1.
Barbados
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Barbados is a sovereign island country in the Lesser Antilles, in the Americas. It is 34 kilometres in length and up to 23 km in width, Barbados is outside of the principal Atlantic hurricane belt. Inhabited by Kalinago people since the 13th century, and prior to that by other Amerindians, Barbados was visited by Spanish navigators in the late 15th century and it first appeared in a Spanish map in 1511. The Portuguese visited the island in 1536, but they left it unclaimed, an English ship, the Olive Blossom, arrived in Barbados in 1625, its men took possession of it in the name of King James I. In 1627, the first permanent settlers arrived from England, and it became an English, in 1966, Barbados became an independent state and Commonwealth realm with the British Monarch as hereditary head of state. It has a population of 280,121 people, predominantly of African descent, despite being classified as an Atlantic island, Barbados is considered to be a part of the Caribbean, where it is ranked as a leading tourist destination. Forty percent of the come from the UK, with the US. In 2014, Transparency Internationals Corruption Perceptions Index ranked Barbados joint second in the Americas, the name Barbados is either the Portuguese word Barbados or the Spanish equivalent los Barbados, both meaning the bearded ones. In 1519, a map produced by the Genoese mapmaker Visconte Maggiolo showed and named Barbados in its correct position, furthermore, the island of Barbuda in the Leewards is very similar in name and was once named Las Barbudas by the Spanish. It is uncertain which European nation arrived first in Barbados, one lesser known source points to earlier-revealed works predating contemporary sources indicating it could have been the Spanish. Others believe the Portuguese, en route to Brazil, were the first Europeans to come upon the island, colloquially Barbadians refer to their home island as Bim or other nicknames associated with Barbados includes Bimshire. The origin is uncertain but several theories exist, the name could have arisen due to the relatively large percentage of enslaved Igbo people from modern-day southeastern Nigeria arriving in Barbados in the 18th century. The words Bim and Bimshire are recorded in the Oxford English Dictionary, another possible source for Bim is reported to be in the Agricultural Reporter of 25 April 1868, where the Rev. N. Greenidge suggested the listing of Bimshire as a county of England. Expressly named were Wiltshire, Hampshire, Berkshire and Bimshire, lastly, in the Daily Argosy of 1652 there is a reference to Bim as a possible corruption of Byam, the name of a Royalist leader against the Parliamentarians. That source suggested the followers of Byam became known as Bims, amerindian settlement of Barbados dates to about the 4th to 7th centuries AD, by a group known as the Saladoid-Barrancoid. In the 13th century, the Kalinago arrived from South America, the Spanish and Portuguese briefly claimed Barbados from the late 16th to the 17th centuries. The Arawaks are believed to have fled to neighbouring islands, apart from possibly displacing the Caribs, the Spanish and Portuguese made little impact and left the island uninhabited. Some Arawaks migrated from British Guiana in the 19th century and continue to live in Barbados, during the Cromwellian era this included a large number of prisoners-of-war, vagrants and people who were illicitly kidnapped, who were forcibly transported to the island and sold as servants
2.
The Bahamas
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The Bahamas, known officially as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence, the designation of the Bahamas can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands. As stated in the mandate/manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force, the Bahamas is the site of Columbus first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan, although the Spanish never colonised the Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera, the Bahamas became a British Crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy. After the American War of Independence, the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas, they brought their slaves with them, Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. Slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834, Today the descendants of slaves and free Africans make up nearly 90% of the population, issues related to the slavery years are part of society. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, in terms of gross domestic product per capita, the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas, with an economy based on tourism and finance. The name Bahamas is derived from either the Taino ba ha ma, alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani, a local name of unclear meaning. In English, the Bahamas is one of two countries whose self-standing short name begins with the word the, along with The Gambia. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century and they came to be known as the Lucayan people. An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus arrival in 1492, Columbuss first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador. Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island, an alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay, according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge, based on Columbuss log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive, on the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour, the slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity, half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished, in 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers, led by William Sayle, migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera—the name derives from the Greek word for freedom and they later settled New Providence, naming it Sayles Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks, in 1670 King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America
3.
Marblehead, Massachusetts
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Marblehead is a coastal New England town in Essex County, Massachusetts. Its population was 19,808 at the 2010 census and it is home to the Marblehead Neck Wildlife Sanctuary, Crocker Park, the Marblehead Lighthouse, Fort Sewall, Little Harbor and Devereux Beach. Archibald Willards famous painting The Spirit of 76 currently resides in Abbot Hall and it is also the origin of Marine Corps Aviation. A center of recreational boating, it is a sailing, kayaking and fishing destination. Several yacht clubs were established here in the late 19th century, Marbleheads first European settler was Joseph Doliber in 1629, who set up on the shore near what is now the end of Bradlee Road. Three years earlier, Isaac Allerton, a Pilgrim from the Mayflower, had arrived in the area and established a village at mid-Marblehead Harbor on the town side. This area was set off and incorporated separately in 1649, originally called Massebequash after the river which ran between it and Salem, the land was inhabited by the Naumkeag tribe of the Pawtucket confederation under the overall sachem Nanepashemet. But epidemics in 1615–1619 and 1633, believed to be smallpox, on September 16,1684, heirs of Nanepashemet sold their 3,700 acres, the deed is preserved today at Abbot Hall in the city. At times called Marvell Head, Marble Harbour and Foy, the town would be named Marblehead by settlers who mistook its granite ledges for marble and it began as a fishing village with narrow, crooked streets, and developed inland from the harbor. The shoreline smelled of drying fish, typically cod and these were exported abroad and to Salem. The town peaked economically just prior to the Revolution, as locally financed privateering vessels sought bounty from large European ships, much early architecture survives from the era, including the Jeremiah Lee Mansion. A large percentage of residents became involved early in the Revolutionary War, the first vessel commissioned for the navy, Hannah, was equipped with cannons, rope, provision —and a crew from Marblehead. With their nautical backgrounds, soldiers from Marblehead under General John Glover were instrumental in the escape of the Continental Army after the Battle of Long Island, Marblehead men ferried George Washington across the Delaware River for his attack on Trenton. Many who set out for war, however, did not return, the community lost a substantial portion of its population and economy, although it was still the tenth-largest inhabited location in the United States at the first census, in 1790. When George Washington visited the town during his tour of 1789, he knew the sailors of Marblehead well. He observed that the town had the appearance of antiquity, at the beginning of the 19th century, wealthier citizens wanted a new bank to finance vessels, and to serve the town’s fishermen and merchants. On March 17,1831, with a capital of $100,000, the name was changed to National Grand Bank on October 3,1864. After the Revolution, fishing continued as a major industry, the towns fishermen had 98 vessels putting to sea in 1837, where they often harvested fish off the Grand Banks of Newfoundland
4.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
5.
House of Burgesses
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The Virginia House of Burgesses /ˈbɜːrdʒəsɪz/ was the first legislative assembly of elected representatives in North America. From 1619 to 1776, the branch of the legislature of Virginia was the House of Burgesses. Jamestown remained the capital of the Virginia colony until 1699, when the government was moved to Williamsburg, in 1776 the colony became the independent Commonwealth of Virginia and the House of Burgesses became the House of Delegates. Originally a synonym of burgher or bourgeois, the word came to mean a borough representative in local or parliamentary government. The Colony of Virginia was founded by an English stock company, early governors provided the stern leadership and harsh judgments required for the colony to survive its early difficulties. To encourage settlers to come to Virginia, in 1618–1619, the Virginia Companys leaders drew up a great charter, emigrants who paid their own way to Virginia would receive fifty acres of land. They would not be mere tenants, civil authority would control the military. A council of burgesses, representatives chosen by the inhabitants of the colony for their government, the House of Assembly was created at the same time in Bermuda and held its first session in 1620. A handful of Polish craftsmen, brought to the colony to supply skill in the manufacture of pitch, tar, potash and they downed tools in protest, but returned to work after being declared free and enfranchised, apparently by agreement with the Virginia Company. On July 30,1619, the first European-style legislative assembly in the Americas convened for a meeting at the church on Jamestown Island. Together, the House of Burgesses and the Council would be the Virginia General Assembly, the Houses first session of July 30,1619, accomplished little, being cut short by an outbreak of malaria. By 1624, the government in London had heard enough about the problems of the colony. Virginia became a colony and the governor and council would be chosen by the king. Nonetheless, the form of government of the colony was retained. In 1634, the General Assembly divided the colony into eight shires for purposes of government, administration, by 1643, the expanding colony had 15 counties. All of the county offices, including a board of commissioners, judges, sheriff, constable, only the members of the House of Burgesses were elected by a vote of the people. Women had no right to vote, while all free men originally were given the right to vote, by 1670 only property owners were allowed to vote. In 1652, the forces of Oliver Cromwell forced the colony to submit to their takeover of the English government
6.
