short-range battleship. The original design was part of a naval construction plan to build 33 battleships and 167 smaller ships
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Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
33.
Strait of Magellan
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The Strait of Magellan, also called the Straits of Magellan, is a navigable sea route separating mainland South America to the north and Tierra del Fuego to the south. The strait is the most important natural passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, the Strait of Magellan was called the Dragons Tail, and there were also the Cape of Good Hope and the coast of Africa. Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer and navigator in the service of Charles I of Spain, the fleet would become known as the Armada de las Molucas or Fleet of the Moluccas. The expeditionary fleet of five ships set sail from Sanlúcar de Barrameda on September 20,1519, before the passage of the Strait, Álvaro de Mesquita became captain of the San Antonio, and Duarte Barbosa of Victoria. Later, Serrão became captain of Concepcion, San Antonio, charged to explore Magdalen Sound, failed to return to the fleet, instead sailing back to Spain under Estêvão Gomes who imprisoned the captain Mesquita. Magellans ships entered the strait on November 1,1520, All Saints Day, magellans chronicler, Antonio Pigafetta, called it the Patagonian Strait, and others Victoria Strait, commemorating the first ship entering it. Within seven years it was being called Estrecho de Magallanes in honor of Magellan, the Spanish Empire and the Captaincy General of Chile used it as the southern boundary of their territory. The first Spanish colony was established in 1584 by Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa and these towns suffered severe food shortages, and when the English navigator Sir Thomas Cavendish landed at the site of Rey Don Felipe in 1587, he found only ruins of the settlement. He renamed the place Port Famine, other early explorers included Francis Drake. In February 1696 the first French expedition, under the command of M. de Gennes reached the Strait of Magellan, the expedition is described by the young French explorer, engineer and hydrographer François Froger in his A Relation of a Voyage. A report on the survey was presented at two meetings of the Geographical Society of London in 1831, Chile took possession of the Strait of Magellan on May 23,1843. President Bulnes of Chile ordered this expedition after consulting the Chilean libertador Bernardo OHiggins, the first Chilean settlement was Fuerte Bulnes, situated in a forested zone on the north side of the strait. Fuerte Bulnes was later abandoned, and in 1848 the city of Punta Arenas was founded farther north where the Magellanic forests meets the Patagonian plains. In Tierra del Fuego, across the strait from Punta Arenas, Argentina effectively recognized Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan in the Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina. Argentina had previously claimed all of the strait, or at least the third of it. In 1840 the Pacific Steam Navigation Company was the first to use steamships for commercial traffic in the strait, until the Panama Canal opened in 1914, the Strait of Magellan was the main route for steamships traveling from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific. Sailing ships, however, partly because of winds and currents in the strait, generally preferred the Drake Passage. The strait is approximately 570 kilometres long and about 2 kilometres wide at its narrowest point, the northwestern portion of the strait is connected with other sheltered waterways via the Smyth Channel
34.
