1.
Roxbury, Boston
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The city asserts that it serves as the heart of Black culture in Boston. Roxbury was one of the first towns founded in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1630, the original boundaries of the Town of Roxbury can be found in Drakes History of Roxbury and its noted Personages. OBryant School of Mathematics & Science, Y. M. C. A, harvard Medical School and many hospitals and schools in the area. This side of the Muddy River is Roxbury, the side is Brookline. Here, Walnut Avenue changes its name to Sigourney Street, indicating the area is now Jamaica Plain, one side of Columbia Road is Roxbury, the other Dorchester. Melnea Cass Boulevard is located approximately over the Roxbury Canal that brought boats into Roxbury, the neighborhood has recently added a new police station improving response time assisting its residents. This facility opened in 2011, and is energy efficient, also assisting the community are programs such as the Child Services of Roxbury, the youth build Boston programs, and many more. New initiatives by the city of Boston have propelled the neighborhood of Boston to become eco-friendly, there has been development of new E+ buildings. Along with the move into a community, each building is now mandated to provide accessibility to people with handicaps. The high density population leads to large amounts of crime, 1/4 of the population are immigrants and half of the population is under 25 years old. Many of the adults are young professionals, many jobs in Roxbury are office and retail oriented. There are also many emergency response facilities who help underprivileged people in the area, such as youth centers, the Massachusetts Bay Colony found the coastline largely empty, and quickly founded a group of six towns, among them Boston, Cambridge, and Roxbury. For more than 200 years, Roxbury also encompassed West Roxbury, three miles south the only land route to the capital led through Roxbury, which made the town important for both transportation and trade. Roxbury in the 1600s also held many of the resources English colonists prized, potentially arable land, timber, the settlers of Roxbury originally comprised the congregation of the First Church in Roxbury, established in 1632. During this time the church served not only as a place of worship, the congregation had no time to raise a meeting house the first winter and so met with the neighboring congregation in Dorchester. One of the leaders of this church was Amos Adams. The first meeting house was built in 1632, and the building pictured here is the meeting house. The town is located where Boston was previously connected to mainland Massachusetts by an isthmus called Boston Neck or alternately
2.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
5.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
6.
Increase Sumner
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Increase Sumner was an American lawyer, jurist, and politician from Massachusetts. He was the governor of Massachusetts, serving from 1797 to 1799. Trained as a lawyer, he served in the government of Massachusetts during the American Revolutionary War. Appointed to the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court the same year, he served there as a justice until 1797. He was elected governor of Massachusetts three times by wide margins, but died shortly after the start of his third term. His descendants include his son William H. Sumner, for whom the Sumner Tunnel in Boston, Massachusetts is named, Increase Sumner was born on November 27,1746 in Roxbury, Province of Massachusetts Bay, one of eight children of Increase Sumner and Sarah Sharp. The elder Increase Sumner was a farmer descended from early settlers of Dorchester, he held a number of public offices including coroner for Suffolk County. In 1752 Sumner enrolled in the school in Roxbury, now Roxbury Latin School. Sumner excelled at school, and over the resistance of his father was enrolled at Harvard College in 1763, after graduating from Harvard, Sumner took charge of the Roxbury school, where he taught for two years while he apprenticed law under Samuel Quincy, the provincial solicitor general. He sought to study under John Adams, but the latter had enough students, Adams wrote that Sumner was a promising genius, and a studious and virtuous youth. Sumner was admitted to the bar in 1770 and opened a law office in Roxbury that year, Sumner was chosen a member of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress in 1776 where he represented the town of Roxbury. In 1777 he participated in a convention to draft a new constitution. He continued to serve in the congress until the state constitution was adopted in 1780. This post he held for two years, in June 1782 he was elected to the Confederation Congress by the state legislature, replacing Timothy Danielson, who resigned, but Sumner never actually took the seat. In August 1782 Governor John Hancock nominated him as a justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court to replace James Sullivan. He accepted this position instead of the seat, and served from 1782 to 1797. Details on his record are sparse, in part because few official court records survive from the time. Sumner did take detailed notes of many of the cases he heard, the period when he served in the Supreme Judicial Court included a time of great turmoil in Massachusetts
7.
Harvard College
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Harvard College is the undergraduate liberal arts college of Harvard University. Founded in 1636 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, it is the oldest institution of learning in the United States. The school came into existence in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony—though without a single building, in 1638, the college became home for North Americas first known printing press, carried by the ship John of London. Three years later, the college was renamed in honor of deceased Charlestown minister John Harvard who had bequeathed to the school his entire library, Harvards first instructor was schoolmaster Nathaniel Eaton, in 1639, he also became its first instructor to be dismissed, for overstrict discipline. The schools first students were graduated in 1642, in 1665, Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck from the Wampanoag … did graduate from Harvard, the first Indian to do so in the colonial period. The colleges of Englands Oxford and Cambridge Universities are communities within the university, each an association of scholars sharing room. The Indian College was active from 1640 to no later than 1693, the body known as The President and Fellows of Harvard College retains its traditional name despite having governance of the entire University. Radcliffe College originally paid Harvard faculty to repeat their lectures for women students, since the 1970s, Harvard has been responsible for undergraduate governance matters for women, women were still formally admitted to and graduated from Radcliffe until a final merger in 1999. About 2,000 students are admitted each year, representing between five and ten percent of those applying, of those admitted, approximately three-quarters choose to attend and these figures make Harvard perhaps the most selective and sought-after college in the world. Midway through the year, most undergraduates join one of fifty standard fields of concentration. Joint concentrations and special concentrations are also possible, a smaller number receive the Scientiarum Baccalaureus. There are also special programs, such as a five-year program leading to both a Harvard undergraduate degree and a Master of Arts from the New England Conservatory of Music. In 2012, dozens of students were disciplined for cheating on an exam in one course. The university instituted a code beginning in the fall of 2015. The total annual cost of attendance, including tuition and room and board, under financial aid guidelines adopted in 2012, families with incomes below $65,000 no longer pay anything for their children to attend, including room and board. Families with incomes between $65,000 to $150,000 pay no more than 10% of their annual income, grants total 88% of Harvards aid for undergraduate students, with aid also provided by loans and work-study. Each house is presided over by a senior-faculty Faculty Dean, while its Allston Burr Resident Dean supervises undergraduates day-to-day academic, many tutors reside in the House, as do the Faculty Dean and Resident Dean. The way in which students come to live in particular Houses has changed greatly over time, under the original draft system, Masters negotiated privately over the assignment of rising sophomores considered most—or least—promising
8.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
9.
