1.
New York State Senate
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The New York State Senate is considered the upper house in the New York State Legislature. It has 63 members each elected to two-year terms, there are no limits on the number of terms one may serve. The New York Constitution provides for a number of members in the Senate. The current format for apportionment has followed the Supreme Court decision in Baker v. Carr, Democrats won 32 of 62 seats in New Yorks upper chamber in the 2008 General Election on November 4, capturing the majority for the first time in more than four decades. Previously, the Republicans had held the chamber for all but one year from 1939 to 2008, however, a power struggle emerged before the new term began. Four Democratic senators—Rubén Díaz, Sr. Carl Kruger, Pedro Espada, Jr. the self-named Gang of Four refused to back Malcolm Smith as the chambers majority leader and sought concessions. Monserrate soon reached an agreement with Smith that reportedly included the chairmanship of the Consumer Affairs Committee, though there were 32 Democrats and 30 Republicans in the Senate, on June 8,2009, then-Senators Hiram Monserrate and Pedro Espada, Jr. The move came after Republican whip Tom Libous introduced a resolution to vacate the chair and replace Smith as temporary president. In an effort to stop the vote, Democratic whip Jeff Klein unilaterally moved to recess, however, they were unable to stop the session. All 30 Republicans plus two Democrats, Monserrate and Espada, voted in favor of the resolution, in accordance with a prearranged deal, Espada was elected temporary president and acting lieutenant governor while Skelos was elected majority leader. Monserrate had backed out of the Gang at the time, being the first of the four to back Smith, the apparent Republican seizure of power was tenuous in any event. Smith claimed the vote was illegal because of Kleins motion to adjourn, however, Smith, Klein, and most of the Democrats walked out before an actual vote to adjourn could be taken. Smith still asserted he was majority leader and would challenge the vote in court and he locked the doors of the state senate chambers in an effort to prevent any further legislative action. The scheduled session was eventually postponed, both Monserrate and Espada faced accusations of unethical or criminal conduct. Monserrate was indicted for assault in March and would have automatically lost his seat if convicted. New York, like most states, has a provision in its constitution which bars convicted felons from holding office. Espada was the target of an investigation into whether he funded his campaign with money siphoned from a nonprofit health care agency he controls. The Bronx County District Attorneys office was investigating charges that Espada actually resided in Mamaroneck
2.
George Briggs (New York politician)
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George Briggs was an American politician and a United States Representative from New York. Born near Broadalbin, Fulton County, New York Briggs moved to Vermont in 1812 with his parents, Biggs engaged in business as a dealer in hardware, and was a member of the Vermont House of Representatives in 1837. He returned to New York, settling in New York City in 1838, elected as a Whig to the 31st and 32nd United States Congresses, Biggs was United States Representative for the fifth district of New York from March 4,1849, to March 3,1853. He declined to be a candidate for renomination in 1852, Briggs was then elected as a Republican to the 36th United States Congress, and was United States Representative for the seventh district of New York from March 4,1859, to March 3,1861. During the thirty-sixth Congress he was Chairman of the Committee on Revolutionary Claims and he declined to be a candidate for renomination in 1860 and retired. In 1866 he was a delegate to the National Union Convention at Philadelphia, Briggs died at his summer home, Woodlawn, at Saratoga Springs, Saratoga County, New York, on June 1,1869. He is interment was in Greenwood Cemetery, Brooklyn, New York, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. The Political Graveyard Govtrack US Congress
3.
John Fox (congressman)
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John Fox was an American mechanic, merchant and politician from New York. Born to Irish emigrants in Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada, Fox immigrated to the United States with his parents in 1840, settling in New York City, New York. He attended public schools as a child, engaged in mechanical pursuits and was employed as a master maker in the Brooklyn Navy Yard in 1857. He was a member of the New York City Council, and was a Supervisor of New York County in 1863 and 1864. Fox was elected as a Democrat to the 40th and 41st United States Congresses, holding office from March 4,1867 and he was a member of the New York State Senate in 1874 and 1875. He was president of the National Democratic Club from 1894 to 1910 and he died in New York City on January 17,1914 and was buried at the Calvary Cemetery in Woodside, Queens. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
4.
Tammany Hall
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The Tammany Society emerged as the center for Democratic-Republican Party politics in the city in the early 19th century. After 1854, the Society expanded its control even further by earning the loyalty of the citys rapidly expanding immigrant community. By 1872 Tammany had an Irish Catholic boss, and in 1928 a Tammany hero, New York Governor Al Smith, however, Tammany Hall also served as an engine for graft and political corruption, perhaps most infamously under William M. Boss Tweed in the mid-19th century. By the 1880s, Tammany was building local clubs that appealed to activists from the ethnic middle-class. Charles Murphy was the effective but quiet boss of Tammany from 1902–1924. Big Tim Sullivan was the Tammany leader in the Bowery, in the early twentieth century Murphy and Sullivan promoted Tammany as a reformed agency dedicated to the interests of the working class. The new image deflected attacks and built up a following among the emerging ethnic middle-class, in the process Robert F. Wagner became a powerful United States Senator, and Al Smith served multiple terms as governor and was the Democratic presidential candidate in 1928. Tammany Halls influence waned from 1930 to 1945 when it engaged in a battle with Franklin D. Roosevelt, the states governor. In 1932, Mayor Jimmy Walker was forced from office when his bribery was exposed, Roosevelt stripped Tammany of federal patronage. Republican Fiorello La Guardia was elected mayor on a Fusion ticket, by the mid-1960s Tammany Hall ceased to exist. The society was developed as a club for pure Americans. The name Tammany comes from Tamanend, a Native American leader of the Lenape, the society adopted many Native American words and also their customs, going so far as to call its hall a wigwam. The first Grand Sachem, as the leader was titled, was William Mooney, by 1798, the societys activities had grown increasingly political. High ranking Democratic-Republican Aaron Burr saw Tammany Hall as an opportunity to counter Alexander Hamiltons Society of the Cincinnati, eventually Tammany emerged as the center of Democratic-Republican Party politics in the city. Burr used Tammany Hall influence in the election of 1800, in which he was elected Vice President of the United States, many historians believe that without Tammany, President John Adams might have won New York States electoral votes and won reelection. Early cases of corruption involving Tammany Hall came to light during the groups feud with local politician Dewitt Clinton. The feud began in 1802 after Clinton accused Aaron Burr of being a traitor to the Democratic-Republican Party, Clintons uncle, George Clinton was jealous of Burrs achievements and positions. However George was too old to compete with young Aaron Burr, in 1803, Clinton left the United States Senate and became Mayor of New York City
5.
Fernando Wood
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A successful shipping merchant who became Grand Sachem of the political machine known as Tammany Hall, Wood first served in Congress in 1841. In 1854 he was elected Mayor of New York City. S. Woods Democratic machine was concerned with maintaining the revenues that fed the system of patronage. Following his service as mayor, Wood returned to the United States Congress, Wood, the son of Benjamin and Rebecca Wood, and brother of United States Congressman Benjamin Wood was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His Spanish forename was chosen by his mother, who found it in an English gothic novel written by George Walker and he moved to New York, where he became a successful shipping merchant. He was chairman of the young mens political organization in 1839 and was a member of the Tammany Society. As a member of the Democratic party, he was elected to Congress in 1840, in late 1854 Wood was elected mayor of New York City. Tallmadge as superintendent, to replace Woods corrupt Municipal Police, talmadge demanded for Wood to disband the Municipal Police, but Wood refused, even in the face of a May 1857 decision by the Supreme Court. Superintendent George Washington Matsell,15 captains and 800 patrolmen of the Municipal Police backed Wood, Captain George W. Walling pledged his loyalty to the new Metropolitan Police and was ordered to arrest Wood. Wood refused to submit and when Captain Walling attempted force, New York City Hall was occupied by 300 municipal policemen, fifty Metropolitans in frock coats and plug hats then marched on City Hall with night sticks in hand. The Municipals swarmed out and routed the Metropolitans, fifty-two policemen were injured in the New York City Police Riot. The Metropolitan Police Board called out the National Guard, and the Seventh Regiment surrounded City Hall, a platoon of infantry with fixed bayonets marched into City Hall and surrounded Mayor Wood who then submitted to arrest. Mayor Wood was charged with inciting to riot, released on nominal bail, the feud continued on through the summer of 1857, with constant confrontations between the rival police forces. When a Municipal arrested a criminal, a Metropolitan would come along, at the police station, an arresting officer would find an alderman and a magistrate from the opposing side waiting. A hearing would be held on the spot and the released on his own recognizance. The gangs of New York had a field day, pedestrians were mugged in broad daylight on Broadway while rival policemen clubbed each other to determine who had the right to interfere. Soon the gangs were looting and plundering without interference, but turned on one another in turf wars, the Dead Rabbits and several other Five Points gangs marched into the Bowery to do battle with the Bowery Boys and to loot stores. They attacked a Bowery Boys headquarters with pistols, knives, clubs, iron bars and huge paving blocks, the Bowery Boys and their allies, the Atlantic Guards, poured into Bayard Street to engage in the most desperate and largest free-for-all in the citys history. The Metropolitans attempted to stop the fighting but were severely beaten, the Municipals said the battle looked like a Metropolitan problem and was none of their business
6.