Ensign (rank)
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Ensign is a junior rank of a commissioned officer in the armed forces of some countries, normally in the infantry or navy. As the junior officer in a regiment was traditionally the carrier of the ensign flag. This rank has generally replaced in army ranks by second lieutenant. Ensigns were generally the lowest ranking commissioned officer, except where the rank of subaltern existed. In contrast, the Arab rank of ensign, لواء, liwa, derives from the command of units with an ensign, not the carrier of such a units ensign, and is today the equivalent of a major general. Ensign is enseigne in French, and chorąży in Polish, each of which derives from a term for a flag, the Spanish alférez and Portuguese alferes is a junior officer rank below lieutenant associated with carrying the flag, and so is often translated as ensign. Unlike the rank in other languages, its etymology has nothing to do with flags, in the German Landsknecht armies, the equivalent rank of a Cornet existed for those men who carried the troop standard. It is still used in the artillery and cavalry divisions of the Netherlands, the NATO rank code is OF-1. In Argentina, the rank of ensign is used by both the air force and the gendarmerie and it is, however, used differently in the two services. The air force uses the rank for newly qualified officers, while the gendarmerie uses ensign ranks as an equivalent for the armys lieutenant ranks, the other armed forces of Argentina have ranks equivalent to ensign, subteniente in the army and guardiamarina in the navy. In the army, the most junior sublieutenant in a regiment is also the flag carrier, during the Ancien Régime in France, as in other countries, the ensign was the banner of an infantry regiment. As in other countries, the name began to be used for the officers who carried the ensign and it was renamed sub-lieutenant at the end of the 18th century. The Navy used a rank of ensign, which was the first officer rank. It was briefly renamed ship-of-the-line sub-lieutenant in the end of the 18th century, nowadays, the rank is still used in the Marine Nationale, Ship-of-the-line ensign is the name of the two lowest officer ranks Both ranks of ensign use the style lieutenant. However, French-Canadian sub-lieutenants use the form of enseigne instead of lieutenant. The rank ensign is used to refer to second lieutenants in household regiments of the Canadian Army. Fähnrich which has a parallel etymology to ensign, containing the corresponding German word stem of flag in it, is a German, the word Fähnrich comes from an older German military title, Fahnenträger, and first became a distinct military rank on 1 January 1899. The German Fähnrich is a non-commissioned officer promoted from the rank of Fahnenjunker or Seekadett, Fähnrich is equivalent to Feldwebel, but with additional responsibilities as an officer cadet
35.
Asiatic Squadron
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The Asiatic Squadron was a squadron of United States Navy warships stationed in East Asia during the latter half of the 19th century. It was created in 1868 when the East India Squadron was disbanded, on 1 June 1871, while Rear Admiral Rodgers was negotiating in Inchon, one of the Selee River forts opened fire on Palos as she traversed the Gangwha Straits. In the following engagement, Palos and Monocacy bombarded the fort until it was silenced and on 10 June 1871, five of the six hostile forts were captured and destroyed, over 200 Koreans were killed and dozens of cannons were captured. Although the Americans won a victory, the Koreans refused to sign a trade treaty until 1882. In the Battle of Manila Bay on 1 May 1898, the destroyed the Spanish fleet in the Philippines. Eight Spanish ships were sunk and over 150 killed while the Americans suffered only slight damage, vessels of the squadron also fought the Spanish in the battle to capture Manila. Naval gunfire on the Spaniards left flank helped American troops take the city without severe losses, the Philippines became an American possession. On 20 June 1898, the Asiatic Squadron protected cruiser USS Charleston captured Guam from the Spanish without resistance, the Asiatic Squadron participated in the Philippine–American War from 1899 until its disbandment in 1902. American naval forces operated by sending landing parties ashore and by providing them with gunfire support. From 1899 to 1902, the squadron conducted several missions against the Filipinos, deweys squadron engaged in naval operation against the Filipinos during and after the 1898 Battle of Manila against the Spanish. At the beginning of the Philippine–American War in February 1899, several American warships supported the occupation of the Philippine Islands. At the same time, the monitor USS Monadnock, the protected cruisers Charleston, and the gunboats Concord, USS Callao, over 300 Filipinos were killed in action and three times as many wounded, with many of the casualties attributed to accurate naval gunfire. USS Petrel and USS Boston shelled Panay Island on 11 February 1899, and, on 22 February 1899, in October 1899, Petrel joined Callao in supporting American troops in the Battle of Neveleta by bombarding Filipino troop concentrations at Neveleta before a shore party made its assault. Many of the captured Spanish gunboats used in the Philippine–American War were manned by United States Army troops and operated together with United States Navy forces. Baltimore and Petrel served at the Battle of Iloilo, in which about 1,000 Filipinos were defeated when the two warships bombarded the fort there and sent United States Marines and sailors ashore. Only minor skirmishing occurred on land because the Filipinos retreated and burned the town as they left, on 7 May 1899, Laguna de Bay and another gunboat bombarded Sexmoan and routed the Filipinos there. Later that day, the fought at Gaugua, where they bombarded Filipino positions in the town. Again the Filipinos retreated and set buildings on fire as they went
36.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
37.