Phillips Academy
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Phillips Academy Andover is a co-educational university-preparatory school for boarding and day students in grades 9–12, along with a post-graduate year. The school is located in Andover, Massachusetts, United States,25 miles north of Boston, Phillips Academy has 1,122 students, and is a selective school, accepting 13% of applicants. It is part of the Ten Schools Admissions Organization as well as the G20 Schools Group, originally a boarding school for boys, it turned coeducational in 1973, the year in which it merged with its neighbor girls school Abbot Academy. Phillips Academys endowment stood around $800 million in June 2011, the fourth-highest of any American secondary school. On November 14,2012, John G. Palfrey, Jr. Henry N. Ess III Professor of Law and Vice Dean for Library and Information Resources at Harvard Law School, was named the 15th Head of School. Phillips Academy admitted only boys until the school coeducational in 1973, the year of Phillips Academys merger with Abbot Academy. Abbot Academy, founded in 1828, was the first incorporated school for girls in New England, then-headmaster Theodore Sizer oversaw the merger. Andover traditionally educated its students for Yale, just as Phillips Exeter Academy educated its students for Harvard, the Phillipian was first published on July 28,1857, and has been published regularly since 1878. It retains financial and editorial independence from Phillips Academy, having completed a $500,000 endowment drive in 2014, students comprise the editorial board and make all decisions for the paper, consulting with two faculty advisors at their own discretion. The Philomathean Society is the oldest high school debate society in the nation, Phillips Academy also runs a five-week summer session for approximately 600 students entering grades 8 through 12. The two schools maintain a rivalry. The football teams have met every year since 1878, making it the oldest high school rivalry in the country. In 1882, the first high school teams were formed at Phillips Academy, Phillips Exeter Academy. Several figures from the period are associated with the school. George Washington spoke at the school in its first year, John Hancock signed the schools articles of incorporation. The great seal of the school was designed by Paul Revere, the Andover Theological Seminary was independent from Phillips Academy but shared the same board of directors. In 1908, the seminary departed Phillips Academy, leaving behind its key buildings, academic building Pearson Hall, small portions of Andovers campus were laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted, designer of Central Park and himself a graduate of the school. Reveres design of the seal incorporated bees, a beehive
10.
Andover, Massachusetts
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Andover is a town in Essex County, Massachusetts, United States. It was settled in 1642 and later incorporated in 1646, as of the 2010 census, the population was 33,201. It is part of the Boston-Cambridge-Quincy, Massachusetts-New Hampshire metropolitan statistical area, part of the town comprises the census-designated place of Andover. In order to encourage settlement, early colonists were offered three years immunity from taxes, levies and services, the first permanent settlement in the Andover area was established in 1642 by John Woodbridge and a group of settlers from Newbury and Ipswich. Rogers Brook, a stream which cuts through the eastern part of town, is named in his honor. In May 1646 the settlement was incorporated as a town and was named Andover and this name was likely chosen in honor of the town of Andover in England, which was near the original home of some of the first residents. The first recorded meeting was held in 1656 in the home of settler John Osgood in what is now the town of North Andover. The old burying ground in what is now North Andover marks the center of the early town, contrary to popular belief, the towns split due to the location of the Old North Church, also located in what is now North Andover. King Philip was an Indian who organized a revolt against the white settlers throughout most of New England, six Indian raids occurred between 1676 and 1698 until ever-increasing numbers of white settlers established control of the land. Brown was arrested in Andover, Massachusetts but because he could not afford the $4,000 bail, brown was tried in June 1799. Brown wanted to plead guilty but Justice Samuel Chase wanted him to everybody who had helped him or who subscribed to his writings. Brown refused, was fined $480, and sentenced to eighteen months in prison, during the Salem witch trials in 1692, Andover resident Joseph Ballard asked for help for his wife from several girls in the neighboring Salem Village who were already identifying witches there. After visiting Elizabeth Ballard, the claimed that several people in Andover had bewitched her, Ann Foster, her daughter Mary Lacey Sr. During the course of the proceedings, more than 40 Andover citizens, mostly women. Three Andover residents, Martha Carrier, Mary Parker, and Samuel Wardwell, were convicted and executed and those who were not executed were granted reprieves by Gov. William Phips, but the convictions remained on their records. By 1705, Andovers population had begun to move southward and the idea of a new meeting house in the end of town was proposed. But despite this split, the town remained politically one unit, in 1854, a measure was passed to divide the town into two separate political units according to the old parish boundaries. The name Andover was assumed by the populous and wealthy West and South parishes
11.