John Morrissey
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John Morrissey, also known as Old Smoke, was an Irish American bare-knuckle boxer and a gang member in New York City in the 1850s and later became a Democratic State Senator and U. S. Congressman from New York, backed by Tammany Hall, Morrissey began his bare-knuckle boxing career after a confrontation with a man known only as Chroel who was notorious for troubling his fellow townsmen. Although Morrissey was on the end of his first bare knuckle bout, his display of bravery and fortitude earned himself the respect. Morrissey was born in Templemore, County Tipperary, Ireland in 1831, in 1833 his parents emigrated to the United States and settled in Troy, New York. Along with his criminal and ferocious fighting abilities, Morrissey also displayed driving ambition, teaching himself to read, after spending two months in jail, Morrissey left Troy for New York City. During a fight with a member named Tom McCann, Morrissey was pinned on his back atop burning coals from a stove that had been overturned. Morrissey endured the pain as his flesh burned, fought off McCann, enraged, Morrissey beat McCann senseless as smoke from his burning flesh rose up from his back. The event earned him the nickname Old Smoke, which stuck with him through the rest of his life, after two years in New York, Morrissey sailed to San Francisco, seeking fortune during the California Gold Rush. While he didnt have any luck in that endeavor, Morrissey became a renowned gambler and it was also during this time that Morrissey appeared for the first time in a professional prizefighting ring. He knocked out George Thompson in the 11th round, earning $5,000 and this success encouraged him to return to New York to fight the American Champion, Yankee Sullivan. Morrissey returned to New York and challenged Sullivan repeatedly until the latter finally agreed, due to the violent nature of the sport, boxing was illegal in most places during the 1850s. The first boxing rules, called the London Prize Ring rules, were introduced by heavyweight champion Jack Broughton in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred. Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Fights usually lasted for 20-30 rounds, rounds continued until one fighter touched the ground with his knee, or simply fell down. The fight took place in a field, and was viewed by over 3,000 spectators. Sullivan dominated the match for most of the fight, but Morrissey held his own, in the 37th round, more than an hour after the start of the fight, Sullivan lost after he knocked out Morrissey. There was a dispute over the rules, Sullivan had left thinking hed won but was disqualified. Morrissey became involved in Democratic politics in New York City and a rivalry with William Poole, Poole was an enforcer for the Know-Nothing Party, leader of the Bowery Boys, and a boxer
7.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
8.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
9.
New York's 5th congressional district
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The 5th Congressional District of New York is a congressional district for the United States House of Representatives, represented by Democrat Gregory Meeks. Most of the district is in Queens, but a portion is located in Nassau County. A majority of the population is African-American. In Nassau County, the district covers Inwood and parts of Valley Stream, from 2003–13, the district consisted of northeastern Queens County and northwestern Nassau County. The Queens portion of the district included the neighborhoods of Bayside, Corona, Douglaston, Flushing, Jamaica Estates, Little Neck, the Nassau portion of the district included Albertson, Great Neck, Manhasset, Port Washington, Roslyn, and Sands Point. Prior to 1992 the 5th District was centered on the shore of Nassau County including towns mostly now in the 3rd. The Queens portions of the 5th had been primarily in the 8th District of the 1980s. In general, the present 5th District greatly mirrors the 6th District from 1972 to 1982, note that in New York State electoral politics there are numerous minor parties at various points on the political spectrum. Certain parties normally endorse either the Republican or Democratic candidate for office, hence the state electoral results contain both the party votes, and the final candidate votes. List of United States congressional districts New Yorks congressional districts United States congressional delegations from New York Martis, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts
10.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
11.
Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
12.
Bookkeeping
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Bookkeeping is the recording of financial transactions, and is part of the process of accounting in business. Transactions include purchases, sales, receipts, and payments by a person or an organization/corporation. Bookkeeping is usually performed by a bookkeeper, a bookkeeper is a person who records the day-to-day financial transactions of a business. He or she is responsible for writing the daybooks, which contain records of purchases, sales, receipts. The bookkeeper brings the books to the trial stage, an accountant may prepare the income statement and balance sheet using the trial balance. The origin of book-keeping is lost in obscurity, but recent researches would appear to show that some method of keeping accounts has existed from the remotest times. Babylonian records have been found dating back as far as 2600 B. C. written with a stylus on small slabs of clay, the term waste book was used in colonial America referring to bookkeeping. The purpose was to document daily transactions including receipts and expenditures and this was recorded in chronological order, and the purpose was for temporary use only. The daily transactions would then be recorded in a daybook or account ledger in order to balance the accounts, the name waste book comes from the fact that once the waste books data were transferred to the actual journal, the waste book could be discarded. The bookkeeping process primarily records the effects of transactions. The difference between a manual and any electronic accounting system results from the formers latency between the recording of a transaction and its posting in the relevant account. In the normal course of business, a document is produced each time a transaction occurs, Sales and purchases usually have invoices or receipts. Deposit slips are produced when lodgements are made to a bank account, checks are written to pay money out of the account. Bookkeeping first involves recording the details of all of these documents into multi-column journals. For example, all sales are recorded in the sales journal. Each column in a journal normally corresponds to an account, in the single entry system, each transaction is recorded only once. Most individuals who balance their check-book each month are using such a system, after a certain period, typically a month, each column in each journal is totalled to give a summary for that period. Using the rules of double-entry, these summaries are then transferred to their respective accounts in the ledger
13.
Businessman
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An entrepreneur is an example of a businessperson. The term may mean someone who is involved in an upper-level management role in a corporation, company, enterprise, firm, organization. This can especially apply to the founder, an owner, a manager, since a businessman can mean anyone in industry or commerce, businessmen have existed as long as industry and commerce have existed. Commerce can simply mean trade, and trade has existed through all of recorded history, the first businessmen were traders, or merchants. Merchants emerged as a class in medieval Italy, between 1300 and 1500, modern accounting, the bill of exchange, and limited liability were invented, and thus the world saw the first true bankers, who are certainly businessmen. Around the same time, Europe saw the emergence of rich merchants and this rise of the merchant class came as Europe needed a middleman for the first time, and these burghers or bourgeois were the people who played this role. Europe became the dominant global power in the 16th century. In this period, Europe developed and used paper money, checks, developments in actuarial science led to insurance. Together, these new tools were used by a new kind of businessman and these people owned or financed businesses as bankers, but they were not merchants of goods. These capitalists were a force in the Industrial Revolution. The newest kind of businessperson is the manager, one of the first true managers was Robert Owen, an industrialist in Scotland. He studied the problems of productivity and motivation, and was followed by Frederick Winslow Taylor, after World War I, management became popular due to the example of Herbert Hoover and the Harvard Business School, which offered degrees in business administration. There are no prescribed educational qualifications, rules or guidelines which one may follow, a person owning a small gas station in a local market is as much as a businessperson as a person who owns and leads a large Silicon Valley technology giant. There are many paths to becoming a businessperson, hence, no rigid formal educational qualification requirements can be stated for becoming a businessperson. However, there are attributes that successful businessmen must possess, Tact financial and business savvy, courage, leadership, vision, creativity, imagination. Among these components include branding, advertising, and public relations, well-balanced consistency in their business approach. Interest in giving back to society through philanthropy or venture capitalism for future socioeconomic development, hence, a businessperson should have the ability to take prompt decisions. Determination, courage and perseverance, They must have strong power and determination
14.
