1.
W. Hugh Woodin
–
William Hugh Woodin is an American mathematician and set theorist at Harvard University. He has made notable contributions to the theory of inner models. A type of cardinal, the Woodin cardinal, bears his name. Born in Tucson, Arizona, Woodin earned his Ph. D. from the University of California and his dissertation title was Discontinuous Homomorphisms of C and Set Theory. He served as chair of the Berkeley mathematics department for the 2002–2003 academic year, Woodin is a managing editor of the Journal of Mathematical Logic. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and he is the great-grandson of William Hartman Woodin, former Secretary of the Treasury. Woodin criticizes this view arguing that it leads to a reduction in which all truths in the set theoretical universe can be decided from a small part of it. He claims that these and related mathematical results lead to the conclusion that Continuum Hypothesis has a truth value, in particular, the Continuum Hypothesis would be true in this universe. AD+ W. Hugh Woodin at the Mathematics Genealogy Project Woodin, the Axiom of Determinacy, Forcing Axioms, and the Nonstationary Ideal
2.
United States Secretary of the Treasury
–
This position in the Federal Government of the United States is analogous to the Minister of Finance in many other countries. The Secretary of the Treasury is a member of the Presidents Cabinet, nominees for The Secretary of the Treasury undergo a confirmation hearing before the United States Senate Committee on Finance before being confirmed by the United States Senate. The Secretary of the Treasury is a member of the U. S. National Security Council. The Secretary along with the Treasurer must sign Federal Reserve notes before they can become legal tender, the Secretary also manages the United States Emergency Economic Stabilization fund. Most of the Departments law enforcement agencies such as the U. S. Customs Service, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, secret Service were reassigned to other Departments in 2003 in conjunction with the creation of the Department of Homeland Security. The Secretary of the Treasury salary is $205,700 annually,2 Deputy Secretary of the Treasury M. Peter McPherson served as Acting Secretary of the Treasury from August 17,1988, to September 15,1988. 4 Deputy Secretary of the Treasury Kenneth W. Dam served as Acting Secretary of the Treasury from December 31,2002,5 Deputy Secretary of the Treasury Robert M. Kimmitt served as Acting Secretary of the Treasury from June 30,2006, to July 9,2006. 7 Deputy Secretary of the Treasury Neal Wolin served as Acting Secretary of the Treasury from January 25,2013, as of April 2017, there are eleven living former Secretaries of the Treasury, the oldest being George P. Shultz. The most recent Secretary of the Treasury to die was Lloyd M. Bentsen, United States Department of the Treasury
3.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
–
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
4.
Ogden L. Mills
–
Ogden Livingston Mills was an American lawyer, businessman and politician. He served as United States Secretary of the Treasury in President Herbert Hoovers cabinet. Mills was born on August 23,1884, in Newport, Rhode Island, the son of Ogden Mills, a financier and racehorse owner, and his wife, the former Ruth T. Livingston. He had twin sisters, Beatrice Mills Forbes and Gladys Mills Phipps, Mills graduated from Harvard University in 1904, and graduated from Harvard Law School in 1907. He was admitted to the bar in 1908, Mills married his first wife, Margaret Styuvesant Rutherford, the step-daughter of William Kissam Vanderbilt, on September 20,1911. Mills married his wife, the former Dorothy Randolph Fell. She was the wife of the banker John R. Fell. While in New York, Mills was an member of the New York Civitan Club. Mills was a delegate to the 1912,1916 and the 1920 Republican National Conventions and he resigned his seat on July 31,1917 to enlist in the United States Army, and served with the rank of captain until the close of World War I. After the war, he served as President of the New York State Tax Association, in 1926, Mills ran on the Republican ticket for the Governor of New York, but was defeated by Al Smith, the incumbent Democrat. Mills was appointed in 1927, by the President Calvin Coolidge as the Undersecretary of the Treasury, in 1932, Mills was appointed by President Herbert Hoover as Secretary of the Treasury. He remained in office until March 3,1933, after leaving the Treasury Department, Mills was highly critical of Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal policies. He continued to be active in business, and published his views in two books, What of Tomorrow in 1935 and The Seventeen Million in 1937. Mills served on the boards of the Lackawanna Steel Company, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, Virginia & Truckee Railroad, Mergenthaler Linotype Company, Mills died of heart disease in Manhattan, New York, on October 11,1937. He was interred in St. James Churchyard, Hyde Park, Mills and his sister Gladys owned Wheatley Stable, a horse racing and breeding operation. Their stable owned and bred Seabiscuit as well as Bold Ruler, Mills also owned Kantar who won the 1928 Prix de lArc de Triomphe. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, Ogden L. Mills at Time magazine Staatsburgh State Historic Site at www. staatsburgh. org
5.
Henry Morgenthau Jr.
–
Henry Morgenthau Jr. was the U. S. Secretary of the Treasury during the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt. He played a role in designing and financing the New Deal. After 1937, while still in charge of the Treasury, he played the role in financing US participation in World War II. Morgenthau was the father of Robert M. Morgenthau, who was District Attorney of Manhattan for 35 years and Henry Morgenthau III, an American author and television producer. Morgenthau was born into a prominent Jewish family in New York City, the son of Henry Morgenthau, Sr. a real estate mogul and diplomat and he attended the Dwight School, then studied architecture and agriculture at Cornell University. In 1913, he met and became friends with Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt and he operated a farm named Fishkill Farms near the Roosevelt estate in upstate New York, specializing, like FDR, in growing Christmas trees. He was concerned about distress among farmers, who comprised over a fourth of the population, in 1922 he took over the American Agriculturalist magazine, making it a voice for reclamation, conservation, and scientific farming. In 1929, Roosevelt, as Governor of New York, appointed him chair of the New York State Agricultural Advisory Committee, in 1933, Roosevelt became President and appointed Morgenthau governor of the Federal Farm Board. Morgenthau was nonetheless involved in monetary decisions, Roosevelt adopted the idea of raising the price of gold to inflate the currency and reverse the debilitating deflation of prices. The idea came from Professor George Warren of Cornell University, Morgenthau wrote in his diary, Saturday - Went to the White House and met Jones there. I said to the President that we did not buy any gold last night, Harrison called up and spoke to Jesse. I could not make out whether he spoke to the President. Then Harrison urged that inasmuch as Saturday was only half a day that they should not buy any gold, both the President and Jones said that they thought they made a mistake by agreeing with Harrison. I believe it was on Friday that we raised the price 21¢, if anybody ever knew how we really set the gold price through a combination of lucky numbers, etc. I think that really would be frightened. Saturday we increased the price 10¢, I stayed after Jones left and had a good half hour talk in which most of the time Louis Howe was present. In 1934, when William H. Woodin resigned because of health, Roosevelt appointed Morgenthau Secretary of the Treasury. Morgenthau used his position as Treasury chief to investigate organized crime, Treasury Intelligence and other agencies were uncoordinated in their efforts, efforts to create a super-agency were stalled by J. Edgar Hoover, who feared his FBI would be overshadowed
6.
Berwick, Pennsylvania
–
Berwick is a borough in Columbia County, Pennsylvania, United States,28 miles southwest of Wilkes Barre. As of the 2010 census, Berwick had a population of 10,477, Berwick was founded by Evan Owen, a Welsh Quaker and surveyor. He was the son of Hugh Owen from Trefeglwys, Montgomeryshire, Berwick was named after Berwick-upon-Tweed, England. Situated on the bank of the Susquehanna River, the borough was first settled in 1769, founded in 1786. The population of Berwick in 1910 was 5,357, in 1920, after consolidation, the population was 12,181, the population was 10,477 at the 2010 census. Berwick is famous for its high school team, the Bulldogs. Berwick is also the home of the 2008 PIAA AAA baseball state champions and it is the schools first ever baseball state championship. Since 1947, the Berwick Christmas Boulevard, created by the Jaycees, displays over a mile long Christmas show of lights, the Berwick Christmas Boulevard is seen by thousands of visitors every year, and it has been a regional favorite for over 60 years. Santa Claus is present every year to serve Berwicks famous Wise Potato Chips to everyone who drives past him, the Berwick Armory and Jackson Mansion and Carriage House are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The borough of Nescopeck in Luzerne County is to the southeast, across the Susquehanna. According to the United States Census Bureau, Berwick has an area of 3.25 square miles, of which 3.08 square miles is land and 0.18 square miles. U. S. Route 11 runs through the center of Berwick as Front Street, US11 leads northeast 26 miles to Kingston, across the Susquehanna from Wilkes-Barre, and southwest 12 miles to Bloomsburg, the Columbia County seat. Pennsylvania Route 93 shares Front and Second Streets with US11 in the center of Berwick, in the other direction, PA93 splits west from US11 as Orange Street and leads 10 miles to Orangeville. Interstate 80 passes south of Berwick, with the closest exits being at US11,6 miles southwest of town, the eastern terminus of the Susquehanna, Bloomsburg, and Berwick Railroad used to be in Berwick. As of the census of 2000, there were 10,774 people,4,595 households, the population density was 3,477.0 people per square mile. There were 4,992 housing units at a density of 1,611.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the borough was 97. 10% White,0. 88% African American,0. 28% Native American,0. 43% Asian,0. 05% Pacific Islander,0. 61% from other races, and 0. 65% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 62% of the population, the Berwick area had a large influx of immigrants approximately between 1890–1920, which had a great impact on the current population that continues to this day
7.
Pennsylvania
–
Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
8.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
9.
New York City
–
The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
10.
New York (state)
–
New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
11.
Republican Party (United States)
–
The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
12.
Columbia University
–
Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
13.