USS Castine (PG-6)
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USS Castine was a gunboat of the United States Navy in commission from 1894 to 1901, from 1903 to 1905, and from 1908 to 1919. The first U. S. Navy ship named for Castine, Maine, she saw service during the Spanish–American War, the Philippine–American War, Castine was launched on 11 May 1892 by Bath Iron Works in Bath, Maine, sponsored by Ms. M. Hichborn. She was commissioned on 22 October 1894 with Commander Thomas Perry in command, assigned to the South Atlantic Ocean, Castine cleared New England waters in February 1895. She cruised in South American and West Indian waters – save for a period in Norfolk. She served in the force accompanied the United States Armys troop transports to Cuba. In December 1898, Castine sailed from Boston, Massachusetts, for the Suez Canal on her way to East Asia, upon her arrival in the Philippine Islands, she began duty in coordination with the U. S. Army to combat Philippine insurgent forces during the Philippine–American War. Operating primarily in the islands, she supervised the post-Spanish–American War evacuation of the Spanish garrison at Zamboanga in May 1899. With a cruise to Chinese ports in 1900, Castine remained in East Asian waters until June 1901, when she cleared for the Suez Canal and she was decommissioned at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on 8 October 1901. Castine remained at Philadelphia until recommissioning on 12 November 1903, upon recommissioning, she saw duty in the South Atlantic, Mediterranean Sea, and Caribbean. On 23 September 1905, she was decommissioned at Portsmouth Navy Yard in Kittery, Castine remained at Portsmouth Navy Yard until 4 October 1908, when she recommissioned to serve as a submarine tender at U. S. East Coast naval bases until May 1913 and she then returned to the Caribbean for gunboat duty, and later cruised off Vera Cruz and Tampico, Mexico. Castine and Memphis both made preparations to leave the harbor and began to steam, Memphis expected to be able to get underway at about 16,35. Conditions in the harbor had deteriorated badly by 15,45, when the ships sighted an approaching 75 ft wave of yellow water stretching along the entire horizon. By 16,00, the wave was closer, had turned ochre in color, and had reached about 100 ft in height, at the same time, the ships began to roll very heavily, with Memphis rolling 45°. Around 16,40 the giant wave the ships had seen approaching over the past hour arrived, Castine had gotten underway under minimal power and managed to put to sea through the huge waves, although she suffered damage and nearly capsized. He also ascribed the events in the harbor to an unexpected tsunami exceeding 100 ft in height, more recent research, however, has called this explanation into question. The periods of the three large waves that struck Castine and Memphis also are characteristic of large wind-generated waves rather than tsunamis, waves generated by these storms could well have combined to create large waves like those that struck Castine and Memphis. Such a circumstance appears to explain the better than the tsunami theory
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USS Glacier (AF-4)
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USS Glacier was a Glacier-class stores ship acquired by the U. S. Navy for use in the Spanish–American War. She served again during World War I in the dangerous North Atlantic Ocean, delivering general goods, J. P. Merrill, USN, commanding, had her name changed to USS Delmonico 6 July 1898, and to USS Glacier 6 days later. Sailing from San Juan, Puerto Rico,3 January 1899, she arrived at New York 1 week later, and decommissioned there 6 March. Glacier recommissioned at New York 31 March 1899, assigned to the Asiatic Station, she out of Hampton Roads 24 May and arrived 15 July at Manila Bay via the Mediterranean. Sailing out of Manila Bay 22 April 1903, Glacier arrived at Norfolk, Virginia,29 June, recommissioning there 15 December, she loaded supplies and provisions at New York and delivered her cargo to ships at Guantanamo, Pensacola, Florida, and the Panama Canal Zone. Arriving at Boston, Massachusetts,17 July, Glacier decommissioned there on the 30th and, following repairs, recommissioned 15 September and fitted out for special duty. Glacier became a unit of the Special Service Squadron composed of Brutus, Caesar, and Potomac, assigned to tow the floating dry dock Dewey from Sparrows Point, Maryland, to the Philippines. Departing Solomons, Maryland, on the Patuxent River 28 December 1905, the arrived at Olongapo, Philippines, via Las Palmas in the Canaries, Port Said, Suez. Following delivery of the dock, Glacier proceeded to Cavite for discharge of cargo and she stood out of Cavite 16 August, and arrived at Boston, Massachusetts,14 November via the Suez Canal, the Mediterranean, and New York. Arriving 14 April 1908 at San Francisco, Glacier