Plantations in the American South
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A plantation is an area of land or water where one crop is specifically planted for widespread commercial sale. The crops grown include cotton, coffee, tea, cocoa, sugar cane, sisal, oil seeds, oil palms, rubber trees, protectionist policies and natural comparative advantage have sometimes contributed to determining where plantations were located. Among the earliest examples of plantations were the latifundia of the Roman Empire, Plantation agriculture grew rapidly with the increase in international trade and the development of a worldwide economy that followed the expansion of European colonial empires. Like every economic activity, it has changed over time, Industrial plantations are established to produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities and/or the paper and wood industries, christmas trees are often grown on plantations as well. In southern and southeastern Asia, teak plantations have replaced the natural forest. Industrial plantations are managed for the commercial production of forest products. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species and these species can be exotic or indigenous. Forest genetic resources are the basis for genetic alteration, selected individuals grown in seed orchards are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material. Wood production on a plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, in the first year, the ground is prepared usually by the combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or cultivation and then saplings are planted by human crew or by machine. The saplings are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in breeding in order to produce fast growing disease-. In the first few years until the canopy closes, the saplings are looked after, after the canopy closes, with the tree crowns touching each other, the plantation is becoming dense and crowded, and tree growth is slowing due to competition. This stage is termed pole stage, when competition becomes too intense, it is time to thin out the section. There are several methods for thinning, but where topography permits, the most popular is row-thinning, many trees are removed, leaving regular clear lanes through the section so that the remaining trees have room to expand again. The removed trees are delimbed, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto trucks, a typical pole stage plantation tree is 7–30 cm in diameter at breast height. Such trees are not suitable for timber, but are used as pulp for paper and particleboard. As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the process is repeated
7.
Belvoir (plantation)
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Belvoir was the historic plantation and estate of colonial Virginias prominent William Fairfax family. It was situated on the west bank of the Potomac River in Fairfax County, the main house — called Belvoir Manor or Belvoir Mansion — burned in 1783 and was completely destroyed during the War of 1812. The site has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1973 as Belvoir Mansion Ruins, origins William Greens 1669 patent for 1,150 acres encompassed most of the peninsula between Dogue Creek and Accotink Creek, along the Potomac River. Plantation house built Fairfaxs elegant new home was completed in 1741, Historic documents and archeological artifacts found at Belvoir Manor both attest to the elegant lifestyle enjoyed by the Fairfax family. The mansion was described in a 1774 rental notice as spacious and its furnishings consisted of tables, chairs, and every other necessary article. The family imported ceramics from Europe and the Orient to grace its tables, planters such as William Fairfax comprised a small elite of Fairfax Countys population, most of their neighbors were smaller farmers who sometimes barely managed to make a living. The affluence of such planters was based not only on land and imposing buildings, slaves are in the records-as chattel passed from one generation to another, and as the probable users of the plain unglazed ceramics found in the outbuildings of Belvoir Manor. After William Fairfaxs death in 1757, the passed to his eldest son George William Fairfax. Lord Fairfax and Washington visitThomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron moved to Virginia between 1735 and 1737 to inspect and protect his lands, the northwestern boundary of his Northern Neck Proprietary was marked by the Fairfax Stone at the headwaters of the North Branch Potomac River. In 1752, Lord Fairfax moved to Greenway Court in the valley of Virginia closer to his undeveloped land, George Washington accepted a surveying assignment for Lord Fairfax at Belvoir. Fairfaxs sister Anne married Lawrence Washington soon after her brother had wed, a young George Washington, Lawrence’s half-brother, began to visit Belvoir frequently. Wishing to advance his brother’s fortunes, Lawrence introduced George to George William, a friendship grew between the two men, despite the fact that George William was seven years older. A relationship blossomed between Sally Fairfax and Washington, Washington and Bryan Fairfax, George Williams younger half-brother, also became friends. Abandonment When Fairfax left Belvoir for England in 1773, he had the estate rented to Rev. Andrew Morton for 7 years and its furnishings were sold at auction in 1774. It was confiscated during the American Revolutionary War by the Virginia Act of 1779, in 1783, the mansion and several of its outbuildings were destroyed by fire, and the plantation complex gradually deteriorated into ruins. Ferdinando Fairfax, who inherited the property, apparently did not live there, the bluffs below the former mansion site were quarried for building stone, but the house site was not developed. Belvoir Plantation suffered further damage during the War of 1812, in August 1814, as British land forces attacked and burned the city of Washington, a British naval squadron sailed up the Potomac River and forced the surrender of Alexandria. The fleet began the 180-mile return trip down river, on September 1, the British attempted to run the deep-water channel below the Belvoir house site, a position that previously had been identified as a strategic defensive location on the river
8.
Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
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Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron was a Scottish peer. He was the son of Thomas Fairfax, 5th Lord Fairfax of Cameron and of Catherine, daughter of Thomas Colepeper, various place names in Northern Virginia and the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia are named for him—most notably Fairfax County, Virginia. Born at Leeds Castle in Kent, England — owned by his maternal Culpeper ancestors since the 1630s — Lord Fairfax succeeded to his title in 1709 and he was educated at Oriel College, Oxford between 1710 and 1713 and afterward held a commission in the Royal Horse Guards. He was a contributor to the early newspaper The Spectator, in 1719, Fairfax came into possession of the vast Culpeper family estates in Virginias Northern Neck Proprietary between the Rappahannock and Potomac Rivers. These lands included a portion of the Shenandoah and South Branch Potomac valleys. These rents were collected by his resident land agent, Robert King Carter, Lord Fairfax travelled to Virginia for the first time between 1735 and 1737 to inspect and protect his lands. In 1738, about thirty farms were established as part of his 9, 000-acre Patterson Creek Manor near present-day Burlington, Mineral County, returning to America in 1747, he first settled at Belvoir, an estate which had been completed by Col. Fairfax six years earlier. That year he set aside land for his personal use at Swan Pond Manor. He then became active in developing his lands and collecting ground rents, in 1748, he made the acquaintance of George Washington, then a youth of 16, a distant relative of the Yorkshire Fairfax family. Impressed with Washingtons energy and talents, Lord Fairfax employed him to survey his lands lying west of the Blue Ridge, Fairfax, a lifelong bachelor, moved out to the Shenandoah Valley in 1752. At the suggestion of his nephew Thomas Bryan Martin, he fixed his residence at a lodge at Greenway Court, near White Post. Here he and Martin lived together in a style of liberal hospitality and he served as county lieutenant and as justice of the peace for Frederick County which then included Clarke. Though a frank and avowed Loyalist, Fairfax was never insulted or molested by the Whigs and his domain, however, was confiscated during the hostilities by the Virginia Act of 1779. Less than two months after the 1781 defeat of Cornwallis at Yorktown, the 88-year-old Fairfax died at his seat at Greenway Court and he was buried on the east side of Christ Church in Winchester, Virginia. Lord Fairfaxs title descended to his surviving brother, Robert Fairfax, 7th Lord Fairfax of Cameron. Since, but for the war, his immense domain should also have passed to Robert Fairfax, a portion of this estate, devised to nephew Denny Martin Fairfax, was later the subject of the landmark U. S. Supreme Court case Martin v. Hunters Lessee. Fairfax County, Virginia and the City of Fairfax, Virginia are named for Lord Fairfax, Fairfax, West Virginia is named for Lord Fairfax. The Fairfax Line and Fairfax Stone both bear Lord Fairfaxs name, Lord Fairfax Community College bears his name
9.
Northern Neck
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The Northern Neck is the northernmost of three peninsulas on the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay in the Commonwealth of Virginia. This peninsula is bounded by the Potomac River on the north and it encompasses the following Virginia counties, Lancaster, Northumberland, Richmond, and Westmoreland. The inclusion of King George County in the Northern Neck varies among commentators, historically, the grant for the Northern Neck included all land between the Rappahannock and Potomac rivers, including far upstream of King George County — some 5 million acres. The boundaries of King George and Westmoreland counties have changed radically since their establishment, significant portions of the early King George County lay in what is now Westmoreland County. In the winter of 1607–08, Captain John Smith traveled up the Rappahannock River as a prisoner of the Powhatans and he was the first European known to have visited the Northern Neck. The original Northern Neck land grant in 1661 was a land grant first contrived by the exiled English King Charles II in 1649 and it encompassed all the lands bounded by the Potomac and Rappahannock Rivers and, later, by a straight line connecting their sources. This grant is significantly larger than the currently known as the Northern Neck. The original grant was given to a proprietor, semi-autonomy relative to the colonial government was provided by the proprietorial government until the American Revolution. Most of the development occurred on the eastern end of the peninsula where the Potomac. The autonomy and the excellent natural resources led the richest planters to establish plantations in the Northern Neck. During the Colonial period, the Northern Neck was referred to as the Athens of the New World because of its collection of rich landowners dedicated to learning, gentlemanly society and they based their elite society on the exploitation of slave labor by Africans and African Americans. Because of this influx of well-to-do planters, an aristocratic society grew earlier than in areas to the south, from this society, arose many leaders of the Revolution and the future young republic. These differences created strong antipathies between the regions, later as the remainder of the mid-Atlantic states became developed, the importance of the Northern Neck would decline. It was relatively isolated from main routes and cities. This isolation may be a product of the earlier antipathies related to the differences in society in the Neck, in 1687 a widespread slave conspiracy was crushed in the Northern Neck. During a mass funeral, slaves in the area planned to all whites. The plot was discovered and its leaders executed, when authorities learned that they had plotted the uprising at gatherings for slave funerals, they prohibited such events. The next year, the Northern Neck was the site of another attempted uprising, this one led by Sam, a repeat offender, he had several times endeavored to promote a Negro Insurreccon in this Colony
10.