Bachelor of Science
–
A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years. Whether a student of a subject is awarded a Bachelor of Science degree or a Bachelor of Arts degree can vary between universities. For one example, a degree may be given as a Bachelor of Arts by one university but as a B. Sc. by another. Some liberal arts colleges in the United States offer only the BA, even in the natural sciences, in both instances, there are historical and traditional reasons. Northwestern Universitys School of Communication grants B. Sc. degrees in all of its programs of study, including theater, dance, the first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860. Prior to this, science subjects were included in the B. A. bracket, notably in the cases of mathematics, physics, physiology, in Argentina and Chile, most university degrees are given as a license in a field or discipline. For instance, besides the courses, biochemistry and biology require 1–2 years hands-on training either in a clinical laboratory plus a final exam or in a research laboratory plus a thesis defense. The degrees are term licenses in the field of study or profession i. e. biology, nutrition, physical therapy or kinesiology, etc. However, a masters degree requires 2-3 more years of specific training, engineering and medical degrees are also different and are six-year programs of specific classes and training starting immediately after high school. No intermediate degrees count towards the admission examination or even exist, medical degrees are complemented with a 3–4 years of hospital residence plus 1–2 years of specialization training. In Australia, the B. Sc. is generally a three-four year degree, an honours year or a Master of Science is required to progress on to the Doctor of Philosophy. In New Zealand, in cases, the honours degree comprises an additional postgraduate qualification. In South Africa, the B. Sc. is taken three years, while the postgraduate B. Sc. Entails an additional year of study, admission to the honours degree is on the basis of a sufficiently high average in the B. Sc. major, an honours degree is required for M. Sc. Level study, and admission to a doctorate is via the M. Sc, commonly in British Commonwealth countries and Ireland graduands are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Science after having completed a programme in one or more of the sciences. These programmes may take different lengths of time to complete, note that in British English, no full stops are used in the title, hence BSc, not B. Sc. A Bachelor of Science receives the designation BSc or BS for a major/pass degree, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland an honours degree is typically completed over a three-year period, though there are a few intensified two-year courses. Bachelors degrees were typically completed in two years for most of the twentieth century, in Scotland, where access to university is possible after one less year of secondary education, degree courses have a foundation year making the total course length four years
14.
Jackson and Woodin Manufacturing Company
–
In 1899, Jackson and Woodin was merged with twelve other freight car manufacturing companies to form American Car & Foundry Company. Jackson and Woodins management were proponents of the movement in America. By the time of the 1899 merger that created American Car and Foundry Company, the Jackson & Woodin shops became ACFs Berwick Plant, a plant that was heavily used by ACF. Jackson & Woodin was founded in 1840 by Mordecai W. Jackson, Jackson bought Macks interest in the company in 1843, and partnered with Robert McCurdy, whose interest Jackson bought later in 1846. William Hartman Woodin partnered with Jackson in 1849, the company turned to construction of mine cars by the late 1860s. The Jackson & Woodin shops were destroyed by fire on March 17,1865, the companys partners, Mordecai Jackson and William Woodin, were appointed to the executive committee. C. R. Woodin helped the company throughout his time in its top position. Also in 1879, Jackson & Woodin helped with the establishment of the local YMCA chapter, when the Young Mens Christian Association of Berwick was incorporated in 1883, the majority of the organizations trustees were current executives of Jackson & Woodin. C. R. Woodin stepped down from the presidency in 1894 due to poor health. In 1899, Jackson & Woodin was one of 13 car manufacturers that were merged to create American Car & Foundry Company. By the time of the merger, Jackson & Woodin was the largest freight car manufacturer in the eastern United States, the Jackson & Woodin shops became ACFs Berwick Plant, a plant that was heavily used by ACF. ACFs Berwick Plant remained open for car assembly until January 1961. Boston and London, The Johns Hopkins University Press, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list
15.
The Union League Club
–
The Union League Club is a private social club in New York City. The building was designated a New York City landmark on October 25,2011, Union League clubs, which are legally separate but share similar histories and maintain reciprocal links with one another, are also located in Chicago and Philadelphia. Defunct Union League Clubs were located in Brooklyn and New Haven, the club dates its founding from February 6,1863, during the Civil War. Thus, pro-Union men chose to form their own club, with the goals of cultivating a profound national devotion and to strengthen a love. The Union League was actually a political movement before it became a social organization, the New York League was founded by four prominent professionals and intellectuals, Henry Whitney Bellows, Frederick Law Olmsted, George Templeton Strong, and Oliver Wolcott Gibbs. The men, all members of the United States Sanitary Commission, desired to strengthen the nation state and they first aimed to recruit a coalition of moneyed professionals like themselves. Strong believed that the club would only thrive with a catalogue of moneyed men. Olmsted especially desired to recruit the new generation of young, wealthy men, so that the club might teach them the obligations, the founders aimed to win the political governing elite over to support of the Union and abolition. They also believed that a government was essential to their prosperity. As they bought more and more war bonds, the holders had an economic interest in the success of the Union. The club held its first official meeting on March 20,1863, at this first meeting, Robert B. Minturn, head of the second largest shipping firm, was elected president. Some of the vice presidents included William H. Aspinwall, Moses Taylor. It did not take long for the enemies to make their displeasure felt with the new organization. A few months later, the decided to make an unmistakable gesture that they had not been intimidated. The club decided to recruit, train and equip a Colored infantry regiment for Union service, Colored Infantry was formed on Rikers Island in February 1864. The next month, it marched from the Union League Club, down Canal Street, in spite of numerous threats, the members of the Union League Club marched with the men of the 20th, and saw them off. During World War I, the club sponsored the 369th Infantry, the famed Harlem Hellfighters, which was commanded by William Hayward, during Reconstruction, Union Leagues were formed all across the South
16.
Rail transport
–
Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
17.
Car
–
A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
18.
American Car and Foundry Company
–
American Car and Foundry is an American manufacturer of railroad rolling stock. One of its subsidiaries was once a manufacturer of coaches and trolley coaches under the brand names of ACF. Today ACF is known as ACF Industries LLC and is based in St. Charles and it is owned by investor Carl Icahn. American Car and Foundry was formed and incorporated in New Jersey in 1899 as the result of the merger of 13 smaller railroad car manufacturers, the company was made up of, Later in 1899 ACF acquired Bloomsburg Car Manufacturing Company. Two years later, ACF acquired Jackson and Sharp Company, the unified company made a great investment in the former Jackson & Woodin plant in Pennsylvania, spending about $3 million. It was at this plant that ACF built the first all-steel passenger car in the world in 1904, the car was built for the Interborough Rapid Transit system of New York City, the first of 300 such cars ordered by the railroad. 1904 and 1905 saw ACF build several motor cars and trailers for the London Underground, in those two years ACF also acquired Southern Car and Foundry, Indianapolis Car and Foundry and Indianapolis Car Company. During World War I ACF produced artillery gun mounts and ammunition, submarine chasers and other boats, railway cars, ACF ranked 36th among United States corporations in the value of World War II production contracts. 1899, American Car & Foundry is formed from the merger of 13 smaller companies. G. August 2,1941, ACFs 1, 000th military tank is completed for the United States military effort of World War II1954, The company officially changes its name to ACF Industries,1954, ACF purchases Engineering and Research Corporation. 1954–1955, ACF delivers 35 Astra Dome dome cars to the Union Pacific Railroad January 1961, ACF delivers its last passenger car,1977, Southern Pacific Railroad came up with the idea of the first double-stack intermodal car in 1977. SP then designed the first car with ACF Industries that same year,1984, ACF is purchased by Carl Icahn 1997, ACF reaches leasing agreement with GE Capital Railcar for 35000 of its 46000 railcars, mostly on 16 year leases with optional purchase agreements. 2003, ACF Industries LLC became a successor to ACF Industries, in the past ACF built passenger and freight cars, including covered hopper cars for hauling such cargo as corn and other grains. One of the largest customers was the Union Pacific Railroad, whose armour-yellow carbon-steel lightweight passenger rolling stock was built by ACF. The famous dome-observation car Native Son was an ACF product, today the U. S. passenger car market is erratic in production and is mostly handled by specialty manufacturers and foreign corporations. Competitors Budd, Pullman-Standard, Rohr Industries, and the St. Louis Car Company have all left the market or gone out of business. The manufacturing facility in Milton, Pennsylvania, is serviced by the Norfolk Southern Railway and is capable of manufacturing railcars and all related railcar components. The plant is capable of producing pressure vessels in sizes 18, 000–61,000 gwc, including tanks, compressed gas storage, LPG storage
19.
Federal Reserve Bank of New York
–
The Federal Reserve Bank of New York is one of the 12 Federal Reserve Banks of the United States. It is located at 33 Liberty Street, New York, NY. S, among the other regional banks, New York Federal Reserve Bank and its president are considered first among equals. Its current president is William C and it is by far the largest, most active and most influential of the 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks. The New York Fed is the largest in terms of assets of the regional banks. Operating in the capital of the U. S. the New York Fed is responsible for conducting open market operations. The Trading Desk is the office at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York that manages the FOMC Directive to sell or buy bonds, note that the responsibility for issuing new U. S. Treasury securities lies with the Bureau of the Public Debt. It transferred an additional $1.3 trillion a day in securities, the New York Fed is also responsible for carrying out exchange rate policy by buying and selling dollars at the discretion of the United States Treasury Department. The New York Federal Reserve is the regional bank with a permanent vote on the Federal Open Market Committee. A public competition for the design of the building was held, the bank moved to its current location in 1924. The Federal Reserve Bank of New York maintains a vault that lies 80 feet below street level and 50 feet below sea level, by 1927, the vault contained 10% of the worlds official gold reserves. Currently, it is reputedly the largest gold repository in the world and holds approximately 7,000 tonnes of gold bullion, nearly 98% of the gold at the Federal Reserve Bank of New York is owned by the central banks of foreign nations. The rest is owned by the United States and international such as the IMF. The Federal Reserve Bank does not own the gold but serves as guardian of the metal, which it stores at no charge to the owners. Moving the bars requires special footwear for the staff, to protect their feet in case they drop one of the gold bars weighing 28 pounds, the vault is open to tourists. On October 17,2012, Quazi Mohammad Rezwanul Ahsan Nafis,21, was arrested attempting to detonate what he believed to be an 800-pound bomb. A joint FBI/NYPD operation flagged the suspect on the Internet and set up the sting with fake explosives, in 2013, Nafis pleaded guilty and was sentenced to 30 years in federal prison. The Federal Reserve Bank of New York Buffalo Branch used to be the branch of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York. The New York Fed opened for business on November 16,1914 and he led the Bank until his death in 1928
20.