Massachusetts General Court
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The Massachusetts General Court is the state legislature of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. The name General Court is a hold-over from the earliest days of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, before the adoption of the state constitution in 1780, it was called the Great and General Court, but the official title was shortened by John Adams, author of the state constitution. The upper house is the Massachusetts Senate which is composed of 40 members, the lower body, the Massachusetts House of Representatives, has 160 members. It meets in the Massachusetts State House on Beacon Hill in Boston, the current President of the Senate is Stan Rosenberg, and the Speaker of the House is Robert DeLeo. Democrats hold super-majorities in both chambers, State Senators and Representatives both serve two-year terms. Each Representative represents about 40,000 residents, Representative districts are named for the primary county in which they are located, and tend to stay within one county, although some districts contain portions of adjacent counties. The current composition of the House is 126 Democrats and 34 Republicans, there are 40 senatorial districts in Massachusetts, named for the counties in which they are located. The current composition of the Senate is 34 Democrats and 6 Republicans, the General Court is responsible for enacting laws in the state. The two legislative branches work concurrently on pending laws brought before them, lawmaking begins in the House or Senate Clerks office where petitions, bills, and resolves are filed and recorded in a docket book. The clerks number the bills and assign them to appropriate joint committees, there are 26 of these committees, each responsible for studying the bills which pertain to a specific area. Each committee is composed of six senators and eleven representatives, the standing committees schedule public hearings for the individual bills, which afford citizens, legislators and lobbyists the opportunity to express their views. Note that the public may still observe executive sessions, but may not participate in these meetings, the committee then issues its report, recommending that a bill ought to pass or ought not to pass and the report is submitted to the Clerks office. The first reading of a favorably reported bill is automatic and occurs when the report appears in the Journal of the House or Senate Clerk. If a bill affects the finances of the Commonwealth, it is referred to the Senate or House Committee on Ways, if it affects county finances, the bill is read and referred to the Committee on Counties of the House. Adverse reports are also referred to the Committee on Steering and Policy in the Senate or placed without debate in the Orders of the Day for the session of the House. Acceptance by either branch of a report is considered the final rejection. However, a report can be overturned. After a bill takes its second reading, it is open to debate on amendments and motions
12.
Aide-de-camp
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An aide-de-camp is a personal assistant or secretary to a person of high rank, usually a senior military, police or government officer, a member of a royal family, or a head of state. This is not to be confused with an adjutant, who is the administrator of a military unit. The first aide-de-camp is typically the foremost personal aide, in some countries, the aide-de-camp is considered to be a title of honour, and participates at ceremonial functions. The badge of office for an aide-de-camp is usually the aiguillette, whether it is worn on the left or the right shoulder is dictated by protocol. A controversy was raised in 2006, when president Néstor Kirchner decided to promote his army aide-de-camp, Lieutenant Colonel Graham to colonel, upon taking office, former president Cristina Kirchner decided to have, for the first time, female officers as her aides-de-camp. In each of the forces, the chief of staff and other senior officers have their own adjutants, normally of the rank of major or lieutenant colonel. An aiguillette is worn on the shoulder by aides-de-camp and adjutants as a symbol of their position. In Belgium the title of Honorary Aide-de-camp to the King can be granted by the court for services rendered. Notable people include Major General Baron Édouard Empain, Count Charles John dOultremont, generals being field marshals, have four, lieutenant generals two, major generals one”. In British colonies and modern-day British overseas territories, the aide-de-camp is appointed to serve the governor, in 1973, the Governor of Bermuda, Sir Richard Sharples, and his aide-de-camp, Captain Hugh Sayers, were murdered on the grounds of Government House. On the last day of British rule in Hong Kong on 30 June 1997 and he then gave the Vice Regal Salute before proceeding, with the Pattens, to leave Government House for the last time. Prince Charles is a personal aide-de-camp to Queen Elizabeth II, Honorary aides-de-camp to the Governor-General or state governors are entitled to the post-nominal ADC during their appointment. Officers of and above the ranks of admiral, major general. Within the navy, an aide-de-camp is called a flag lieutenant, aides-de-camp in Canada are appointed to the Queen and some members of the royal family, the governor general, lieutenant governors, and to certain other appointments. All aides-de-camp also wear the cypher or badge of the principal to whom they are appointed, aides-de-camp to the governor general wear the governor generals badge and aides-de-camp to a lieutenant governor wear the lieutenant governors badge. They are appointed officers of the Canadian Forces. In certain instances, civilians may be appointed, non-uniformed civilians do not wear the aiguillette, but do wear their lieutenant governors badge as a symbol of their appointment. Aides-de-camp to royal and vice-regal personages wear the aiguillette on the right shoulder, aides-de-camp to all others wear their aiguillette on the left shoulder
13.