Caribbean
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The Caribbean is a region that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands and the surrounding coasts. The region is southeast of the Gulf of Mexico and the North American mainland, east of Central America, situated largely on the Caribbean Plate, the region comprises more than 700 islands, islets, reefs and cays. These islands generally form island arcs that delineate the eastern and northern edges of the Caribbean Sea, in a wider sense, the mainland countries of Belize, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana are often included due to their political and cultural ties with the region. Geopolitically, the Caribbean islands are usually regarded as a subregion of North America and are organized into 30 territories including sovereign states, overseas departments, and dependencies. From December 15,1954, to October 10,2010, there was a known as the Netherlands Antilles composed of five states. The West Indies cricket team continues to represent many of those nations, the region takes its name from that of the Caribs, an ethnic group present in the Lesser Antilles and parts of adjacent South America at the time of the Spanish conquest. The two most prevalent pronunciations of Caribbean are KARR-ə-BEE-ən, with the accent on the third syllable. The former pronunciation is the older of the two, although the variant has been established for over 75 years. It has been suggested that speakers of British English prefer KARR-ə-BEE-ən while North American speakers more typically use kə-RIB-ee-ən, usage is split within Caribbean English itself. The word Caribbean has multiple uses and its principal ones are geographical and political. The Caribbean can also be expanded to include territories with strong cultural and historical connections to slavery, European colonisation, the United Nations geoscheme for the Americas accords the Caribbean as a distinct region within the Americas. Physiographically, the Caribbean region is mainly a chain of islands surrounding the Caribbean Sea, to the north, the region is bordered by the Gulf of Mexico, the Straits of Florida and the Northern Atlantic Ocean, which lies to the east and northeast. To the south lies the coastline of the continent of South America, politically, the Caribbean may be centred on socio-economic groupings found in the region. For example, the known as the Caribbean Community contains the Co-operative Republic of Guyana. Bermuda and the Turks and Caicos Islands, which are in the Atlantic Ocean, are members of the Caribbean Community. The Commonwealth of the Bahamas is also in the Atlantic and is a member of the Caribbean Community. According to the ACS, the population of its member states is 227 million people. The geography and climate in the Caribbean region varies, Some islands in the region have relatively flat terrain of non-volcanic origin and these islands include Aruba, Barbados, Bonaire, the Cayman Islands, Saint Croix, the Bahamas, and Antigua
11.
Woodes Rogers
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Woodes Rogers was an English sea captain and privateer and, later, the first Royal Governor of the Bahamas. He is known as the captain of the vessel that rescued marooned Alexander Selkirk, Rogers came from an affluent seafaring family, grew up in Poole and Bristol, and served a marine apprenticeship to a Bristol sea captain. His father held shares in ships, but he died when Rogers was in his mid-twenties. In 1707, Rogers was approached by Captain William Dampier, who sought support for a privateering voyage against the Spanish, Rogers led the expedition, which consisted of two well-armed ships, Duke and Duchess, and was the captain of Duke. In three years, Rogers and his men went around the world, capturing several ships in the Pacific Ocean, en route, the expedition rescued Selkirk, finding him on Juan Fernandez Island on 1 February 1709. The expedition made Rogers a national hero, but his brother was killed, on his return, he was successfully sued by his crew on the grounds that they had not received their fair share of the expedition profits, and Rogers was forced into bankruptcy. He wrote of his experiences in the book A Cruising Voyage Round the World. Rogers was twice appointed Governor of the Bahamas, where he succeeded in warding off threats from the Spanish, however, his first term as governor was financially ruinous, and on his return to England, he was imprisoned for debt. During his second term as governor, Rogers died in Nassau at the age of about 53, Woodes Rogers was the eldest son and heir of Woods Rogers, a successful merchant captain. Sometime between 1690 and 1696, Captain Rogers moved his family to Bristol, in November 1697, Woodes Rogers was apprenticed to Bristol mariner John Yeamans, to learn the profession of a sailor. At 18, Rogers was somewhat old to be starting a seven-year apprenticeship, little also suggests that it is likely that Rogers gained his maritime experience with Yeamans ship on the Newfoundland fleet. Rogers completed his apprenticeship in November 1704, the following January Rogers married Sarah Whetstone, daughter of Rear Admiral Sir William Whetstone, who was a neighbour and close family friend. Rogers became a freeman of Bristol because of his marriage into the prominent Whetstone family, in 1706, Captain Rogers died at sea, leaving his ships and business to his son Woodes. Between 1706 and the end of 1708, Woodes and Sarah Rogers had a son, at least four vessels in which Rogers had an ownership interest were granted the letters. One, Whetstone Galley, named for Rogers father in law and it did not reach Africa, but was captured by the French. Rogers suffered other losses against the French, although he does not record their extent in his book and he turned to privateering as a means of recouping these losses. In late 1707, Rogers was approached by William Dampier, a navigator and friend of Rogers father and this was a desperate move on the part of Captain Dampier to save his career. Commanding two frigates, Duke and Duchess, and captaining the first, Rogers spent three years circumnavigating the globe, the ships departed Bristol on 1 August 1708
12.
Leeds Castle
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Leeds Castle is in Kent, England,5 miles southeast of Maidstone. A castle has been on the site since 1119. In the 13th century it came into the hands of King Edward I, for whom it became a residence, in the 16th century, Henry VIII used it as a dwelling for his first wife. The castle today dates mostly from the 19th century and is built on islands in a formed by the River Len to the east of the village of Leeds. It has been open to the public since 1976, from 857 the site was owned by a Saxon chief called Led or Leed who built a wooden structure on two islands in the middle of the River Len. In 1119 Robert de Crevecoeur rebuilt it in stone as a Norman stronghold, what form this Norman stronghold took is uncertain because it was rebuilt and transformed in the following centuries. Adrian Pettifer speculates that it may have been a motte and bailey, in 1278, the castle was bought by King Edward Is Queen, Eleanor of Castile. As a favoured residence of Edwards, it saw considerable investment, the king enhanced its defences, and it was probably Edward who created the lake that surrounds the castle. A barbican spanning three islands was built and a gloriette with apartments for the king and queen was added. In the Late Middle Ages, the growth of the household meant fewer residences could accommodate the monarchy when they visited. As a result, expenditure on royal residences in south east England generally decreased except for the Tower of London, the activity at Leeds Castle during the reign of Edward I was a notable exception to this pattern. Lady Badlesmere was kept prisoner in the Tower of London until November 1322, after Edward II died in 1327 his widow took over Leeds Castle as her primary residence. Richard IIs first wife, Anne of Bohemia, spent the winter of 1381 at the castle on her way to be married to the king, in 1395, Richard received the French chronicler Jean Froissart there, as described in Froissarts Chronicles. Henry VIII transformed the castle in 1519 for his first wife, a painting commemorating his meeting with Francis I of France still hangs there. In 1552 Leeds Castle was granted to Sir Anthony St Leger of Ulcombe, Kent, whose grandfather Ralph I St Leger, of Ulcombe, the castle escaped destruction during the English Civil War because its owner, Sir Cheney Culpeper, sided with the Parliamentarians. The castle was used as both an arsenal and a prison during the war and this legacy was to prove vital for the castles fortunes. There is a sundial at the castle telling the time in Belvoir, Virginia. Fairfax was the grandson of Thomas Fairfax who led the parliamentarian attack at the nearby Battle of Maidstone in 1648
13.
Robert Carter I
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Robert King Carter, of Lancaster County, was an American businessman and colonist in Virginia and became one of the wealthiest men in the colonies. As President of the Governors Council of the Virginia Colony, he was acting Governor of Virginia in 1726-1727 after the death in office of Governor Hugh Drysdale and he acquired the moniker King from his wealth, political power, and autocratic business methods. Robert Carter was born at Corotoman Plantation in Lancaster County, Virginia, to John Carter of London, England, in 1688, he married Judith Armistead of Hesse in Gloucester County, an area which was included in the formation of Mathews County in 1691. After her death in 1699, he married Elizabeth Landon in 1701, at age 28, Robert Carter entered the General Assembly of Virginia as a Burgess from Lancaster County, serving five consecutive years. In 1726, as President of the Governors Council, he served as acting Governor of Virginia after the death of Governor Hugh Drysdale. As an agent of Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron – known simply as Lord Fairfax – he served two terms as agent for the Fairfax Proprietary of the Northern Neck of Virginia. During his first term, 1702–1711, he began to acquire large tracts of land for himself in the Rappahannock River region of Virginia, Carter died on 4 August 1732, in Lancaster County, Virginia, and was buried there at Christ Church. He left his family 300,000 acres of land,1,000 slaves and 10,000 British pounds in cash. When Lord Fairfax saw Carters obituary in the London monthly The Gentlemans Magazine, Fairfax himself then visited his vast Northern Neck Proprietary from 1735–37, and he moved there permanently in 1747. Carter had five children with his first wife, Judith Armistead, Judith Carter died in infancy before her mother and buried near her at Christ Church Judith Carter married Mann Page. John Carter married Elizabeth Hill of Shirley Plantation Carter had ten children with his wife, Betty Landon. Robert Carter II married Priscilla Churchill, Sarah Carter Betty Carter Charles Carter married Anne Byrd, daughter of Col. William Byrd II. Ludlow Carter Landon Carter married Maria Byrd, daughter of Col. William Byrd II, stuarts Field Surgeon during the Civil War, Robert E. Lee Confederate States Army general. Robert Randolph Carter, Confederate States Army first lieutenant John Page 13th Governor of Virginia, Mann Page Virginia delegate to the Continental Congress in 1777 Thomas Nelson Page US ambassador to Italy during the Woodrow Wilson administration. William Nelson Page American civil engineer and industrialist
14.