Johnny Gruelle
–
Johnny Gruelle was an American artist, political cartoonist, childrens book author and illustrator, and songwriter. He is known as the creator of Raggedy Ann and Raggedy Andy, john Barton Gruelle was born in Arcola, Illinois, on December 24,1880. A the age of two, he moved with his family to Indianapolis, Indiana, where his father, Richard Gruelle, john Gruelles cartoons first appeared in print in the Indianapolis Star in 1905. From 1906 to 1911, his work appeared in many newspapers usually signed as Grue, including The Toledo News-Bee, The Pittsburgh Press, The Tacoma Times. After he beat out 1,500 entrants to win a cartooning contest sponsored in 1911 by The New York Herald, Gruelle created Mr. Twee Deedle, which was in print from that year to at least 1914. He then combined the names of two James Whitcomb Riley poems, The Raggedy Man and Little Orphant Annie and suggested calling the doll Raggedy Ann, as Myrtle Gruelle recalled, There was something he wanted from the attic. While he was rummaging around for it, he found an old rag doll his mother had made for his sister and he said then that the doll would make a good story. The couples daughter, Marcella, had not yet born when Gruelle found the doll. Johnny Gruelle kept in his mind until we had Marcella and he remembered it when he saw her play dolls. He wrote the stories around some of the things she did and he used to get ideas from watching her. Gruelles patent application for the Raggedy Ann doll was already in progress, patent office the same month as Marcellas death. Regardless, some sources repeat the myth. In 1915, Gruelle patented and trademarked the design and name, patent D47,789 was dated September 7,1915. Gruelle began approaching publishers and in 1918, the P. F, volland Company published Raggedy Ann Stories, promoting it with a Raggedy Ann doll. In 1920, Gruelle introduced Raggedy Anns brother, the mischievous and adventuresome Raggedy Andy, Gruelle was awarded a patent for a stuffed animal in 1921 U. S. Gruelles Raggedy Anns Sunny Songs was set to music by William H. Woodin, one of Gruelles characters is Little Wooden Willie, a reference to Will Woodin. Gruelle lived in the Silvermine section of New Canaan, Connecticut, Gruelle spent a year in Ashland, Oregon, from 1923 to 1924. He died at home in Miami Springs, Florida, on January 9,1938, mcEvoy Quacky Doodles and Danny Daddles Book Works by Johnny Gruelle at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Johnny Gruelle at Internet Archive Works by Johnny Gruelle at LibriVox
21.
Raggedy Ann
–
Raggedy Ann is a character created by American writer Johnny Gruelle in a series of books he wrote and illustrated for young children. Raggedy Ann is a rag doll with red yarn for hair and has a triangle nose, Johnny Gruelle received US Patent D47789 for his Raggedy Ann doll on September 7,1915. The character was created in 1915 as a doll, and was introduced to the public in the 1918 book Raggedy Ann Stories, when a doll was marketed with the book, the concept had great success. A sequel, Raggedy Andy Stories, introduced the character of her brother and he then combined the names of two James Whitcomb Riley poems, The Raggedy Man and Little Orphant Annie and suggested calling the doll Raggedy Ann. As Myrtle Gruelle recalled, There was something he wanted from the attic, while he was rummaging around for it, he found an old rag doll his mother had made for his sister. He said then that the doll would make a good story, the couples daughter, Marcella, had not yet been born when Gruelle found the doll, Myrtle Gruelle continued. Johnny Gruelle kept in his mind until we had Marcella and he remembered it when he saw her play dolls. He wrote the stories around some of the things she did and he used to get ideas from watching her. S. Patent office the same month as Marcellas death, nonetheless, that myth led the anti-vaccination movement to adopt Raggedy Ann as a symbol, though Marcella died from an infected vaccination, not from the side effects of the vaccination itself. Raggedy Ann dolls were originally handmade, over 75,000 dolls were made for Volland, a Gruelle book publisher, by the Non-Breakable Toy Co. of Muskegon, Michigan. Later, PF Volland made the dolls, in 1935 Volland ceased operation and Ann and Andy were made under Gruelles permission by Exposition Dolls, and without permission by MollyEs Dolls, resulting in Gruelle v Goldman. Raggedy Ann & Andy dolls P. F, 1920-1934 Exposition doll and Toy Co. 1934-mid 1935 MollyEs Doll Outfitters 1935-1938 Georgene Novelties 1938-1962 Knickerbocker Toy Co, 1963-1982 Applause Toy Co. /Russ Berrie 1983-2011 Hasbro/Playskool 1983–Present Aurora World Inc. 2012–present Simon and Schuster - Present Sewing patterns for homemade Raggedy Ann dolls 1940 McCalls Pattern #820 first appeared for a 19-in, Dolls, Ann doll comes with cape pattern 1945. Simplicity Patterns released a licensed doll pattern for a different design doll that included all four sizes in the late 1990s, Raggedy Ann was drawn by Tissa David, who became one of the first women to animate a leading character in an animated feature film. Raggedy Ann and Andy a stage play adapted from the 1977 film by screenwriter Patricia Thackray, Raggedy Ann, The Musical Adventure, a Broadway musical by songwriter Joe Raposo and playwright William Gibson. In 2012 Hasbro signed Aurora World for a new line of Raggedy Ann, in 1984, a Raggedy Ann balloon debuted at the Macys Thanksgiving Day Parade, flying for two years. The ostensibly cursed Annabelle doll is a Raggedy Ann doll, many books were released and credited to Johnny Gruelle after his death, regardless of who wrote and illustrated them
22.
Time (magazine)
–
Time is an American weekly news magazine published in New York City. It was founded in 1923 and for decades was dominated by Henry Luce, a European edition is published in London and also covers the Middle East, Africa and, since 2003, Latin America. An Asian edition is based in Hong Kong, the South Pacific edition, which covers Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands, is based in Sydney, Australia. In December 2008, Time discontinued publishing a Canadian advertiser edition, Time has the worlds largest circulation for a weekly news magazine, and has a readership of 26 million,20 million of which are based in the United States. As of 2012, it had a circulation of 3.3 million making it the eleventh most circulated magazine in the United States reception room circuit, as of 2015, its circulation was 3,036,602. Richard Stengel was the editor from May 2006 to October 2013. Nancy Gibbs has been the editor since October 2013. Time magazine was created in 1923 by Briton Hadden and Henry Luce, the two had previously worked together as chairman and managing editor respectively of the Yale Daily News. They first called the proposed magazine Facts and they wanted to emphasize brevity, so that a busy man could read it in an hour. They changed the name to Time and used the slogan Take Time–Its Brief and it set out to tell the news through people, and for many decades the magazines cover depicted a single person. More recently, Time has incorporated People of the Year issues which grew in popularity over the years, notable mentions of them were Barack Obama, Steve Jobs, Matej Turk, etc. The first issue of Time was published on March 3,1923, featuring Joseph G. Cannon, the retired Speaker of the House of Representatives, on its cover, a facsimile reprint of Issue No. 1, including all of the articles and advertisements contained in the original, was included with copies of the February 28,1938 issue as a commemoration of the magazines 15th anniversary. The cover price was 15¢ On Haddens death in 1929, Luce became the dominant man at Time, the Intimate History of a Publishing Enterprise 1923–1941. In 1929, Roy Larsen was also named a Time Inc. director, J. P. Morgan retained a certain control through two directorates and a share of stocks, both over Time and Fortune. Other shareholders were Brown Brothers W. A. Harriman & Co. the Intimate History of a Changing Enterprise 1957–1983. According to the September 10,1979 issue of The New York Times, after Time magazine began publishing its weekly issues in March 1923, Roy Larsen was able to increase its circulation by utilizing U. S. radio and movie theaters around the world. It often promoted both Time magazine and U. S. political and corporate interests, Larsen next arranged for a 30-minute radio program, The March of Time, to be broadcast over CBS, beginning on March 6,1931
23.
