1.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
United States Senate
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United States Senate
United States Senate
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Seal of the U.S. Senate
United States Senate
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The Senate side of the
United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.
United States Senate
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A typical Senate desk
2.
Robert E. Withers
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Robert Enoch Withers was an American physician, military officer, newspaperman, politician diplomat, and Freemason. He represented Virginia in the United States Senate and served as U. S, Withers was born near Lynchburg, Virginia. He attended private schools and then graduated from the department of the University of Virginia at Charlottesville in 1841. He commenced practice in Campbell County, in 1858, Withers moved to Danville, Virginia. While studying at university, Withers was inducted into the freemasons, during the American Civil War, he entered the Confederate Army in early 1861 as the major of the 18th Virginia Infantry. He was subsequently promoted to colonel of the regiment, which he commanded until retired because of numerous disabling wounds and he was then appointed to command the Confederate military post at Danville, an administrative position he held until the close of the war. Following the Civil War, Withers moved back to Lynchburg in 1866 and established the Lynchburg News and he was nominated for Governor of Virginia by that party, but withdrew from the race. He was an elector on the Democratic ticket in 1872. He was elected the 11th Lieutenant Governor of Virginia in 1873 and he was elected as a Democrat to the United States Senate and served from March 4,1875, to March 4,1881. He served as the chairman of the Committee on Pensions in the 46th Congress, Withers was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1881, losing to former Civil War general William Mahone of the Readjuster Party. He was appointed by President Grover Cleveland as the United States consul at Hong Kong, China, from 1885–89 and he returned to the United States and retired to Wytheville, Virginia. During his retirement, he comprised his personal autobiography, Memoirs of an Octogenarian and he was a distant relative of figures such as George Washington and Robert E. Lee, as well as a direct descendant of Nicolas Martiau, founder of Yorktown, Virginia. Withers died at the Ingleside plantation in Wytheville on September 21,1907 and he was buried in the East End Cemetery. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Robert E. Withers
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Robert E. Withers
3.
John W. Daniel
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John Warwick Daniel was an American lawyer, author, and Democratic politician from Lynchburg, Virginia who promoted the Lost Cause of the Confederacy. Daniel served in both houses of the Virginia General Assembly, then represented Virginia in both the U. S. House and then multiple terms in the U. S. Senate. Daniel was sometimes called the Lame Lion of Lynchburg, alluding to his permanent disability incurred during the Battle of the Wilderness, while serving as a major in the Confederate Army. John W. Daniel was born in Lynchburg, Virginia, the son of Judge William Daniel and his wife Sarah Ann Warwick Daniel and his mother died after the birth of his sister Sarah, when John was three years old. Judge Daniel soon announced the sale of all or part of the former estate, young John was raised by his maternal grandparents and attended private schools, including Dr. Gessner Harrison’s University School. In 1869, John W. Daniel married Julia Elizabeth Murrell and their youngest son died in a riding accident in 1894, but John Warwick Daniel and Edward Murrell Daniel survived their parents. He was wounded during the First Battle of Bull Run, while convalescing, Daniel was transferred to the 11th Virginia Infantry, and earned promotions to first lieutenant and later adjutant. Daniel served in the Confederate Army until 1864, eventually attaining the rank of major, on March 24,1863, he became a staff officer for fellow Lynchburger and Major General Jubal A. Early, under whom he served in the Gettysburg Campaign, among others. In May 1864, during the Battle of the Wilderness, a ball shattered Daniels femur. He thereafter had to use a crutch to walk, and resigned his commission, Daniel studied law at the University of Virginia at Charlottesville and was admitted to the bar in 1866. He joined his fathers practice at Lynchburg, despite being crippled from his war injury, he enjoyed oratory, particularly memorializing the Confederate war effort and excoriating Congressional Reconstruction and Republicans. He entered politics and Campbell County voters elected him as a member of the Conservative Partyto represent them alongside Rufus Murrell, burkholder in the House of Delegates from 1869–72. The Funding Act which the legislature had passed in 1871 proved a major issue in Virginia for the next decade. Daniel became one of its main supporters, others, known as Readjusters advocated reducing payments on the bonds issued in 1871 which reaffirmed the debts Virginia had acquired before the Civil War to construct railroads, bridges, etc. Although the bonds traded at far below face value, they could be used at face value to pay state taxes, also, the interest rate was kept at the prewar level, which was much higher than postwar interest rates. In 1876, Daniel published his A Treatise on the Law of Negotiable Instruments and that year he also campaigned for Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic presidential candidate. However, Campbell county voters had elected Daniel to the senate the previous year. In 1877, Daniel became one of the leading Conservative orators against the leading Readjuster candidate, Mahone ultimately withdrew his gubernatorial candidacy in favor of relatively unknown Frederick W. M. Holliday of Winchester, who was elected
John W. Daniel
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John Warwick Daniel
John W. Daniel
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John Marshall Warwick House plaque, Lynchburg VA, November 2008
4.
