1.
Twickenham
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Twickenham is a leafy suburban area of south west London, on the River Thames in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames 10 miles southwest of the centre of London. It has a town centre and is famous as being the home of rugby union, with hundreds of thousands of spectators visiting Twickenham Stadium. The historic riverside area is famous for its network of 18th-century buildings and pleasure grounds and this area has three grand period mansions with public access, York House, Marble Hill and Strawberry Hill House. Another has been lost, that belonging to 18th-century aphoristic poet Alexander Pope, excavations have revealed settlements in the area dating from the Early Neolithic, possibly Mesolithic periods. Occupation seems to have continued through the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, the area was first mentioned in an 8th-century charter to cede the area to Waldhere, Bishop of London, for the salvation of our souls. The charter, dated 13 June 704, is signed with 12 crosses, the signatories included Swaefred of Essex, Cenred of Mercia and Earl Paeogthath. In Norman times Twickenham was part of the Manor of Isleworth – itself part of the Hundred of Hounslow, Middlesex. The manor had belonged to Ælfgār, Earl of Mercia in the time of Edward the Confessor, the area was then farmed for several hundred years, while the river provided opportunities for fishing, boatbuilding and trade. Bubonic plague spread to the town in 1665 and 67 deaths were recorded and it appears that Twickenham had a pest house in the 17th century, although the location is not known. In 1633 construction began on York House and it was occupied by Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester in 1656 and later by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon. 1659 saw the first mention of the Twickenham Ferry, although ferrymen had already operating in the area for many generations. Sometime before 1743 a pirate ferry appears to have started by Twickenham inhabitants. There is speculation that it operated to serve The Folly, a floating hostelry of some kind, several residents wrote to the Lord Mayor of the City of London. In 1713 the nave of the ancient St Marys Church collapsed, the process generates an extremely unpleasant smell, which caused objections from local residents. The area was soon home to the worlds first industrial production facility for gunpowder. There were frequent explosions and loss of life, on 11 March 1758, one of two explosions was felt in Reading, Berkshire, and in April 1774 another explosion terrified people at church in Isleworth. In 1772 three mills blew up, shattering glass and buildings in the neighbourhood, the powder mills remained in operation until 1927 when they were closed. Much of the site is now occupied by Crane Park, in which the old Shot Tower, mill sluices, much of the area along the river next to the Shot Tower is now a nature reserve
2.
Middlesex
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Middlesex is a historic county in south-east England. It is now entirely within the wider urbanised area of London and its area is now also mostly within the ceremonial county of Greater London, with small sections in other neighbouring ceremonial counties. It was established in the Anglo-Saxon system from the territory of the Middle Saxons, the largely low-lying county, dominated by clay in its north and alluvium on gravel in its south, was the second smallest county by area in 1831. The City of London was a county in its own right from the 12th century and was able to exert control over Middlesex. Westminster Abbey dominated most of the financial, judicial and ecclesiastical aspects of the county. As London grew into Middlesex, the Corporation of London resisted attempts to expand the city boundaries into the county, in the 18th and 19th centuries the population density was especially high in the southeast of the county, including the East End and West End of London. From 1855 the southeast was administered, with sections of Kent and Surrey, the City of London, and Middlesex, became separate counties for other purposes and Middlesex regained the right to appoint its own sheriff, lost in 1199. In the interwar years suburban London expanded further, with improvement and expansion of public transport, after the Second World War, the population of the County of London and inner Middlesex was in steady decline, with high population growth continuing in the outer parts. Since 1965 various areas called Middlesex have been used for cricket, Middlesex was the former postal county of 25 post towns. The name means territory of the middle Saxons and refers to the origin of its inhabitants. The word is formed from the Anglo-Saxon, i. e. Old English, middel, in an 8th-century charter the region is recorded as Middleseaxon and in 704 it is recorded as Middleseaxan. The Saxons derived their name from seax, a kind of knife for which they were known, the seax has a lasting symbolic impact in the English counties of Essex and Middlesex, both of which feature three seaxes in their ceremonial emblem. Their names, along with those of Sussex and Wessex, contain a remnant of the word Saxon, there were settlements in the area of Middlesex that can be traced back thousands of years before the creation of a county. Middlesex was formerly part of the Kingdom of Essex It was recorded in the Domesday Book as being divided into the six hundreds of Edmonton, Elthorne, Gore, Hounslow, Ossulstone and Spelthorne. The City of London has been self-governing since the century and became a county in its own right. Middlesex also included Westminster, which also had a degree of autonomy. Of the six hundreds, Ossulstone contained the districts closest to the City of London, during the 17th century it was divided into four divisions, which, along with the Liberty of Westminster, largely took over the administrative functions of the hundred. The divisions were named Finsbury, Holborn, Kensington and Tower, the county had parliamentary representation from the 13th century
3.
Invention
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An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition or process. The invention process is a process within an overall engineering and product development process and it may be an improvement upon a machine or product or a new process for creating an object or a result. An invention that achieves a unique function or result may be a radical breakthrough. Such works are novel and not obvious to others skilled in the same field, an inventor may be taking a big step in success or failure. A patent legally protects the property rights of the inventor. The rules and requirements for patenting an invention vary from country to country, another meaning of invention is cultural invention, which is an innovative set of useful social behaviours adopted by people and passed on to others. The Institute for Social Inventions collected many such ideas in magazines, Invention is also an important component of artistic and design creativity. Inventions often extend the boundaries of knowledge, experience or capability. Brainstorming also can spark new ideas for an invention, collaborative creative processes are frequently used by engineers, designers, architects and scientists. Co-inventors are frequently named on patents, in addition, many inventors keep records of their working process - notebooks, photos, etc. including Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Evangelista Torricelli, Thomas Jefferson and Albert Einstein. In the process of developing an invention, the idea may change. The invention may become simpler, more practical, it may expand, working on one invention can lead to others too. History shows that turning the concept of an invention into a device is not always swift or direct. Inventions may also more useful after time passes and other changes occur. For example, the became more useful once powered flight was a reality. Invention is often a creative process, an open and curious mind allows an inventor to see beyond what is known. Seeing a new possibility, connection, or relationship can spark an invention, inventive thinking frequently involves combining concepts or elements from different realms that would not normally be put together. Sometimes inventors disregard the boundaries between distinctly separate territories or fields, several concepts may be considered when thinking about invention
4.
Cinematographer
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The study and practice of this field is referred to as cinematography. The cinematographer selects the camera, film stock, lens, filters, in the infancy of motion pictures, the cinematographer was usually also the director and the person physically handling the camera. As the art form and technology evolved, a separation between director and camera operator began to emerge, with the advent of artificial lighting and faster film stocks, in addition to technological advancements in optics, the technical aspects of cinematography necessitated a specialist in that area. Cinematography was key during the silent movie era, with no sound apart from music and no dialogue, the films depended on lighting, acting. Similar trade associations have been established in other countries too, there are a number of national associations of cinematographers which represent members and which are dedicated to the advancement of cinematography. S. C. Defines cinematography as, A creative and interpretive process that culminates in the authorship of a work of art rather than the simple recording of a physical event. Cinematography is not a subcategory of photography
5.
Motion picture camera
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The movie camera, film camera or cine-camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on an image sensor or on a film. In contrast to a camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time. This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism, the frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the frame rate. While viewing at a frame rate, a persons eyes. Since 2010s, film-based movie cameras have been replaced by digital movie cameras. An interesting forerunner to the camera was the machine invented by Francis Ronalds at the Kew Observatory in 1845. A photosensitive surface was drawn slowly past the diaphragm of the camera by a clockwork mechanism to enable continuous recording over a 12- or 24-hour period. Ronalds applied his cameras to trace the ongoing variations of scientific instruments, the very first patented film camera was the one devised by Wordsworth Donisthorpe in 1876. Another film camera was designed in England by Frenchman Louis Le Prince in 1888 and he built and patented an earlier 16 lens camera in 1887 at his workshop in Leeds. The first 8 lenses would be triggered in rapid succession by an electromagnetic shutter on the sensitive film, according to Adolphe Le Prince, who assisted his father at Leeds, Roundhay Garden was shot at 12 frame/s and Leeds Bridge at 20 frame/s. His camera still exists with the National Media Museum in Bradford and he shot the film on celluloid with 1¾ inch width. Another early pioneer was the British inventor William Friese-Greene and he began to experiment with the use of oiled paper as a medium for displaying motion pictures in 1885 and by 1887 he was experimenting with the use of celluloid. In 1889, Friese-Greene took out a patent for a chronophotographic camera and this was capable of taking up to ten photographs per second using perforated celluloid film. A report on the camera was published in the British Photographic News on February 28,1890 and he gave a public demonstration in 1890 of his device, but the low frame rate combined with the devices apparent unreliability made an unfavourable impression. William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, a Scottish inventor and employee of Thomas Edison, the camera was powered by an electric motor and was capable of shooting with the new sprocketed film. The Lumière Domitor camera was created by Charles Moisson, the mechanic at the Lumière works in Lyon in 1894. The camera used paper film of 35 millimeter width, but in 1895 the Lumière brothers shifted to celluloid film and this they covered with their own Etiquette-bleue emulsion, had it cut into strips and perforated. In 1894 the Polish inventor Kazimierz Prószyński constructed a projector and camera in one, due to the work of Le Prince, Friese-Greene, Edison and the Lumière brothers, the movie camera had become a practical reality by the mid 1890s
6.