Dean Acheson
–
Dean Gooderham Acheson was an American statesman and lawyer. As United States Secretary of State in the administration of President Harry S. Truman from 1949 to 1953, Acheson helped design the Marshall Plan and was a key player in the development of the Truman Doctrine and creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Achesons most famous decision was convincing President Truman to intervene in the Korean War in June 1950 and he also persuaded Truman to dispatch aid and advisors to French forces in Indochina, though in 1968 he finally counseled President Lyndon B. Johnson to negotiate for peace with North Vietnam. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, President John F. Kennedy called upon Acheson for advice, bringing him into the executive committee, Dean Gooderham Acheson was born in Middletown, Connecticut. Like his father, Acheson was a staunch Democrat and opponent of prohibition, Acheson attended Groton School and Yale College, where he joined Scroll and Key Society, was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and was a brother of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity. At Groton and Yale he had the reputation of a partier and prankster, he was somewhat aloof, Achesons well-known, reputed arrogance—he disdained the curriculum at Yale as focusing on memorizing subjects already known or not worth knowing more about—was apparent early. At Harvard Law School from 1915 to 1918, however, he was swept away by the intellect of professor Felix Frankfurter, on May 15,1917, while serving in the National Guard, Acheson married Alice Caroline Stanley. She loved painting and politics and served as an influence throughout their enduring marriage. Frankfurter and Brandeis were close associates, and future Supreme Court Justice Frankfurter suggested that Brandeis take on Acheson, when Secretary William H. Woodin fell ill, Acheson suddenly found himself acting secretary despite his ignorance of finance. Because of his opposition to FDRs plan to deflate the dollar by controlling gold prices, he was forced to resign in November 1933, in 1939–1940 he headed a committee to study the operation of administrative bureaus in the federal government. Brought back as assistant secretary of state in 1941, Acheson implemented much of United States economic policy aiding Great Britain, Roosevelt froze all Japanese assets merely to disconcert them. He did not intend the flow of oil to Japan to cease, the president then departed Washington for Newfoundland to meet with Churchill. While he was gone Acheson used those frozen assets to deny Japan oil, upon the presidents return, he decided it would appear weak and appeasing to reverse the de facto oil embargo. In 1944, Acheson attended the Bretton Woods Conference as the delegate from the State department. At this conference the post-war international economic structure was designed, the conference was the birthplace of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, and the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, the last of which would evolve into the World Trade Organization. And, as late as 1945 or 1946 Acheson sought détente with the Soviet Union, in 1946, as chairman of a special committee to prepare a plan for the international control of atomic energy, he wrote the Acheson–Lilienthal report. At first Acheson was conciliatory towards Joseph Stalin, the Soviet Unions attempts at regional hegemony in Eastern Europe and in Southwest Asia, however, changed Achesons thinking. From this point forward, one writes, Acheson was more than present at the creation of the Cold War
24.
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
–
The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation is a United States government corporation providing deposit insurance to depositors in US banks. The insurance limit was initially US$2,500 per ownership category, since the passage of the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act in 2011, the FDIC insures deposits in member banks up to US $250,000 per ownership category. The FDIC and its reserves are not funded by public funds, the FDIC also has a US$100 billion line of credit with the United States Department of the Treasury. Only banks are insured by the FDIC, credit unions are insured up to the insurance limit by the National Credit Union Administration. As of August 27,2014, the FDIC provided deposit insurance at 6,638 institutions, the FDIC also examines and supervises certain financial institutions for safety and soundness, performs certain consumer-protection functions, and manages receiverships of failed banks. Each ownership category of a money is insured separately up to the insurance limit. For joint accounts, each co-owner is assumed to own the same fraction of the account as does each other co-owner. Thus if three people own a $750,000 account, the entire account balance is insured because each depositors $250,000 share of the account is insured. The owner of a revocable trust account is insured up to $250,000 for each unique beneficiary. Thus if there is a owner of an account that is specified as in trust for three different beneficiaries, the funds in the account are insured up to $750,000. The Board of Directors of the FDIC is the body of the FDIC. The board is composed of five members, three appointed by the president of the United States with the consent of the United States Senate, the three appointed members each serve six-year terms. No more than three members of the board may be of the political affiliation. The two ex officio members are the Comptroller of the Currency and the director of the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. As of January 1,2016, the members of the Board of Directors of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation were, both of the panics renewed discussion on deposit insurance. In 1893, William Jennings Bryan presented a bill to Congress proposing a national insurance fund. No action was taken, as the legislature paid more attention to the depression at the time. After 1907, eight states established deposit insurance funds, in 1921, there were about 31,000 banks in the US
25.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
26.
Coin collecting
–
Coin collecting is the collecting of coins or other forms of minted legal tender. Coins of interest to collectors often include those that circulated for only a time, coins with mint errors. Coin collecting can be differentiated from numismatics, in that the latter is the study of currency. Though closely related, the two disciplines are not necessarily the same, a numismatist may or may not be a coin collector, and vice versa. A coins grade is a determinant of its value. For a tiered fee, a third party service like PCGS or NGC will grade, authenticate, attribute. Over 80 million coins have been certified by the four largest services, people have hoarded coins for their bullion value for as long as coins have been minted. However, the collection of coins for their value was a later development. Evidence from the archaeological and historical record of Ancient Rome and medieval Mesopotamia indicates that coins were collected and catalogued by scholars and it also seems probable that individual citizens collected old, exotic or commemorative coins as an affordable, portable form of art. Contemporary coin collecting and appreciation began around the fourteenth century, during the Renaissance, it became a fad among some members of the privileged classes, especially kings and queens. The Italian scholar and poet Petrarch is credited with being the pursuits first and most famous aficionado, following his lead, many European kings, princes, and other nobility kept collections of ancient coins. Perhaps because only the wealthy could afford the pursuit, in Renaissance times coin collecting became known as the Hobby of Kings. During the 17th and 18th centuries coin collecting remained a pursuit of the well-to-do, but rational, Enlightenment thinking led to a more systematic approach to accumulation and study. During the 19th and 20th centuries, coin collecting increased further in popularity, the market for coins expanded to include not only antique coins, but foreign or otherwise exotic currency. Coin shows, trade associations, and regulatory bodies emerged during these decades, as one of the oldest and most popular world pastimes, coin collecting is now often referred to as the King of Hobbies. The motivations for collecting are varied, possibly the most common type of collector is the hobbyist, who amasses a collection purely for fun with no real expectation of profit. This is especially true of casual collectors and children who collect items on the basis of chance, another frequent reason for purchasing coins is as an investment. As with stamps, precious metals or other commodities, coin prices are based on supply
27.
Johns Hopkins University Press
–
The Johns Hopkins University Press is the publishing division of Johns Hopkins University. It was founded in 1878 and is the oldest continuously running university press in the United States, the Press publishes books, journals, and electronic databases. Considering all its units it is a contender for Americas largest university press and its headquarters are in Charles Village, Baltimore. Daniel Coit Gilman, the first president of the Johns Hopkins University, the Press began as the Universitys Publication Agency, publishing the American Journal of Mathematics in its first year and the American Chemical Journal in its second. It published its first book, Sidney Lanier, A Memorial Tribute, in 1891, the Publication Agency became the Johns Hopkins Press, since 1972, it has been known as the Johns Hopkins University Press. After various moves on and off the Universitys Homewood campus, the Press acquired a permanent home in Baltimores Charles Village neighborhood in 1993, when it relocated to a renovated former church. Built in 1897, the granite and brick structure was the church of the Saints Philip and James Roman Catholic parish. JHU Press publishes 65 scholarly journals and more than 200 new books each year, since 1993, JHU Press has run Project MUSE, an online provider of more than 550 scholarly journals and more than 20,000 electronic books
28.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
29.
OCLC
–
The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
30.
Alexander Hamilton
–
Alexander Hamilton was an American statesman and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. As the first Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton was the author of the economic policies of the George Washington administration. He took the lead in the funding of the debts by the Federal government, as well as the establishment of a national bank, a system of tariffs. His vision included a central government led by a vigorous executive branch. This was challenged by Virginia agrarians Thomas Jefferson and James Madison who formed a rival party and they favored strong states based in rural America and protected by state militias as opposed to a strong national army and navy. They denounced Hamilton as too friendly toward Britain and toward monarchy in general, Hamilton was born out of wedlock in Charlestown, to a married mother of British and French Huguenot ancestry and a Scottish father. His father, James A. Hamilton, was the son of laird Alexander Hamilton of Grange. Orphaned as a child by his mothers death and his fathers abandonment, Hamilton was taken in by an older cousin and he was recognized for his intelligence and talent, and sponsored by a group of wealthy local men to travel to New York City to pursue his education. Hamilton attended Kings College, choosing to stay in the Thirteen Colonies to seek his fortune, discontinuing his studies before graduating when the college closed its doors during British occupation of the city, Hamilton played a major role in the American Revolutionary War. At the start of the war in 1775, he joined a militia company, in early 1776, he raised a provincial artillery company, to which he was appointed captain. He soon became the aide to General Washington, the American forces commander-in-chief. Hamilton was dispatched by Washington on numerous missions to convey plans to his generals, after the war, Hamilton was elected as a representative to the Congress of the Confederation from New York. He resigned to practice law, and founded the Bank of New York, Hamilton was among those dissatisfied with the weak national government. He led the Annapolis Convention, which successfully influenced Congress to issue a call for the Philadelphia Convention in order to create a new constitution, Hamilton became the leading cabinet member in the new government under President Washington. These programs were funded primarily by a tariff on imports, to overcome localism, Hamilton mobilized a nationwide network of friends of the government, especially bankers and businessmen, which became the Federalist Party. A major issue in the emergence of the American two-party system was the Jay Treaty and it established friendly trade relations with Britain, to the chagrin of France and the supporters of the French Revolution. Hamilton played a role in the Federalist party, which dominated national. In 1795, he returned to the practice of law in New York and he tried to control the policies of President Adams
31.
Oliver Wolcott Jr.