Vice admiralty court
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American maritime activity had been primarily self-regulated in the early to mid-1600s. Smaller maritime issues were settled at court in local jurisdictions, prior to the establishment of courts to specialize in admiralty, typically the courts were presided over by a judge, unless it was deemed more suitable to be presided over by a jury. This was similar in Maryland, where a so-called Court of Admiralty heard cases of maritime issues including sailors wages, originally these courts dealt primarily with commercial matters, and the judges which presided over them were appointed by the local population and were paid from the colonial treasuries. Their jurisdiction expanded, however, during the French and Indian War, in the 1700s, the British passed a variety of laws aimed at combating illegal smuggling in the American colonies. The Molasses Act of 1733 had tried to tax molasses and non-British sugar, British admiralty prepared commissions to authorize governors to erect vice-admiralty courts throughout the American colonies. In 1701, William Atwood was dispatched to preside as judge of the Admiralty for New Hampshire, due to firm colonial opposition, however, the task was practically impossible so he retired only a few years later. Other vice-admiralty judges in Pennsylvania and southern colonies faced similar difficulties as locally elected authorities strongly opposed the work they were sent to do. This was not only because of the prohibition of jury trials or the fact that vice-admiralty judges tended to believe that common law courts did not have superior status. It was also because a whole range of technical issues confused the legal system, as a consequence of this, vice-admiralty courts became ineffective and, as many colonists perceived, unjust. In the early years of the American Revolution, the British parliament increased the power of vice-admiralty courts throughout the colonies to regulate maritime activities, therefore, in spring 1768, the court in Halifax was abolished and parliament authorized vice-admiralty courts in Boston, Charleston and Philadelphia. These courts held sessions heard without juries, with the burden of proof being on the accused instead of on the officers who seized their property, much of the time vessels were seized by the Crown on weak evidence. The Courts also generally only tried Americans, with British persons accused of violating trade legislation being heard by juries in common law courts. The vice-admiralty courts were met with extensive protest from the colonies, many felt as though their right to be tried by their peers, a right which was seen as being part of the privilege of being an English subject, was being denied to them. From 1764 to 1768, it was complained that it was unjust for a merchant, whose ship may be seized in Georgia. Further criticisms was that the owner of the ship or maritime goods seized had to post a bond before allowing to defend himself. Additionally, even if his trial ended in acquittal, he would still be required to pay costs and it was argued by American colonists that vice-admiralty judges were corrupt and often abused their power. James Otis had further complained of the lack of justice in having juryless trials and this was not the case in the vice-admiralty courts established in Boston, Charleston and Philadelphia, where judges were paid only through salaries. Erected in different stations in America and that large salaries were settled upon the Judges and these salaries were paid not from the fines and forfeitures, but in the common way
15.
Bryan Fairfax, 8th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
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Bryan Fairfax, 8th Lord Fairfax of Cameron was a lifelong friend of George Washington and became the first American-born holder of a British peerage. Bryan Fairfax was the son of Col. William Fairfax of Belvoir, as a young man, Fairfax lived at Belvoir with his father who was the business agent for his cousin, Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron. His brother, George William and his wife, Sally Cary Fairfax, in 1793, when his cousin, Robert Fairfax, 7th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, died in 1793, he initially ignored the title. However, while in England in 1798 on other business, he presented the necessary proofs to the House of Lords to claim the title, in 1800, after he had returned to Virginia, the peerage was adjudged, and he became the Eighth Lord Fairfax. After his death in 1802, his widow sued his executor and his son Thomas Fairfax became the 9th Lord Fairfax of Cameron. In 1740, he was deeded 3,400 acres, and 1741 was deeded 232 acres, in 1754, Bryan Fairfax clerked for his brother-in-law, John Carlyle, in Alexandria, Virginia, and was appointed as a deputy clerk for Fairfax County. Bryan Fairfax served as a lieutenant in George Washingtons militia regiment, in George Mercers company early in the French and Indian War and he later served as a justice for Fairfax County at the same time as Washington. Fairfax was an avid foxhunter, and he and Washington often rode together, in 1757, he was given Towlston Grange with 5,500 acres, in his fathers will. In 1773, Fairfax deeded Towlston Grange to his daughter Elizabeth and her husband, when the Fairfax Resolves were debated in 1774, Fairfax corresponded with George Washington, the chairman of the committee considering the Resolves. Fairfax was torn over the question of American independence during the American Revolutionary War, on his own in 1777, he tried to travel to England. He was arrested in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, for refusing to sign a loyalty oath, however, he wrote to his good friend, George Washington, who sent him a pass to travel between the lines. In New York, British officials also required a loyalty oath, to board ship, with his attempt thwarted, on his return trip home, he visited Washington, at Valley Forge. The entering upon a Plan of having no Trade would be an arduous undertaking, I mean if persisted in, and if once entered upon it ought to be strictly kept. I therefore think it would be proper to try first what Effect a petition might have toward obtaining a repeal of the Duty. But have we not tried this already, have we not addressed the Lords, and remonstrated to the Commons. Did they deign to look at our petitions, does it not appear, as clear as the sun in its meridan brightness, that there is a regular, systematic plan formed to fix the right & practise of taxation upon us. Is it against paying the duty of 3d, pr lb. on Tea because burthensome. No, it is the Right only, we have all along disputed, & to this end we have already Petitiond his Majesty in as humble, & dutiful a manner as Subjects could do
16.
Edward Vernon
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Admiral Edward Vernon was an English naval officer. Vernon was born in Westminster and went to Westminster School and he joined the Royal Navy in 1700 and was promoted to Lieutenant in 1702. After five years as Lieutenant, he was appointed Captain in 1706 and his first command was the HMS Rye, part of the fleet of Admiral Sir Cloudesley Shovell. Vernon had a long and distinguished career, rising to the rank of Admiral after 46 years service and he fought during the War of the Spanish Succession, rising to the rank of post-captain and commanding the West Indies Station. During the War of Jenkins Ear Vernon was a Rear Admiral, in 1739 he was responsible for the capture of Porto Bello, seen as expunging the failure of Admiral Hosier there in a previous conflict. However, an amphibious operation against Cartagena de Indias suffered a severe defeat. Vernon served as MP on three occasions and was out-spoken on naval matters in Parliament, making him a controversial figure, the origin of the name grog for rum diluted with water is attributed to Vernon. He was known for wearing coats made of cloth, earning him the nickname of Old Grog. The use of citrus juice helped to avoid scurvy, mount Vernon, the home of the first American president George Washington, was named after Vernon, since Washingtons elder brother served under Edward Vernon, and gave it his name. Born in Westminster, London, Vernon was the son of James Vernon. Edward had one sibling, James who became British envoy to Denmark and served as a member of parliament. Vernon briefly attended Westminster School, then joined the Royal Navy on 10 May 1700 as a Volunteer per order on board HMS Shrewsbury, in March 1701, he was transferred to HMS Ipswich and three months later, joined HMS Mary. On 16 September 1702, Vernon was promoted Lieutenant and appointed to HMS Lennox serving in the Channel Squadron, the ship was later transferred to the Mediterranean and finally paid off in March 1704. He was then appointed to HMS Barfleur, which at the time was the flagship of Admiral Cloudesley Shovell in the Mediterranean, the ship was present at the capture of Gibraltar and the Battle of Málaga. In December, with Shovell, he transferred to HMS Britannia and was present at the capture of Barcelona in 1705, on 22 January 1706 he was promoted Captain and appointed to HMS Dolphin. However, he was moved ten days later into HMS Rye, with the rest of Shovells fleet, he returned to England, but was fortunate to escape the disaster that befell Shovell’s flagship, HMS Association at the Isles of Scilly. In November, he joined HMS Jersey and in April 1708, in 1710, he successfully broke up a Spanish squadron off Cartagena. At the end of the War of the Spanish Succession in 1712, in March 1715, he was appointed to HMS Assistance, in which he served in the Baltic until 1717 when the ship was paid off
17.