Political boss
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A boss, in politics, is a person who controls a unit of a political party, although he/she may not hold political office. Numerous officeholders in that unit are subordinate to the boss in party affairs. Each party in the ward or city may have its own boss, that is. Reformers sometimes allege that political bosses are likely guilty of corruption, bosses may base their power on control of a large number of votes. When the party wins, they typically control appointments in their unit and they do not necessarily hold public office themselves, most historical bosses did not, at least during the times of their greatest influence. The appearance of bosses has been common since the Roman Republic, in Spanish America, Brazil, Spain, and Portugal political bosses called caciques hold power in many places. One of the most powerful party leaders was James A. Farley who was the chief dispenser of Democratic Party patronage during Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal and he was not a boss because he worked under the direction of Roosevelt himself. Farley handled most mid-level and lower-level appointments in consultation with state, Farley parlayed his position as Democratic National Committee boss into a run for the Democratic nomination for President in 1940. Farley had been elected to public office once, to the New York State Assembly. In the South, charismatic populist politicians like Huey Long commanded large networks of supporters, similar practices existed in the northern cities, particularly New York City, where Boss Tweed wielded control over the powerful Democratic political machine. In Denver, Colorado during the 1890s there was Jefferson Randolph Soapy Smith who operated as the Republican party boss, charles Brayton exercised great influence over the politics of turn of the 20th century Rhode Island. He exemplified rural bossism within the Republican Party, chicago had numerous colorful bosses, such as Democrats Hinky Dink and Bathhouse John. The Republican counterparts included Big Bill Thompson, who became mayor in the 1920s, of course the iconic figure was longtime mayor and chairman of the Cook County Democratic Committee Richard J. Daley. Daley had a voice in state and national Democratic politics. With a few exceptions in the Southwest, such as Phoenix, most large cities of 100,000 or more in the early 20th century had machine organizations, some had a major impact on state politics, such as E. H. Crump in Memphis, Tennessee. A few bosses had reputations as reformers, such as Frank Hague of Jersey City, Boss Tweed was played by Philip Bosco in the 1986 TV movie Liberty, and by Jim Broadbent as a major supporting character in the 2002 film Gangs of New York. Tweed is portrayed as a defender of the rights of minorities and helper of those in need in Pete Hamills 2003 novel Forever
15.
History of the United States Democratic Party
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The Democratic Party of the United States is the oldest voter-based political party in the world, tracing its heritage back to the 1820s. During the Second Party System, from 1832 to the mid-1850s, under presidents Andrew Jackson, Martin Van Buren, James K. Polk, both parties worked hard to build grassroots organizations and maximize the turnout of voters, which often reached 80 percent or 90 percent. Both parties used patronage extensively to finance their operations, which included emerging big city political machines as well as networks of newspapers. The Democratic party was a proponent for farmers across the country, urban workers and it was especially attractive to Irish immigrants who increasingly controlled the party machinery in the cities. The party was less attractive to businessmen, plantation owners, Evangelical Protestants. The party advocated westward expansion, Manifest Destiny, greater equality among all white men, from the start of the Democratic party which was in 1828, 6th President John Quincy Adams was a Democratic-Republican, and he was not a slave-holder. The 7th through 15th Presidents were either Democratic or Whig and all slaveholders, finally, 16th President Abraham Lincoln was a Republican and the only non-slave-holding President, other than John and John Quincy Adams. Thus in 1860 the Civil War began between the mostly-Republican North against the mostly-Democratic, slaveholding South, the Democrats elected only two presidents to four terms of office for 72 years, Grover Cleveland and Woodrow Wilson. The Party was split between the Bourbon Democrats, representing Eastern business interests, and the elements comprising poor farmers in the South. The agrarian element, marching behind the slogan of free silver, captured the Party in 1896, both Bryan and Wilson were leaders of the Progressive Movement, 1890s–1920s. Starting with 32nd President Franklin D. Eisenhower. S, important Democratic progressive/liberal leaders included Presidents, 33rd – Harry S Truman, and 36th – Lyndon B. Since the Presidential Election of 1976, Democrats have won five out of the last ten presidential elections, winning in the elections of 1976,1992 and 1996. The modern Democratic Party emerged in the 1830s from former factions of the Democratic-Republican Party and it was built by Martin Van Buren who assembled a cadre of politicians in every state behind war hero Andrew Jackson of Tennessee. The spirit of Jacksonian Democracy animated the party from the early 1830s to the 1850s, shaping the Second Party System, the new Democratic Party became a coalition of farmers, city-dwelling laborers, and Irish Catholics. Behind the party platforms, acceptance speeches of candidates, editorials, pamphlets and stump speeches, as Norton explains, The Democrats represented a wide range of views but shared a fundamental commitment to the Jeffersonian concept of an agrarian society. They viewed the government as the enemy of individual liberty. The 1824 corrupt bargain had strengthened their suspicion of Washington politics, Jacksonians feared the concentration of economic and political power. They believed that government intervention in the economy benefited special-interest groups and their definition of the proper role of government tended to be negative, and Jacksons political power was largely expressed in negative acts
16.
Political machine
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A political machine is a political organization in which an authoritative boss or small group commands the support of a corps of supporters and businesses, who receive rewards for their efforts. The machines power is based on the ability of the workers to get out the vote for their candidates on election day. Machines sometimes have a boss, often rely on patronage, the spoils system, behind-the-scenes control. Machines typically are organized on a permanent basis instead of an election or event. The term may have a pejorative referring to corrupt political machines. The term political machine dates back to the 20th century in the United States, Japans Liberal Democratic Party is often cited as another political machine, maintaining power in suburban and rural areas through its control of farm bureaus and road construction agencies. In Japan, the word jiban is the used for political machine. Hierarchy and discipline are hallmarks of political machines and it generally means strict organization, according to Safire. For it is not only a machine, it is an army, and in any organization as in any army, there must be discipline. Political patronage, while associated with political machines, is not essential to the definition for either Safire or Britannica. The phrase is considered derogatory because it suggests that the interest of the organization are placed before those of the general public, Machines are criticized as undemocratic and inevitably encouraging corruption. Political machines started as grass roots organizations to gain the patronage needed to win the modern election, having strong patronage, these clubs were the main driving force in gaining and getting out the straight party vote in the election districts. In the late 19th century, large cities in the United States—Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, Kansas City, New York City, Philadelphia, during this time cities experienced rapid growth under inefficient government. Benefits and problems both resulted from the rule of political machines and this system of political control—known as bossism—emerged particularly in the Gilded Age. A single powerful figure was at the center and was bound together to an organization of lesser figures by reciprocity in promoting financial and social self-interest. From 1872, Tammany had an Irish boss, however, Tammany Hall also served as an engine for graft and political corruption, perhaps most notoriously under William M. Boss Tweed in the mid-19th century. The head of the Ring is such a commander and he dispenses places, rewards the loyal, punishes the mutinous, concocts schemes, negotiates treaties. He generally avoids publicity, preferring the substance to the pomp of power, when asked if he was a boss, James Pendergast said simply, Ive been called a boss
17.
Politics
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Politics is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance — organized control over a human community, furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities. It is very often said that politics is about power, a political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to antiquity, with seminal works such as Platos Republic, Aristotles Politics. Formal Politics refers to the operation of a system of government and publicly defined institutions. Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics, many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives. Semi-formal Politics is Politics in government associations such as neighborhood associations, informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting ones daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is everywhere. The word comes from the same Greek word from which the title of Aristotles book Politics also derives, the book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as Polettiques, it became politics in Modern English. The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, the origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China, of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine right of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of Hereditary monarchy, the king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged, long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by, Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. Preserving the traditions of the social order, being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than an individual such as the king. The greatest of the subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland
18.