–
Oliver Wolcott, Jr. was an American politician. He was United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1795 to 1800, born in Litchfield, Connecticut, Wolcott was the son of Oliver Wolcott, Sr. and Laura Collins Wolcott. He was able to graduate from Yale University in 1778, despite serving in the Continental Army from 1777 to 1779 and he later read law and studied at Litchfield Law School to be admitted to the bar in 1781. He was a clerk in Connecticuts Office of the Committee on the Pay Table from 1781 to 1782, Wolcott was appointed in 1784 as one of the commissioners to mediate claims between the U. S. and the state of Connecticut. After serving as comptroller of Connecticut from 1788–90, he was named auditor of the federal treasury. He was appointed Secretary of the Treasury by George Washington in 1795 to succeed Alexander Hamilton, in 1799, as Secretary of the Treasury, he designed the United States Customs Service flag. He was appointed as a committee member pertaining to the construction of the monument at Groton Heights, commemorating the battle fought there on September 6,1781. Wolcott was one of President John Adams so-called midnight judges, appointed to a new seat as a judge on the United States circuit court for the Second Circuit. 89, almost on the eve of Jeffersons inauguration in 1801, nominated by Adams on February 18,1801, Wolcott was confirmed by the United States Senate on February 20,1801, and received his commission the same day. Wolcotts service was terminated on July 1,1802, due to abolition of the court, from 1803 to 1815 he operated in private business in New York City, afterwards retiring to Litchfield and farming. Wolcott lost a campaign for Governor of Connecticut in 1816, running as a Toleration Republican and he ran again in 1817 and won, following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather as governor, and serving ten years in the post. His tenure was noted for the growth and moderate policies that attended it. Additionally, he presided over a convention that created a new constitution in 1818. Nevertheless, he was defeated for reelection as Governor of Connecticut in 1827, whipple met with Oney, discussed why she had escaped and tried to ascertain the facts of the case. In their correspondence, Washington said that he wanted to avoid controversy, Washington made another attempt to apprehend her in 1798. This time he asked his nephew, Burwell Bassett Jr. to convince her to return or to take her by force, wolcotts involvement with this case ended with the first attempt to return Oney Judge to slavery. Wolcott died in New York City and is interred at East Cemetery in Litchfield, Wolcott was the last surviving member of the Washington Cabinet. The town of Wolcott, Connecticut was named in honor of Oliver, Jr. and his father Oliver, about 1798, Fort Washington on Goat Island in Newport, Rhode Island was renamed Fort Wolcott
32.
Samuel Dexter
–
Samuel Dexter was an early American statesman who served both in Congress and in the Presidential Cabinet. After he passed the bar in 1784, he began practicing in Lunenburg and he was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives and served from 1788 to 1790. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives as a Federalist and he served in the United States Senate from March 4,1799, to May 30,1800. Dexter responded by questioning why Catholics were not required to denounce allegiance to the Pope, in December 1799, he delivered the Senate eulogy for George Washington. Dexter served in the Senate for less than a year, during his time at the War Department he urged congressional action to permit appointment and compensation of field officers for general staff duty. When Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott Jr. resigned in December 1800, Adams appointed Dexter as interim Secretary, in a letter to his wife on March 5,1801, Gallatin said that Dexter had behaved with great civility. He returned to Boston in 1805 and resumed the practice of law and he left the Federalists and became a Democratic-Republican because he supported the War of 1812. He was a candidate for Governor of Massachusetts in 1814,1815 and 1816. Dexter was an ardent supporter of the movement and presided over its first formal organization in Massachusetts. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and he died on May 4,1816, shortly before his 55th birthday and is buried at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Simon Newton Dexter and Andrew Dexter, Jr. were his nephews, samuel W. Dexter, founder of Dexter, Michigan, was his son. Samuel Dexter is the namesake of Dexter, Maine, the USRC Dexter was named in his honor. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
33.
Albert Gallatin
–
Abraham Alfonse Albert Gallatin was a Swiss-American politician, diplomat, ethnologist and linguist. He served as a Representative, Senator, United States Ambassador and was the longest-serving United States Secretary of the Treasury, in 1831, he helped found the University of the City of New York, now New York University. Born in Geneva in present-day Switzerland, Gallatin immigrated to America in the 1780s and was naturalized in Morgantown and he ultimately settled in western Pennsylvania. He was politically active against the Federalist Party program and was elected to the United States Senate in 1793, however, he was removed from office by a 14–12 party-line vote after a protest raised by his opponents suggested he did not meet the required nine years of citizenship. Two years later, he was elected to the House of Representatives and he also helped found the House Committee on Finance and often engineered withholding of finances by the House as a method of overriding executive actions to which he objected. He was secretary from 1801 until February 1814, under both Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, holding the longest tenure in office in American history. Gallatin never wanted the position and was humiliated when forced to withdraw from the race because he lacked popular support, in 1826 and 1827, he served as Ambassador to Great Britain and negotiated several useful agreements, such as a ten-year extension of the joint occupation of Oregon. Gallatin settled in New York City after his return to the US and it was intended to offer university education to the working and merchant classes as well as the wealthy. He became president of the National Bank in New York City and his last great endeavor was founding the American Ethnological Society in 1842 and serving as its president until 1848. With his studies of the languages of Native Americans, he has called the father of American ethnology. At his death in 1849, Gallatin was the last surviving member of the Jefferson Cabinet, Gallatin was born in Geneva, Switzerland, to wealthy Jean Gallatin and his wife, Sophie Albertine Rollaz. Gallatins family had influence in Switzerland, and many family members held distinguished positions in the magistracy, military. Gallatins father, a merchant, died in 1765, followed by his mother in April 1770. Now orphaned, Gallatin was taken into the care of Mademoiselle Pictet, in January 1773, Gallatin was sent to boarding school. The democratic spirit of the United States attracted him and he decided to emigrate, in April 1780, he secretly left Geneva with his classmate Henri Serre. Carrying letters of recommendation from eminent Colonials that the Gallatin family procured, the men left France in May, sailing on an American ship. They reached Cape Ann on July 14 and arrived in Boston the next day, bored with monotonous Bostonian life, the men set sail with a Swiss female companion, to the settlement of Machias, located on the northeastern tip of the Maine frontier. At Machias, Gallatin operated a bartering venture, in which he dealt with a variety of goods and he enjoyed the simple life and the natural environment surrounding him
34.
George W. Campbell
–
Born in the village of Tongue on the north coast of Scotland, Campbell immigrated as a young boy to North Carolina in 1772 with his parents. He graduated from the College of New Jersey in 1794 and began studying law and he was admitted to the bar in North Carolina and began practicing in Knoxville, Tennessee. Campbell was elected to the United States House of Representatives as the Representative from Tennessees at-large congressional district in 1803 and he served in the House from 1805–1809, in the 8th, 9th, and 10th Congresses. During the 10th Congress, he was the chairman of the Ways and he left Congress in 1809 to become judge of the Tennessee Supreme Court, serving until 1811. Campbell served as a United States Senator from Tennessee twice, once from 1811 to 1814, having elected to fill the seat of Jenkin Whiteside. His first service was from October 8,1811 to February 11,1814 and he returned to the Senate on October 10,1815. Campbell served as a member of the French Spoliation Claims Commission in 1831, appointed Secretary of the Treasury by James Madison, Campbell faced national financial disorder brought on by the War of 1812. He was forced to meet to lenders terms, selling government bonds at exorbitant interest rates, in September,1814 the British occupied Washington, D. C. and the credit of the government was lowered even further. He was unsuccessful in his efforts to raise money through bond sales and he resigned that October after only eight months in office, disillusioned. Campbell died in 1848 and is buried at Nashville City Cemetery in Nashville, Campbell County, Tennessee, is named in his honor. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, google Books, page 272 for Year 1794 Media related to George W. Campbell at Wikimedia Commons
35.
Alexander J. Dallas (statesman)
–
Alexander James Dallas was an American statesman who served as the U. S. Treasury Secretary under President James Madison. Dallas was born in Kingston, Jamaica, to Dr. Robert Charles Dallas, when he was five his family moved to Edinburgh and then to London. There he studied under James Elphinston and he planned to study law, but was unable to afford it. He married Arabella Maria Smith of Pennsylvania, the daughter of Maj. George Smith of the British Army and Arabella Barlow, in 1780, there he was admitted to the bar through his fathers connections. Marias health suffered in Jamaica and they moved to Philadelphia in 1783 and he was admitted to the bar in 1785. His law practice was slow and on the side he edited the Pennsylvania Herald from 1787 to 1788, when the United States Supreme Court came to Philadelphia in 1791, he would become their first reporter of decisions starting with West v. Barnes. Because the post of reporter was a one, Dallas did his work from his own funds. The volumes, of which he produced only four, were faulted for being incomplete, inaccurate, and extremely tardy. For example, the ruling in Chisholm v. Georgia which prompted the Eleventh Amendment, was not reported by Dallas until five years later. He was a founder of the Democratic-Republican Societies in 1793, governor Thomas Mifflin named Dallas Secretary of the Commonwealth, a post he held from 1791 to 1801. Because Mifflin was an alcoholic, Dallas functioned as de facto governor for much of the late 1790s, Dallas helped found the Democratic-Republican party in Pennsylvania and advocated a strict construction of the new Constitution. In 1801, he was named United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania and his friend Albert Gallatin was treasury secretary when the War of 1812 began and Dallas helped Gallatin obtain funds to fight Britain. The war nearly bankrupted the Federal Government by the time Dallas replaced Gallatin as treasury secretary, from March 2,1815 to August 1,1815 he was acting Secretary of War and for a time that year was acting Secretary of State as well. He returned to Philadelphia, but lived only a year and he was a member of the American Philosophical Society from 1791 and a trustee of the University of Pennsylvania. Dallas County, Alabama and Dallas Township, Pennsylvania are named for him, six U. S. Coast Guard Cutters have been named DALLAS, the most recent was USCGC DALLAS. Fort Dallas in Florida and the U. S. Navy ship USS Dallas were named after his son, Alexander J. Dallas, who died during his Navy service. His other son George Mifflin Dallas was Vice President under James K. Polk and one possible namesake for Dallas, Texas, biography and portrait at the University of Pennsylvania Alexander J. Dallas at Find a Grave Alexander J. Dallas, Secretary of War
36.