Southampton County, Virginia
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Southampton County is a county located in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 18,570, during the 17th century, shortly after establishment of Jamestown, Virginia in 1607, English settlers explored and began settling the areas adjacent to Hampton Roads. In 1634, the English colony of Virginia was divided into eight shires with a population of approximately 5,000 inhabitants. Most of Southampton County was originally part of Warrosquyoake Shire, the shires were soon to be called counties. Warrosquyoake Shire was renamed Isle of Wight County in 1637, in 1749, the portion of Isle of Wight County west of the Blackwater River became Southampton County. Later, part of Nansemond County, which is now the Independent City of Suffolk, was added to Southampton County, in August 1831, enslaved Nat Turner led a slave rebellion of Black slaves in Southampton County against local Whites. When the rebellion was crushed, Turner and his rebels were executed. In the response to the uprising, white militias and mobs lynched approximately 200 blacks in Southampton County. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 602 square miles. Southampton County is bounded by the Blackwater River on the east, the Nottoway River flows through the center of the county. All three rivers are tributaries of the Chowan River, which flows south into Albemarle Sound, North Carolina, the Blackwater River separates Southampton County from Isle of Wight County, and the Meherrin River separates it from Greensville County. US58 US258 US460 SR35 SR186 SR189 As of the census of 2010, there were 18,570 people,6,279 households, the population density was 29 people per square mile. There were 7,058 housing units at a density of 12 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 60. 4% White,37. 2% Black or African American,0. 3% Native American,0. 2% Asian,0. 0% Pacific Islander,0. 3% from other races, and 1. 4% from two or more races. 1. 1% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,24. 90% of all households were made up of individuals and 11. 10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.53 and the family size was 3.02. In the county, the population was out with 22. 70% under the age of 18,8. 80% from 18 to 24,29. 20% from 25 to 44,25. 00% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 111.70 males
Southampton County, Virginia
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Southampton County Courthouse
Southampton County, Virginia
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Southampton County from 1895 map of Virginia
5.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
Washington, D.C.
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Clockwise from top left:
Smithsonian Institution Building,
Rock Creek Park,
National Mall (including the
Lincoln Memorial in the foreground),
Howard Theatre and the
Frederick Douglass National Historic Site
Washington, D.C.
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Map of the District of Columbia in 1835, prior to the
retrocession
Washington, D.C.
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Ford's Theatre in the 19th century, site of the 1865
assassination of
President Lincoln
Washington, D.C.
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Crowds surrounding the
Reflecting Pool during the 1963
March on Washington
6.