Erie Railroad
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It expanded west to Chicago with its 1941 merger with the former Atlantic and Great Western Railroad, also known as the New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio Railroad. Its mainline route proved influential in the development and economic growth of the Southern Tier, including such as Binghamton, Elmira. The Erie Railroad repair shops were located in Hornell, and were Hornells largest employer, Hornell was also where Eries main line split into two routes, one north to Buffalo and the other west to Cleveland. On October 17,1960, the Erie merged with the former rival Delaware, the Hornell repair shops were closed, and repair operations moved to the Lackawannas Scranton facility, this had a devastating effect on Hornell from which it has never recovered. Most of the former Erie line between Hornell and Binghamton was destroyed in 1972 by the floods of Hurricane Agnes, what was left of the Erie Lackawanna became part of Conrail in 1976. In 1983, Erie remnants became part of New Jersey Transit rail operations, today, most of the surviving Erie Railroad routes are operated by the Norfolk Southern Railway. The New York and Erie Rail Road was chartered April 24,1832 by Governor of New York, Enos T. Throop to connect the Hudson River at Piermont, north of New York City, west to Lake Erie at Dunkirk. On February 16,1841 the railroad was authorized to cross into the northeast corner of Pennsylvania on the west side of the Delaware River, construction began in 1836, and it opened from Piermont to Goshen on September 23,1841. After some financial problems, construction resumed in August 1846, further extensions opened to Binghamton December 27,1848, Owego January 1,1849, and the full length to Dunkirk May 19,1851. At Dunkirk steamboats continued across Lake Erie to Detroit, Michigan, the line was built as 6 ft wide gauge, this was believed to be a superior technology to standard gauge, providing more stability. In 1848 the railroad built the Starrucca Viaduct, a railroad bridge over Starrucca Creek in Lanesboro. The viaduct is 1,040 feet long,100 feet high and 25 feet wide at the top and it is the oldest stone rail bridge in Pennsylvania still in use. The Eries charter was amended April 8,1845 to allow the building of the Newburgh Branch, running from the line near Harriman north-northeast to Newburgh. The branch opened January 8,1850 and it was later used as a connection to the New York and New England Railroad via a car float operation across the river to Beacon, New York. Through ticketing began in 1851, with a change of cars at Ramapo due to the gauge break. In 1852 the Buffalo and Rochester Railroad, part of the New York Central Railroad system, the alignment from Buffalo to Attica was sold to the Eries Buffalo and New York City Railroad, a reorganization of the Attica and Hornellsville Railroad, and converted to the Eries wide gauge. The extension from Attica southeast to Hornellsville opened on November 17,1852, giving the Erie access to Buffalo, the Erie began operating the Chemung Railroad in 1850, this provided a branch from Horseheads north to Watkins. The Canandaigua and Elmira Railroad opened in 1851 as an extension from Watkins to Canandaigua and was operated by the Erie until 1853
19.
Political corruption
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Political corruption is the use of powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is related to their official duties, is done under color of law or involves trading in influence. Forms of corruption vary, but include bribery, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, parochialism, patronage, influence peddling, graft, Corruption may facilitate criminal enterprise such as drug trafficking, money laundering, and human trafficking, though is not restricted to these activities. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents, the activities that constitute illegal corruption differ depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, some political funding practices that are legal in one place may be illegal in another, in some cases, government officials have broad or ill-defined powers, which make it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions. Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually, a state of unrestrained political corruption is known as a kleptocracy, literally meaning rule by thieves. Some forms of corruption – now called institutional corruption – are distinguished from bribery, a similar problem of corruption arises in any institution that depends on financial support from people who have interests that may conflict with the primary purpose of the institution. In politics, corruption undermines democracy and good governance by flouting or even subverting formal processes and it violates a basic principle of republicanism regarding the centrality of civic virtue. More generally, corruption erodes the institutional capacity of government if procedures are disregarded, resources are siphoned off, Corruption undermines the legitimacy of government and such democratic values as trust and tolerance. Recent evidence suggests that variation in the levels of corruption amongst high-income democracies can vary depending on the level of accountability of decision-makers. Evidence from fragile states also shows that corruption and bribery can adversely impact trust in institutions, although some claim corruption reduces costs by cutting bureaucracy, the availability of bribes can also induce officials to contrive new rules and delays. Openly removing costly and lengthy regulations are better than allowing them to be bypassed by using bribes. Where corruption inflates the cost of business, it distorts the playing field, shielding firms with connections from competition. Corruption also generates economic distortion in the sector by diverting public investment into capital projects where bribes. Officials may increase the complexity of public sector projects to conceal or pave the way for such dealings. In Nigeria, for example, more than $400 billion was stolen from the treasury by Nigerias leaders between 1960 and 1999, University of Massachusetts Amherst researchers estimated that from 1970 to 1996, capital flight from 30 Sub-Saharan countries totaled $187bn, exceeding those nations external debts. In the case of Africa, one of the factors for this behavior was political instability, and this encouraged officials to stash their wealth abroad, out of reach of any future expropriation. In contrast, Asian administrations such as Suhartos New Order often took a cut on business transactions or provided conditions for development, through investment, law and order
20.
Lower East Side
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The Lower East Side is roughly bounded by the Bowery to the west, East Houston Street to the north, the F. D. R. Drive to the east and Canal Street to the south, the western boundary below Grand Street veers east off of the Bowery to approximately Essex Street. The neighborhood is bordered in the south and west by Chinatown – which extends north to roughly Grand Street, in the west by Nolita and in the north by the East Village. Historically, the Lower East Side referred to the area alongside the East River from about the Manhattan Bridge and Canal Street up to 14th Street and it included areas known today as East Village, Alphabet City, Chinatown, Bowery, Little Italy, and NoLIta. Parts of the East Village are still known as Loisaida, a Latino pronunciation of Lower East Side, Avenue C is known directly as Loisaida and is home to the Loisaida Festival every summer. Their main trail took approximately the route of Broadway, one encampment in the Lower East Side area, near Corlears Hook was called Rechtauck or Naghtogack. Around these farms were a number of enclaves of free or half-free Africans, one of the largest of these was located along the modern Bowery between Prince Street and Astor Place. These black farmers were some of the earliest settlers of the area, gradually, during the 17th century, there was an overall consolidation of the boweries and farms into larger parcels, and much of the Lower East side was then part of the Delancy farm. James Delanceys pre-Revolutionary farm east of post road leading from the city survives in the names Delancey Street, on the modern map of Manhattan, the Delancey farm is represented in the grid of streets from Division Street north to Houston Street. In response to the pressures of a city, Delancey began to survey streets in the southern part of the West Farm in the 1760s. The point of land on the East River now called Corlears Hook was also called Corlaers Hook under Dutch and British rule, and briefly Crown Point during British occupation in the Revolution. It was named after the schoolmaster Jacobus van Corlaer, who settled on this plantation that in 1638 was called by a Europeanized version of its Lenape name, Nechtans or Nechtanc. Corlaer sold the plantation to Wilhelmus Hendrickse Beekman, founder of the Beekman family of New York, the projection into the East River that retained Corlaers name was an important landmark for navigators for 300 years. On older maps and documents it is usually spelled Corlaers Hook, in the course of the 19th century they came to be called hookers. In 1833, Corlears Hook was the location of some of the first tenements built in New York City, the original location of Corlears Hook is now obscured by shoreline landfill. It was near the east end of the present pedestrian bridge over the FDR Drive near Cherry Street, the name is preserved in Corlears Hook Park at the intersection of Jackson and Cherry Streets along the East River Drive. The bulk of immigrants who came to New York City in the late 19th and early 20th centuries came to the Lower East Side, moving into crowded tenements there. By the 1840s, large numbers of German immigrants settled in the area, later, more radical artists such as the Beat poets and writers were drawn to the neighborhood – especially the parts which later became the East Village – by the inexpensive housing and cheap food
21.
Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
22.