William H. Crawford
–
William Harris Crawford was an American politician and judge during the early 19th century. He served as United States Secretary of War from 1815 to 1816 and United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1816 to 1825 and he moved with his family to Edgefield County, South Carolina in 1779, and to Columbia County, Georgia in 1783. Crawford was educated at schools in Georgia and at Richmond Academy in Augusta. After his fathers death, Crawford became the main financial provider. He later studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1799, also in 1799, Crawford was appointed by the state legislature to prepare a digest of Georgias statutes. William H. Crawford influenced Georgia politics for decades, in 1803, Crawford was elected to the Georgia House of Representatives as a member of the Democratic-Republican Party, and he served until 1807. He allied himself with senator James Jackson and their enemies were the Clarkites, led by John Clark. In 1802, he shot and killed Peter Lawrence Van Alen, four years later on December 16,1806, Crawford faced Clark himself in a duel, resulting in Crawfords left wrist being shattered by a shot from Clark, but he eventually recovered. In 1807, Crawford joined the 10th United States Congress mid-term as the junior U. S, senator from Georgia when the Georgia legislature elected him to replace George Jones, an appointee who had held the office for a few months after the death of Abraham Baldwin. Crawford was elected President pro tempore in 1811, when Vice President George Clinton died on April 20,1812, Crawford, as President pro tempore, became the first Acting Vice President until March 4,1813. In 1811, Crawford declined to serve as Secretary of War in the Madison administration, in the Senate, he voted for several acts leading up to the War of 1812, and he supported the United States entry into the war, but was ready for peace. Crawford said, Let it then be the wisdom of this nation to remain at peace, upon Crawfords return, Madison appointed him as Secretary of War. After slightly more than a year of service in that post. He remained in position through the rest of Madisons term and Monroes entire administration. Crawford was again a candidate for the Democratic-Republican presidential nomination in 1824. However, Crawford was put out of the running because of a stroke he suffered in 1823 that was brought on by a prescription given to him by his physician. The Democratic-Republican Party split around this time and one of the splinter groups nominated Crawford, despite Crawfords improved health, he finished third in the electoral vote, behind New Orleans war hero Andrew Jackson and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams. Refusing Adamss request that he remain at the Treasury, Crawford then returned to Georgia, Crawford remained an active judge until his death a decade later
37.
Richard Rush
–
Adams and Rush were defeated by Andrew Jackson and his running mate, John C. Rush also served as United States minister to England and France at various times, Rush was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He was the son of Benjamin Rush and Julia Rush, daughter of Richard Stockton. He entered the College of New Jersey at the age of 14 and he was admitted to the bar in 1800, when he was barely 20 years old, and studied law at the office of William Draper Lewis. Rush married Catherine Eliza Murray on August 29,1809 and they were the parents of ten children, of whom three sons and two daughters survived him. After his entering the bar in 1800 Rush quickly gaining statewide and then national attention as a public speaker, in 1811 he was appointed Attorney General of Pennsylvania. Shortly before this he had declined an offer to run for congress, in November 1811, President James Madison appointed Rush Comptroller of the Treasury. From the position as Comptroller of the treasury, albeit a subordinate position, Rush functioned as one of President Madisons closest friends and he was one of the War Hawks who advocated war with Britain. In 1814 Madison offered Rush the choice of Secretary of the Treasury or Attorney General of the United States, with his appointment as Attorney General Rush became the youngest person to serve as United States Attorney General. Rush served as United States Attorney General from 1814 to 1817, at this time the attorney generalship was a part-time position, and so Rush also maintained his private law practice while in this office. On top of this he edited a codification of United States laws during this time and he was acting Secretary of State from the start of James Monroes term as president until the return of John Quincy Adams from Europe. During this time Rush concluded the Rush-Bagot Convention, demilitarizing the Canadian boundary on the Great Lakes, in October 1817, Rush was appointed Minister to Britain to succeed John Quincy Adams, who had taken the position of Secretary of State upon his return. He became surprisingly popular in England, despite his previous anti-British record, Richard Rush received one electoral vote as a Federalist for the office of U. S. Vice President in the 1820 election, even though the Federalist Party nominated no candidate for U. S. President in that election. And then again in March–April 1824, Richard Rush was again honored with a vote at the Democratic-Republican Party Caucus to be the partys candidate for the Office of U. S. Vice President for the upcoming 1824 election, upon the election of John Quincy Adams in 1825, Rush desired to become the Secretary of the Navy. Adams, however, immediately nominated him for the post of 8th Secretary of the Treasury and he served in this position with remarkable success during the entire Adams Administration from March 7,1825 until March 5,1829. Notably, he paid off nearly the whole debt
38.
Samuel D. Ingham
–
Samuel Delucenna Ingham was a U. S. Congressman and U. S. Treasury Secretary under President Andrew Jackson, Ingham was born at near New Hope, Pennsylvania. His parents were Dr. Jonathan Ingham, a physician from Philadelphia, and his wife. After a pursuit of studies, he was an apprentice to a paper maker along Pennypack Creek not far from Philadelphia. After completing his apprenticeship, Ingham became the manager of a mill at Bloomfield. It was while here he met Rebecca Dodd, whom he married in 1800, also in 1800 Ingham returned to Pennsylvania and established a paper mill on his mothers farm that would be his main source of employment in the coming years. He was a member of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives from 1806 to 1808, after his service in the legislature Ingham was appointed Justice of the Peace by the Governor of Pennsylvania. He was a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1813 until July 6,1818 and he easily trounced his Federalist opponents in the first two elections and had no opposition at all in 1816. He resigned from Congress in 1818 due to his wifes ill health and he was appointed the Prothonotary of the Court of Common Pleas of Bucks County, Pennsylvania after leaving Congress. In 1819 Rebecca Dodd Ingham died, Ingham served as Secretary of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania from 1819 to 1820. In 1822 Ingham married Deborah Hall of Salem, New Jersey and they would become the parents of three children. Also in 1822 Ingham was elected to Congress where he would serve until 1829, during the 13th Congress he was chair of the United States House Committee on Pensions and Revolutionary War Claims. Ingham served as the ninth Secretary of the U. S. Treasury from March 6,1829, Jackson thought that there should be no paper currency in circulation, but only coins, and that the U. S. Constitution was designed to expel paper currency as part of the monetary system, Ingham believed in the Second Bank, and labored to resolve conflicts between Jackson, who wanted it destroyed, and the Banks president, Nicholas Biddle. Eaton by a group of Cabinet members and their wives led by Floride Calhoun, Calhoun, in what became known as the Petticoat affair. He was involved with the organization of the Beaver Meadow Railroad Company and he was also connected with the organization of the Hazleton Coal Company. He also worked to promote canals such at the Lehigh Navigation and he moved to Trenton, New Jersey, in 1849, where he worked with that citys Mechanics Bank. Ingham died in Trenton, New Jersey, and is interred in the Solebury Presbyterian Churchyard, Solebury, Ingham County, Michigan, one of several Cabinet counties named for members of Jacksons administration, is named in Inghams honor
39.
Louis McLane
–
Louis McLane was an American lawyer and politician from Wilmington, in New Castle County, Delaware, and Baltimore, Maryland. He was a veteran of the War of 1812 and a member of the Federalist Party and later the Democratic Party. Senator from Delaware, U. S. Secretary of the Treasury, U. S. Secretary of State, Minister Plenipotentiary to the United Kingdom, as a member of President Andrew Jacksons Cabinet, McLane was a prominent figure during the Bank War. He also helped draft the Force Bill in 1833, named for the King of France, Louis McLane was born in Smyrna, Delaware, son of Allen and Rebecca Wells McLane. Allen McLane was a veteran of the American Revolutionary War and long time tax collector for the port of Wilmington and he was well-known and a fervently loyal Federalist. In fact, he held the office until the administration of Andrew Jackson, much of his income came from the seizure of contraband and Louis McLane inherited much of this wealth, along with legal issues that lasted well beyond the death of his father. Louis McLane attended private schools and served as a midshipman on the USS Philadelphia for one year before he was 18 and he then attended Newark College, later the University of Delaware, and studied law under James A. Bayard. Admitted to the bar in 1807, he began a practice in Wilmington, during the War of 1812, McLane joined the Wilmington Artillery Company, formed for the purpose of defending Wilmington. When Baltimore was threatened, they marched to its defense, but were sent back due to lack of provisions for them in Baltimore, ultimately, they saw no action, and McLane left the unit as a 1st Lieutenant. Following the War of 1812 Delaware was unique in continuing to have a viable Federalist Party, New Castle County manufacturers joined most of the old Federalist Party leadership in making the Whigs the new majority in the state. This included McLane’s mentor, James A. Bayard and various members of the Clayton family, especially Thomas Clayton and his cousin, from then on the Clayton cousins became McLane’s principle political opponents in Delaware. Nevertheless, McLane was elected six times as a Federalist to the U. S. House of Representatives and he had a most distinguished career in the U. S. House, serving five full terms from March 4,1817 to March 3,1827. In spite being a Federalist, he was Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee, during these sessions the Federalist Party was so small and weak that partisan divisions mattered much less than the personal relationships that developed among the members. McLane quickly became a friend and admirer of William H. Crawford and Martin Van Buren and these friendships were based more on personality than policy agreement, and were so important that McLane was one of Crawford’s strongest proponents in the presidential election of 1824. Once Crawford returned to Georgia, McLane, Van Buren, and this was all the easier for him given his existing friendship with Martin Van Buren, who became his mentor and advocate. McLane moved to the U. S. Senate and served there from March 4,1827 until April 29,1829, leading up to the presidential election of 1828, he worked very hard in a losing effort to win Delaware for Andrew Jackson. In doing so he cut his ties to the Claytons. Clearly he would have little hope of reelection to the U. S. Senate or any future in Delaware politics, all his considerable hopes for a prestigious position rested with an appointment from the new president
40.