Blandford Cemetery
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Blandford Cemetery is a historic cemetery located in Petersburg, Virginia, United States. The oldest stone, marking the grave of Richard Yarbrough, reads 1702, veterans of every American war are buried there, including 30,000 Confederates killed in the Siege of Petersburg during the American Civil War. It is located adjacent to the Peoples Memorial Cemetery, a historic African-American cemetery, in 1866, Blandford Cemetery was the site of Decoration Day ceremony. Shortly afterward General Logan issued a proclamation calling for the observance of Memorial Day, locals say that Decoration Day served as the inspiration for the federal Memorial Day. The cemetery grounds cover 189 acres, making it the second largest cemetery in Virginia behind Arlington National Cemetery, the original burial grounds, referred to as the old ground, span 4 acres and includes the historic Blandford Church. Colonel Robert Bolling, Confederate Major General William Mahone, his wife Otelia, and many of their kinfolk, the cemetery is adjacent to Blandford Church, which is a Confederate memorial that features a full set of windows designed by Tiffany studios. The cemetery was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1992
Blandford Cemetery
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Blandford Cemetery
7.
Petersburg, Virginia
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Petersburg is an independent city in the U. S. state of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 32,420, the Bureau of Economic Analysis combines Petersburg with Dinwiddie County for statistical purposes. It is located on the Appomattox River and 21 miles south of the capital of Richmond. The citys unique industrial past and its location as a transportation hub combined to create wealth for Virginia and it connected commerce as far inland as Farmville, Virginia to shipping on the Chesapeake Bay and Atlantic Ocean. For similar reasons, Fort Henry was built at Petersburg to protect the river, as railroads were constructed in the state in the 1830s, Petersburg was developed as a major transfer point for both north-south and east-west competitors. The Petersburg Railroad was one of the earliest predecessors of the modern-day CSX Transportation system, several of the earliest predecessors of the areas other major Class 1 railroad, Norfolk Southern, also met at Petersburg. Access to railroads stimulated industry in the city, which was established because of the water power available at the fall line. During the American Civil War, because of the railroad network, nine months of trench warfare were conducted by Union forces during the 1864–65 Siege of Petersburg. Battlefield sites are located throughout the city and surrounding areas, partly preserved as Petersburg National Battlefield, the city is also significant for its role in African-American history. Petersburg had one of the oldest free black settlements in the state at Pocahontas Island, two Baptist churches in the city, whose congregations were founded in the late 18th century, are among the oldest black congregations and churches in the United States. In the 20th century, these and other churches were leaders in the national Civil Rights Movement. In the post-bellum period, a black college which later developed as Virginia State University was established nearby in Ettrick in Chesterfield County. Richard Bland College, now a college, was originally established here as a branch of Williamsburgs College of William. Petersburg remains a hub, with the network of area highways including Interstate Highways 85,95, and 295, and U. S. highways 1,301. Both CSX and NS rail systems maintain transportation centers at Petersburg, amtrak serves the city with daily Northeast Corridor trains to Norfolk, Virginia, and long-distance routes from states to the south. In the early 21st century, Petersburg leaders were highlighting the historical attractions for heritage tourism. Archaeological excavations at Pocahontas Island have found evidence of a prehistoric Native American settlement dated to 6500 BCE and this is in the early third of the Archaic Period. Varying cultures of indigenous peoples lived in the area for thousands of years, when the English arrived in Virginia in 1607, the region was occupied by the Appamatuck, a significant tribe of the Powhatan Confederacy
Petersburg, Virginia
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Downtown Petersburg
Petersburg, Virginia
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Seal
Petersburg, Virginia
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U.S. Engineer Battalion, during the Siege of Petersburg, August 1864
Petersburg, Virginia
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South Side Railroad Depot on Rock Street which served as the office of
William Mahone when his Readjustor Party dominated Virginia politics
8.