Truro Parish, Virginia
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Truro Parish was the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Anglican church in colonial Virginia with jurisdiction originally over all of Fairfax County. The parish had its church at the Truro Church and the parish was named for the parish in Truro in Cornwall. The parish was created on November 1,1732 from Hamilton Parish and it was divided twice, in 1748, Cameron Parish was formed and in 1764 Fairfax Parish was created. After 1765, Truro Parish covered southern Fairfax County until disestablishment ended the system by 1786. The Anglican church was the religion of the Colony of Virginia from 1619 -1776. Each parish in the colony was ministered to by a minister and governed by a vestry usually composed of 12 local men of wealth. Parishes were created by acts of the House of Burgesses and the house of the legislature. Truro Parish was created by the General Assembly of Virginia on November 1,1732 when Hamilton Parish was divided along the Occoquan River and Bull Run. It included what is, at present, Arlington, Fairfax, and Loudoun counties, and the independent cities of Alexandria, Fairfax, the parish was named after Truro in Cornwall, England. Truro Parish initially covered all of the north of those rivers up to the Potomac. The parish originally contained three churches, Occoquan, William Gunnells, and a chapel above Goose Creek, the exact locations of the second two are unknown, but the Occoquan church was later known as Pohick Church, which still stands. In 1733, work was started on a new church near Michael Reagans, in 1742, Fairfax County was created out of Prince William and the boundaries of Truro Parish were adjusted to conform to the boundary between the civil counties. On June 11,1749, the parish was divided in two, with the newly formed Cameron Parish constituting the north and west of Difficult Run. George Mason, author of the Virginia Articles that presaged the Bill of Rights, was elected to the vestry that year, in 1753, the first church service at the new town of Alexandria was recorded. George Washington was appointed to the Truro Parish vestry on October 25,1762 and his father, Augustine Washington, had served on the vestry for a few years, starting in 1735. Truro Parish was further split on February 1,1765, the new boundary was just south of Washingtons estate, and the northern portion became Fairfax Parish, with The Falls Church as its seat. Drawn over todays civil boundaries, Truro Parishs final incarnation would include the Southern and Southwestern part of Fairfax County, within the parish, at formation, there were three churches, Occoquan, William Gunnells, and a chapel above Goose Creek. The Goose Creek chapel would later part of Cameron Parish
18.
Mount Vernon
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Mount Vernon was the plantation house of George Washington, the first President of the United States, and his wife, Martha Dandridge Custis Washington. The estate is situated on the banks of the Potomac River in Fairfax County, Virginia, near Alexandria, across from Prince Georges County, the Washington family had owned land in the area since the time of Washingtons great-grandfather in 1674. In 1739 they embarked on an expansion of the estate that continued under George Washington, who came into possession of the estate in 1754, the mansion is built of wood in a loose Palladian style, and was constructed by George Washington in stages between 1758 and 1778. It occupies the site of an earlier, smaller house built by George Washingtons father Augustine and it remained Washingtons country home for the rest of his life. Following his death in 1799, under the ownership of successive generations of the family. Escaping the damage suffered by many plantation houses during the American Civil War, Mount Vernon was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960 and is today listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is still owned and maintained in trust by The Mount Vernon Ladies Association, allowing the public to see the estate is not an innovation, but part of a 200-year-old tradition started by George Washington himself. In 1794 he wrote, I have no objection to any sober or orderly persons gratifying their curiosity in viewing the buildings, Gardens, when George Washingtons ancestors acquired the estate, it was known as Little Hunting Creek Plantation, after the nearby Little Hunting Creek. Vernon had been Lawrences commanding officer in the British Royal Navy, when George Washington inherited the property, he retained the name. The current property consists of 500 acres, the main buildings, the present house was built in phases from 1758, by an unknown architect, on the site of the Washingtons former farmhouse. This staggered and unplanned evolution is indicated by the main door. As completed and seen today, the house is in a loose Palladian style, the principal block, dating from 1758, is a two-storied corps de logis flanked by two single-story secondary wings, built in 1775. These secondary wings, which house the hall on the northern side. The corps de logis and secondary wings have hipped roofs with dormers, the rooms at Mount Vernon have mostly been restored to their appearance at the time of George and Martha Washingtons occupancy. These rooms include Washingtons study, two dining rooms, the West Parlour, the Front Parlour, the kitchen and some bedrooms, instead they range from severe Palladianism to a finer and later neoclassicism in the style of Robert Adam. This varying of the style is best exemplified in the doorcases. Today, visitors to Mount Vernon are shown Washingtons study, a room to which in the century only a privileged few were granted entrée. It is a furnished room Washington used as a combined bathroom, dressing room and office
19.
Sally Fairfax
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Sally Cary Fairfax was the wife of George William Fairfax, a prominent member of the landed gentry of late colonial Virginia. As such, she was mistress of the Virginia plantation and estate of Belvoir and she is well-remembered for being the woman George Washington was apparently in love with just before his marriage to Martha Dandridge Custis. Sally Cary, as she was born, came one of Virginias oldest and wealthiest families. Her forefather, Miles Cary of Bristol, England, first came to America in the mid-17th century, Colonel Wilson Cary, Sally’s father and a member of the House of Burgesses, inherited one of Virginia’s largest fortunes and the family estate, Ceelys on the James. Little is known about his wife and Sally’s mother, Sarah, out of Colonel Cary’s four daughters, the eldest Sally was the most sought-after and a grande belle in Virginian society. After their marriage, Sally and George William moved into the Belvoir estate that had established in the early 1740s. The Fairfax family, as the Carys, was a remnant of European feudalism. Fairfax family members held the reins of social and political power in Virginia. George Williams sister, Anne Fairfax, married Lawrence Washington soon after George Williams marriage to Sally, lawrence’s adolescent half-brother, George Washington, began visiting Belvoir frequently. Wishing to advance his brother’s fortunes, Lawrence introduced George to George William, a friendship grew between the two men, who were close in age. Yet a relationship blossomed between Sally Fairfax and George Washington. Sadly reminds me how Impossible this is. ”In another letter, he makes an allusion to the literary characters Juba, prince of Numidia and this ambiguity makes the question of the relationship’s consummation frustrating to historians, and the answer is still unknown. Despite any feelings he may have felt for Sally Fairfax, Washington married the wealthy Martha Dandridge Custis, perhaps to heighten his social status, but their marriage appears to have been strong. Sally and George William were, in fact, the most frequent visitors to Mount Vernon, the happy foursome separated in 1773 when the Fairfaxes repaired to England to attend to family matters. Thereafter, George William’s fortunes were crushed, as a Loyalist, he had every intention of returning to America after the 1776 insurrection was over, but the success of the Revolution prevented either of them from ever returning. He died in 1787 and Sally then lived alone in Bath until her death in 1811, there were signs of regret on Sally’s part in the end. Note, All excerpts from correspondence have been taken from Wilson Miles Carys Sally Cary, Wilson Miles Cary, Sally Cary, A Long Hidden Romance of Washington’s Life, New York, The DeVine Press,1916. Joseph J. Ellis, His Excellency George Washington, New York, nathaniel Wright Stevenson, “The Romantics and George Washington”, In, The American Historical Review, Vol.39, No
20.
John Carlyle (merchant)
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John Carlyle was a Scottish merchant who immigrated to British Colony of Virginia and became a leading landowner and social and political figure in Northern Virginia. He was a trustee and the first overseer of Alexandria, Virginia. He immigrated to Virginia in 1741 as a factor of English merchant William Hicks and he established himself as a merchant at Belhaven, a settlement that had grown up around a tobacco warehouse on the bluff overlooking the Potomac River that would become Alexandria, Virginia, in 1749. Carlyle quickly met with success and, in 1747, married Sarah Fairfax, cousin of Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron. From 1751–53, he built his house, now Carlyle House, in Alexandria and he owned thousands of acres of land throughout Virginia. His business ventures included trading with England and the West Indies, retail operations in Alexandria, a foundry in the Shenandoah Valley, milling and he also undertook a number of civic and religious positions typical of a man of his status. On 26 January 1754, he was appointed by Virginias Lieutenant Governor Robert Dinwiddie, major and commissary of the Virginia forces in the French and he was politically well-connected at the time and was friends with future President of the United States George Washington. In 1755, Carlyles house was the headquarters for Major-General Edward Braddock in Virginia during the French. The Congress of Alexandria convened at the house, most likely in the dining room and he was urged not to undertake the expedition by Washington who was then a volunteer aide-de-camp to Braddock. Following the death of his wife Sarah on 22 January 1761, Carlyle married Sybil West, around 1770, Caryle constructed a plantation house and summer residence in what is now Fairlington, Arlington, Virginia first called Torthorwald and later changed to Morven which stood until 1942. He used this plantation as a farm and operated a grist mill on Four Mile Run above what is now Arlandria. Carlyle died in 1780 and is buried at the Old Presbyterian Meeting House in Alexandria, John Carlyles only son to survive beyond childhood was George William Carlyle, born in 1766. He served in the cavalry and was killed in South Carolina in the American Revolutionary War Battle of Eutaw Springs on 8 September 1781 at age 15, John Carlyles grandson through his daughter Sarah Carlyle, John Carlyle Herbert, inherited Carlyle House in 1781. Had George William Carlyle lived, he would have been entitled to the dormant barony as Lord Carlyle, about John Carlyle at Carlyle House Historic Park website Richard Henry Spencer. William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine, the Carlyle House and its Associations--Braddocks Headquarters--Here the Colonial Governors met in Council, April,1755. William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine
21.