Thomas Edison
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Thomas Alva Edison was an American inventor and businessman, who has been described as Americas greatest inventor. He developed many devices that greatly influenced life around the world, including the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and the long-lasting, practical electric light bulb. Edison was an inventor, holding 1,093 US patents in his name, as well as many patents in the United Kingdom, France. Edisons inventions contributed to mass communication and, in particular, telecommunications and these included a stock ticker, a mechanical vote recorder, a battery for an electric car, electrical power, recorded music and motion pictures. His advanced work in these fields was an outgrowth of his career as a telegraph operator. Edison developed a system of generation and distribution to homes, businesses. His first power station was on Pearl Street in Manhattan, New York, Thomas Edison was born in Milan, Ohio, and grew up in Port Huron, Michigan. He was the seventh and last child of Samuel Ogden Edison, Jr. and Nancy Matthews Elliott. His father, the son of a Loyalist refugee, had moved as a boy with the family from Nova Scotia, settling in southwestern Ontario, in a known as Shewsbury, later Vienna. Samuel Jr. eventually fled Ontario because he took part in the unsuccessful Mackenzie Rebellion of 1837 and his father, Samuel Sr. had earlier fought in the War of 1812 as captain of the First Middlesex Regiment. By contrast, Samuel Jr. s struggle found him on the losing side, once across the border, he found his way to Milan, Ohio. His patrilineal family line was Dutch by way of New Jersey and his mother taught him at home. Much of his education came from reading R. G, parkers School of Natural Philosophy and The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art. Edison developed hearing problems at an early age, the cause of his deafness has been attributed to a bout of scarlet fever during childhood and recurring untreated middle-ear infections. In his later years, he modified the story to say the injury occurred when the conductor, in helping him onto a moving train, Edisons family moved to Port Huron, Michigan, after the railroad bypassed Milan in 1854 and business declined. Edison sold candy and newspapers on trains running from Port Huron to Detroit and he briefly worked as a telegraph operator in 1863 for the Grand Trunk Railway at Stratford, Ontario railway at age 16. He was held responsible for a near collision and he also studied qualitative analysis and conducted chemical experiments on the train until he left the job. Edison obtained the right to sell newspapers on the road, and, with the aid of four assistants, he set in type and printed the Grand Trunk Herald
7.
Louis Le Prince
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Louis Aimé Augustin Le Prince was a French inventor who shot the first moving pictures on paper film using a single lens camera. He has been heralded as the Father of Cinematography since 1930, a Frenchman who also worked in the United Kingdom and the United States, Le Prince conducted his ground-breaking work in 1888 in the city of Leeds in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. In October 1888, Le Prince filmed moving picture sequences Roundhay Garden Scene and these were several years before the work of competing inventors such as William Friese-Greene, Auguste and Louis Lumière and Thomas Edison. He was never able to perform a public demonstration in the US because he mysteriously vanished from a train on 16 September 1890. His body and luggage were never found, but, over a century later, not long after Le Princes disappearance, Thomas Edison tried to take credit for the invention. But Le Prince’s widow and son, Adolphe, were keen to advance his cause as the inventor of cinematography, in 1898 Adolphe appeared as a witness for the defence in a court case brought by Edison against the American Mutoscope Company. Adolphe Le Prince was not allowed to present his fathers two cameras as evidence and eventually the court ruled in favour of Edison, however, a year later that ruling was overturned. The early history of motion pictures in the United States and Europe is marked by battles over patents of cameras, in 1888 Le Prince was granted an American dual-patent on a 16-lens device that combined a motion picture camera with a projector. A patent for a type was refused in America because of an interfering patent. On October 14,1888, Le Prince used a version of his single-lens camera to film Roundhay Garden Scene. He exhibited his first films in the Whitley factory in Hunslet, Leeds and in Oakwood Grange, the Whitley family home in Roundhay, Leeds, but they were not distributed to the general public. The following year, he took French-American dual citizenship in order to establish himself with his family in New York City, however, he was never able to perform his planned public exhibition at Morris–Jumel Mansion in Manhattan, in September 1890, due to his mysterious disappearance. Consequently, Le Princes contribution to the birth of the cinema has often been overlooked, Le Prince was born on Saint-Georges street in Metz, France, on 28 August 1841. His father was a major of artillery in the French Army and his education went on to include the study of painting in Paris and post-graduate chemistry at Leipzig University, which provided him with the academic knowledge he was to utilise in the future. He moved to Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK in 1866, after being invited to join John Whitley, a friend from college, in Whitley Partners of Hunslet, in 1869 he married Elizabeth Whitley, Johns sister and a talented artist. In 1881 Le Prince went to the United States as an agent for Whitley Partners and he became the manager for a small group of French artists who produced large panoramas, usually of famous battles, that were exhibited in New York City, Washington DC and Chicago. During this time he continued the experiments he had begun, relating to the production of moving photographs, during his time in the US, Le Prince built a camera that utilised sixteen lenses, which was the first invention he patented. After his return to Leeds with his family in May 1887, Le Prince built and it was first used on 14 October 1888 to shoot what would become known as Roundhay Garden Scene, the worlds first motion picture
8.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
9.
William Hogarth
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William Hogarth FRSA was an English painter, printmaker, pictorial satirist, social critic, and editorial cartoonist who has been credited with pioneering western sequential art. His work ranged from realistic portraiture to comic series of pictures called modern moral subjects. Knowledge of his work is so pervasive that satirical political illustrations in this style are referred to as Hogarthian. William Hogarth was born at Bartholomew Close in London to Richard Hogarth, a poor Latin school teacher and textbook writer, in his youth he was apprenticed to the engraver Ellis Gamble in Leicester Fields, where he learned to engrave trade cards and similar products. Young Hogarth also took a lively interest in the life of the metropolis and the London fairs. Around the same time, his father, who had opened an unsuccessful Latin-speaking coffee house at St Johns Gate, was imprisoned for debt in Fleet Prison for five years, Hogarth never spoke of his fathers imprisonment. Hogarth became a member of the Rose and Crown Club, with Peter Tillemans, George Vertue, Michael Dahl, by April 1720, Hogarth was an engraver in his own right, at first engraving coats of arms, shop bills, and designing plates for booksellers. In 1727, he was hired by Joshua Morris, a tapestry worker, Morris heard that he was an engraver, and no painter, and consequently declined the work when completed. Hogarth accordingly sued him for the money in the Westminster Court, in 1757 he was appointed Serjeant Painter to the King. In the bottom corner, he shows Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish figures gambling, while in the middle there is a huge machine, like a merry-go-round. At the top is a goat, written below which is Whol Ride, Other early works include The Lottery, The Mystery of Masonry brought to Light by the Gormogons, A Just View of the British Stage, some book illustrations, and the small print Masquerades and Operas. He continued that theme in 1727, with the Large Masquerade Ticket, in 1726 Hogarth prepared twelve large engravings for Samuel Butlers Hudibras. These he himself valued highly, and they are among his best book illustrations, in the following years he turned his attention to the production of small conversation pieces. One of his real low-life and real-life subjects was Sarah Malcolm who he sketched two days before her execution and he might also have printed Burlington Gate, evoked by Alexander Popes Epistle to Lord Burlington, and defending Lord Chandos, who is therein satirized. This print gave great offence, and was suppressed, however, modern authorities such as Ronald Paulson no longer attribute it to Hogarth. In 1731 Hogarth completed the earliest of his series of moral works, the collection of six scenes was entitled A Harlots Progress and appeared first as paintings before being published as engravings. The inaugural series was a success and was followed in 1735 by the sequel A Rakes Progress. The original paintings of A Harlots Progress were destroyed in the fire at Fonthill House in 1755, while A Rakes Progress is displayed in the room at Sir John Soanes Museum, London
10.