Governor
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A governor is, in most cases, a public official with the power to govern the executive branch of a non-sovereign or sub-national level of government, ranking under the head of state. In federations, governor may be the title of a politician who governs a constituent state and these companies operate as a major state within a state with its own armed forces. For example, in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries, there are governors, school governors. The adjective pertaining to a governor is gubernatorial, from the Latin root gubernyare, the historical female form is governess, though female officials are referred to by the gender-neutral form governor of the noun to avoid confusion with other meanings of the term. Indeed, many regions of the pre-Roman antiquity were ultimately replaced by Roman standardized provincial governments after their conquest by Rome, in Pharaonic times, the governors of each of the various provinces in the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt are usually known by the Greek word. The core function of a Roman governor was as a magistrate or judge, and the management of taxation, under the Republic and the early Empire, however, a governor also commanded military forces in his province. Republican governors were all men who had served in senior magistracies in Rome in the previous year, a special case was Egypt, a rich private domain and vital granary, where the Emperor almost inherited the theocratic status of a Pharaoh. The Emperor was represented there by a sui generis styled praefectus augustalis. Otherwise, the governors of provinces had various titles, some known as consularis, apart from Egypt and the East, each diocese was directed by a governor known as a vicarius. The prefectures were directed by praefecti praetorio and this system survived with few significant changes until the collapse of the empire in the West, and in the East, the breakdown of order with the Persian and Arab invasions of the seventh century. At that stage, a new kind of governor emerged, the Strategos, today, crown colonies of the United Kingdom continue to be administered by a governor, who holds varying degrees of power. Because of the different constitutional histories of the colonies of the United Kingdom. Administrators, Commissioners and High Commissioners exercise similar powers to Governors, frequently the name Government House is given to Governors residences. The term can also be used in a generic sense, especially for compound titles which include it, Governor-general. In the United Kingdoms remaining overseas territories, the governor is normally a direct appointee of the British Government, the Governors chief responsibility is for the Defence and External Affairs of the colony. In some minor overseas territories, instead of a Governor, there is an Administrator or Commissioner, in Australia, each state has the governor as its formal representative of the Queen, as head of the state government. It is not an office but a ceremonial one. Each state governor is appointed by the Queen of Australia on the advice of the Premier, State Governors have emergency reserve powers but these are rarely used
14.
Caleb Strong
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Caleb Strong was a Massachusetts lawyer and politician who served as the sixth and tenth Governor of Massachusetts between 1800 and 1807, and again from 1812 until 1816. A leading member of the Massachusetts Federalist Party, his political success delayed the decline of the Federalists in Massachusetts, a successful Northampton lawyer prior to 1774, Strong was politically active in the rebel cause during the American Revolutionary War. He played a role in the development of the United States Constitution at the 1788 Philadelphia Convention. He also played a role in the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1789. Although he sought to retire from politics after losing the 1807 governors race and he refused United States Army requests that state militia be placed under army command, and in 1814 sought to engage Nova Scotia Governor John Coape Sherbrooke in peace talks. The state and federal governments weak defense of Massachusetts northern frontier during Strongs tenure contributed to the drive for Maines statehood. Caleb Strong was born on January 9,1745, in Northampton and he received his early education from Rev. Samuel Moody, and entered Harvard College in 1760, graduating four years later with high honors. He was shortly thereafter afflicted with smallpox, which blinded him. He studied law with Joseph Hawley, was admitted to the bar in 1772, Hawley was also a political mentor, shaping Strongs views on relations between the colonies and Great Britain. Strong and Hawley were both elected to the Massachusetts Provincial Congress in 1774, when the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, Strong was unable to serve in the military because of his damaged sight, but he was otherwise active in the Patriot cause. He served on the Northampton Committee of Safety and in local offices. He was a delegate to the 1779 Massachusetts Constitutional Convention, and was elected to the committee drafted the state constitution. He then served on the first governors council and in the senate from 1780 to 1789. Strongs legal practice thrived during the war years, and was one of the most successful in Hampshire County. He became a judge of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775, and was appointed county attorney of Hampshire County the following year, on more than one occasion he was offered a seat on the states supreme court, but rejected the position on account of its inadequate salary. Strong was described by a contemporary as meticulously detailed in his preparation of legal paperwork, in 1781 Strong was one of the lawyers who worked on a series of legal cases surrounding Quock Walker, a former slave seeking to claim his freedom. One of the cases, Commonwealth of Massachusetts v. Nathaniel Jennison, Strong was elected as a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention that drafted the U. S. A committed Federalist, Strong opposed the idea of the Electoral College as a means of electing the president, although he initially opposed proposals that the number of senators should be equal for all states, he eventually changed his mind, enabling passage of the Connecticut Compromise
15.
Adjutant general
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An adjutant general is a military chief administrative officer. In Revolutionary France, the adjudant-général was a staff officer. It was a position for lieutenant-colonels and colonels in staff service. Starting in 1795, only colonels could be appointed to the position and it was supplemented by the rank of adjudant-commandant in 1800. In 1803 the position was abolished and adjudants-généraux reverted to the rank of colonel, in Imperial Russia, the General-Adjutant was an assistant who attended the Tsar, a field marshal or a general. Generaladjutant of the RIA In India the Adjutant-General is the administration officer for the Indian Army. In Pakistan, the Adjutant-General and Judge Advocate General is the armys most senior administration, for over 250 years the Adjutant-General to the Forces was one of the most senior officers in the British Army. He was responsible for developing the Armys personnel policies and supporting its people, since 2016 the Adjutant-General has been renamed Commander Home Command with different responsibilities. Formerly a major position, it is now a brigadier general billet. See List of Adjutants General of the U. S. Army, as of January 2015, the post is held by Brigadier General David K. “Mac” MacEwen. The chief administrative officer of a military unit, such as a division, corps. This officer is normally subordinated to the chief of staff. The senior military officer of a states, commonwealths, or territorys military forces, including the National Guard, the naval militia, and any state defense forces. This officer is known as the AG or the TAG and reports to the chief executive when the National Guard is not in a federalized status under Title 10 USC
16.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
17.