Readjuster Party
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The Readjuster Party was a political biracial coalition formed in Virginia in the late 1870s during the turbulent period following the Reconstruction era. Readjusters aspired to break the power of wealth and established privilege among the elite of white men in the state. The party was led by Harrison H. Riddleberger of Woodstock, an attorney, and William Mahone, Mahone was a major force in Virginia politics from around 1870 until 1883, when the Readjusters lost control to white Democrats. Immediately after Virginias adoption of a new constitution and readmission into the United States in 1870. This affirmed the states debt by issuing bonds at 6% interest for 2/3 of the debts face value at that same interest rate. Virginias governor elected at that time, Gilbert Carlton Walker was a banker in Norfolk and he had the support of the Conservative Party formed by the Committee of Nine and characterized the issue as a matter of honor. Confederate bonds were worthless, and by this time prewar debt had mostly been bought by out-of-state. By 1861, those $34 million in investments with deferred 6% interest totaled about $46 million, during the American Civil War, most of the railroads had been used for military purposes by armies on both sides, and had become strategic targets. Railroad lines were ripped up, terminals burned, bridges blown up, several northwestern counties also seceded from Virginia to remain in the Union as the State of West Virginia. Much of what little railroad and canal infrastructure remained was in West Virginia, Virginia needed its infrastructure rebuilt to restore its economic base, especially to get crops and manufactured goods to market. Executive officials also allowed corporations to self-assess for other tax purposes, however, the state still needed money to pay the debt as well as to operate the government and particularly public schools. The Funding Act also contained a provision allowing coupons to be used at full value to pay taxes, in 1872, the General Assembly reduced the interest rate to 4%, but debt interest still constituted more than half of government expenditures, and the state ran a significant deficit. By the end of the decade, the auditor was paying the bond debt. As much of the debt was held by Northern banks and investors. Those who supported a readjustment of the debt, were known as Readjusters, whereas those in favor of funding the entire debt, became known as Funders. The Readjuster Party promised to readjust the state debt, repeal the tax which had suppressed voting by blacks and poor whites. Public education had been established for the first time under the Reconstruction-era legislature, Harrison Riddlebergers law limiting bond interest to 3% was also vetoed. After the American Civil War, Mahone tried to combine many southern Virginia railroads into a system leading to the port of Norfolk, however, the Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad competed with the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad and went bankrupt in the Panic of 1873
Readjuster Party
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South Side Railroad Depot on Rock Street in
Petersburg; it served as the office of
William Mahone when his Readjuster Party dominated Virginia politics.
9.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
Alma mater
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The Alma Mater statue by
Mario Korbel, at the entrance of the
University of Havana in
Cuba.
Alma mater
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John Legate's Alma Mater for Cambridge in 1600
Alma mater
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Alma Mater (1929, Lorado Taft),
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
10.
Virginia Military Institute
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The Virginia Military Institute is a state-supported military college in Lexington, Virginia, the oldest such institution in the United States. Unlike any other Senior Military College in the United States, and in keeping with its principles, VMI enrolls cadets only. VMI offers cadets strict military discipline combined with a spartan, physically and academically demanding environment, the Institute grants degrees in 14 disciplines in engineering, the sciences, and the liberal arts. While VMI has been called the West Point of the South, for example, the living conditions at VMI are far more austere than at the service academies. S. military branches upon graduation. The Board of Visitors is the board of the Virginia Military Institute. The Board appoints the Superintendent and approves appointment of members of the faculty, Code §2. 2-4002, some of its regulations are codified at 8VAC100. The Executive Committee conducts the business of the Board during recesses, the Board has 17 members, including ex officio the Adjutant General of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Regular members are appointed by the Governor for a four-year term, the Executive Committee consists of the Boards President, three Vice Presidents, and one non-alumnus at large, and is appointed by the Board at each annual meeting. Current law makes provision for officers of the Virginia Militia to be subject to orders of the Governor, the cadets are a military corps under the command of the Superintendent and under the administration of the Commandant of Cadets, and constitute the guard of the Institute. In the years after the War of 1812, the state of Virginia built, in the 1830s Lexington attorney John Thomas Lewis Preston belonged to a debate club known as the Franklin Society. After debate and revision of the proposal, the Franklin Society voted in favor of Preston’s concept. Crozet was also the Chief Engineer of Virginia and someone whom Thomas Jefferson referred to as, the board delegated to Preston the task of deciding what to call the new school, and he created the name Virginia Military Institute. Preston was also tasked with hiring VMI’s first Superintendent and he was persuaded that West Point graduate and Army officer Francis Henney Smith, then on the