Charles I of England
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Charles I was monarch of the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Charles was the son of King James VI of Scotland, but after his father inherited the English throne in 1603, he moved to England. He became heir apparent to the English, Irish, and Scottish thrones on the death of his brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. Two years later, he married the Bourbon princess Henrietta Maria of France instead, after his succession, Charles quarrelled with the Parliament of England, which sought to curb his royal prerogative. Charles believed in the right of kings and thought he could govern according to his own conscience. Many of his subjects opposed his policies, in particular the levying of taxes without parliamentary consent and he supported high church ecclesiastics, such as Richard Montagu and William Laud, and failed to aid Protestant forces successfully during the Thirty Years War. From 1642, Charles fought the armies of the English and Scottish parliaments in the English Civil War, after his defeat in 1645, he surrendered to a Scottish force that eventually handed him over to the English Parliament. Charles refused to accept his captors demands for a constitutional monarchy, re-imprisoned on the Isle of Wight, Charles forged an alliance with Scotland, but by the end of 1648 Oliver Cromwells New Model Army had consolidated its control over England. Charles was tried, convicted, and executed for treason in January 1649. The monarchy was abolished and a called the Commonwealth of England was declared. The monarchy was restored to Charless son, Charles II, in 1660, the second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600. James VI was the first cousin twice removed of Queen Elizabeth I of England, in mid-July 1604, Charles left Dunfermline for England where he was to spend most of the rest of his life. His speech development was slow, and he retained a stammer, or hesitant speech. In January 1605, Charles was created Duke of York, as is customary in the case of the English sovereigns second son, Thomas Murray, a Presbyterian Scot, was appointed as a tutor. Charles learnt the usual subjects of classics, languages, mathematics, in 1611, he was made a Knight of the Garter. Eventually, Charles apparently conquered his physical infirmity, which might have been caused by rickets and he became an adept horseman and marksman, and took up fencing. Even so, his public profile remained low in contrast to that of his stronger and taller elder brother, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales. However, in early November 1612, Henry died at the age of 18 of what is suspected to have been typhoid, Charles, who turned 12 two weeks later, became heir apparent
11.
Menlo Park, New Jersey
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Menlo Park is an unincorporated community located within Edison Township in Middlesex County, New Jersey, United States. In 1876, Thomas Edison set up his home and research laboratory in Menlo Park, while there, he earned the nickname the Wizard of Menlo Park. The Menlo Park lab was significant in that was one of the first laboratories to pursue practical, commercial applications of research and it was in his Menlo Park laboratory that Thomas Edison invented both the phonograph and a commercially viable incandescent light bulb filament. Christie Street in Menlo Park was the first street in the world to use electric lights for illumination, Edison left Menlo Park and moved his home and laboratory to West Orange in 1887. After his death, the Thomas Alva Edison Memorial Tower and Museum was constructed near his old Menlo Park lab, edisons old lab site and memorial now make up Edison State Park. The municipality in which Menlo Park is located, which was called Raritan Township while he was alive, was changed to Edison Township on November 10,1954
12.
United States Patent and Trademark Office
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The USPTO is unique among federal agencies because it operates solely on fees collected by its users, and not on taxpayer dollars. The USPTO is based in Alexandria, Virginia, after a 2005 move from the Crystal City area of neighboring Arlington, the head of the USPTO is Michelle K. Lee. She took up her new role on January 13,2014, on March 13, she formally took office as Director after being nominated by President Barack Obama and confirmed by the U. S. Senate. She formerly served as the Director of the USPTOs Silicon Valley satellite office, the USPTO cooperates with the European Patent Office and the Japan Patent Office as one of the Trilateral Patent Offices. The USPTO mission is to maintain a permanent, interdisciplinary historical record of all U. S. patent applications in order to fulfill objectives outlined in the United States Constitution. The legal basis for the United States patent system is Article 1, Section 8, an additional building in Arlington, Virginia, was opened in 2009. The USPTO was expected by 2014 to open its first ever satellite offices in Detroit, Dallas, Denver, the first satellite office opened in Detroit on July 13,2012. In 2013, due to the sequestration, the satellite office for Silicon Valley. However, renovation and infrastructure updates continued after the sequestration, and the Silicon Valley location is due to open in San Jose City Hall in mid-2015. As of September 30,2009, the end of the U. S. governments fiscal year, of those,6,242 were patent examiners and 388 were trademark examining attorneys, the rest are support staff. They are generally newly graduated scientists and engineers, recruited from universities around the nation. They hold degrees in scientific disciplines, but who do not necessarily hold law degrees. Unlike patent examiners, trademark examiners must be licensed attorneys, all examiners work under a strict, count-based production system. For every application, counts are earned by composing, filing, and mailing a first office action on the merits, the Patent Operations of the office is divided into nine different technology centers that deal with various arts. Prior to 2012, decisions of patent examiners may be appealed to the Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences, the United States Supreme Court may ultimately decide on a patent case. Similarly, decisions of trademark examiners may be appealed to the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board, with subsequent appeals directed to the Federal Circuit, under the America Invents Act, the BPAI was converted to the Patent Trial and Appeal Board or PTAB. In recent years, the USPTO has seen increasing delays between when a patent application is filed and when it issues, to address its workload challenges, the USPTO has undertaken an aggressive program of hiring and recruitment. The USPTO hired 1,193 new patent examiners in Fiscal Year 2006,1,215 new examiners in fiscal 2007, in 2006, USPTO instituted a new training program for patent examiners called the Patent Training Academy
13.
Kinetoscope
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The Kinetoscope is an early motion picture exhibition device. The Kinetoscope was designed for films to be viewed by one individual at a time through a peephole viewer window at the top of the device, a prototype for the Kinetoscope was shown to a convention of the National Federation of Womens Clubs on May 20,1891. The first public demonstration of the Kinetoscope was held at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts, in 1895, Edison introduced the Kinetophone, which joined the Kinetoscope with a cylinder phonograph. Film projection, which Edison initially disdained as financially nonviable, soon superseded the Kinetoscopes individual exhibition model, many of the projection systems developed by Edisons firm in later years would use the Kinetoscope name. An encounter with the work and ideas of photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge appears to have spurred Edison to pursue the development of a motion picture system. The Edison facility was very close by, and the lecture was attended by both Edison and his companys official photographer, William Dickson. No such collaboration was undertaken, but in October 1888, Edison filed a claim, known as a caveat. Patent Office announcing his plans to create a device that would do for the Eye what the phonograph does for the Ear. It is clear that it was intended as part of a complete audiovisual system, in March 1889, a second caveat was filed, in which the proposed motion picture device was given a name, Kinetoscope, derived from the Greek roots kineto- and scopos. Edison assigned Dickson, one of his most talented employees, to the job of making the Kinetoscope a reality, the Edison laboratory, though, worked as a collaborative organization. Laboratory assistants were assigned to work on many projects while Edison supervised and involved himself, Dickson and his then lead assistant, Charles Brown, made halting progress at first. An audio cylinder would provide synchronized sound, while the rotating images, when tests were made with images expanded to a mere 1/8 of an inch in width, the coarseness of the silver bromide emulsion used on the cylinder became unacceptably apparent. The first film made for the Kinetoscope, and apparently the first motion picture ever produced on film in the United States, may have been shot at this time, known as Monkeyshines. 1, it shows an employee of the lab in an apparently tongue-in-cheek display of physical dexterity, attempts at synchronizing sound were soon left behind, while Dickson would also experiment with disc-based exhibition designs. The project would soon head off in more directions, largely impelled by a trip of Edisons to Europe. The first motion system to employ a perforated image band was apparently the Théâtre Optique. Reynauds system did not use film, but images painted on gelatine frames. At the Exposition Universelle, Edison would have both the Théâtre Optique and the electrical tachyscope of German inventor Ottamar Anschütz
14.