Ulster Scots people
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The Ulster Scots, commonly known as Scots-Irish outside of Ireland, are an ethnic group in Ireland, found mostly in the Ulster region and to a lesser extent in the rest of Ireland. Scotch-Irish is a term for Ulster Scots who emigrated to North America. The first major influx of border English and Lowland Scots into Ulster came in the first two decades of the 17th century, first, before the Plantations of Ireland and even before the Flight of the Earls, there was the 1606 independent Scottish settlement in east Down and Antrim. It was led by adventurers James Hamilton and Sir Hugh Montgomery, Montgomery was granted half of Conn ONeills land as a reward for helping him escape from prison. Hamilton forced himself in on this deal when he discovered it and, starting in 1609, Scots began arriving into state-sponsored settlements as part of the Plantation of Ulster. This scheme was intended to confiscate all the lands of the Gaelic Irish nobility in Ulster, under this scheme, a substantial number of Scots were settled, mostly in the south and west of Ulster, on confiscated land. Native Irish civilians were massacred in return, by 1642, native Irish were in de facto control of much of the island under a Confederate Ireland, with about a third under the control of the opposition. However, many Ulster-Scots Presbyterians joined with the Irish in rebellion, the war itself, part of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, ended in the 1650s, with the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. At the head of the army, Oliver Cromwell conquered all of Ireland, after the Cromwellian war in Ireland was over, many of their soldiers settled permanently in eastern Ulster. Under the Act of Settlement 1652, all Catholic-owned land was confiscated and the British Plantations in Ireland, which had been destroyed by the rebellion of 1641, were restored. However, due to the Scots enmity to the English Parliament in the stages of the English Civil War. There was a generation of calm in Ireland until another war broke out in 1689, again due to political conflict closely aligned with ethnic, the majority of the Protestant colonists throughout Ireland but particularly in Ulster, fought on the Williamite side in the war against the Jacobites. Their victories at Derry, the Boyne and Aughrim are still commemorated by the Orange Order into the 21st century. Finally, another influx of Scots into northern Ireland occurred in the late 1690s. It was only after the 1690s that Scottish settlers and their descendants, for this reason, up until the 19th century, there was considerable disharmony between Dissenters and the ruling Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Just a few generations after arriving in Ulster, considerable numbers of Ulster-Scots emigrated to the North American colonies of Great Britain, between 1717 and 1775, an estimated 200,000 migrated to what became the United States of America. In the United States Census of 2000,4.3 million Americans claimed Scotch-Irish ancestry, over the centuries, Ulster Scots culture has contributed to the unique character of the counties in Northern Ireland. The Ulster Scots Agency points to industry, language, music, sport, religion, in particular, the origin of country and Western music was extensively from Ulster Scots folk music
23.
Cherry Street (Manhattan)
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Cherry Street is a one-way street in the New York City borough of Manhattan. It currently has two sections, mostly running along parks, public housing, co-op buildings, tenements, Cherry Streets eastern terminus is at the intersection of FDR Drives southbound service road and Grand Street, where it bends right and turns into Cherry Street. It then runs west for one block, along the edge of Corlears Hook Park. Then it is demapped for approximately two blocks, from Jackson Street to Gouvernour Street and Gouvernour Street to Montgomery Street and it continues west, running parallel to the FDR Drive and one block north of it, for three blocks, to Pike Street/Slip. Afterward, it runs west from Pike, under the Manhattan Bridge access ramp, one block to Market Street, Cherry Street then goes one block further west, parallel to, Cherry Street has its western terminus here, at its intersection with Catherine Street/Slip. The section between Pearl Street and Catherine Street was removed due to development, starting with the building of the Brooklyn Bridge in the 1860s. The removed section now contains the Alfred E. Smith Houses, the section between Jackson Street and Montgomery Street, was also removed and demapped to provide for Vladeck Park. Vladeck Park was subsequently replaced with Vladeck Houses, a housing building complex project. The two demappings left a one block stretch of Cherry at the eastern end, from Montgomery to the FDR Drive South service lane. Prior to the constructions of the FDR, both Cherry Street and Grand Street extended a distance further east than they now do. Cherry Street was renamed for Firefighter Robert Foti in honor if his sacrifice on September 11, loockermans heirs sold the land in 1672 for $60.00. Richard Sackett acquired part of it, and opened a beer garden and it continued to serve as such for the next three Presidents and, in April and May 1789 served as the first Executive Mansion of the President of the United States and Mrs. Martha Washington. The mansion that belonged to Col. Samuel Osgood, the first Postmaster General of the United States and this house on Cherry Street, later demolished, was the first gas-lit house in Manhattan, owned by Samuel Leggett, a founder of Con Edison. The house was serviced via gas pipe from Pearl Street, though Cherry Street once ran through to Pearl Street, it has since been terminated at Catherine Street due to the Civic Square development. In 1818, Henry Sands Brooks opened H. & D. H. Brooks & Co. In 1850, his three sons, Elisha, Daniel, and John, inherited the business and renamed the company Brooks Brothers. In the 1930s, the first superproject development proposal in New York City was initiated for the Cherry Street area of Corlears Hook, the Vladeck Houses,24 six-story buildings, built on the former Vladeck Park, were completed in 1940. They were a precursor to the larger Unit Plans for public housing that predominated in later decades, a $50 million renovation of the Vladeck Houses began in 1998
24.
Quakers
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Quakers are members of a historically Christian group of religious movements generally known as the Religious Society of Friends. They include those with evangelical, holiness, liberal, and traditional Quaker understandings of Christianity, to differing extents, the different movements that make up the Religious Society of Friends/Friends Church avoid creeds and hierarchical structures. In 2007, there were about 359,000 adult Quakers, in 2012, there were 377,055 adult Quakers. Some meetings of both types have Recorded Ministers in their meetings—Friends recognised for their gift of vocal ministry, the first Quakers lived in mid-17th century England. The movement arose from the Legatine-Arians and other dissenting Protestant groups, some of these early Quaker ministers were women. They emphasized a personal and direct experience of Christ, acquired through both direct religious experience and the reading and studying of the Bible. Quakers focused their private life on developing behaviour and speech reflecting emotional purity, in the past, Quakers were known for their use of thee as an ordinary pronoun, refusal to participate in war, plain dress, refusal to swear oaths, opposition to slavery, and teetotalism. & J. Clark and the big three British confectionery makers Cadbury, Rowntree and Frys, and philanthropic efforts, including abolition of slavery, prison reform, during and after the English Civil War many dissenting Christian groups emerged, including the Seekers and others. A young man named George Fox was dissatisfied with the teachings of the Church of England and he had a vision on Pendle Hill in Lancashire, England, in which he believed that the Lord let me see in what places he had a great people to be gathered. Following this he travelled around England, the Netherlands, and Barbados preaching and teaching with the aim of converting new adherents to his faith, the central theme of his Gospel message was that Christ has come to teach his people himself. His followers considered themselves to be the restoration of the true Christian church, in 1650, Fox was brought before the magistrates Gervase Bennet and Nathaniel Barton, on a charge of religious blasphemy. According to George Foxs autobiography, Bennet was the first that called us Quakers and it is thought that George Fox was referring to Isaiah 66,2 or Ezra 9,4. Thus, the name Quaker began as a way of ridiculing George Foxs admonition, Quakerism gained a considerable following in England and Wales, and the numbers increased to a peak of 60,000 in England and Wales by 1680. This was relaxed after the Declaration of Indulgence and stopped under the Act of Toleration 1689, with the restructuring of the family and household came new roles for women, Fox and Fell viewed the Quaker mother as essential to developing holy conversation in her children and husband. Quaker women were responsible for the spirituality of the larger community, coming together in meetings that regulated marriage. The persecution of Quakers in North America began in 1656 when English Quaker missionaries Mary Fisher and they were considered heretics because of their insistence on individual obedience to the Inner Light. They were imprisoned and banished by the Massachusetts Bay Colony and their books were burned, and most of their property was confiscated. They were imprisoned in terrible conditions, then deported, in 1660, English Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged on Boston Common for repeatedly defying a Puritan law banning Quakers from the colony
25.