cruised with the fleet on the California coast until departing San Francisco, California,29 June. She continued as supply ship to the Atlantic Fleet on its famous voyage around the world, visiting Honolulu, the Fiji Islands, New Zealand, Australia, and the Philippines. On 21 October, while at Cavite, she detached from the Atlantic Fleet. The Commander in Chief of the Atlantic Fleet reports in 1908, The storeships Culogoa and Glacier have been in constant attendance on the fleet, and have most successfully met all demands upon them. They have made the fleet absolutely independent of the resources at the ports visited. Loading provisions at Manila and Sydney, Australia, Glacier joined the U. S, Pacific Fleet at Talcahuano, Chile,1 January 1909, and accompanied the fleet on a cruise to South and Central American ports and to Magdalena Bay. They arrived at Mare Island 2 June for repairs and her principal area of operations was on the U. S. West Coast, Mexico, and Central America and she made two trips to Asiatic waters to supply ships operating in the Hawaiian area, the Philippines, and the China and Japan coasts. Departing Rio de Janeiro 2 April, Glacier arrived at New York on the 24th, as a Naval Overseas Transport Ship, she made three trips to Europe carrying fresh meats and general stores to naval forces operating in European waters
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Gunboat
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In the age of sail, a gunboat was usually a small undecked vessel carrying a single smoothbore cannon in the bow, or just two or three such cannons. A gunboat could carry one or two masts or be oar-powered only, but the version of about 15 m length was most typical. Some types of gunboat carried two cannons, or else mounted a number of guns on the railings. The gun that such boats carried could be heavy, a 32-pounder for instance. For example, in the Battle of Alvøen during the Gunboat War of 1807-1814, Gunboats used in the Battle of Valcour Island on Lake Champlain during the American Revolutionary War were mostly built on the spot, attesting to the speed of their construction. All navies of the era kept a number of gunboats on hand. Gunboats saw extensive use in the Baltic Sea during the late 18th century as they were well-suited for the extensive coastal skerries and archipelagoes of Sweden, Finland and Russia. The rivalry between Sweden and Russia in particular led to an expansion of gunboat fleets and the development of new gunboat types. The majority of these were developed from the 1770s and onwards by the naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman for the Swedish archipelago fleet. The designs, copied and refined by the rival Danish and Russian navies, spread to the Mediterranean, British ships engaged larger 22 m Russian gunboats off Turku in southeast Finland in 1854 during the Crimean War. The Russian vessels had the distinction of being the last oared vessels of war in history to fire their guns in anger, Gunboats played a key role in Napoleon Bonapartes plan for the invasion of England in 1804. Denmark-Norway used them heavily in the Gunboat War, between 1803 and 1812 the United States Navy had a policy of basing its navy on coastal gunboats, experimenting with a variety of designs. President Thomas Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican Party opposed a strong navy and they proved useless against the British blockade during the War of 1812. With the introduction of power in the early 19th century. Initially, these vessels retained full sailing rigs and used steam engines for auxiliary propulsion, the British Royal Navy deployed two wooden paddle-gunboats in the Lower Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River during the Rebellions of 1837 in Upper and Lower Canada. The United States Navy deployed an iron-hulled paddle gunboat, the USS Michigan, the Von der Tann became the first propeller-driven gunboat in the world. Conradi shipyards in Kiel built the steam-powered 120 long tons gunboat in 1849 for the navy of Schleswig-Holstein. 1, Von der Tann was the most modern ship in the navy and she participated successfully in the First Schleswig War of 1848-1851
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Military Order of the Dragon