Celluloid
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Celluloids are a class of compounds created from nitrocellulose and camphor, with added dyes and other agents. Generally considered the first thermoplastic, it was first created as Parkesine in 1856 and as Xylonite in 1869, Celluloid is easily molded and shaped, and it was first widely used as an ivory replacement. The main use was in movie and photography industries, which used only celluloid films prior to acetate films that were introduced in the 1950s. Celluloid is highly flammable, difficult and expensive to produce and no longer used, although its most common uses today are in table tennis balls, musical instruments. Collodion, invented in 1848 and used as a wound dressing, Parkes patented his discovery after realising a solid residue remained after evaporation of the solvent from photographic collodion. Parkes patented it as a clothing waterproofer for woven fabrics in the same year, later Parkes showcased Parkesine at the 1862 International Exhibition in London, where he was awarded a bronze medal for his efforts. The introduction of Parkesine is generally regarded as the birth of the plastics industry and he used cloth, ivory dust, and shellac, and on April 6,1869, patented a method of covering billiard balls with the addition of collodion. With assistance from Peter Kinnear and other investors, Hyatt formed the Albany Billiard Ball Company in Albany, New York, in 1870, John and his brother Isaiah patented a process of making a horn-like material with the inclusion of cellulose nitrate and camphor. Isaiah Hyatt dubbed his material celluloid in 1872, english inventor Daniel Spill had worked with Parkes and formed the Xylonite Co. to take over Parkes patents, describing the new plastic products as Xylonite. He took exception to the Hyatts claims and pursued the brothers in a number of cases between 1877 and 1884. The judge ruled all manufacturing of celluloid could continue both in Spills British Xylonite Company and Hyatts Celluloid Manufacturing Company, Hyatt used heat and pressure to simplify the manufacture of these compounds. Over the years, celluloid has become the term used for this type of plastic. English photographer John Carbutt founded the Keystone Dry Plate Works in 1879 with the intention of producing gelatin dry plates, the Celluloid Manufacturing Company was contracted for this work by means of thinly slicing layers out of celluloid blocks and then removing the slice marks with heated pressure plates. After this, the strips were coated with a photosensitive gelatin emulsion. It is not certain exactly how long it took for Carbutt to standardize his process, a 15-inch-wide sheet of Carbutts film was used by William Dickson for the early Edison motion picture experiments on a cylinder drum Kinetograph. However, the film base produced by this means was still considered too stiff for the needs of motion picture photography. By 1889, more flexible celluloids for photographic film were developed and this ability to produce photographic images on a flexible material was a crucial step toward the advent of motion pictures. Most movie and photography films prior to the move to acetate films in the fifties were made of celluloid
15.
Roll film
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The term originated in contrast to sheet film. Confusingly, roll film was often referred to as cartridge film because of its resemblance to a shotgun cartridge. The opaque backing paper allows roll film to be loaded in daylight and it is typically printed with frame number markings which can be viewed through a small red window at the rear of the camera. A spool of film is usually loaded on one side of the camera. In 1881 a farmer in Cambria, Wisconsin, Peter Houston and his younger brother David, filed the patents for various components of Peters camera. David Henderson Houston, originally from Cambria, Wisconsin, patented the first holders for flexible roll film, Houston moved to Hunter in Dakota Territory in 1880. He was issued an 1881 patent for a film holder which he licensed to George Eastman. Houston sold the patent outright to Eastman for $5000 in 1889, Houston continued developing the camera, creating 21 patents for cameras or camera parts between 1881 and 1902. In 1912 his estate transferred the remainder of his patents to Eastman, the most popular rollfilm is the type 120 film format, which is used in most medium-format cameras and roll film magazines for large-format cameras. Until the 1950s,120 roll film was used in what was then the most simple of snapshot cameras. The use of film in consumer cameras was largely superseded by 135 and 126 cartridges. Film stock Brownie Category, Film formats Film format List of color film systems List of film formats
16.
35 mm film
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35 mm film is the film gauge most commonly used for motion pictures and chemical still photography. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, the standard negative pulldown for movies is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film. For still photography, the frame has eight perforations on each side. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge, the 35 mm width, originally specified as 1.375 inches, was introduced in 1892 by William Dickson and Thomas Edison, using film stock supplied by George Eastman. The gauge has been versatile in application, Eastman Kodak, Fujifilm and Agfa-Gevaert are some companies which offered 35 mm films. Today Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film and it is difficult to compare the quality of film to digital media but a good estimate would be about 20.8 million total pixels would equal one 35 millimeter high quality color frame of film. In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture gelatin dry plates in Rochester. Along with W. H. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer coated paper, hannibal Goodwins invention of nitrocellulose film base in 1887 was the first transparent, flexible film. With the advent of film, Thomas Alva Edison quickly set out on his invention, the Kinetoscope. The Kinetoscope was a loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant W. K. L. Dickson, followed that up with the Kinetophone, beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New Yorks Blair Camera Co. supplied Edison with film stock. Edisons aperture defined a single frame of film at 4 perforations high, a court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edisons claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison had failed to file patents, at the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the Lumière Brothers used a circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis.33 aspect ratio. Spehr describes the importance of these developments, The early acceptance of 35 mm as a standard had momentous impact on the development and spread of cinema. The film format was introduced into still photography as early as 1913 but first became popular with the launch of the Leica camera, created by Oskar Barnack in 1925. The costly image-forming silver compounds in a film stocks emulsion meant from the start that 35 mm filmmaking was to be a hobby with a high barrier to entry for the public at large. Furthermore, the film base of all early film stock was highly flammable
17.
Movie projector
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A movie projector is an opto-mechanical device for displaying motion picture film by projecting it onto a screen. Most of the optical and mechanical elements, except for the illumination, the first movie projector was the Zoopraxiscope, invented by British photographer Eadweard Muybridge in 1879. The zoopraxiscope projected images from rotating glass disks in rapid succession to give the impression of motion, the stop-motion images were initially painted onto the glass, as silhouettes. A second series of discs, made in 1892–94, used outline drawings printed onto the discs photographically, a more sophisticated movie projector was invented by Frenchman Louis Le Prince while working in Leeds. In 1888 Le Prince took out a patent for a 16-lens device that combined a motion picture camera with a projector, in 1888, he used an updated version of his camera to film the first ever motion picture, the Roundhay Garden Scene. The pictures were exhibited in Hunslet. The Lumière brothers invented the first successful movie projector and they made their first film, Sortie de lusine Lumière de Lyon, in 1894, which was publicly screened at LEden, La Ciotat a year later. The first commercial, public screening of cinematographic films happened in Paris on 28 December 1895, the cinematograph was also exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. At the Exhibition, films made by the Lumière Brothers were projected onto a screen measuring 16 by 21 meters. In 1999, digital projectors were being tried out in some movie theatres. These early projectors played the movie stored on a server and played back through the projector, due to their relatively low resolution, the images at the time showed pixelization blocks in some scenes, much like images on early widescreen televisions. By 2006, the advent of much higher 4K resolution digital projection had removed any traces of pixelization, the systems became more compact than the larger machines of four years earlier. By 2009, movie theatres started replacing the film projectors with digital projectors, in 2013, it was estimated that 92% of movie theatres in the United States had converted to digital, with 8% still playing film. In 2015, numerous popular filmmakers—including Quentin Tarantino and Christopher Nolan—lobbied large studios to commit to purchase an amount of 35 mm film from Kodak. The decision ensured that Kodaks 35mm film production would continue for several years, nowadays film projectors are considered obsolete as high-resolution digital projectors offer many advantages over traditional film units. For example, digital projectors contain no moving parts except fans, can be operated remotely and they also allow for much easier, less expensive, and more reliable storage and distribution of content, including the ability to display live broadcasts. According to the theory of the phi phenomenon, the brain constitutes an experience of apparent movement when presented with a sequence of near-identical still images. Persistence of vision should be compared with the phenomena of beta movement
18.
Peep show
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A peep show or peepshow is an exhibition of pictures, objects or people viewed through a small hole or magnifying glass. Peep shows, also known as peep box or raree show can be traced back to modern times and are known in various cultures. A peep show could be a box with a hole or several holes. The boxes were decorated inside to resemble theatrical scenes. The show was accompanied by spoken recitation that explained or dramatized what was happening inside, 19th-century Chinese peep shows were known by many names including la yang pien. Sometimes the showman would perform for a crowd with puppets or pictures outside the box, in Ottoman Syria a form of peep show called sanduk al-ajayib existed, which the storyteller carried on his back. The box had six holes through which people could see scenes backlit by a central candle, sanduk al-ajayib stories were about contemporary figures and events, or showed scenes of heaven and hell. Raree shows were precursors of toy theatres, with scenes and paper figurines. Peep shows have used for erotic and pornographic pictures, such as What the Butler Saw. In contemporary use, a show is a piecewise presentation of pornographic films or a live sex show which is viewed through a viewing slot. The viewing slots can be operated by a box device. For live peep shows, booths can surround a stage upon which usually a female performer performs a striptease, in Barcelona female performers at times also perform sexual intercourse with male performers on stage. In some cases, booths include paper towel dispensers, for customers who engage in masturbation. A customer and performer can mutually agree on a fee for a private dance, the researchers compared 911 calls in peep show and control neighborhoods in San Diego. Although peep show neighborhoods had approximately 16 percent more calls, the researchers concluded that the difference was not statistically significant, other researchers reanalyzed the data and concluded that the difference was significant. Regal Show World was an entertainment business on lower Market Street in San Francisco. The companys slogan was Where you are king, the business had a peep show and an adult video arcade. The peep show had performers working in a round room with viewing booths surrounding it
19.