Portland, Maine
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Portland is the largest city in the U. S. state of Maine, with a population of 66,881 as of 2015. The Greater Portland metropolitan area is home to half a million people. The Old Port district is frequented by tourists, while Portland Head Light is also a destination, the city seal depicts a phoenix rising from ashes, which is a reference to the recoveries from four devastating fires. Portland was named for the English Isle of Portland, and the city of Portland, Oregon was in turn named after Portland, Native Americans originally called the Portland peninsula Machigonne. Portland, Maine was named for the English Isle of Portland, the first European settler was Capt. Christopher Levett, an English naval captain granted 6,000 acres in 1623 to found a settlement in Casco Bay. The settlement failed, and the fate of Levetts colonists is unknown, the explorer sailed from England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony to meet John Winthrop in 1630, but never returned to Maine. Fort Levett in the harbor is named for him, the peninsula was first permanently settled in 1632 as a fishing and trading village named Casco. When the Massachusetts Bay Colony took over Casco Bay in 1658, in 1676, the village was destroyed by the Abenaki during King Philips War. During King Williams War, a party of French and Native allies attacked. On October 18,1775, Falmouth was burned in the Revolution by the Royal Navy under command of Captain Henry Mowat, following the war, a section of Falmouth called The Neck developed as a commercial port and began to grow rapidly as a shipping center. In 1786, the citizens of Falmouth formed a town in Falmouth Neck and named it Portland, after the isle off the coast of Dorset. Portlands economy was greatly stressed by the Embargo Act of 1807, which ended in 1809, and the War of 1812, in 1820, Maine became a state with Portland as its capital. In 1832, the capital was moved north to Augusta, in 1851, Maine led the nation by passing the first state law prohibiting the sale of alcohol except for medicinal, mechanical or manufacturing purposes. The law subsequently became known as the Maine law, as 18 states quickly followed, on June 2,1855, the Portland Rum Riot occurred. In 1853, upon completion of the Grand Trunk Railway to Montreal, the Portland Company manufactured more than 600 19th-century steam locomotives. Portland became a 20th-century rail hub as five rail lines merged into Portland Terminal Company in 1911. Following nationalization of the Grand Trunk system in 1923, Canadian export traffic was diverted from Portland to Halifax, Nova Scotia, in the 20th century, icebreakers later enabled ships to reach Montreal in winter, drastically reducing Portlands role as a winter port for Canada. On June 26,1863, a Confederate raiding party led by Captain Charles Read, entered the harbor at Portland, more than 10,000 people were left homeless
18.
District of Maine
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In 1629, the patent was split, creating an area between the Piscataqua River and the Merrimack River named the Province of New Hampshire. By 1658, the Massachusetts Bay Colony had assimilated the Province of Maine into its jurisdiction, the northeastern portion of present-day Maine was first sparsely occupied by French colonists as part of Acadia. The lands between the Kennebec and Saint Croix rivers were granted to the Duke of York in 1664, in 1688 these lands were subsumed into the Dominion of New England. English and French claims in western Maine would be contested, at times violently, until the British conquest of New France in the French, with the creation of the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1692, the entirety of what is now Maine became part of that province. Under Massachusetts’ administration, it was first administered as York County, by 1820, the time of its statehood, the territory had been further subdivided with the creation of Hancock, Kennebec, Oxford, Penobscot, Somerset, and Washington counties. During the War of 1812 the British conquered a large portion of Maine including everything from the Penobscot River east to the New Brunswick border, the weak response of Massachusetts to this occupation contributed to increased calls in the Maine district for statehood. In 1819, a vote was taken to determine the position of the people of the District of Maine towards the possibility of statehood. The results, broken down by county below, showed 70. 6% of 24,000 voters were in favor of statehood, Maine became the 23rd state on March 15,1820, as part of the Missouri Compromise. Willis, William, History of Portland,1865
19.
Militia
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For instance, the members of some U. S. Army National Guard units are considered professional soldiers, as they are trained to maintain the same standards as their full-time counterparts. Militias thus can be military or paramilitary, depending on the instance, some of the contexts in which the term militia is used include, Forces engaged in defense activity or service, to protect a community, its territory, property, and laws. The entire able-bodied population of a community, town, county, or state, a subset of these who may be legally penalized for failing to respond to a call-up. A subset of these who actually respond to a call-up, regardless of legal obligation, a private, non-government force, not necessarily directly supported or sanctioned by its government. An irregular armed force enabling its leader to exercise military, economic, an official reserve army, composed of citizen soldiers. Called by various names in different countries, such as the Army Reserve, National Guard, the national police forces in several former communist states such as the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact countries, but also in the non-aligned SFR Yugoslavia. The term was inherited in Russia and other former CIS countries, in France the equivalent term Milice has become tainted due to its use by notorious collaborators with Nazi Germany. A select militia is composed of a small, non-representative portion of the population, as regular military forces were insufficient to counter the British attackers, Santiago de Liniers drafted all males in the city capable of bearing arms into the military. These recruits included the peoples, who ranked low down in the social hierarchy. With these reinforcements, the British armies were twice defeated, the militias became a strong factor in the politics of the city afterwards, as a springboard from which the criollos could manifest their political ambitions. They were a key element in the success of the May Revolution, a decree by Mariano Moreno derogated the system of promotions involving criollos, allowing instead their promotion on military merit. The Argentine Civil War was waged by militias again, as both federalists and unitarians drafted common people into their ranks as part of ongoing conflicts and these irregular armies were organized at a provincial level, and assembled as leagues depending on political pacts. This system had declined by the 1870s, mainly due to the establishment of the modern Argentine Army, provincial militias were outlawed and decimated by the new army throughout the presidential terms of Mitre, Sarmiento, Avellaneda and Roca. Armenian militia also played a role in the Georgia-Abkhazia War of 1992–1993, in the Colony of New South Wales Governor Lachlan Macquarie proposed a colonial militia but the idea was rejected. Governor Ralph Darling felt a mounted force was more efficient than a militia. A military volunteer movement attracted wide interest during the Crimean War, following Federation, the various military reserve forces of the Commonwealth of Australia became the Citizen Military Force. In the beginning, members didnt have uniforms and often paraded in business attire and they were given instruction on guerrilla warfare, and later the private organization was taken over by the Australian Government and became part of the Australian Military Forces. After World War I, multiple militias formed as soldiers returned home to their villages, only to many of them occupied by Slovene
20.