William J. Duane
–
William John Duane was an Irish born American politician and lawyer from Pennsylvania. Born in Clonmel, County Tipperary, Ireland, Duane emigrated to the United States with his parents, William Duane and he assisted his father in publishing the Aurora, a Philadelphia newspaper, until 1806. He became a lawyer and served several terms in the Pennsylvania General Assembly. Duane served a term as United States Secretary of the Treasury in 1833. His refusal to withdraw Federal deposits from the Second Bank of the United States led to his dismissal by President Andrew Jackson. He married on December 31,1805 at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Deborah Franklin Bache, who was born on October 1,1781 in Philadelphia and his father-in-law was Richard Bache, Sr. a marine insurance underwriter and importer in Philadelphia. Bache served as United States Postmaster General from 1776 to 1782 and his mother-in-law was Sarah Franklin Bache, the daughter of Benjamin Franklin. In 1833, President Andrew Jackson appointed Duane Secretary of the Treasury, like his predecessor, Louis McLane, who was moved to the Department of State, Duane refused to remove government deposits from the Bank of the United States and transfer them to state banks. This caused clashes with Jackson and Duane was soon replaced by Roger B and he defended his own position in his book Narrative and Correspondence Concerning the Removal of the Deposites, and Occurrences Connected Therewith, published in 1838. Phillips, Kim T. William Duane, Philadelphias Democratic Republicans, Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, 365-387
41.
Roger B. Taney
–
Roger Brooke Taney was the fifth Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, holding that office from 1836 until his death in 1864. He delivered the majority opinion in Dred Scott v. S and he was the first Roman Catholic appointed both to a presidential cabinet, as Attorney General under President Andrew Jackson, as well as to the Court. Taney, a Jacksonian Democrat, was made Chief Justice by Jackson, Taney was a believer in states rights. He inherited slaves from his father but manumitted them and gave pensions to the older ones and he believed that power and liberty were extremely important and if power became too concentrated, then it posed a grave threat to individual liberty. He opposed attempts by the government to regulate or control matters that would restrict the rights of individuals. From Prince Frederick, Maryland, he had practiced law and politics simultaneously, after abandoning the Federalist Party as a losing cause, he rose to the top of the states Jacksonian machine. He was bought and sold and treated as an article of merchandise and traffic. The court also declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional, thus permitting slavery in all of the countrys territories, Taney died during the final months of the American Civil War on the same day that his home state of Maryland abolished slavery. Roger Brooke Taney was born on March 17,1777 in Calvert County, Maryland and he was the second son, and the third of seven children born to a slaveholding family of tobacco planters in Calvert County, Maryland. He received an education from a series of private tutors. After instructing him for a year, his last tutor, David English, at the age of 15 he entered Dickinson College in Pennsylvania, graduating with honors in 1795. As a younger son with no prospect of inheriting the family plantation and he read law and in 1799 was admitted to the bar. He quickly distinguished himself as one of Marylands most promising young lawyers, Taney married Anne Phoebe Charlton Key, sister of Francis Scott Key, on January 7,1806. In 1799, the year he began practicing as an attorney, Taney was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates. He ran for re-election in 1800, but lost, returning to private practice, he served as a director of the State Bank Branch in Frederick, Maryland, from 1810 to 1815. He was elected the Maryland State Senate in 1816, serving until 1821—this time as a Democratic Republican and he was also a director of the Frederick County Bank from 1818 to 1823, when he returned to private practice. When the 1824 presidential election divided the party supporters and opponents of Andrew Jackson, Taney became a staunch Jacksonian Democrat. In 1833, as secretary of the Treasury, Taney ordered an end to the deposit of Federal money in the Second Bank of the United States, an act that killed the institution
42.
Levi Woodbury
–
Levi Woodbury was an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, a U. S. Senator, Governor of New Hampshire and cabinet member in three administrations. He was the first Justice to have attended law school, Woodbury was born in Francestown, New Hampshire, the son of Mary and Peter Woodbury. He began his education at Atkinson Academy and he graduated from Dartmouth College, Phi Beta Kappa, in 1809, briefly attended Tapping Reeve Law School in Litchfield, Connecticut, and read law to be admitted to the New Hampshire Bar in 1812. He became the first Supreme Court justice to attend law school, later, he was in private practice in Francestown from 1812 to 1816. His education contributed to his start in law, which led to his later political positions. He was admitted to the New Hampshire Bar in 1812 and began practicing law in his hometown, following the publication of his defense, he gained the recognition he needed to receive an appointment to the state senate in 1816. In quick succession, he was appointed to the supreme court a year later. During the time of his election, there was factionalism within the party. The caucus chose Samuel Dinsmoor as the candidate for governor, Woodbury defeated Dinsmoor by a wide margin, but his one year as governor was a failure. He tried to reconcile the Federalists and Democratic-Republicans but did not make a lot of progress, Senator from New Hampshire, during which time he served as the Chairman of the Senate Commerce Committee. Throughout Woodbury’s political career, he was characterized as being independent and moderate, Woodbury was a clerk of the New Hampshire State Senate from 1816 to 1817, and a Justice of New Hampshire Superior Court of Judicature from 1817 to 1823. He was Governor of New Hampshire from 1823 to 1824 and was Speaker of the New Hampshire House of Representatives,1825, Woodbury served as a United States Senator from New Hampshire from 1825 to 1831. Elected to serve in New Hampshire State Senate in 1831, Woodbury did not take due to his appointment as United States Secretary of the Navy under President Andrew Jackson. At the beginning of term, he was instrumental in the appointment of fellow New Hampshireman Edmund Roberts as special agent. Woodbury served as Secretary of the Treasury under Jackson and Martin Van Buren from 1834 to 1841 and he was a Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court,1845 to 1851. As a U. S. Senator, Woodbury was a dependable Jackson Democrat, Woodbury successfully worked to end the Second Bank of the United States, like Jackson he favored an independent treasury system and hard money over paper money. In retrospect, the financial Panic of 1837 and the collapse of land prices were legacies of Woodburys tenure. It was largely repealed under the new administration the following year, Woodbury also served as chairman of the U. S. Senate Committee on Finance during a Special Session of the 29th Congress
43.
Thomas Ewing
–
Thomas Ewing, Sr. was a National Republican and Whig politician from Ohio. He served in the U. S. Senate as well as serving as the Secretary of the Treasury and he is also known as the foster father of famous American Civil War general William Tecumseh Sherman. Born in West Liberty, Ohio County, Virginia, was the son of Revolutionary War veteran George Ewing, after studying at Ohio University and reading law under Philemon Beecher, Ewing commenced the practice of law in Lancaster, Ohio, in 1816. As a colorful country lawyer, he was elected to the U. S. Senate in 1830 as a Whig and he was unsuccessful in seeking a second term in 1836. Ewing served as Secretary of the Treasury in 1841, serving under Presidents William Henry Harrison and he resigned on September 11,1841, along with the entire cabinet, in protest of Tylers veto of the Banking Act. Ewing was later appointed to serve as the first Secretary of the Interior by President Zachary Taylor, Ewing served in the position from March 8, 1849–July 22,1850 under Taylor and Millard Fillmore. As first secretary, he consolidated bureaus from various Departments, such as the Land Office from the Treasury Department, the bureaus were being kicked out of their offices as unwanted tenants in their former departments. However, the Interior Department had no space, so Ewing rented space. Later, the Patent Office building, with a new east wing, Ewing initiated the Interior Departments culture of corruption by wholesale replacement of officials with political patronage. Newspapers called him Butcher Ewing for his efforts, in 1850, Ewing was appointed to the Senate to fill the vacancy created by the resignation of Thomas Corwin, and served from July 20, 1850–March 3,1851. Ewing was unsuccessful in seeking re-election in 1851, in 1861, Ewing served as one of Ohios delegates to the peace conference held in Washington in hopes of staving off civil war. Ewing married Maria Wills Boyle, a Roman Catholic, and raised their children in her faith and his foster son was the famous general William Tecumseh Sherman. Sherman eventually married Thomas Ewing Sr. s daughter, Ellen Ewing Sherman, Ewings namesake son, Thomas Ewing, Jr. was an American Civil War Union army general and two-term U. S. Two of Ewings other sons – Hugh Boyle Ewing and Charles Ewing – also became generals in the Union army during the Civil War, Ewing was born a Presbyterian, but for many years attended Catholic services with his family. He was formally baptized into the Catholic faith during his last illness, prior to his death on October 26,1871, Ewing had been the last surviving member of the Harrison and Tyler Cabinets. Future President and Governor of Ohio Rutherford B. Hayes was a pallbearer at his funeral and he is buried in Saint Mary Cemetery, Lancaster, Fairfield County, Ohio USA. Unsuccessful nominations to the Cabinet of the United States Memorial of Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, compiled by his daughter, lewis, Lloyd, Sherman, Fighting Prophet Miller, Paul I. Thomas Ewing, Last of the Whigs, Ph. D. diss, heineman, Kenneth J. Civil War Dynasty, The Ewing Family of Ohio
44.
Walter Forward
–
Walter Forward was an American lawyer and politician. He was the brother of Chauncey Forward, born in East Granby, Connecticut, he attended the common schools. After moving with his father to Aurora, Ohio, he settled in Pittsburgh, there he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1806. He practiced in Pittsburgh and also served for more than a year as editor of The Tree of Liberty newspaper and he also served in the Pennsylvania General Assembly. In 1822, he was elected to the 17th Congress to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Henry Baldwin and he was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1824 to the 19th Congress. He was a member of the Pennsylvania constitutional convention in 1837, Forward was an active supporter of the Harrison-Tyler ticket in the U. S. presidential election,1840. As a reward, Forward was offered the office of United States Attorney for the Western District of Pennsylvania and he declined that appointment but on March 6,1841 was appointed by President William Henry Harrison to be First Comptroller of the Treasury. He served in that post until September 13,1841, when he was appointed 15th U. S. Secretary of the Treasury by President John Tyler. During his tenure as Treasury Secretary, the Independent Treasury System of 1840 was abolished, and he was also asked to develop plans for a Board of Exchequer to receive and disburse customs revenue, since the Independent Treasury System was no longer in effect. In August 1842 a strongly protective tariff was passed, since constant friction with the new President marred his entire tenure as Secretary of the Treasury, he left Tylers cabinet on February 28,1843. After leaving his Cabinet post, Forward resumed the practice of law in Pittsburgh until 1849 and he returned from Denmark in 1851 to serve as presiding judge of the district court of Allegheny County. He died in Pittsburgh and is interred in Allegheny Cemetery, Forward Township in Allegheny County is named for Walter Forward, as is the Coast Guard Cutter USCGC Forward. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
45.