Film perforations
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Film perforations, also known as perfs, are the holes placed in the film stock during manufacturing and used for transporting and steadying the film. Films may have different types of perforations depending on film gauge, film format, perforations are also used as a standard measuring reference within certain camera systems to refer to the size of the frame. Some formats are referred to in terms of the ratio perforations per frame/gauge size to provide a way of denoting size. For instance, 35mm Academy is also known as 4 perf-35mm, VistaVision is 8 perf-35mm, the long-time standard Todd-AO70 mm film is 5 perf-70mm, one of the characteristics of perforations is their pitch. This is the measurement of the distance between the tops of two sequential perforations, for motion picture 35 mm film and 16 mm film, there are two different pitches—short pitch and long pitch. For 35 mm film these are 0.1866 and 0.1870, when cellulose acetate film was developed, which does not shrink, two forms were produced for compatibility with existing equipment. Additionally, for 35 mm film only, there are different shapes for these perforations. BH perforations are used on negative film and have straight tops and bottoms with outward curving sides. The BH perforation is a circle of approximately diameter 0.110, the corners used to be sharp, but were slightly rounded in 1989 by 0.005 to give them greater strength. The BH1866 perforation, or BH perforation with a pitch of 0.1866, is the standard for negative. The BH1870 perforation, or BH perforation with a pitch of 0.1870, was the standard for positive prints intended for direct projection. KS perfs are rectangular with rounded corners, and measure 0.0780 in height by 0.1100 in width, KS perforations were once recommended for negative and intermediate films, too, but only the Eastern Bloc countries adopted KS for these uses. The Western Bloc countries maintained BH perforations for negative and intermediate films and this was one of the very few instances where a Western Bloc recommendation and standard was adopted by the Eastern Bloc, but was wholly rejected by the very bloc which proposed its adoption. To this day, all Western Bloc professional cameras employ BH perforations, the increased height also means that the image registration was considerably less accurate than with BH perfs, which remain the standard for negatives. The KS1870 perforation, or KS perforation with a pitch of 0.1870, is the standard for release prints as well as for 135 still camera film. 65/70 mm, the professional standard, was created many years after KS perforations had been recommended for negative as well as positive applications. Consequently, 65/70 mm uses only KS perforations for all applications, negative, intermediate and positive.1100 and this gave it longer projection life and also improved registration. One of its applications was usage in Technicolors dye imbibition printing
20.
Shutter (photography)
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A shutter can also be used to allow pulses of light to pass outwards, as seen in a movie projector or a signal lamp. A shutter of variable speed is used to control exposure time of the film, the shutter is so constructed that it automatically closes after a certain required time interval. The speed of the shutter is controlled by a ring outside the camera, focal-plane shutters are mounted near the focal plane and move to uncover the film or sensor. Behind-the-lens shutters were used in cameras with limited lens interchangeability. Shutters in front of the lens, sometimes simply a lens cap that is removed and replaced for the long exposures required, were used in the days of photography. Other mechanisms than the aperture and the sliding curtains have been used. The time for which a shutter remains open is determined by a timing mechanism and these were originally pneumatic or clockwork, but since the late twentieth century are mostly electronic. The reciprocal of time in seconds is often used for engraving shutter settings. For example, a marking of 250 denotes 1/250 and this does not cause confusion in practice. The exposure time and the aperture of the lens must together be such as to allow the right amount of light to reach the film or sensor. Additionally, the time must be suitable to handle any motion of the subject. Usually it must be fast enough to freeze rapid motion, unless a controlled degree of motion blur is desired, most shutters have a flash synchronization switch to trigger a flash, if connected. This was quite a complicated matter with mechanical shutters and flashbulbs which took a time to reach full brightness. Special flashbulbs were designed which had a burn, illuminating the scene for the whole time taken by a focal plane shutter slit to move across the film. These problems were solved for non-focal-plane shutters with the advent of electronic flash units which fire virtually instantaneously. When using a focal-plane shutter with a flash, if the shutter is set at its X-sync speed or slower the whole frame will be exposed when the flash fires, some electronic flashes can produce a longer pulse compatible with a focal-plane shutter operated at much higher shutter speeds. The focal-plane shutter will still impart focal-plane shutter distortions to a moving subject. Cinematography uses a rotary shutter in movie cameras, a continuously spinning disc which conceals the image with a reflex mirror during the intermittent motion between frame exposure
21.
Movie camera
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The movie camera, film camera or cine-camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on an image sensor or on a film. In contrast to a camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time. This is accomplished through an intermittent mechanism, the frames are later played back in a movie projector at a specific speed, called the frame rate. While viewing at a frame rate, a persons eyes. Since 2010s, film-based movie cameras have been replaced by digital movie cameras. An interesting forerunner to the camera was the machine invented by Francis Ronalds at the Kew Observatory in 1845. A photosensitive surface was drawn slowly past the diaphragm of the camera by a clockwork mechanism to enable continuous recording over a 12- or 24-hour period. Ronalds applied his cameras to trace the ongoing variations of scientific instruments, the very first patented film camera was the one devised by Wordsworth Donisthorpe in 1876. Another film camera was designed in England by Frenchman Louis Le Prince in 1888 and he built and patented an earlier 16 lens camera in 1887 at his workshop in Leeds. The first 8 lenses would be triggered in rapid succession by an electromagnetic shutter on the sensitive film, according to Adolphe Le Prince, who assisted his father at Leeds, Roundhay Garden was shot at 12 frame/s and Leeds Bridge at 20 frame/s. His camera still exists with the National Media Museum in Bradford and he shot the film on celluloid with 1¾ inch width. Another early pioneer was the British inventor William Friese-Greene and he began to experiment with the use of oiled paper as a medium for displaying motion pictures in 1885 and by 1887 he was experimenting with the use of celluloid. In 1889, Friese-Greene took out a patent for a chronophotographic camera and this was capable of taking up to ten photographs per second using perforated celluloid film. A report on the camera was published in the British Photographic News on February 28,1890 and he gave a public demonstration in 1890 of his device, but the low frame rate combined with the devices apparent unreliability made an unfavourable impression. William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, a Scottish inventor and employee of Thomas Edison, the camera was powered by an electric motor and was capable of shooting with the new sprocketed film. The Lumière Domitor camera was created by Charles Moisson, the mechanic at the Lumière works in Lyon in 1894. The camera used paper film of 35 millimeter width, but in 1895 the Lumière brothers shifted to celluloid film and this they covered with their own Etiquette-bleue emulsion, had it cut into strips and perforated. In 1894 the Polish inventor Kazimierz Prószyński constructed a projector and camera in one, due to the work of Le Prince, Friese-Greene, Edison and the Lumière brothers, the movie camera had become a practical reality by the mid 1890s
22.
Pope
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The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
23.
Pope Leo XIII
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Pope Leo XIII reigned as Pope from 20 February 1878 to his death. He was the oldest pope, and had the third longest pontificate, behind that of Pius IX and he is the most recent pontiff to date to take the pontifical name of Leo upon being elected to the pontificate. He is well known for his intellectualism and his attempts to define the position of the Catholic Church with regard to modern thinking. In his famous 1891 encyclical Rerum novarum, Pope Leo outlined the rights of workers to a wage, safe working conditions. He influenced Roman Catholic Mariology and promoted both the rosary and the scapular, Leo XIII issued a record of eleven Papal encyclicals on the rosary earning him the title as the Rosary Pope. In addition, he approved two new Marian scapulars and was the first pope to fully embrace the concept of Mary as Mediatrix and he was the first pope to never have held any control over the Papal States, after they had been dissolved by 1870. He was briefly buried in the grottos of Saint Peters Basilica before his remains were transferred to the Basilica of Saint John Lateran. Born in Carpineto Romano, near Rome, he was the sixth of the seven sons of Count Ludovico Pecci and his brothers included Giuseppe and Giovanni Battista Pecci. Until 1818 he lived at home with his family, in which counted as the highest grace on earth, as through her. Together with his brother Giuseppe, he studied in the Jesuit College in Viterbo and he enjoyed the Latin language and was known to write his own Latin poems at the age of eleven. In 1824 he and his older brother Giuseppe were called to Rome where their mother was dying, Count Pecci wanted his children near him after the loss of his wife, and so they stayed with him in Rome, attending the Jesuit Collegium Romanum. In 1828, Giuseppe entered the Jesuit order, while Vincenzo decided in favour of secular clergy and he studied at the Academia dei Nobili, mainly diplomacy and law. In 1834 he gave a student presentation, attended by several cardinals, for his presentation he received awards for academic excellence, and gained the attention of Vatican officials. Cardinal Secretary of State Luigi Lambruschini introduced him to Vatican congregations, during a cholera epidemic in Rome he ably assisted Cardinal Sala in his duties as overseer of all the city hospitals. Pope Gregory XVI appointed Pecci on 14 February 1837, as personal prelate even before he was ordained priest on 31 December 1837, by the Vicar of Rome and he celebrated his first mass together with his priest brother Giuseppe. He received his doctorate in theology in 1836 and doctorates of civil, shortly thereafter, Gregory XVI appointed Pecci as legate to Benevento. The smallest of papal provinces, Benevento included about 20,000 people, the main problems facing Pecci were a decaying local economy, insecurity because of widespread bandits, and pervasive Mafia or Camorra structures, who often were allied with aristocratic families. Pecci arrested the most powerful aristocrat in Benevento, and his troops captured others, with the public order restored, he turned to the economy and a reform of the tax system to stimulate trade with neighboring provinces
24.