Zachary Taylor
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Zachary Taylor was the 12th President of the United States, serving from March 1849 until his death in July 1850. Before his presidency, Taylor was an officer in the United States Army. Taylors status as a hero as a result of his victories in the Mexican-American War won him election to the White House despite his vague political beliefs. His top priority as president was preserving the Union, but he died 16 months into his term, before making any progress on the status of slavery and he remains the only President to come from Louisiana. Taylor was born into a prominent family of planters who migrated westward from Virginia to Kentucky in his youth and he was commissioned as an officer in the U. S. Army in 1808 and made a name for himself as a captain in the War of 1812. He climbed the ranks establishing military forts along the Mississippi River and his success in the Second Seminole War attracted national attention and earned him the nickname Old Rough and Ready. The Mexican–American War broke out in April 1846, in May, Taylor defeated Mexican troops commanded by General Mariano Arista at the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, and managed to drive his troops out of Texas. Taylor subsequently led his troops into Mexico, where once again defeated Mexican troops commanded by Pedro de Ampudia at the Battle of Monterrey in September. Defying orders, Taylor moved his troops further south, despite being severely outnumbered, he dealt a crushing blow to Mexican forces under Antonio López de Santa Anna in February 1847 at the Battle of Buena Vista. After this, most of Taylors troops were transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott, the Whig Party convinced the reluctant Taylor to lead their ticket in the 1848 presidential election, despite his unclear political beliefs and lack of interest in politics. At the 1848 Whig National Convention, Taylor defeated Scott and former Senator Henry Clay to take the nomination, as president, Taylor kept his distance from Congress and his cabinet, even as partisan tensions threatened to divide the Union. Debate over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession dominated the political agenda, despite being a Southerner and a slaveholder himself, Taylor did not push for the expansion of slavery, and he sought sectional harmony above all other concerns. To avoid the issue of slavery, he urged settlers in New Mexico and California to bypass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood, Taylor died suddenly of a stomach-related illness in July 1850, with his administration having accomplished little aside from the ratification of the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty. Fillmore served the remainder of Taylors term, Zachary Taylor was born on November 24,1784, on a plantation in Orange County, Virginia, to a prominent family of planters of English ancestry. He is inconclusively believed to have born at the home of his maternal grandfather. He was the third of five surviving sons in his family and had three younger sisters and his mother was Sarah Dabney Taylor. His father, Richard Taylor, had served as a lieutenant colonel in the American Revolution, Taylors second cousin through that line was James Madison, the fourth president. Leaving exhausted lands, his family joined the migration out of Virginia and settled near what developed as Louisville, Kentucky
21.
Noddle's Island
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Noddles Island was historically one of the Boston Harbor Islands off Boston, Massachusetts. In some sources it is spelled Noodles Island, the island was used for grazing livestock and there was a fortified structure on the island. Mr. Noddle, a resident of Salem, died in 1632 when his canoe overturned on the South River, sometime in the late 1620s or early 1630s, Rev. The First Baptist Church of Boston met secretly on the island in the 17th century to avoid persecution by the Puritan state, during the American Revolutionary War on this same island was fought the second battle of the Revolution, and the first in which the American artillery was used. After the British left Boston harbor, the island was used as a hospital for the French Fleet in 1780 who dubbed it Lile de France and buried numerous troops on the island. Most of the land area was built up in the 19th century. Logan International Airport East Boston History
22.
Massachusetts Horticultural Society
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The Massachusetts Horticultural Society, sometimes abbreviated to MassHort, is an American horticultural society based in Massachusetts. It describes itself as the oldest formally organized horticultural institution in the United States, as of 2014, it had some 5,000 members. It continued this tradition from 1871 through 2008 with its annual New England Spring Flower Show, in 1831 the society bought a 72-acre estate called Sweet Auburn for an arboretum, garden, and cemetery. Although the horticultural garden never materialized, in 1835 the site was incorporated as Mount Auburn Cemetery, until 1976, the society received one-fourth of the proceeds from the sale of Mount Auburns cemetery lots. In its early years, the Society met in various locations in Boston, starting in 1845, the society has built for itself three successive exhibit halls, each named Horticultural Hall. The first was located on School Street, the second on Tremont Street, since 2001 the societys headquarters have been at the Elm Bank Horticulture Center in Wellesley. The 36 acres encompass multiple gardens including an acre-sized one designed by prominent UK plantsman Adrian Bloom, in 2008 the society found itself in financial difficulty. Feige resigned after the trustees presented the facts, but it was apparent that problems were building over a number of years due to overspending. In September 2009, MassHort announced that it would incorporate Blooms as part of the Boston Flower & Garden Show, produced by the Paragon Group and that show took place in March 2010 at the Seaport World Trade Center. MassHort took responsibility for two floral design competitions, amateur competition, Ikebana displays, plant society displays and one day of lectures. In its May 2010 newsletter, The Leaflet, MassHort described the venture as financially successful, also in its May 2010 newsletter, MassHort reported it had reached agreement with the bulk of its remaining creditors by selling off an additional group of books from its collection. In January 2011 the Board of Trustees hired Katherine K. Macdonald as Executive Director/President of the Society after the Board stabilized the organizations financials, in November and December, the Festival of Trees provides an enjoyable family event to celebrate the holidays. The Gardens at Elm Bank include twelve display gardens, in 2011, a new vegetable garden was designed to support the Garden to Table program. By 2013, this garden was producing over 4000 pounds of produce that was donated to two food pantries. The Welcome Garden near the lot entrance was added in 2012. Improvements to the Italianate Garden included the restoration of the fountain, in January 2014 the Italianate Garden was featured on This Old House. Since 2011, over $250,000 in capital investments have made to the property. A small staff and hundreds of volunteers, including Master Gardeners, Garden group tours are available Tuesdays at 10am from April 30 to October 1
23.