John Canfield Spencer
–
John Canfield Spencer was an American lawyer, politician, judge and United States Cabinet secretary in the administration of President John Tyler. John Canfield Spencer was the son of Ambrose Spencer, Chief Justice of the New York Supreme Court and he married Elizabeth Scott Smith in 1809 and became a master of chancery in 1811. During the War of 1812, Spencer served in the United States Army where he was appointed judge advocate general for the northern frontier. He was a member of the committee that reported unfavorably on the affairs of the Second Bank of the United States, in 1819, he was the Clintonian candidate for U. S. Senator from New York, but due to a three-cornered contest with Bucktail Samuel Young and Federalist Rufus King and he was a member of the New York State Assembly from 1820 to 1822, and was Speaker in 1820. He was a member of the New York State Senate from 1825 to 1828, Spencer sided with the anti-Masons and was the author of a manuscript on Masonic rituals. He was again a member of the New York Assembly from 1831 to 1833 and moved to Albany and he edited the English edition of Alexis de Tocquevilles Democracy in America and served as Secretary of State of New York from 1839 to 1841. In 1841, President John Tyler appointed Spencer to be Secretary of War in his administration, as War Secretary, he proposed a chain of posts extending from Council Bluffs, Iowa to the Columbia River. He also recommended that the government adhere to arrangements made by Army commanders in the field for compensation of the Creek Indians, who had been forced to move west of the Mississippi. In 1842, his son, Philip Spencer, a midshipman, was executed without court-martial along with two other sailors aboard the brig USS Somers for allegedly attempting mutiny. In 1843, Spencer was appointed Secretary of the Treasury after the resignation of Walter Forward, the expenditures of the treasury had exceeded its receipts and he advocated additional import duties on articles such as coffee and tea. To help fund the deficit he engaged in controversial issues of Treasury Notes. He also continued to develop a plan, originally initiated by Forward, for a Board of Exchequer to keep, the Exchequer bill, which reflected continuing interest in some form of independent treasury system, failed due to a political conflict in the United States Congress. As one of few northerners in an administration dominated by southern interests, Spencer found it difficult to serve in his cabinet post. He returned to Albany where he died on May 17,1855 and he was interred in Albany Rural Cemetery beside his wife, Elizabeth. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, John Canfield Spencer at the United States Army John Canfield Spencer at the United States Department of the Treasury July 17 - Interview with John Canfield Spencer. Archived from the original on 4 November 2012
46.
George M. Bibb
–
He was admitted to the bar and practiced law in Virginia and Lexington, Kentucky. After making a permanent move to Kentucky he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1806,1810 and he was appointed a judge of the Kentucky Court of Appeals in 1808 and then chief justice through 1810. In 1811 he was elected to the United States Senate from Kentucky and he moved to Frankfort, Kentucky in 1816 and sided with the New Court faction in the Old Court-New Court controversy in the 1820s. He was again named Chief Justice of the Kentucky Court of Appeals in 1827 and he was re-elected to the United States Senate in 1829 and served as a Jacksonian Democrat through 1835. During the 21st Congress he was chairman of the U. S. Senate Committee on Post Office and he was chancellor of the Louisville Chancery Court from 1835 through 1844 and in 1844 became President John Tylers fourth United States Secretary of the Treasury serving through 1845. He was an aged man when he assumed his Treasury position, dressing in antique style. Bibbs Annual Report on the State of the Finances for 1844 consisted of a compilation of statistics detailing the financial history of the nation since 1789. In addition, he presented an argument for the establishment of a sinking fund, accumulated through regular deposits and used to pay the interest. Bibb advocated using Treasury surplus revenue from customs and internal revenue collection to supply the sinking fund, such a fund had been used effectively to reduce the deficit from 1789 to 1835, but Bibb was unable to revive it. After this he was a lawyer in Washington, D. C. and he was the first master of Russellville Lodge No. 17, Russellville, Kentucky and was master of Hiram Lodge No and he was also past master of Lexington Lodge No.1 at Lexington, and served as secretary in 1804. In 1804 he was master of Kentucky. He died in Georgetown, D. C. in 1859, george M. Bibb at Find a Grave Allen, William B. Bradley & Gilbert. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
47.
Robert J. Walker
–
Robert John Walker was an American economist and statesman. As a senator, Walker vigorously supported the annexation of Texas, as Secretary of the Treasury, he held responsibility for the management of funds relating to the Mexican-American War, and in this capacity was accused of misappropriation. He resigned shortly following his appointment by President James Buchanan as Governor of Kansas in 1857 due to his opposition to the administration-sponsored pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution, after his retirement from politics, Walker supported the United States during the American Civil War and practiced law. Born in Northumberland, Pennsylvania, he was the son of a judge and he lived in Bellefonte, Pennsylvania from 1806 to 1814, where his father was presiding judge of the judicial district. Walker was educated at the Bellefonte Academy and he graduated in 1819 at the top of his class at the University of Pennsylvania where he was a member of the Philomathean Society, and was admitted to the bar in Pittsburgh in 1821. He practiced law in Pittsburgh from 1822 until 1826 when he moved to Mississippi, there he joined his brother, Duncan Walker, in a lucrative law practice. Walker became a speculator in cotton, land and slaves and he became politically prominent during the Nullification Crisis, and from 1835 to 1845 he sat in the United States Senate as a Unionist Democrat. He also opposed the Bank of the United States and he claimed that independent Texas had to be annexed to prevent it from falling into the hands of Great Britain, which would use it to spread subversion throughout the South. He was U. S. Secretary of the Treasury throughout the Polk administration, from March 8,1845 until March 5,1849, vice President George M. Dallas convinced Polk to appoint Walker to the position. As Treasury Secretary, Walker financed the Mexican-American War and drafted the 1849 bill to establish the United States Department of the Interior, one example of financing the Mexican-American war can be seen in correspondence, he wrote to Major General William Orlando Butler, February 23,1848. He also supported the independent Treasury system, pushed for a tariff for revenue, Walker was involved in a prominent Treasury report of December 3,1845. It is regarded as the most powerful attack upon the system that has ever been made in an American state paper. The Walker Tariff of 1846 was based upon the principles of paper and was in fact largely the secretarys own work. It was during the Mexican-American War that the US treasury seemed to be running out of money, an astonishingly large amount of funds had been withdrawn from the armys quartermaster and commissary departments. It turned out that $1.1 million had been deposited in the bank of Corcoran and Riggs, Polk, who had run on an anti-bank platform, wrote in his diary that it was the most troubling moment of his presidency. Confronting Walker yielded only casual, vague replies, Polk ordered an investigation, but Walker still couldnt give Polk the answers he needed. Eventually Walker told Polk that the $600,000 remaining in the hands would be distributed to the army. It was never proved whether any chicanery had been going on, after leaving Treasury in 1849, Walker became a lawyer in Washington, DC, devoted himself to business and land speculation and became involved in mining interests
48.
William M. Meredith
–
For the Director of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, see William Morton Meredith. William Morris Meredith was an American lawyer and politician from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and he served as the United States Secretary of the Treasury, during President Zachary Taylors Administration. During the year he was admitted to the Pennsylvania Bar,1795, William Tuckey Meredith married the writer and poet Gertrude Gouverneur Meredith. Gertrude was the niece of Lewis Morris, as well as of Gouverneur Morris, the couple ultimately had eleven children. William Tuckey Meredith served on the Philadelphia Common and Select Councils and his brother Jonathan Meredith was a leader of the Bar in Baltimore, Maryland. William M. Meredith graduated from the University of Pennsylvania in 1812, after assisting his father in the familys saddlery business, he read law, and was himself admitted to the Pennsylvania Bar. After his mothers death in 1828, William Moore Meredith helped raise his younger siblings, on June 17,1834, at the age of 35 and after a ten-year engagement, Meredith married the former Catherine Keppele. They had one son and four daughters, Gertrude Gouverneur Meredith, Euphemia Ogden Meredith, Elizabeth Caldwell Meredith, Catherine Meredith also helped care for her husbands siblings, and his father when he was disabled by a stroke in 1839. Meredith was admitted to the bar in 1817, and began practicing law and he drew considerable public attention, as did his slightly senior colleague James C. Biddle, by questioning the conduct of Judge Frank Hallowell in Commonwealth v. Cook, during the jurys deliberation, the American Daily Advertiser published an article which defense counsel thought highly biased. Upon their release, they secured release of two of the prisoners in an appeal on double jeopardy grounds and this gained Meredith a reputation for fearlessness and inflexible honesty, and he was elected President of the Philadelphia Bar Association the following year. A Federalist, Meredith was then elected to the Pennsylvania General Assembly, where he served in the minority for five years, from 1824 to 1828, the year of his mothers death. Meredith was president of the Philadelphia City Council from 1834 until 1849, Meredith also served as United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania from 1841 to 1845. During that time, he prosecuted Alexander Holmes for manslaughter in the William Brown case, President Zachary Taylor, wanting a Pennsylvania Whig for his cabinet, appointed William M. Meredith to be the 19th Secretary of the Treasury. He began his term in office on March 8,1849, Meredith strongly opposed the free trade legislation passed the year before under his predecessor Robert J. Walker. He felt that there was a need to protect the American workman, merediths principal contribution in office was his Annual Report of 1849 in which he set forth an elaborate argument for a protective tariff. He also recommended a revision of the Coast Survey Code, which had not been changed since its implementation in 1806, the Coast Survey had seen great expansion and improvement with the introduction of steam powered ships and was in need of revision. Meredith resigned from his office as Secretary of the Treasury, upon President Zachary Taylors death in 1850, Meredith was elected Pennsylvanias attorney general in the 1860 election, and served for two terms