Biograph Company
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The Biograph Company, also known as the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, was a motion picture company founded in 1895 and active until 1928. The company was distinguished with pioneering director D. W. Griffith and such actors as Mary Pickford, Lillian Gish, an unrelated company, with the same name, was incorporated in California in 1991. As of 2012, its operations are suspended, the company was started by William Kennedy Dickson, an inventor at Thomas Edisons laboratory who helped pioneer the technology of capturing moving images on film. Dickson left Edison in April 1895, joining with inventors Herman Casler, Henry Marvin, in the summer of 1896 the Biograph projector was released, offering superior image quality to Edison’s Vitascope projector. The company soon became a leader in the industry, with distribution and production subsidiaries around the world including the British Mutoscope Company. In 1899 it changed its name to the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, the camera used friction feed, instead of Edison’s sprocket feed, to guide the film to the aperture. The camera itself punched a hole on each side of the frame as the film was exposed at 30 frames per second. Biograph offered prints in both formats to exhibitors until 1905, when it discontinued the larger format, the occasional narrative film, usually a comedy, was typically shot in one scene, with no editing. Spurred on by competition from Edison and British and European producers, as the stories became more complex, the films became longer, with multiple scenes to tell the story, although an individual scene was still usually presented in one shot without editing. Biographs production of actualities ended by 1908 in favor of the narrative film, the companys first studio was located on the roof of 841 Broadway at 13th Street in Manhattan, known then as the Hackett Carhart Building and today as the Roosevelt Building. The set-up was similar to Thomas Edisons Black Maria in West Orange, New Jersey, as of 1988, the foundations of this machinery were still extant. The company moved in 1906 to a brownstone mansion at 11 East 14th Street near Union Square. This was Biographs first indoor studio, and the first movie studio in the world to rely exclusively on artificial light, Biograph moved again in 1913, as it entered feature film production, to a new, state-of-the-art studio on 175th Street in the Bronx. In order to make the audience aware that they were watching an American Biograph movie the AB logo would be prominently placed in random parts of the movie. Director D. W. Griffith joined Biograph in 1908 as a writer and actor, but within months became their principal director. In 1908, the head director Wallace McCutcheon grew ill, and his son, Wallace McCutcheon Jr. took his place. As a result of failed productions, studio head Henry Marvin gave the position of head director to Griffith. Although Griffith did not invent these techniques, he made them a part of the film vocabulary
25.
Mutoscope
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The Mutoscope was an early motion picture device, invented by W. K. L. Dickson and Herman Casler and later patented by Herman Casler on November 21,1894, like Thomas Edisons Kinetoscope, it did not project on a screen and provided viewing to only one person at a time. Cheaper and simpler than the Kinetoscope, the system, marketed by the American Mutoscope Company, the Mutoscope worked on the same principle as the flip book. The individual image frames were conventional black-and-white, silver-based photographic prints on tough, rather than being bound into a booklet, the cards were attached to a circular core, rather like a huge Rolodex. A reel typically held about 850 cards, giving a time of about a minute. The reel with cards attached had a diameter of about ten inches. The patron viewed the cards through a single lens enclosed by a hood, the cards were generally lit electrically, but the reel was driven by means of a geared-down hand crank. Each machine held only a single reel and was dedicated to the presentation of a short subject. The patron could control the speed only to a limited degree. The crank could be turned in both directions, but this did not reverse the playing of the reel, nor could the patron extend viewing time by stopping the crank because the flexible images were bent into the proper viewing position by tension applied from forward cranking. Mutoscopes were originally manufactured from 1895 to 1909 by the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, in the 1920s the Mutoscope was licensed to William Rabkin who started his own company, the International Mutoscope Reel Company, which manufactured new reels and also machines from 1926 until 1949. The term Mutoscope is no longer a registered trademark in the United States, Mutoscopes were a popular feature of amusement arcades and pleasure piers in the UK until the introduction of decimal coinage in 1971. The coin mechanisms were difficult to convert, and many machines were subsequently destroyed, the typical arcade installation included multiple machines offering a mixture of fare. Both in the days and during the revival, that mixture usually included girlie reels which ran the gamut from risqué to outright soft-core pornography. It was, however, common for these reels to have titles that implied more than the reel actually delivered. The title of one reel, What the Butler Saw, became a by-word. In 1899, The Times also printed a letter inveighing against vicious demoralising picture shows in the penny-in-the-slot machines, similar exhibitions took place at Rhyl in the mens lavatory, but, owing to public denunciation, they have been stopped. Illustration and demonstration of the Kinora Penny Arcade, poem by Jared Carter describes tightrope-walk images viewed through a Mutoscope, media related to Mutoscope at Wikimedia Commons
26.
Flip book
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Flip books are often illustrated books for children, but may also be geared towards adults and employ a series of photographs rather than drawings. Flip books are not always separate books, but may appear as a feature in ordinary books or magazines. Software packages and websites are available that convert digital video files into custom-made flip books. Flip books are essentially a form of animation. Rather than reading left to right, a viewer simply stares at the location of the pictures in the flip book as the pages turn. The German word for flip book—Daumenkino, literally thumb cinema—reflects this process, the first flip book appeared in September,1868, when it was patented by John Barnes Linnett under the name kineograph. They were the first form of animation to employ a linear sequence of images rather than circular, in 1894, Herman Casler invented a mechanized form of flip book called the Mutoscope, which mounted the pages on a central rotating cylinder rather than binding them in a book. The mutoscope remained a popular attraction through the century, appearing as coin-operated machines in penny arcades. In 1897, the English filmmaker Henry William Short marketed his Filoscope, Flip books are now largely considered a toy or novelty for children, and were once a common prize in cereal and Cracker Jack boxes. However, in addition to their role in the birth of cinema and they continue to be used in marketing today, as well as in art and published photographic collections. Vintage flip books are popular among collectors, and especially ones from the late 19th to early 20th century have been known to fetch thousands of dollars in sales. Since 2007, Walt Disney Animation Studios has started its films with a logo that initially evokes a flip book. It starts with a view of an empty page of paper, then as the start to turn. The first international flip book festival was held in 2004, by the Akademie Schloss Solitude in Stuttgart, another international flip book festival was held in Linz, Austria in 2005. In 2010 Hungary postal services released a book of stamps depicting a moving gömböc. Israel issued an Israeli Animation Stamp Booklet later in the same year, finnish passport design released in 2012 contains a flipbook of a walking moose. Flipbook. info – Includes demonstrative videos of antique flipbooks, history of Flip Books – a brief history of flipbooks
27.
The Dickson Experimental Sound Film
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The Dickson Experimental Sound Film is a film made by William Dickson in late 1894 or early 1895. It is the first known film with live-recorded sound and appears to be the first motion picture made for the Kinetophone, the film was produced at the Black Maria, Edisons New Jersey film studio. There is no evidence that it was exhibited in its original format. Newly digitized and restored, it is the only surviving Kinetophone film with live-recorded sound, the film features Dickson playing a violin into a recording horn for an off-camera wax cylinder. The melody is from a barcarolle, Song of the Cabin Boy, from Les Cloches de Corneville, in front of Dickson, two men dance to the music. In the final seconds, a fourth man briefly crosses from left to right behind the horn, after its restoration in 2000, The Dickson Experimental Sound Film was selected for inclusion in the United States National Film Registry. A soundless 35mm nitrate print of the movie, described as precisely forty feet long, was acquired by the Museum of Modern Art, Thomas A. Edison, Incorporated donated the Edison Laboratory to the U. S. National Park Service in 1956. The soundtrack was inventoried at the Edison National Historic Site in the early 1960s, Dixon with Kineto was found in the music room of the Edison laboratory. Among the filmstrips was a print that the Library of Congress catalogued as Dickson Violin, according to Patrick Loughney, the librarys film and TV curator, this print is thirty-nine feet and fourteen frames. A new reel-to-reel master was created, allowing for fidelity reproduction onto digital audio tape, Murch was given the short piece of film and the two minutes of sound recovered from the cylinder to work with. By digitally converting the film and editing the media together on an Avid system, Murch synchronized the visual, on the cylinder, before the camera starts rolling, a mans voice can be heard to say, Are the rest of you ready. This extra sound is included on the version of the film that was distributed in the early 2000s, however, since filming had not yet begun when the words were uttered, this cannot be claimed as the first incidence of the spoken word on film. One question that remains unanswered is how the running time of just over 17 seconds was arrived at. Per the curatorial reports, the 35-mm prints have a standard 16 frames per foot of film—39 feet plus 14 frames thus equals a total of 638 frames, Murch describes the film as having been shot at 40 frames per second, Loughney describes it as 46 fps. If the latter figure is correct, as many as 9 seconds of film are missing from extant prints if the entire violin performance was filmed. On the basis of his own tests of eighteen Kinetoscope films, scholar Gordon Hendricks argued that no Kinetoscope films were shot at 46 fps, making the speed of 40 fps reported by Murch more likely. Yet there is still a difference of more than a second between the potential running time at that speed and the actual duration of the film as digitized by Murch. That 17-second running time works out to an average speed of approximately 37.5 fps
28.