Quebec
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Quebec is the second-most populous province of Canada and the only one to have a predominantly French-speaking population, with French as the sole provincial official language. Quebec is Canadas largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division and it also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Quebec is Canadas second-most populous province, after Ontario, most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. Approximately half of Quebec residents live in the Greater Montreal Area, the Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples. Even in central Quebec at comparatively southerly latitudes winters are severe in inland areas, Quebec independence debates have played a large role in the politics of the province. Parti Québécois governments held referendums on sovereignty in 1980 and 1995, in 2006, the House of Commons of Canada passed a symbolic motion recognizing the Québécois as a nation within a united Canada. These many industries have all contributed to helping Quebec become an economically influential province within Canada, early variations in the spelling of the name included Québecq and Kébec. French explorer Samuel de Champlain chose the name Québec in 1608 for the colonial outpost he would use as the seat for the French colony of New France. The province is sometimes referred to as La belle province, the Province of Quebec was founded in the Royal Proclamation of 1763 after the Treaty of Paris formally transferred the French colony of Canada to Britain after the Seven Years War. The proclamation restricted the province to an area along the banks of the Saint Lawrence River, the Treaty of Versailles ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. After the Constitutional Act of 1791, the territory was divided between Lower Canada and Upper Canada, with each being granted an elected legislative assembly, in 1840, these become Canada East and Canada West after the British Parliament unified Upper and Lower Canada into the Province of Canada. This territory was redivided into the Provinces of Quebec and Ontario at Confederation in 1867, each became one of the first four provinces. In 1898, the Canadian Parliament passed the first Quebec Boundary Extension Act that expanded the provincial boundaries northward to include the lands of the aboriginal peoples. This was followed by the addition of the District of Ungava through the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act of 1912 that added the northernmost lands of the Inuit to create the modern Province of Quebec. In 1927, the border between Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador was established by the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Located in the part of Canada, and part of Central Canada. Its topography is very different from one region to another due to the composition of the ground, the climate. The Saint Lawrence Lowland and the Canadian Shield are the two main regions, and are radically different
22.
Seven Years' War
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The Seven Years War was a war fought between 1754 and 1763, the main conflict occurring in the seven-year period from 1756 to 1763. It involved every European great power of the time except the Ottoman Empire and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain on one side and the Kingdom of France on the other. Meanwhile, in India, the Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, faced with this sudden turn of events, Britain aligned herself with Prussia, in a series of political manoeuvres known as the Diplomatic Revolution. Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754–1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America, meanwhile, rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and outside the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. In 1756, the major powers switched partners, realizing that war was imminent, Prussia preemptively struck Saxony and quickly overran it. The result caused uproar across Europe, because of Austrias alliance with France to recapture Silesia, which had been lost in a previous war, Prussia formed an alliance with Britain. Reluctantly, by following the diet, most of the states of the empire joined Austrias cause. The Anglo-Prussian alliance was joined by smaller German states, Sweden, seeking to re-gain Pomerania joined the coalition, seeing its chance when virtually all of Europe opposed Prussia. Spain, bound by the Pacte de Famille, intervened on behalf of France, the Russian Empire was originally aligned with Austria, fearing Prussias ambition on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but switched sides upon the succession of Tsar Peter III in 1762. Naples, Sicily, and Savoy, although sided with the Franco-Spanish alliance, like Sweden, Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain and the Treaty of Hubertusburg between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763. The Native American tribes were excluded from the settlement, a subsequent conflict, Prussia emerged as a new European great power. Although Austria failed to retrieve the territory of Silesia from Prussia its military prowess was noted by the other powers. The involvement of Portugal, Spain and Sweden did not return them to their status as great powers. France was deprived of many of its colonies and had saddled itself with heavy war debts that its inefficient financial system could barely handle. Spain lost Florida but gained French Louisiana and regained control of its colonies, e. g. Cuba and the Philippines, France and Spain avenged their defeat in 1778 when the American Revolutionary War broke out, with hopes of destroying Britains dominance once and for all. The Seven Years War was perhaps the first true world war, having taken place almost 160 years before World War I and it was characterized in Europe by sieges and the arson of towns as well as open battles with heavy losses
23.
George Washington
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George Washington was an American politician and soldier who served as the first President of the United States from 1789 to 1797 and was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He served as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War and he is popularly considered the driving force behind the nations establishment and came to be known as the father of the country, both during his lifetime and to this day. Washington was widely admired for his leadership qualities and was unanimously elected president by the Electoral College in the first two national elections. Washingtons incumbency established many precedents still in use today, such as the system, the inaugural address. His retirement from office two terms established a tradition that lasted until 1940 when Franklin Delano Roosevelt won an unprecedented third term. The 22nd Amendment now limits the president to two elected terms and he was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial Virginia to a family of wealthy planters who owned tobacco plantations and slaves, which he inherited. In his youth, he became an officer in the colonial militia during the first stages of the French. In 1775, the Second Continental Congress commissioned him as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the American Revolution, in that command, Washington forced the British out of Boston in 1776 but was defeated and nearly captured later that year when he lost New York City. After crossing the Delaware River in the middle of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey, and restored momentum to the Patriot cause and his strategy enabled Continental forces to capture two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies, after victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism. Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787, which devised a new form of government for the United States. Following his election as president in 1789, he worked to unify rival factions in the fledgling nation and he supported Alexander Hamiltons programs to satisfy all debts, federal and state, established a permanent seat of government, implemented an effective tax system, and created a national bank. In avoiding war with Great Britain, he guaranteed a decade of peace and profitable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795 and he remained non-partisan, never joining the Federalist Party, although he largely supported its policies. Washingtons Farewell Address was a primer on civic virtue, warning against partisanship, sectionalism. He retired from the presidency in 1797, returning to his home, upon his death, Washington was eulogized as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen by Representative Henry Lee III of Virginia. He was revered in life and in death, scholarly and public polling consistently ranks him among the top three presidents in American history and he has been depicted and remembered in monuments, public works, currency, and other dedications to the present day. He was born on February 11,1731, according to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar was adopted within the British Empire in 1752, and it renders a birth date of February 22,1732. Washington was of primarily English gentry descent, especially from Sulgrave and his great-grandfather John Washington emigrated to Virginia in 1656 and began accumulating land and slaves, as did his son Lawrence and his grandson, Georges father Augustine
24.
Archaeology
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Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
25.
Lieutenant Governor of Virginia
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The Lieutenant Governor is a constitutional officer of the Commonwealth of Virginia. The Lieutenant Governor is elected every four years along with the Governor, the office is currently held by Democrat Ralph Northam. The governor and lieutenant governor are elected separately and thus may be of different political parties, the lieutenant governors office is located in the Oliver Hill Building on Capitol Square in Richmond, Virginia. Unlike the governor, the Lieutenant Governor of Virginia can run for re-election, since the late 1920s, the lieutenant governor has been one of only three positions that competes in a statewide election in Virginia. Since the governor cannot succeed himself, whoever is elected lieutenant governor is almost always considered a candidate for governor. This is especially the case if the lieutenant governor and the attorney general come from different parties, the office of Lieutenant Governor is of colonial origin and can be traced to the Virginia Council of London. The Council was appointed by the King, and in turn, virginia’s first Constitution, adopted in 1776, provided a Council of State from which a President was annually selected from its members. The President acted as Lieutenant Governor in the case of the death, inability, the Virginia Constitution of 1851 abolished the Governor’s Council of State and provided for the popular election of the Lieutenant Governor. Shelton Farrar Leake, from Albemarle County, was the first elected Lieutenant Governor, constitutionally, the Lieutenant Governor is president of the Senate of Virginia, as is the case with many other lieutenant governors in the United States. Unlike most of his counterparts, however, the lieutenant governor presides over the chamber. Parties No party/Conservative Democratic Whig Republican As of January 2017, six former U. S. lieutenant governors of Virginia were alive, the oldest being Douglas Wilder. The most recent death of a former U. S. lieutenant governor of Virginia was that of Richard J. Davis and he is also the most recently serving U. S. lieutenant governor of Virginia to die. Lieutenant Governor of Virginias website List of past Lieutenant Governors
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Iroquois
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The Iroquois or Haudenosaunee are a historically powerful northeast Native American confederacy. The Iroquois have absorbed many other peoples into their cultures as a result of warfare, adoption of captives, the historic Erie, Susquehannock, Wyandot, and St. Lawrence Iroquoians, all independent peoples, spoke Iroquoian languages. In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, the most common name for the confederacy, Iroquois, is of somewhat obscure origin. The first time it appears in writing is in the account of Samuel de Champlain of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603, other spellings occurring in the earliest sources include Erocoise, Hiroquois, Hyroquoise, Irecoies, Iriquois, Iroquaes, Irroquois, and Yroquois. In the French spoken at the time, this would have been pronounced as or. In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that the Charlevoix etymology was dubious, Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with Mohawk ierokwa they who smoke or Cayuga iakwai a bear. Hewitt responded to Hales etymology in 1888 by expressing doubt that either of those words even exist in the respective languages, a more modern etymology is that advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, who elaborates upon an earlier etymology given by Charles Arnaud in 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué, meaning terrible man, Day proposes a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač, meaning a man, an Iroquois, as the origin of this term. More recently, Peter Bakker has proposed a Basque origin for Iroquois. g and he proposes instead that the word derives from hilokoa, from the Basque roots hil to kill, ko, and a. He also argues that the /l/ was rendered as /r/ since the former is not attested in the inventory of any language in the region. Thus the word according to Bakker is translatable as the killer people, a different term, Haudenosaunee, is the designation more commonly used by the Iroquois to refer to themselves. It is also preferred by scholars of Native American history who consider the name Iroquois to be derogatory in origin. An alternate designation, Ganonsyoni, is encountered as well. More transparently, the Iroquois confederacy is also referred to simply as the Six Nations. The history of the Iroquois Confederacy goes back to its formation by the Peacemaker in 1142, each nation within the Iroquoian family had a distinct language, territory and function in the League. Iroquois influence extended into present-day Canada, westward along the Great Lakes, the League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems, each representing one of the clans of one of the nations. The original Iroquois League or Five Nations, occupied areas of present-day New York State up to the St. Lawrence River, west of the Hudson River. The League was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, in or close to 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the League, having migrated from the Carolinas after being displaced by Anglo-European settlement