Odd Fellows
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Odd Fellows or Oddfellows, also Odd Fellowship or Oddfellowship, is an international fraternity consisting of lodges first documented in 1730 in London. The first, Loyal Aristarcus Lodge No,9, connotes earlier ones in the 18th century. Notwithstanding, convivial meetings were held in much revelry and, often as not, names of several British pubs still today suggest past Odd Fellows affiliations. Early known Odd Fellows from the time include John Wilkes and Sir George Savile, 8th Baronet, advocating civil liberties and reliefs, political repressions such as the Unlawful Oaths Act and the Unlawful Societies Act, resulted in neutral amalgamation of the Grand United Order of Oddfellows in 1798. Henceforth, the fraternity has remained religiously and politically independent, George IV of the United Kingdom admitted in 1780, was the first documented of many Odd Fellows to also attend freemasonry, yet with both societies remaining mutually independent. In 1810, further instigations led to the establishment of the Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity in England, Odd Fellows spread overseas, including formally chartering the fraternity in the United States in 1819. Likewise, by the century, the Independent Order of Oddfellows Manchester Unity become the largest and richest fraternal organisation in the United Kingdom. To this day, beyond recreational activities, Odd Fellows promote philanthropy, in total, members of all international branches combined are estimated in the millions worldwide. Several theories aim to explain the background of the name Odd Fellows. In the 18th century United Kingdom, major trades were organised in guilds or other forms of syndicates, one theory has it that odd fellows, people who exercised unusual, miscellaneous odd trades, eventually joined together to form a larger group of odd fellows. The name was adopted at a time when the severance into sects and classes was so wide that persons aiming at social union. Possibly, it met a mixed reaction from the classes, who may have seen them as a source of revenue by taxes. Any suggestion of history before the 18th century is considered mere speculation, the Odd Fellows are one of the earliest and oldest fraternal societies, but their early history is obscure and largely undocumented. Due to increased trade during the Middle Ages, guilds came to make up a part of the urban culture, hence, people of an odd assortment of trades speculatively brought the background of the early history of Odd Fellows. When the English King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church, the guilds were viewed by him as supporting the Pope, queen Elizabeth I took from the guilds the responsibility for training apprentices, and by the end of her reign, most guilds had been suppressed. Although some of these legends are at best dubious, the evolution from the guilds is more reliably documented, by the 13th century, the tradesmens guilds had become established and prosperous. During the 14th century, with the growth of trade, the guild Masters moved to protect their power by restricting access to the guilds, in response, the less experienced Fellows set up their own rival guilds. The exact origin of Oddfellowship is involved in obscurity and it must have had a beginning, but just when and where, no historian has ever been able to ascertain
26.
Freemasonry
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The degrees of freemasonry retain the three grades of medieval craft guilds, those of Apprentice, Journeyman or fellow, and Master Mason. These are the degrees offered by Craft Freemasonry, members of these organisations are known as Freemasons or Masons. There are additional degrees, which vary with locality and jurisdiction, the basic, local organisational unit of Freemasonry is the Lodge. The Lodges are usually supervised and governed at the level by a Grand Lodge or Grand Orient. There is no international, worldwide Grand Lodge that supervises all of Freemasonry, each Grand Lodge is independent, modern Freemasonry broadly consists of two main recognition groups. Continental Freemasonry is now the term for the liberal jurisdictions who have removed some, or all. The Masonic Lodge is the organisational unit of Freemasonry. The Lodge meets regularly to conduct the formal business of any small organisation. In addition to business, the meeting may perform a ceremony to confer a Masonic degree or receive a lecture, at the conclusion of the meeting, the Lodge might adjourn for a formal dinner, or festive board, sometimes involving toasting and song. The bulk of Masonic ritual consists of degree ceremonies, candidates for Freemasonry are progressively initiated into Freemasonry, first in the degree of Entered Apprentice. Some time later, in a ceremony, they will be passed to the degree of Fellowcraft. In all of ceremonies, the candidate is entrusted with passwords, signs. Another ceremony is the installation of the Master and officers of the Lodge. In some jurisdictions Installed Master is valued as a separate rank, in other jurisdictions, the grade is not recognised, and no inner ceremony conveys new secrets during the installation of a new Master of the Lodge. Most Lodges have some sort of calendar, allowing Masons. Often coupled with events is the obligation placed on every Mason to contribute to charity. This occurs at both Lodge and Grand Lodge level, Masonic charities contribute to many fields from education to disaster relief. These private local Lodges form the backbone of Freemasonry, and a Freemason will necessarily have been initiated into one of these, there also exist specialist Lodges where Masons meet to celebrate anything from sport to Masonic research
27.
Volunteer fireman
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See also the Firefighter article and its sections regarding VFDs in other countries. A volunteer fire department is a fire department composed of volunteers who perform fire suppression and they are usually used as support to help career firefighters work at fires. The first large organized force of firefighters was the Corps of Vigiles, the term volunteer contrasts with career firefighters who are fully compensated for their services. Some volunteer firefighters may be part of a fire department that utilizes both full-time and volunteer firefighters. In this way, a station can be staffed 24 hours between volunteer and career firefighters, both provide essential staffing on apparatuses during their assigned staffing hours. The term volunteer may also be used in reference to a group of part-time or on-call firefighters who may have other occupations when not engaged in occasional firefighting, an on-call firefighter may also volunteer time for other non-emergency duties as well. Volunteer firefighters go through some of the training as career personnel do. When volunteers join a department, they sign up for a Firefighter class that teaches them what they need to know to become a volunteer firefighter, throughout Australia there are many volunteer firefighting agencies which are set up by the individual states or territories. New South Wales is serviced by two statutory firefighting authorities and these are the New South Wales Rural Fire Service and Fire and Rescue NSW. Fire and Rescue NSW has firefighting and rescue responsibilities for the cities, metropolitan areas. It also has the responsibility for all land based HAZMAT incidents as well as inland waterway based HAZMAT incidents, the NSWRFS is the volunteer firefighting service in NSW and consists of over 70,000 volunteers and has responsibility for over 90% of the land area in NSW. Although most of this is bush and grass land, the NSWRFS also serve smaller and regional communities that are not covered by Fire, despite some overlapping in firefighting coverage/resources by both services it should be noted that the NSWRFS does not provide rescue or HAZMAT services in the State. In Victoria, there are three main fire fighting organisations, Metropolitan Fire and Emergency Services Board, Country Fire Authority and The Department of Environment, Water, Land, and Planning. The CFA is a volunteer and community based fire and emergency services organisation that is made up of around 61,000 members, of these members, some 59,000 are volunteers See CFA Website. Their roles range from fire, rescue, HAZMAT, to support roles. In Western Australia, fire fighting is organised by the Department of Fire, in Western Australia there is an estimated 31,000 BFS Members among 585 Brigades, and 2,000 VFRS Members among 88 Brigades. In South Australia, there are two legislated fire fighting organisations, the South Australian Metropolitan Fire Service and the South Australian Country Fire Service. The SACFS is staffed by approximately 13,500 volunteer fire fighters, in most rural fire departments, the staff consists only of volunteers
28.
Bengal tiger
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The Bengal tiger is the most numerous tiger subspecies. By 2011, the population was estimated at fewer than 2,500 individuals with a decreasing trend. None of the Tiger Conservation Landscapes within the Bengal tigers range is considered enough to support an effective population size of 250 adult individuals. Since 2010, it is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, by 2010, Bengal tiger populations in India were estimated at 1, 706–1,909. As of 2016, they had increased to an estimated 3,890 individuals. Bengal tigers number around 440 in Bangladesh and 163–253 in Nepal, prior censuses placed the tiger population in Bhutan at around 65–75 individuals. In 2015, it was estimated that 103 Bengal tigers were living in the country, the Bengal, Caspian and Siberian tigers, and lion rank among the biggest cats. It is the animal of both India and Bangladesh. The Bengal tigers coat is yellow to orange, with stripes ranging from dark brown to black, the belly and the interior parts of the limbs are white. The white tiger is a mutant of the Bengal tiger. However, it is not to be mistaken as an occurrence of albinism, in fact, there is only one fully authenticated case of a true albino tiger, and none of black tigers, with the possible exception of one dead specimen examined in Chittagong in 1846. Male Bengal tigers have a total length of 270 to 310 cm including the tail. The tail is typically 85 to 110 cm long, and on average, the weight of males ranges from 180 to 258 kg, while that of the females ranges from 100 to 160 kg. The smallest recorded weights for Bengal tigers are from the Bangladesh Sundarbans, Bengal tigers have exceptionally stout teeth, and the canines are the longest among all living felids, measuring from 7.5 to 10 cm in length. Bengal tigers are defined by three distinct mitochondrial nucleotide sites and 12 unique microsatellite alleles, the pattern of genetic variation in the Bengal tiger corresponds to the premise that they arrived in India approximately 12,000 years ago. Bengal tigers may weigh up to 325 kg and reach a head, several scientists indicated that adult male Bengal tigers from Nepal, Bhutan, and Assam, Uttarakhand and West Bengal in northern India consistently attain more than 227 kg of body weight. Seven adult males captured in Chitwan National Park in the early 1970s had a weight of 235 kg ranging from 200 to 261 kg. Males from northern India are nearly as large as Siberian tigers with a greatest length of skull of 332 to 376 mm, verifiable Sundarban tiger weights are not found in any scientific literature
29.