Megaphone
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A megaphone, speaking-trumpet, bullhorn, or loud hailer is a portable, usually hand-held, cone-shaped acoustic horn used to amplify a person’s voice or other sounds and direct it in a given direction. The sound is introduced into the end of the megaphone, by holding it up to the face and speaking into it. The megaphone increases the volume of sound by increasing the acoustic impedance seen by the cords, matching the impedance of the vocal cords to the air. It also serves to direct the waves in the direction the horn is pointing. It somewhat distorts the sound of the voice because the response of the megaphone is greater at higher sound frequencies. Since the 1960s the voice-powered acoustic megaphone described above has been replaced by the electric megaphone, the initial inventor of the speaking trumpet is a subject of historical controversy, both Samuel Morland and Athanasius Kircher invented megaphones around the same time in the 17th century. Morland, in a work published in 1655, wrote about his experimentation with different horns and his largest megaphone consisted of over 20 feet of copper tube and could reportedly project a persons voice a mile and a half. Twenty years earlier, Kircher described a device that could be used as both a megaphone and for overhearing people speaking outside a house. His coiled horn would be mounted into the side of a building, with a narrow end inside that could be spoken into or listened to. Morland favored a straight, tube-shaped speaking device, kircher’s horn, on the other hand, utilized a “cochleate” design, where the horn was twisted and coiled to make it more compact. A later, papier-mache trumpet of special design was the Sengerphone, additionally, in ruins of Tiwanaku are stones around the central place with holes shaped in megaphones profile. Their purpose is unknown, but as local guards can show. The term ‘megaphone’ was first associated with Thomas Edison’s instrument 200 years later, in 1878, Edison developed a device similar to the speaking trumpet in hopes of benefiting the deaf and hard of hearing. His variation included three separate funnels lined up in a row, the two outer funnels, which were six feet and eight inches long, were made of paper and connected to a tube inserted in each ear. The middle funnel was similar to Morland’s speaking trumpet, but had a slot to insert a user’s mouth. With Edison’s megaphone, a low whisper could be heard a thousand feet away, on the listening end, the receiver could hear a low whisper at a thousand feet away. However the apparatus was much too large to be portable, limiting its use, george Prescott wrote, “The principal drawback at present is the large size of the apparatus. An electric megaphone is a public address system, an electronic device that amplifies the human voice like an acoustic megaphone
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Phonograph
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The phonograph is a device invented in 1877 for the mechanical recording and reproduction of sound. In its later forms it is called a gramophone. To recreate the sound, the surface is rotated while a playback stylus traces the groove and is therefore vibrated by it. In later electric phonographs, the motions of the stylus are converted into an electrical signal by a transducer. The phonograph was invented in 1877 by Thomas Edison, while other inventors had produced devices that could record sounds, Edisons phonograph was the first to be able to reproduce the recorded sound. His phonograph originally recorded sound onto a sheet wrapped around a rotating cylinder. A stylus responding to sound vibrations produced an up and down or hill-and-dale groove in the foil, in the 1890s, Emile Berliner initiated the transition from phonograph cylinders to flat discs with a spiral groove running from the periphery to near the center. Later improvements through the years included modifications to the turntable and its system, the stylus or needle. The disc phonograph record was the dominant audio recording format throughout most of the 20th century, from the mid-1980s on, phonograph use on a standard record player declined sharply because of the rise of the cassette tape, compact disc and other digital recording formats. Records are still a favorite format for some audiophiles and DJs, vinyl records are still used by some DJs and musicians in their concert performances. Musicians continue to release their recordings on vinyl records, the original recordings of musicians are sometimes re-issued on vinyl. Usage of terminology is not uniform across the English-speaking world, in more modern usage, the playback device is often called a turntable, record player, or record changer. When used in conjunction with a mixer as part of a DJ setup, the term phonograph was derived from the Greek words φωνή and γραφή. The similar related terms gramophone and graphophone have similar root meanings, the roots were already familiar from existing 19th-century words such as photograph, telegraph, and telephone. In British English, gramophone may refer to any sound-reproducing machine using disc records, the term phonograph was usually restricted to machines that used cylinder records. Gramophone generally referred to a wind-up machine, after the introduction of the softer vinyl records, 33 1⁄3-rpm LPs and 45-rpm single or two-song records, and EPs, the common name became record player or turntable. Often the home record player was part of a system that included a radio and, later, from about 1960, such a system began to be described as a hi-fi or a stereo. In American English, phonograph, properly specific to machines made by Edison, was used in a generic sense as early as the 1890s to include cylinder-playing machines made by others
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Sound film
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A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound, or sound technologically coupled to image, as opposed to a silent film. The first known exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900. Reliable synchronization was difficult to achieve with the early sound-on-disc systems, innovations in sound-on-film led to the first commercial screening of short motion pictures using the technology, which took place in 1923. The primary steps in the commercialization of sound cinema were taken in the mid- to late 1920s, at first, the sound films which included synchronized dialogue, known as talking pictures, or talkies, were exclusively shorts. The earliest feature-length movies with recorded sound included only music and effects, the first feature film originally presented as a talkie was The Jazz Singer, released in October 1927. A major hit, it was made with Vitaphone, which was at the time the brand of sound-on-disc technology. Sound-on-film, however, would become the standard for talking pictures. By the early 1930s, the talkies were a global phenomenon, in the United States, they helped secure Hollywoods position as one of the worlds most powerful cultural/commercial centers of influence. In Europe, the new development was treated with suspicion by many filmmakers and critics, in Japan, where the popular film tradition integrated silent movie and live vocal performance, talking pictures were slow to take root. In India, sound was the element that led to the rapid expansion of the nations film industry. The idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as the concept of cinema itself. On February 27,1888, a couple of days after photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge gave a lecture not far from the laboratory of Thomas Edison, the two inventors privately met. No agreement was reached, but within a year Edison commissioned the development of the Kinetoscope, essentially a peep-show system, as a visual complement to his cylinder phonograph. The two devices were brought together as the Kinetophone in 1895, but individual, cabinet viewing of motion pictures was soon to be outmoded by successes in film projection and these appear to be the first publicly exhibited films with projection of both image and recorded sound. Phonorama and yet another sound-film system—Théâtroscope—were also presented at the Exposition, three major problems persisted, leading to motion pictures and sound recording largely taking separate paths for a generation. The primary issue was synchronization, pictures and sound were recorded and played back by separate devices, sufficient playback volume was also hard to achieve. Finally, there was the challenge of recording fidelity, cinematic innovators attempted to cope with the fundamental synchronization problem in a variety of ways. In 1902, Léon Gaumont demonstrated his sound-on-disc Chronophone, involving an electrical connection he had recently patented, four years later, Gaumont introduced the Elgéphone, a compressed-air amplification system based on the Auxetophone, developed by British inventors Horace Short and Charles Parsons
31.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
32.
Blacksmith Scene
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Blacksmith Scene is an 1893 American short black-and-white silent film directed by William K. L. Dickson, the Scottish-French inventor who, while under the employ of Thomas Edison and it is historically significant as the first Kinetoscope film shown in public exhibition on May 9,1893 and is the earliest known example of actors performing a role in a film. In 1995, Blacksmith Scene was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being culturally, historically and it is the second-oldest film included in the Registry, after Newark Athlete. The scene is all filmed from a stationary camera, on screen is a large anvil with a blacksmith behind it and a striker to either side. The smith uses a metal rod he has removed from a fire. All three begin a rhythmic hammering, after several blows the metal rod is returned to the fire. One striker pulls out a bottle of beer, and they take a drink. Following this drink they then resume their work, the film was produced by the Edison Manufacturing Company, which had begun making films in 1890 under the direction of one of the earliest pioneers to film William K. L. It was filmed entirely within the Black Maria studio at West Orange, New Jersey, in the United States and it is believed to have been filmed in April 1893 and was shown publicly at the Brooklyn Institute on May 9,1893. According to the Internet Movie Database the film was made in a 35 mm format with a ratio of 1.33,1. The movie was intended to be displayed through means of a Kinetoscope, another copy is at the Edison National Historic Site, administered by the National Park Service. Because the film was finished before 1923, its copyright has expired, treasures from American Film Archives Blacksmith Scene at the Internet Movie Database Blacksmith Scene at AllMovie Blacksmith Scene at the Internet Archive Blacksmith Scene on YouTube
33.