Sumner Tunnel
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The Sumner Tunnel is a road tunnel in Boston, Massachusetts, United States. It carries traffic under Boston Harbor in one direction, from Logan International Airport, the tunnel originally deposited traffic at the west side of the North End but with the completion of the Big Dig, it was modified to have two exits. One travels under I-93 and emerges on the west side of I-93 near Haymarket Subway Station, the other exit routes traffic to I-93 North and Storrow Drive. Traffic headed for I-93 South and the Massachusetts Turnpike West is normally routed to the Ted Williams Tunnel, the Sumner Tunnel was opened on June 30,1934. It carried traffic in both directions until the opening of the parallel Callahan Tunnel in 1961, the Sumner Tunnel is named for William H. Sumner, the son of Governor Increase Sumner. As of 2016, a toll of $1.50 is charged for non-commercial two-axle vehicles with a Massachusetts E-ZPass, vehicles without EZ-Passes are charged $2.05 through MassDOTs Pay By Plate MA program. For East Boston residents, a discount is in using an E-ZPass transponder. On November 14,2008, the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority voted in favor of a toll hike which would double the toll to $7.00 for non-commercial vehicles. E-ZPass users would receive a $1.00 discount and commercial vehicles would end up having to pay $9.00 and this vote was later rescinded following a vote approving a 1. 25% sales tax increase. In 2016, booth-less toll systems were installed in both directions, entering the Sumner Tunnel and exiting the Callahan Tunnel as part of a plan to revolutionize toll collection the Boston area
24.
Jamaica Plain
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Jamaica Plain is a neighborhood of 4.4 square miles in Boston, Massachusetts, US. Founded by Boston Puritans seeking farm land to the south, it was part of the town of Roxbury. The community seceded from Roxbury as a part of the new town of West Roxbury in 1851, and became part of Boston when West Roxbury was annexed to Boston in 1874. In the 19th century, Jamaica Plain became one of the first streetcar suburbs in America and home to a significant portion of Bostons Emerald Necklace of parks, according to the 2010 Census, it had a population of 37,468. Shortly after the founding of Boston and Roxbury in 1630, William Heaths family, later, for services rendered during the Pequot War, Joseph Weld received a grant of 278 acres of land between South Street and Centre Street. His son John later built a home along South Street in what is now the Arnold Arboretum, in the late 17th century, the name Jamaica first appears for the area of Roxbury between Stony Brook and the Great Pond. There are a number of theories regarding the origin of the name Jamaica Plain, a well-known theory traces the origin to Jamaica rum, a reference to Jamaican cane sugars role in the Triangle Trade of sugar, rum, and slaves. However, a likely explanation is that Jamaica is an Anglicization of the name of Kuchamakin. On some maps, until the mid-19th century, the area was marked as Jamaica Plains, John Ruggles and Hugh Thomas donated land in 1676 for the building of the communitys first school. A gift of 75 acres of south of the Great Pond by John Eliot provided financial support for the school. During the 18th century, the farms of the Jamaica section of Roxbury transitioned from subsistence to market orientation, at the same time, wealthy men bought land and built estates in the bucolic countryside. In 1740, Benjamin Faneuil, nephew of Boston merchant Peter Faneuil, in 1752, Commodore Joshua Loring bought the old Polley farm and built a home to which he retired. At Jamaica Pond, the governor, Francis Bernard, built a summer home on 60 acres. In 1775, troops from Rhode Island and Connecticut were quartered with residents of Jamaica Plain, general Washington stationed troops on Weld Hill, todays Bussey Hill in the Arnold Arboretum. The units protected the south to Dedham, where the American arsenal was kept. With the American Revolution, many of the Tory estate owners fled the country, in 1777, John Hancock purchased an estate near the pond. The widow Ann Doane bought the estate owned by Loyalist Joshua Loring. She soon was remarried, to attorney David S. Greenough, when Samuel Adams became governor of Massachusetts, he bought the former Peacock Tavern at todays Centre and Allandale streets, near the Faulkner Hospital
25.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Cambridge is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, and is a part of the Boston metropolitan area. According to the 2010 Census, the population was 105,162. As of July 2014, it was the fifth most populous city in the state, behind Boston, Worcester, Springfield, Cambridge was one of the two seats of Middlesex County prior to the abolition of county government in 1997, Lowell was the other. The site for what would become Cambridge was chosen in December 1630, because it was located safely upriver from Boston Harbor, Thomas Dudley, his daughter Anne Bradstreet, and her husband Simon, were among the first settlers of the town. The first houses were built in the spring of 1631, the settlement was initially referred to as the newe towne. Official Massachusetts records show the name capitalized as Newe Towne by 1632, the original village site is in the heart of todays Harvard Square. In the late 19th century, various schemes for annexing Cambridge itself to the city of Boston were pursued and rejected, in 1636, the Newe College was founded by the colony to train ministers. Newe Towne was chosen for the site of the college by the Great and General Court primarily—according to Cotton Mather—to be near the popular, in May 1638 the name of the settlement was changed to Cambridge in honor of the university in Cambridge, England. Hooker and Shepard, Newtownes ministers, and the colleges first president, major benefactor, in 1629, Winthrop had led the signing of the founding document of the city of Boston, which was known as the Cambridge Agreement, after the university. It was Governor Thomas Dudley who, in 1650, signed the charter creating the corporation which still governs Harvard College, Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the capital of the colony. By the American Revolution, most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Coming up from Virginia, George Washington took command of the volunteer American soldiers camped on Cambridge Common on July 3,1775, most of the Tory estates were confiscated after the Revolution. On January 24,1776, Henry Knox arrived with artillery captured from Fort Ticonderoga, a second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new Middlesex Canal. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and marshland into prime industrial and residential districts, in the mid-19th century, Cambridge was the center of a literary revolution when it gave the country a new identity through poetry and literature. Cambridge was home to some of the famous Fireside Poets—so called because their poems would often be read aloud by families in front of their evening fires, the Fireside Poets—Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Oliver Wendell Holmes—were highly popular and influential in their day. Cambridge was incorporated as a city in 1846, the citys commercial center began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the downtown of the city around this time. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three changes in the city, the development of massive brickyards and brickworks between Massachusetts Ave. For many decades, the citys largest employer was the New England Glass Company, by the middle of the 19th century it was the largest and most modern glassworks in the world
26.