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The Military Order of the Dragon. The purpose was to record the history and conserve the memory of the campaign in China in the year 1900. Provision being made for admitting to honorary membership the officers of foreign armies on service in China between June 15 and October 1,1900. Meetings of officers were held October 1,2, and 3,1900, resulting in the adoption of a name for the society, a constitution, officers, etc. It was expected that this society would, in years to come, have a standing and historical interest similar to the well-known Aztec Society, CONSTITUTION OF THE MILITARY ORDER OF THE DRAGON Article I. This association shall be known as the Military Order of the Dragon, the purpose of the Order shall be to record the history and conserve the memory of the military campaign in China in the year 1900. The membership of the Order shall consist of four classes, Section 1, Hereditary Members shall not be entitled to vote or hold office. Honorary Members will be charged no fees or dues, they will not be entitled to hold office, except as hereinafter provided. Honorary Hereditary Members will be charged no fees or dues, they will not be entitled to hold office, except as hereinafter provided. The Active Officers of the Order shall be elected from the Active or Hereditary Members and shall consist of, A President, the Active Officers shall be elected at the date of the annual meeting and shall hold office for two years. Upon the occurrence of a vacancy the President shall fill the same for the unexpired term, YAMENS, Washington, D. C, shall be the seat of the Chief Yamen of the Order. An annual meeting shall be held on the second Monday in June of each year at the Chief Yamen or at such subordinate Yamen as the Executive Committee may designate, the Executive Committee shall meet on the second Monday in December and June each year. A special meeting may be called by the President or by any three members of the Executive Committee, a majority of the Executive Committee, or the President and two other members, shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of all business. The Executive Committee shall authorize all expenditures and audit the accounts of the Treasurer, conduct the affairs of the Order, the Executive Committee shall also provide appropriate regulations for such forms and ceremonies as may be deemed suitable at the annual meeting, and special meetings of the Order. It shall provide a certificate of membership and an official seal. Article X. Application for membership shall be submitted to the Secretary, satisfactory proofs of eligibility of the applicant must be furnished with the application. Applications for Hereditary and Honorary Hereditary membership shall be submitted to the Executive Committed for action, a single negative vote by any member of the Executive Committee upon an application for membership shall be sufficient for rejection. The initiation fee for Hereditary Members shall be three dollars, a member may be dropped from the rolls by the Executive Committee, for non-payment of dues when the same remain unpaid for the period of one year
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USS Pensacola (1859)
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The first USS Pensacola was a screw steamer that served in the United States Navy during the U. S. Civil War. Pensacola was launched by the Pensacola Navy Yard on August 15,1859 and she was decommissioned January 31,1860, and commissioned in full on September 16,1861, Captain Henry W. Morris in command. Pensacola departed Alexandria, Virginia on January 11,1862, for the Gulf of Mexico to join Admiral David Farraguts newly created West Gulf Blockading Squadron. She steamed with that fleet in the dash past Confederate Fort St. Philip and Fort Jackson which protected New Orleans. The next day, Pensacola engaged batteries below that great Confederate metropolis, on April 26, a landing party of Marines raised the United States flag over the mint at New Orleans. Four of her sailors were awarded the Medal of Honor for their part in the battle, Boy Thomas Flood, Seaman Thomas Lyons, Captain of the Foretop James McLeod, and Quartermaster Louis Richards. Recommissioned August 16,1866, Pensacola sailed around Cape Horn to join the Pacific Squadron and her cruising ranged from Chile to Puget Sound and west to Hawaii. While in the harbor of Coquimbo, Chile, on 30 July 1873, Ordinary Seaman Patrick Regan jumped overboard and rescued a drowning shipmate, for which he was later awarded the Medal of Honor. But for two periods in ordinary, February 15,1870 to October 14,1871, and December 31,1873 to July 13,1874 and she decommissioned at Norfolk, Virginia on May 23. Recommissioned April 4,1885, Pensacola operated in European waters until returning to Norfolk in February 1888 for repairs, operations along the Atlantic Coast and a cruise along the coast of Africa ended when the ship returned to New York in May 1890. In August she headed back to familiar haunts in the Pacific, following a visit to Hawaii, she decommissioned at Mare Island on April 18,1892. Recommissioned on November 22,1898, Pensacola served as a ship for Naval apprentices until going back into ordinary on May 31,1899. She was burned and sunk by the Navy in San Francisco Bay near Hunters Point early in May 1912, union Navy List of United States Navy ships This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The entries can be here and here
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USS Tacoma (CL-20)