Fred Ott's Sneeze
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Fred Otts Sneeze is an 1894 American, short, black-and-white, silent documentary film shot by William K. L. Dickson and starring Fred Ott. It was the first motion picture to be copyrighted in the United States, in the five-second film one of Thomas Edisons assistants, Fred Ott, takes a pinch of snuff and sneezes. According to the Library of Congress, It was filmed for publicity purposes as a series of photographs to accompany an article in Harpers Weekly. In 2015, the United States Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in the National Film Registry, finding it culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. The film was produced by the Edison Manufacturing Company, which had begun making films in 1890 under the direction of Dickson and it was filmed within the Black Maria studio at West Orange, New Jersey, in the USA, which was U. S. first movie studio. It was filmed between January 2,1894 and January 7,1894 and was displayed, at the time, as a film produced prior to 1923, its copyright has now expired and the work is in the public domain. Originally, the film was submitted to the Library of Congress as a print for copyright purposes. A digital copy is now kept by the Library of Congress and this short film has been featured at The 30th Annual Academy Awards, and was included as part of the TV documentary
34.
Edison's Black Maria
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The Black Maria was Thomas Edisons movie production studio in West Orange, New Jersey. It is widely referred to as Americas First Movie Studio, construction began in December 1892 and was completed the following year at a cost of $637.67. The exhibited film showed three people pretending to be blacksmiths, the first motion pictures made in the Black Maria were deposited for copyright by Dickson at the Library of Congress in August,1893. The short film was made for publicity purposes, as a series of photographs to accompany an article in Harpers Weekly. It was the earliest motion picture to be registered for copyright — composed of a record of Ott sneezing comically for the camera. On Saturday, April 14,1894, Edisons Kinetoscope began commercial operation, patrons paid 25 cents as the admission charge to view films in five kinetoscope machines placed in two rows. Nearly 500 people became cinemas first major audience during the showings of films with such as Barber Shop, Blacksmiths, Cock Fight, Wrestling. Edisons film studio was used to supply films for this new form of entertainment. More Kinetoscope parlors soon opened in other cities, in 1901, the first public film was screened in Oberlin, Ohio, starting the transition from kinetoscope to screen. When Edison built a glass-enclosed rooftop movie studio in New York City, the Black Maria was closed in January 1901, National Park Service maintains a reproduction of the Black Maria, built in 1954 at what is now the Edison National Historic Site in West Orange. A previous reconstruction had been built and dedicated in May 1940 when MGM held the premiere of Edison. The Black Maria was, according to the staff who worked there, Edison employees W. K. Dickson and Jonathan Campbell coined the name—it reminded them of police Black Marias, of the time because they were also cramped, stuffy and a similar black color. Edison himself called it The Doghouse, but that never took hold. The Black Maria was covered in black tarpaper and had a window in the ceiling that opened up to let in sunlight because early films required a tremendous amount of bright light. It was built on a turntable so the window could rotate toward the sun throughout the day, when word spread about the new invention, performers flocked to the Black Maria from all over the country in order to be in the films. These silent movies featured dancers, pugilists, magicians and vaudeville performers and their appearances at the studio were used as publicity opportunities by Edison, who would often pose with the performers for newspaper articles. Though he borrowed the title, Rundgrens lyrics do not appear to have any connection to Edison or to film, the lyrics to the song Edison Museum by They Might Be Giants include the line see the Black Maria revolving slowly on its platform. Edisons Black Maria studio is used in Hans-Jürgen Syberbergs movie Hitler and it also appears contained in a glass paperweight filled with snow as a representation of the Grail
35.
The Scotsman
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The Scotsman is a Scottish compact newspaper and daily news website published from Edinburgh. It was a broadsheet until 16 August 2004, the Scotsman Publications Ltd also issues the Edinburgh Evening News and the Herald & Post series of free newspapers in Edinburgh, Fife, and West Lothian. As of February 2016, it had a print circulation of 22,740, with a full-price paid-for circulation of 61. 6% of this figure. Scotsman. com websites, including the site, job site, property site, mobile site. The paper was pledged to impartiality, firmness and independence, after the abolition of newspaper stamp tax in Scotland in 1850, The Scotsman was relaunched as a daily newspaper priced at 1d and a circulation of 6,000 copies. Their premises were originally at 257 High Street on the Royal Mile, in 1860 they obtained a purpose built office on Cockburn Street in Edinburgh designed in the Scots baronial style by the architects Peddie & Kinnear. This backed onto their original offices on the Royal Mile, the building bears the initials JR for John Ritchie the founder of the company. In 1902 they moved to new offices at the top of the street, facing onto North Bridge. This huge building had three years to build and also had connected printworks on Market Street. The printworks connected below road level direct to Waverley Station in an efficient production line. In 1953 the newspaper was bought by Canadian millionaire Roy Thomson who was in the process of building a media group. The paper was bought in 1995 by David and Frederick Barclay for £85 million, the daily was awarded by the Society for News Design the World’s Best Designed Newspaper™ for 1994. Ian Stewart has been the editor since June 2012, after a reshuffle of senior management in April 2012 during which John McLellan who was the papers editor-in-chief was dismissed, ian Stewart was previously editor of Edinburgh Evening News and remains as the editor of Scotland on Sunday. In 2012, The Scotsman was named Newspaper of the Year at the Scottish Press Awards, Johnston Press have downsized to refurbished premises at Orchard Brae House in Queensferry Road, Edinburgh, a move which was quoted as saving the group £1million per annum in rent. The newspaper backed a No vote in the referendum on Scottish independence and it has had live webcams and panoramas around Scotland. It also has sections for other Scotsman Publications including Scotland on Sunday, List of newspapers in Scotland List of newspapers by date Merrill, John C. and Harold A. Fisher. The worlds great dailies, profiles of fifty newspapers pp 273–79 Official website The Scotsman Digital Archive 1817-1950 Johnston Press Comprehensive Design Architects
36.
Science Museum, London
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The Science Museum is a major museum on Exhibition Road in South Kensington, London. It was founded in 1857 and today is one of the major tourist attractions. Like other publicly funded museums in the United Kingdom, the Science Museum does not charge visitors for admission. Temporary exhibitions, however, may incur an admission fee and it is part of the Science Museum Group, having merged with the Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester in 2012. It included a collection of machinery which became the Museum of Patents in 1858, and this collection contained many of the most famous exhibits of what is now the Science Museum. In 1883, the contents of the Patent Office Museum were transferred to the South Kensington Museum, in 1885, the Science Collections were renamed the Science Museum and in 1893 a separate director was appointed. The Art Collections were renamed the Art Museum, which became the Victoria. When Queen Victoria laid the stone for the new building for the Art Museum, she stipulated that the museum be renamed after herself. On 26 June 1909 the Science Museum, as an independent entity, the Science Museums present quarters, designed by Sir Richard Allison, were opened to the public in stages over the period 1919–28. This building was known as the East Block, construction of which began in 1913, as the name suggests it was intended to be the first building of a much larger project, which was never realized. It also contains hundreds of interactive exhibits, a recent addition is the IMAX 3D Cinema showing science and nature documentaries, most of them in 3-D, and the Wellcome Wing which focuses on digital technology. Entrance has been free since 1 December 2001, the museum houses some of the many objects collected by Henry Wellcome around a medical theme. The fourth floor exhibit is called Glimpses of Medical History, with reconstructions, the fifth floor gallery is called Science and the Art of Medicine, with exhibits of medical instruments and practices from ancient days and from many countries. The collection is strong in clinical medicine, biosciences and public health, the museum is a member of the London Museums of Health & Medicine. The Science Museum has a library, and until the 1960s was Britains National Library for Science, Medicine. It holds runs of periodicals, early books and manuscripts, and is used by scholars worldwide and it was, for a number of years, run in conjunction with the Library of Imperial College, but in 2007 the Library was divided over two sites. The Imperial College library catalogue search system now informs searchers that volumes formerly held there are Available at Science Museum Library Swindon Currently unavailable, a new Research Centre with library facilities is promised for late 2015 but is unlikely to have book stacks nearby. The Science Museums medical collections have a scope and coverage
37.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