Whig Party (United States)
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The Whig Party was a political party active in the middle of the 19th century in the United States. Four US presidents belonged to the party while in office and it emerged in the 1830s as the immediate successor to the National Republican and Anti-Masonic Parties, and was also rooted in the tradition of the Federalist Party. Along with the rival Democratic Party, it was central to the Second Party System from the early 1840s to the mid-1860s and it originally formed in opposition to the policies of President Andrew Jackson and his Democratic Party. In particular, the Whigs supported the supremacy of the US Congress over the Presidency and favored a program of modernization, banking and it appealed to entrepreneurs, planters, reformers and the emerging urban middle class, but had little appeal to farmers or unskilled workers. It included many active Protestants, and voiced a moralistic opposition to the Jacksonian Indian removal, Party founders chose the Whig name to echo the American Whigs of the 18th century who fought for independence. The underlying political philosophy of the American Whig Party was not directly related to the British Whig party, the Whig Party nominated several presidential candidates in 1836. General William Henry Harrison of Ohio was nominated in 1840, former Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky in 1844, another war hero, General Winfield Scott of New Jersey was the Whig Partys last presidential nominee, in 1852. In its two decades of existence, the Whig Party had two of its candidates, Harrison and Taylor, elected president, John Tyler succeeded to the presidency after Harrisons death in 1841, but was expelled from the party later that year. Millard Fillmore, who became president after Taylors death in 1850, was the last Whig president, the party fell apart because of the internal tension over the expansion of slavery to the territories. Most Whig Party leaders eventually quit politics or changed parties, the northern voter base mostly gravitated to the new Republican Party. In the South, most joined the Know Nothing Party, which unsuccessfully ran Fillmore in the 1856 presidential election, the Constitutional Union Party experienced significant success from conservative former Whigs in the Upper South during the 1860 presidential election. Whig ideology as a policy orientation persisted for decades and played a role in shaping the modernizing policies of the state governments during Reconstruction. The name Whig derived from a term that Patriots used to refer to themselves during the American Revolution and it indicated hostility to the British Sovereign, and despite the identical name, did not directly derive from the British Whig Party. The American Whigs were modernizers who saw President Andrew Jackson as a man on horseback with a reactionary opposition to the forces of social, economic. Casting their enemy as King Andrew, they sought to identify themselves as opponents of governmental overreaching. Despite the apparent unity of Jeffersons Democratic-Republicans from 1800 to 1824, as Jackson purged his opponents, vetoed internal improvements, and killed the Second Bank of the United States, alarmed local elites fought back. In 1831, Henry Clay re-entered the Senate and started planning a new party and he defended national rather than sectional interests. His Jacksonian opponents, however, distrusted the government and opposed all federal aid for internal improvements
30.
Albany, New York
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Albany is the capital of the U. S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. Roughly 150 miles north of New York City, Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River, the population of the City of Albany was 97,856 according to the 2010 census. With a Census-estimated population of 98,4242013, the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States. Fortune 500 companies that have offices in Albany include American Express, J. P. Morgan and Chase, Merrill Lynch, General Electric, Verizon, Goldman Sachs, International Paper, and Key Bank. In the 21st century, the Capital District has emerged as an anchor of Tech Valley. This was the first European settlement in the state, settled by Dutch colonists who built Fort Nassau for fur trading in 1614 and they formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples, two major Native American nations in the region. The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange, in 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements, renaming the city as Albany, in honor of the then Duke of Albany, the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The city was chartered in 1686 under English rule. It became the capital of New York State in 1797, following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War, Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies, and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. Its charter is possibly the longest-running instrument of government in the Western Hemisphere. During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th, Albany was a center of trade, Albanys main exports at the time were beer, lumber, published works, and ironworks. Beginning in 1810, Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States, in the 20th century, the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world, the precursor of todays Albany International Airport. During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital and it marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities. In the early 21st century, Albany has experienced growth in the high-technology industry, Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century, with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services. The city has rebounded from the decline of the 1970s and 1980s. Albany is known for its history, commerce, culture, architecture. Albany won the All-America City Award in both 1991 and 2009, Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. The Hudson River area was inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Mohican, who called it Pempotowwuthut-Muhhcanneuw
31.
New York City Sheriff's Office
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The New York City Sheriffs Office, officially the Office of the Sheriff of the City of New York, is the primary civil law enforcement agency of New York City. The Sheriffs Office is a division of the New York City Department of Finance, the Sheriffs Office is headed by a sheriff, who is appointed to the position by the mayor, unlike most sheriffs in the State of New York who are elected officials. The sheriff is the civil law enforcement officer for the City of New York. The sheriff holds jurisdiction over all five county-boroughs within the city, deputy sheriffs and criminal investigators of various ranks carry out the daily law enforcement duties of the Sheriffs Office. New York City Marshals perform similar civil enforcement duties, the New York City Sheriffs Office originated in 1626 as the New York County Sheriffs Office. Originally each of the citys five county-boroughs had their own sheriff, like most sheriffs in the United States, these office holders were elected to their positions. Sheriffs were compensated by charging fees for enforcing civil orders in addition to keeping a percentage of what their office would seize. Although fees and poundage would still be charged by sheriffs, the monies would be retained for their respective countys use only, in 1938, the first female deputy sheriff was appointed. On January 1,1942, each of the five county sheriffs offices were merged to become the Office of the Sheriff of the City of New York. The citys five county sheriffs were abolished and replaced with borough chief deputies reporting to the now mayorally-appointed city-wide sheriff, a contemporary report of the changes emphasized professionalization of the office, which had become notorious for employing political patronage beneficiaries. The new top five commanders were all graduates and lawyers like their chief. At the same time, the sheriffs former responsibility for running prison systems was transferred to the newly established New York City Department of Correction, Finance Department spokesman Owen Stone said We had red and white. We changed it to blue and yellow, because its more in line with law enforcement. In order to be appointed as deputies, candidates must first pass a service entrance examination. Candidates must also pass medical and psychological examinations, physical ability tests, in addition to deputy sheriffs, the Sheriffs Office employs sworn criminal investigators and an assortment of civilian support personnel. As of June 2014, Joseph Fucito was appointed the 121st Sheriff of the City of New York, Sheriff Fucito has over 25 years of experience in the New York City Sheriffs Office, and came up through the ranks of deputy sheriff. He has commanded a variety of units and county offices. The New York City Sheriffs Office is composed of three sections, Operations, Intelligence, and Support, Operations Section The Operations Section is composed of the five county field offices and certain units working city-wide
32.
New York County District Attorney
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The New York County District Attorney is the elected district attorney for New York County, New York. The office is responsible for the prosecution of violations of New York state laws, the current district attorney is Cyrus Vance, Jr. From 1801 to 1813, New York County was part of the First District, which included the counties of New York, Kings, Queens, Richmond, at that time, Queens included current-day Nassau County and Westchester included The Bronx. In 1818, each county in the state became its own district. From 1874 to 1895, the New York County included the West Bronx, on January 1,1914, the Bronx became a separate county with its own district attorney. Until 1822, the attorney was appointed by the Council of Appointment. The term was three years, beginning on January 1 and ending on December 31, the Consolidation Charter of 1896 extended the term of the incumbent John R. Fellows, who had been elected in 1893 to a three-year term by a year. Since the City election of 1897, the D. A, the long-running television series Law & Order and its spin-offs depict the prosecution of criminal suspects by lawyers of the New York County District Attorneys office. The district attorneys depicted in the franchise are Adam Schiff, Nora Lewin, Arthur Branch and Jack McCoy
33.