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USS Tacoma was a Denver-class protected cruiser in the United States Navy during World War I. She was the second Navy ship named for the city of Tacoma, following a post-commissioning visit to her namesake city, Tacoma, Washington, the protected cruiser voyaged to Hawaii in April and May. She returned to San Francisco on 2 June and, a month later, during the voyage, she participated in the search for merchant ship SS Conemaugh, which had departed from Valparaíso, Chile, and vanished. Following that assignment, Tacoma conducted target practice off the Florida coast between 27 March and 25 April and she returned to New York on 19 May to prepare for a voyage to Europe. On 18 June, she sailed for France and arrived at Cherbourg on 30 June and she remained there while a battalion of sailors went to Paris to participate in ceremonies honoring the remains of John Paul Jones which were being returned to the United States. On 8 July, Tacoma departed Cherbourg to escort the remains to their resting place at Annapolis. After the ceremony at the United States Naval Academy on 24 July, on 5 August, she embarked Japanese diplomats at New York and transported them to Sagamore Hill, President Theodore Roosevelts summer home at Oyster Bay, New York. There, they first met the Russian commissioners for the negotiations which were later held at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Tacoma returned to Philadelphia on the 8th and conducted training for the Pennsylvania, deployed to the Mediterranean for the first five months of 1906, the ship visited Tangier, Algiers, Ville-Franche, Naples, and Genoa. After a trip to Grand Canary Island, she returned to the Mediterranean and visited Alexandria and Port Said before returning to the U. S. in June. She returned to the West Indies again in the spring of 1908 for stops at St. Thomas, St. Christopher, Martinique, Margarita Island, Port Mochima, Cunamá, La Guaira, and Curaçao. During the second half of 1908 and the first half of 1909, she observed political conditions in Haiti, from July to September 1909, the cruiser operated of Nicaragua. Later, her itinerary included a visit to Costa Rica and a return to Honduras, between January and March 1910, Tacoma cruised off the coast of Nicaragua and visited the Canal Zone and Costa Rica. After a spring voyage to the east coast of the United States, during the following nine months, she visited Panama, Honduras, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Guatemala. S. Later that month, she landed a force of marines at Puerto Cortés, Honduras, negotiations were held aboard which resulted in Francisco Bertrand being named interim President of Honduras. In February, her deck was the scene of a peace conference conducted by special commissioner T. C, the negotiations brought the revolution to a close and established a new provisional government in Honduras. That summer, Tacoma steamed — via Puerto Mexico and Galveston — to New York and she remained at the New York Navy Yard until mid-November when she went into reserve at Philadelphia. In July 1912, Tacoma came out of reserve and was soon on her way back to the waters of the Gulf of Mexico
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USS Boston (1884)
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The fifth USS Boston was a protected cruiser and one of the first steel warships of the New Navy of the 1880s. In some references she is combined with Atlanta as the Atlanta class, Boston was ordered as part of the ABCD ships, the others being the cruisers Atlanta and Chicago and the dispatch vessel Dolphin. All were ordered from the shipyard, John Roach & Sons of Chester. However, when Secretary of the Navy William C.45 caliber Gatling guns, the 8-inch guns were initially in open barbettes with gun shields added later. Armor protection was light, with 2-inch gun shields and conning tower, the engineering plant included eight coal-fired cylindrical boilers producing 100 psi steam and a horizontal compound engine producing 3,500 ihp driving one shaft. Like the other ABCD ships, Boston was built with a rig to increase cruising range. The ship carried up to 490 tons of coal, with a range as built of 3,390 nmi at 10 kn. In 1900–01 Boston was rebuilt and the 6-inch guns were converted to rapid firing with brass case ammunition replacing powder bags. During her service with the Oregon Naval Militia 1911-16 she retained her original pair of 8/30 guns, All armament was removed prior to her conversion to a freighter in 1917. Boston, being the second cruiser of the New Navy completed, was not ready for service until 1888. She then made a cruise to Guatemala and Haiti to protect American citizens and she joined the Squadron of Evolution on 30 September 1889 and cruised to the Mediterranean and South America from 7 December 1889 to 29 July 1890, and along the east coast in 