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Albany, New York
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Albany is the capital of the U. S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. Roughly 150 miles north of New York City, Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River, the population of the City of Albany was 97,856 according to the 2010 census. With a Census-estimated population of 98,4242013, the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States. Fortune 500 companies that have offices in Albany include American Express, J. P. Morgan and Chase, Merrill Lynch, General Electric, Verizon, Goldman Sachs, International Paper, and Key Bank. In the 21st century, the Capital District has emerged as an anchor of Tech Valley. This was the first European settlement in the state, settled by Dutch colonists who built Fort Nassau for fur trading in 1614 and they formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples, two major Native American nations in the region. The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange, in 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements, renaming the city as Albany, in honor of the then Duke of Albany, the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The city was chartered in 1686 under English rule. It became the capital of New York State in 1797, following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War, Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies, and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. Its charter is possibly the longest-running instrument of government in the Western Hemisphere. During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th, Albany was a center of trade, Albanys main exports at the time were beer, lumber, published works, and ironworks. Beginning in 1810, Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States, in the 20th century, the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world, the precursor of todays Albany International Airport. During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital and it marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities. In the early 21st century, Albany has experienced growth in the high-technology industry, Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century, with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services. The city has rebounded from the decline of the 1970s and 1980s. Albany is known for its history, commerce, culture, architecture. Albany won the All-America City Award in both 1991 and 2009, Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. The Hudson River area was inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Mohican, who called it Pempotowwuthut-Muhhcanneuw
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Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
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Springfield, Virginia
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Springfield is a census-designated place in Fairfax County, Virginia, United States. The Springfield CDP is recognized by the U. S. Census Bureau with a population of 30,484 as of the 2010 census, homes and businesses in bordering CDPs including North Springfield, West Springfield, and Newington are usually given a Springfield mailing address. The population of the areas with Springfield addresses is estimated to exceed 100,000. The CDP is a part of Northern Virginia, the most populous region of the Washington Metropolitan Area, Springfield is located at 38°46′45″N 77°11′4″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has an area of 7.9 square miles. The area is dominated by the interchange of I-95, I-395, the center of the town is at the intersection of Route 644 and Route 617 adjacent to the interchange. A significant commercial district exists around the area, but the rest of the community is primarily residential in character. Owned by James Keene, it gave its name to todays Old Keene Mill Road, the mill served farms in the area for around sixty years before its discontinuation. Nothing remains of it today save for two mill races, Springfield was founded in 1847 around the Orange and Alexandria Railroads Daingerfield Station, this is today the Backlick Road Virginia Railway Express station, located off Backlick Road. The station was named for Springfield Farm, owned by Henry Daingerfield, the post office was completed sometime after 1851. It was in existence at the time of the American Civil War, being the site of a skirmish on October 3,1861, the station served as the first Springfield Post Office from 1866 to 1868. In 1877, Richard Moore petitioned for a post office, which he named Moor, it was located about a little over a mile south of the station, near the intersection of Fairfax and Backlick roads. The post office name was changed in 1881 to Garfield to honor the late President James A. Garfield, in 1907, the Garfield post office closed and a new postal station named Corbett opened back at the railroad station. The name Springfield was reinstated for good on June 27,1910, the post office was moved to a new site in 1933. Springfield remained a rural crossroads until 1946, when realtor Edward Carr decided to subdivide the area for development along the recently opened Henry Shirley Highway. Carr believed this to be the last easily accessible tract within 12 miles of Washington, D. C. and indeed, in 1950, the area had an estimated population of 1,000, Robert E. Lee High School was built in 1957. By 1960, the population was reported as over 10,000, it grew past 25,000 by 1970 with the North, Springfield became a major retail destination with the opening of the Springfield Mall in 1973–75, as well as the Springfield and Brookfield shopping centers. The mall was renovated from a facility into a town center with a mixture of shopping, office
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Lord Fairfax of Cameron
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Lord Fairfax of Cameron is a title in the Peerage of Scotland. Despite holding a Scottish peerage, the Lords Fairfax of Cameron are members of an ancient Yorkshire family, from 1515 to about 1700 the family resided at Denton Hall. Charles I created the title in 1627 for Sir Thomas Fairfax and he had represented Queen Elizabeth I on several diplomatic missions to James VI of Scotland and also sat as a Member of Parliament for several constituencies in the English Parliament. Both his son Ferdinando, the second Lord, and grandson, Thomas, on the latters death in 1671 the title passed to his first cousin, the fourth Lord. He was the son of Reverend the Hon. Henry Fairfax, second son of the first Lord and his son, the fifth Lord, sat as a Member of Parliament for Malton and Yorkshire. He was succeeded by his son, the sixth Lord and he inherited substantial estates in Virginia through his mother, the daughter of Thomas Colepeper, 2nd Baron Colepeper, Governor of Virginia. On his death the title and American estates passed to his younger brother and he represented Maidstone and Kent in Parliament. The immense American estates were confiscated during the American War of Independence and he was succeeded by his first cousin once removed, the eighth Lord, Rev. Bryan Fairfax who also lived in Virginia. He was the grandson of Reverend the Hon. Henry Fairfax, however, it wasnt until 1800 that he was confirmed in the title by the House of Lords. His great-great-grandson was Albert Kirby Fairfax, the twelfth Lord, who lived in Maryland in the United States and his branch of the family had lived in America for several generations and had essentially forgotten about the title. However, it was discovered that Albert was the rightful heir to the lordship. In 1917 he was elected a Scottish Representative Peer, which he remained until his death in 1939 and he was succeeded by his eldest son, the thirteenth Lord. He was a Scottish Representative Peer from 1945 to 1963 and served as a Lord-in-Waiting between 1954 and 1957 in the Conservative administrations of Winston Churchill and Anthony Eden, as of 2017 the title is held by his son, the fourteenth Lord, who succeeded in 1964. Fairfax Baronets of The Holmes Fairfax County Siege of Colchester Seal with Fairfax family coat of arms Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David
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Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron
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Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1614 and 1648. He was a commander in the Parliamentary army in the English Civil War, two of his brothers were Henry Fairfax and Charles Fairfax. Four others were killed on military service overseas and he served as member of the English parliament for Boroughbridge during the six parliaments which met between 1614 and 1629 and also during the Short Parliament of 1640. He took the side of the parliament, but held moderate views and his main seat was Denton Hall in Wharfedale, Yorkshire. Hostilities began after the repudiation of a treaty of neutrality entered into by Fairfax with the Royalists, at first Fairfax met with no success. He escaped to Hull, which he defended against Newcastle from 2 September until 11 October 1643. Fairfax was victorious at Selby on 11 April 1644, and joining the Scots, besieged York, after which he was present at the Battle of Marston Moor and he was subsequently, in July 1644, made Governor of York and charged with the further reduction of the county. In December 1644 he took the town of Pontefract, but failed to secure the castle, robert, Earl of Essex, describing the victorious sally at Hull. He died from an accident which caused gangrene in his foot on 14 March 1648 and was buried at Bolton Percy in Yorkshire. Attribution This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Fairfax of Cameron, Ferdinando Fairfax. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Firth. London, Smith, Elder & Co. pp. 132–133
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Thomas Fairfax
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Fairfax became unhappy with Cromwells policy and publicly refused to take part in Charless show trial. Eventually he resigned, leaving Cromwell to control the republic and his dark hair and eyes and a swarthy complexion earned him the nickname Black Tom. Thomas Fairfax was born at Denton Hall, halfway between Ilkley and Otley in the West Riding of Yorkshire, on 17 January 1612, the eldest son of Ferdinando Fairfax, 2nd Lord Fairfax of Cameron. He studied at St Johns College, Cambridge, and Grays Inn, in the Second Bishops War the following year the English army was routed at the Battle of Newburn. Fairfax fled with the rest of the army but was nevertheless knighted for his services in January 1641. His distant cousin was Sir Thomas Fairfax of Gilling Castle - the common ancestor of both Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge and her husband, Prince William and this was at a great meeting of the freeholders and farmers of Yorkshire convened by the king on Heworth Moor near York. Charles evaded receiving the petition, pressing his horse forward, but Fairfax followed him and placed the petition on the pommel of the kings saddle. When the civil war broke out in 1642, his father, Lord Fairfax, was appointed general of the Parliamentary forces in the north, both father and son distinguished themselves in the campaigns in Yorkshire. A gathering of national forces within a few square miles of ground naturally led to a battle. The younger Fairfax bore himself with the greatest gallantry in the battle, and though severely wounded managed to join Oliver Cromwell, one of his brothers, Colonel Charles Fairfax, was killed in the action. But the Marquess of Newcastle fled the kingdom, and the Royalists abandoned all hope of retrieving their affairs, the city of York was taken, and nearly the whole north submitted to the Parliament. In the south and west of England, however, the Royalist cause was still strong, the war had lasted two years, and the nation began to complain of the contributions that were exacted, and the excesses that were committed by the military. Dissatisfaction was expressed with the commanders, and, as a preliminary step to reform. This involved the removal of the Earl of Essex from the supreme command and this was followed by the New Model Ordinance, which replaced the locally raised Parliamentary regiments with a unified army. Sir Thomas Fairfax was selected as the new general with Cromwell as his lieutenant-general. Fairfax besieged Leicester, and was successful at Taunton, Bridgwater, the whole west was soon reduced. Fairfax arrived in London on 12 November 1645, in his progress towards the capital he was accompanied by applauding crowds. Complimentary speeches and thanks were presented to him by both houses of parliament, along with a jewel of great value set with diamonds, in January 1647 he was delivered up by the Covenanters to the commissioners of Englands parliament
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Thomas Fairfax, 5th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
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Thomas Fairfax, 5th Lord Fairfax of Cameron was an English nobleman and politician. Fairfax was the great-grandson of Thomas Fairfax, 1st Lord Fairfax of Cameron and his father was Henry Fairfax, 4th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, and his mother was Francis Barwick. Fairfax graduated from Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1675, in 1688, he was Colonel of the Yorkshire Militia, under Sir Thomas Osborne, Earl of Danby. In 1690 and 1695, he was a member of Parliament as a Tory, in 1704 Fairfax obtained from Queen Anne a patent to search for wrecks and treasure in the West Indies, exclusive for three years. A company was formed, and three vessels were sent. But the expedition was a financial failure, in 1707 he was in parliament again, elected for Yorkshire in a by-election. But the 1707 Act of Union disqualified him as an MP, list of deserters from James II to William of Orange
34.