Thomas Nast
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Thomas Nast was a German-born American caricaturist and editorial cartoonist considered to be the Father of the American Cartoon. He was the scourge of Democratic Representative Boss Tweed and the Tammany Hall Democratic party political machine, among his notable works were the creation of the modern version of Santa Claus and the political symbol of the elephant for the Republican Party. Contrary to popular belief, Nast did not create Uncle Sam, Columbia, or the Democratic donkey, Nast was associated with the magazine Harpers Weekly from 1859 to 1860 and from 1862 until 1886. Albert Boime argues that, As a political cartoonist, Thomas Nast wielded more influence than any other artist of the 19th century. He not only enthralled a vast audience with boldness and wit, both Lincoln and Grant acknowledged his effectiveness in their behalf, and as a crusading civil reformer he helped destroy the corrupt Tweed Ring that swindled New York City of millions of dollars. Indeed, his impact on American public life was formidable enough to affect the outcome of every presidential election during the period 1864 to 1884. Nast was born in the barracks of Landau, Germany, the last child of Appolonia and he had a sister named Andie, two other siblings died before he was born. His father, a trombonist in the Bavarian 9th regiment band, in 1846, Joseph Nast left Landau, enlisting first on a French man-of-war and subsequently on an American ship. He sent his wife and children to New York City, Nast attended school in New York City from the age of six to fourteen. He did poorly at his lessons, but his passion for drawing was apparent from an early age, in 1854, he was enrolled for about a year of study with Alfred Fredericks and Theodore Kaufmann, and then at the school of the National Academy of Design. In 1856, he started working as a draftsman for Frank Leslies Illustrated Newspaper and his drawings appeared for the first time in Harpers Weekly on March 19,1859, when he illustrated a report exposing police corruption. A few months later, as artist for The Illustrated London News, Nasts cartoons and articles about the Garibaldi military campaign to unify Italy captured the popular imagination in the U. S. In February 1861, he arrived back in New York, in September of that year, he married Sarah Edwards, whom he had met two years earlier. He left the New York Illustrated News to work again, briefly, in 1862, he became a staff illustrator for Harpers Weekly. In his first years with Harpers, Nast became known especially for compositions that appealed to the sentiment of the viewer, one of his most celebrated cartoons was Compromise with the South, directed against those in the North who opposed the prosecution of the American Civil War. He was known for drawing battlefields in border and southern states and these attracted great attention, and Nast was called by President Abraham Lincoln our best recruiting sergeant. Nasts cartoons frequently had numerous sidebars and panels with intricate subplots to the main cartoon, a Sunday feature could provide hours of entertainment and highlight social causes. After 1870, Nast favored simpler compositions featuring a central image
34.
Harper's Weekly
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Harpers Weekly, A Journal of Civilization was an American political magazine based in New York City. Published by Harper & Brothers from 1857 until 1916, it featured foreign and domestic news, fiction, essays on many subjects and it carried extensive coverage of the American Civil War, including many illustrations of events from the war. During its most influential period, it was the forum of the political cartoonist Thomas Nast, along with his brothers James, John, and Wesley, Fletcher Harper began the publishing company Harper & Brothers in 1825. Following the successful example of the Illustrated London News, Harper started publishing Harpers Magazine in 1850, in 1857, his company began publishing Harpers Weekly in New York City. By 1860 the circulation of the Weekly had reached 200,000, among the recurring features were the political cartoons of Thomas Nast, who was recruited in 1862 and worked with the Weekly for more than 20 years. Nast was a feared caricaturist, and is called the father of American political cartooning. He was the first to use an elephant as the symbol of the Republican Party and he also drew the legendary character of Santa Claus, his version became strongly associated with the figure, who was popularized as part of Christmas customs in the late nineteenth century. Harpers Weekly was the most widely read journal in the United States throughout the period of the Civil War, so as not to upset its wide readership in the South, Harpers took a moderate editorial position on the issue of slavery. Publications that supported abolition referred to it as Harpers Weakly, the Weekly had supported the Stephen A. Douglas presidential campaign against Abraham Lincoln, but as the American Civil War broke out, it fully supported Lincoln and the Union. The photograph inspired many free blacks in the North to enlist, some of the most important articles and illustrations of the time were Harpers reporting on the war. Besides renderings by Homer and Nast, the magazine also published illustrations by Theodore R. Davis, Henry Mosler, and the brothers Alfred and William Waud. In 1863, George William Curtis, one of the founders of the Republican Party, became the editor of the magazine. His editorials advocated civil service reform, low tariffs, and adherence to the gold standard, after the war, Harpers Weekly more openly supported the Republican Party in its editorial positions, and contributed to the election of Ulysses S. Grant in 1868 and 1872. It supported the Radical Republican position on Reconstruction, in the 1870s, the cartoonist Thomas Nast began an aggressive campaign in the journal against the corrupt New York political leader William Boss Tweed. Nast turned down a $500,000 bribe to end his attack, Tweed was arrested in 1873 and convicted of fraud. Nast and Harpers also played an important part in securing Rutherford B. Hayes 1876 presidential election, later on Hayes remarked that Nast was the most powerful, single-handed aid had. After the election, Nasts role in the magazine diminished considerably, since the late 1860s, Nast and George W. Curtis had frequently differed on political matters and particularly on the role of cartoons in political discourse. Harpers publisher Fletcher Harper strongly supported Nast in his disputes with Curtis, in 1877, Harper died, and his nephews, Joseph W. Harper Jr. and John Henry Harper, assumed control of the magazine
35.
Brownstone
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Brownstone is a brown Triassic-Jurassic sandstone which was once a popular building material. The term is used in the United States to refer to a townhouse clad in this material. In the 19th century, Basswood Island, Wisconsin, was the site of a run by the Bass Island Brownstone Company which operated from 1868 into the 1890s. The stone comes from the Hummelstown Quarry in Hummelstown, Pennsylvania, the Hummelstown Quarry is the largest provider of brownstone on the east coast. Typically the stone was transported out of Hummelstown through the Brownstone, connecticut River Brownstone, is also very popular. C. and Baltimore. Quarries from the Passaic Formation in northern New Jersey once supplied most of the used in New York City. The Manhattan neighborhood of the Upper West Side, too, retains many brownstones, Brownstones also predominate in some Hudson County neighborhoods directly across the Hudson River from Manhattan, especially in Hoboken and around Van Vorst Park and Hamilton Park in Jersey City. New York City brownstones usually cost several million dollars to purchase, a typical architectural detail of brownstones in and around New York City is the stoop, a steep staircase rising from the street to the entrance on what amounts to almost the second-floor level. This design was seen as hygienic at the many were built. Lately, it has become fashionable to use the term brownstone to refer to almost any townhouse from a certain period, many townhouses in Boerum Hill, Brooklyn, for example, are basically built of brick, some having concrete masonry cladding to make them resemble actual stone. The Rittenhouse Square and Fairmount, Philadelphia neighborhoods of Philadelphia also include examples of brownstone architecture, many of these homes have been converted into apartment buildings. Back Bay, Boston, is known for its Victorian brownstone homes – considered some of the examples of 19th-century urban design in the United States. Although some brownstones exist in Chicago, a similar residential form known as greystones are by far more prevalent, a greystone is a type of residential structure that utilizes Indiana limestone for its facade, regardless of its overall architectural style. As in Brooklyn, there exists a Greystone Belt in Chicago, with numbers of such structures located in the south. It is estimated that around 30,000 of Chicagos greystones built between 1890 and 1930 are still standing, Brownstone, also known as freestone due to its durability and advantages as a building material, was used by early Quakers in Pennsylvania to construct stone mills and mill houses. In central Pennsylvania, some 1700s-era structures survive, including one used as a residence. Archived from the original on 2006-08-13, cS1 maint, BOT, original-url status unknown in Wisconsin. Website devoted to the Weser brownstone quarries from Germany being imported into the US, after Fight, a Brooklyn Brownstones Costly Rescue, The New York Times Website devoted to the colonial-era Quaker Mill House in Pennsylvania
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