Beacon Hill, Boston
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Beacon Hill is a historic neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts. According to the 2010 U. S. Census, the population of Bostons Beacon Hill neighborhood is 9,023 and it is a neighborhood of Federal-style rowhouses and is known for its narrow, gaslit streets and brick sidewalks. Today, Beacon Hill is regarded as one of the most desirable, like many similarly named areas, the neighborhood is named for the location of a former beacon atop the highest point in central Boston. The beacon was used to warn the residents of an invasion, Beacon Hill is bound by Storrow Drive, and Cambridge, Bowdoin, Park and Beacon Streets. It is about one square, and situated along the riverfront of the Charles River Esplanade to the west, just north of Boston Common. The block bound by Beacon, Tremont and Park Streets is included as well, Beacon Hill has three sections, the south slope, the north slope and the Flat of the Hill, which is a level neighborhood built on landfill. It is west of Charles Street and between Beacon Street and Cambridge Street, the name trimount later morphed into Tremont, as in Tremont Street. Between 1807 and 1832 Beacon Hill was reduced from 138 feet in elevation to 80 feet, the shoreline and bodies of water such as the Mill Pond had a massive filling, increasing Bostons land mass by 150%. Charles Street was one of the new roads created from the project, before the hill was reduced substantially, Beacon Hill was located just behind the current site of the Massachusetts State House. According to the 2010 U. S. Census, the population of Bostons Beacon Hill neighborhood is 9,023 and this reflects a slight decrease from the 2000 Census. According to 2007-2011 American Community Survey estimates, of the 5,411 households in Beacon Hill,27. 3% were family households and 72.7 were non-family households, of the 1,479 family households 81. 6% were married couple families. 36. 6% of married families were with related children under the age of 18 and 63. 4% were with no related children under age 18. Other family types make up 18. 4% of Beacon Hills population, with 90. 8% being female householder with no husband present, the first European settler was William Blaxton, also spelled Blackstone. In 1625 he built a house and orchard on Beacon Hills south slope, roughly at the location of Beacon, the settlement was a preformal arrangement. In 1630 Boston was settled by the Massachusetts Bay Company, the southwestern slope was used by the city for military drills and livestock grazing. In 1634 a signal beacon was established on the top of the hill, sailors and British soldiers visited the north slope of Beacon Hill during the 17th and 18th centuries. As a result, it became an area for Boston residents. Fringe activities occurred on Mount Whoredom, the backslope of Beacon Hill, Beacon Street was established in 1708 from a cow path to the Boston Common
27.
James DeWolf
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James DeWolf was a slave trader, a privateer during the War of 1812, and a state and national politician. He gained notoriety in 1791 when indicted for murdering a slave said to have smallpox, the case was ultimately dismissed and was considered justifiable under contemporary law. During his lifetime, his name was usually written James D’Wolf and he served as a state legislator for a total of nearly 25 years, and in the 1820s as a United States senator from Rhode Island for much of a term. James DeWolf was born in Bristol, Rhode Island, in 1764 to Mark Anthony DeWolf and his wife and he had brothers, Charles, John, William and Levi DeWolf. Their father and uncle Simeon Potter were slave traders before the American Revolutionary War, James DeWolf went to sea at an early age, shipping as a sailor on a private armed vessel during the late years of the American Revolutionary War. He participated in several naval encounters and was captured twice by the British, after the war, DeWolf was selected as captain of a ship in his 20s. His father and uncle had been involved in slave trading since 1769, although Rhode Island outlawed slave trading in 1787, DeWolf and his family continued to finance and command slaving voyages to West Africa. In 1790, DeWolf married Nancy Ann Bradford, the daughter of William Bradford, deputy governor and they had a family together, including a daughter Abby DeWolf. In 1791, DeWolf was indicted for murder by a jury in Newport. The case was reported in the New England press. Such cases were known at the time, as all the persons on a ship were threatened in cases of disease outbreaks. The judge in charge of the case accepted the prosecuting attorneys filing of nolle prosequi. When DeWolf heard the indictment, he had left for the Gold Coast of Africa. DeWolf was later charged in the case in Saint Thomas, where he was then living and this was justifiable according to contemporary maritime law. In 1795 DeWolf testified about the case in court in Saint Thomas, West Indies, with no one present to oppose his testimony, DeWolf financed another 25 slaving voyages, usually with other members of his family. His father had started slave trading in 1769, and his nephew George DeWolf kept it up illegally until 1820. In total, the DeWolf family is believed to have transported more than 11,000 slaves to this country before the United States banned the African slave trade, from 1805-1807, their Mount Hope Insurance Company insured 50 slaving voyages. A family member established an auction house in Charleston, South Carolina
28.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