Thomas Fairfax, 9th Lord Fairfax of Cameron
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Thomas Fairfax, 9th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, was an American born Scottish peer, who along with his father, on December 11,1799, was among the last guests at Mount Vernon before Washington died. Thomas Fairfax was born in 1762 and was the son of Bryan Fairfax, 8th Lord Fairfax of Cameron and his wife, Elizabeth Cary, daughter of Colonel Wilson Cary and his brother was Ferdinando Fairfax, whose godparents were George Washington and Martha Washington. In 1802, he succeeded his father to the title of Lord Fairfax of Cameron after his fathers death and he lived the life of a country squire overseeing his 40,000 acres, lived at Belvoir, Ash Grove, and Vaucluse, where he died. He married three times, Mary Aylett, Laura Washington, Margaret Herbert, Fairfax birthed children with Mary Aylett, a Native Indian woman. He had seven children by his third wife Margaret, Albert Fairfax, who married Caroline Eliza Snowden Henry Fairfax, orlando Fairfax Reginald Fairfax Eugenia Fairfax Aurelia Fairfax Monimia Fairfax, who married Archibald Cary, the son of the son of Wilson Jefferson Cary and Virginia Randolph. He maintained a home at 607 Cameron Street, Alexandria, Virginia. Thomas Fairfax was a follower of Swedenborg, because of these religious beliefs, he manumitted his slaves, taught them a trade, and sent them to Liberia. This is consistent with the thinking of the American Colonization Society and his grandson, Charles Snowdown Fairfax, 10th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, succeeded him as the 10th Lord Fairfax of Cameron as Fairfaxs eldest son, his father, predeceased him. Another grandson, John Fairfax, 11th Lord Fairfax of Cameron and his granddaughter was the writer Constance Cary
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Ferdinando Fairfax
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Ferdinando Fairfax was a Virginia landowner and member of the prominent Fairfax family. He was the youngest son of Bryan Fairfax, 8th Lord Fairfax of Cameron and his brother was Thomas Fairfax, 9th Lord Fairfax of Cameron and his grandfather was Col. William Fairfax. George Washington and Martha Washington, who traveled to Towlston Grange after his birth, were his godparents, ferdinando was the heir to his uncle, George William Fairfax, son of William Fairfax, who was married to Sally Cary, his mother Elizabeths sister. George William Fairfax was Washingtons close friend, Fairfax served as a justice of the peace for Jefferson County, Virginia and was, at the same time, the largest slave owner in the County. From the 1770s onward, individuals in France, Britain, Fairfax offered his own practicable scheme for ending slavery through colonization when he developed his “Plan for Liberating the Negroes within the United States” in 1790. This was because most people at the believed that the races would not be able to get along if they tried to live together. Fairfax later squandered his inheritance on visionary schemes and squatters lawsuits, ferdinando married his first cousin Elizabeth Blair Cary, daughter of Wilson Miles Cary and Sarah Blair
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Donald McNeill Fairfax
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Donald MacNeil Fairfax was an officer in the United States Navy during the American Civil War. The son of George William Fairfax, and Isabella McNeill, grandson of Ferdinando Fairfax, Fairfax entered the Navy as a midshipman on August 12,1837. He was the member of the family who took the Union side in the American Civil War. On November 8,1861, Fairfax boarded Trent to remove Confederate commissioners James M. Mason and John Slidell, after the ship had stopped by his captain. Wilkes had given Fairfax the following instructions, On boarding her you will demand the papers of the steamer, her clearance from Havana, with the list of passengers. Should Mr. Mason, Mr. Slidell, Mr. Eustice and Mr. McFarland be on board make them prisoners and send them on board this ship, … They must be brought on board. He escorted Mason by the collar, to the cutter, and he failed to claim Trent as a prize, citing the loss of manpower of a prize crew. Fairfaxs distinguished service in the Civil War included command of the Cayuga, Nantucket, Fairfax was later promoted to flag rank, retiring as a Rear Admiral on September 30,1881. He retired to Hagerstown, Maryland where he served on the vestry of Saint Johns Church, in 1917 the Wickes-class destroyer USS Fairfax was named in his honor. This article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships, the entry can be found here
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Charles S. Fairfax
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Charles Snowdon Fairfax, 10th Lord Fairfax of Cameron was an American Democratic politician of California. He was of Scottish noble descent, and held a Scottish peerage, Fairfax was lured west as part of the gold rush. The town of Fairfax, California, is named for him and he was born on Vaucluse Plantation in Virginia, the eldest son of Albert Fairfax and Caroline Eliza Snowden, who were married on April 7,1828. His younger brother was John Fairfax, 11th Lord Fairfax of Cameron and his paternal grandfather was Thomas Fairfax, 9th Lord Fairfax of Cameron. On May 1,1838, his mother married William R. Saunders and he was collaterally related to Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Lord Fairfax, who was a Parliamentary general during the English Civil Wars. Thomas Fairfax was the first person who employed George Washington as a surveyor, the clergyman then became the 8th Lord Fairfax of Cameron. Bryan Fairfax, whose wife was Elizabeth Cary, was succeeded in 1802 by his eldest son, Thomas Fairfax. Thomas Fairfax, 9th Lord Fairfax of Cameron was thrice married, his son by his wife, Margaret Herbert, Albert. Therefore, Charles S. Fairfax, the grandson of Thomas, the 9th Lord, succeeded to the title of Lord Fairfax in 1846—a title, however, that he never claimed, preferring to live as an American citizen. Fairfax, still the potential 10th Lord Fairfax, Baron of Cameron, after disembarking and crossing Panama, he boarded a second ship, the steamer California, and arrived in San Francisco on June 23,1850. The life of a miner in the mother lode of California might have been somewhat of a shock to Fairfax, who grew up as a gentleman farmer and he prospected extensively, only to lose whatever money he made as fast as he got hold of it. There were stories of him working for others, pushing a wheelbarrow, or tending a mule pulling a cart of gravel, in 1851, he abandoned the goldfields and turned to a new calling—politics—and became a delegate to the Democratic National Convention. Fairfax was a member of the California State Assembly, first representing Yuba and Sierra Counties from 1853 to 54 and he served as Speaker of the Assembly in 1854. He subsequently served as Clerk of the Supreme Court of California, from 1865 to 1867, he was a Supervisor of Marin County. In 1854, Fairfax met his wife, Ada Benham, in San Francisco and they were married on January 10,1855, in Louisville, Kentucky, at the home of her stepsister, Henrietta Prentice. After their return to San Francisco, Fairfax and his bride visited his friend, Dr. Alfred Taliaferro. When they expressed their admiration of his estate, he gave them the property as a wedding gift. Thus, in 1855, the couple became residents of what would become the town of Fairfax
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Ash Grove (plantation)
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Ash Grove is an 18th-century plantation house in Fairfax County, Virginia, United States. In 1790, Bryan Fairfax built Ash Grove on Leesburg Pike,2 miles west of Tysons Corner, Virginia for his son, Ash Grove is said to have been named for an older Fairfax family house in England. In his later years, Thomas Fairfax bought Vaucluse Plantation, near Alexandria, Virginia and he married Caroline Herbert of Maryland, and they had several children, and operated a boarding school for young ladies. Following Captain Henry Fairfaxs death during the Mexican–American War, at Saltillo, Mexico, on August 14,1847, descendants on occasion relate some interesting family lore of American Civil War events when the neighborhood was a no mans land. James Sherman died in Spring 1865, and left the property to his son, Franklin Sherman and he returned after the Civil War to farm, was Sheriff, member of the Board of Supervisors, and School Board. The property passed to Wells Alvord Sherman, and then Wilson C Sherman, the house was purchased from the Sherman family in 1997, and dedicated as a Fairfax County, Virginia, park. Historic houses in Virginia GENERAL MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR ASH GROVE HISTORIC SITE, Fairfax County Park Authority