1891. Boston departed New York on 24 October 1891 for the Pacific via Cape Horn, recommissioned on 15 November 1895, Boston joined the Asiatic Squadron at Yokohama, Japan on 25 February 1896. From 4 October to 23 December, Boston and other ships deployed to Taku in China to protect American interests in the wake of a coup detat by the Empress Dowager Cixi, following this, Boston remained in the Philippines assisting in their pacification until 8 June 1899. Boston returned to San Francisco on 9 August 1899 and went out of commission at Mare Island Navy Yard on 15 September 1899 and she remained out of commission until 11 August 1902 and then rejoined the Pacific Squadron. On 7 November 1903, Boston was the first ship of the Pacific Squadron to arrive near Panama to support that countrys newly declared independence and she then cruised in South America, Hawaii, and the US West Coast. In April 1907 she carried a Honduran peace delegation that ended the Honduran-Nicaraguan War and she went out of commission again at Puget Sound Navy Yard on 10 June 1907. From 15 June 1911 to September 1916, she served as a vessel with the Oregon Naval Militia. With the United States declaration of war on Germany in April 1917, Boston was converted to a freighter by Seattle Construction & Drydock in 1917–1918
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Panama
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Panama, officially called the Republic of Panama, is a country usually considered to be entirely in North America or Central America. It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, the capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half of the countrys 4.1 million people. Panama was inhabited by indigenous tribes prior to settlement by the Spanish in the 16th century. Panama broke away from Spain in 1821 and joined a union of Nueva Granada, Ecuador, when Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada remained joined, eventually becoming the Republic of Colombia. With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, in 1977 an agreement was signed for the total transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama by the end of the 20th century, which culminated on 31 December 1999. Revenue from canal tolls continues to represent a significant portion of Panamas GDP, although commerce, banking, in 2015 Panama ranked 60th in the world in terms of the Human Development Index. Since 2010, Panama remains the second most competitive economy in Latin America, covering around 40 percent of its land area, Panamas jungles are home to an abundance of tropical plants and animals – some of them to be found nowhere else on the planet. There are several theories about the origin of the name Panama, some believe that the country was named after a commonly found species of tree. Others believe that the first settlers arrived in Panama in August, when butterflies abound, the best-known version is that a fishing village and its nearby beach bore the name Panamá, which meant an abundance of fish. Captain Antonio Tello de Guzmán, while exploring the Pacific side in 1515, in 1517 Don Gaspar De Espinosa, a Spanish lieutenant, decided to settle a post there. In 1519 Pedrarias Dávila decided to establish the Empires Pacific city in this site, the new settlement replaced Santa María La Antigua del Darién, which had lost its function within the Crowns global plan after the beginning of the Spanish exploitation of the riches in the Pacific. Blending all of the above together, Panamanians believe in general that the word Panama means abundance of fish and this is the official definition given in social studies textbooks approved by the Ministry of Education in Panama. However, others believe the word Panama comes from the Kuna word bannaba which means distant or far away, at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, the known inhabitants of Panama included the Cuevas and the Coclé tribes. These people have disappeared, as they had no immunity from European infectious diseases. The earliest discovered artifacts of indigenous peoples in Panama include Paleo-Indian projectile points, later central Panama was home to some of the first pottery-making in the Americas, for example the cultures at Monagrillo, which date back to 2500–1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations best known through their spectacular burials at the Monagrillo archaeological site, the monumental monolithic sculptures at the Barriles site are also important traces of these ancient isthmian cultures. Before Europeans arrived Panama was widely settled by Chibchan, Chocoan, the largest group were the Cueva. The size of the population of the isthmus at the time of European colonization is uncertain
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United States Naval Academy Midshipman – Class of 1897, 15th of class of 47
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