faculty at Hampden–Sydney College, was the most suitable candidate. Preston successfully recruited Smith, and convinced him to become the first Superintendent, after Smith agreed to accept the Superintendent’s position, Preston applied to join the faculty, and was hired as Professor of Languages. Classes began in 1839, and the first cadet to march a sentinel post was Private John Strange, with few exceptions, there have been sentinels posted at VMI every hour of every day of the school year. The Class of 1842 graduated 16 cadets, living conditions were poor until 1850 when the cornerstone of the new barracks was laid. In 1851 Thomas Stonewall Jackson became a member of the faculty, under Jackson, then a major, and Major William Gilham, VMI infantry and artillery units were present at the execution by hanging of John Brown at Charles Town, Virginia in 1859. VMI cadets and alumni played instrumental roles in the American Civil War, on 14 occasions, the Confederacy called cadets into active military engagements
Virginia Military Institute
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Virginia Military Institute
Virginia Military Institute
Virginia Military Institute
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Engraving of VMI ca. 1863
Virginia Military Institute
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Virginia Military Institute Historic District
11.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
Confederate States of America
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Alexander Stephens CSA Vice President; old Whig friend of Lincoln; author of 'Cornerstone Speech'
Confederate States of America
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Flag (1861–1863)
Confederate States of America
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William L. Yancey, Alabama Fire-Eater, "The Orator of Secession".
Confederate States of America
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William Henry Gist, Governor of South Carolina, called the Secessionist Convention.
12.
Confederate States Army
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The Confederate States Army was the military ground force of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. S. Military Academy and colonel of a regiment during the Mexican War. In March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress established a more permanent Confederate States Army, the better estimates of the number of individual Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men. This does not include a number of slaves who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army, such as construction of fortifications. Since these figures include estimates of the number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war. These numbers do not include men who served in Confederate naval forces, although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers, both sides by 1862 resorted to conscription, primarily as a means to force men to register and to volunteer. In the absence of records, estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were draftees are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were conscripts. Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable, one estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026. These numbers do not include men who died from causes such as accidents. Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16,1865 and June 28,1865, by the end of the war, more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had deserted. The Confederacys government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond in April, by the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4,1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States. The Confederacy seized federal property, including nearly all U. S. Army forts, Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U. S. control when he took office, especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, C. S. troops under the command of General P. G. T, Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13,1861, forcing its capitulation on April 14. The Northern states were outraged by the Confederacys attack and demanded war and it rallied behind Lincolns call on April 15, for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to preserve the Union intact. Four more slave states joined the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army and it was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army, the Provisional Army of the Confederate States began organizing on April 27. Virtually all regular, volunteer, and conscripted men preferred to enter this organization since officers could achieve a rank in the Provisional Army than they could in the Regular Army
Confederate States Army
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Private
Edwin Francis Jemison, whose image became one of the most famous portraits of the young soldiers of the war
Confederate States Army
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CSA M1857 Napoleon Artillery Piece
Confederate States Army
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General
Robert Edward Lee, famous Southern General
Confederate States Army
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Confederate artillery at Charleston Harbor, 1863
13.
General officers in the Confederate States Army
–
The general officers of the Confederate States Army were the senior military leaders of the Confederacy during the American Civil War of 1861–1865. They were often former officers from the United States Army prior to the Civil War, most Confederate generals needed confirmation from the Confederate Congress, much like prospective generals in the modern U. S. armed forces. Much of the design of the Confederate States Army was based on the structure, the Confederate Army was composed of three parts, the Army of the Confederate States of America, the Provisional Army of the Confederate States, and the various Southern state militias. Graduates from West Point and Mexican War veterans were highly sought after by Jefferson Davis for military service, like their Federal counterparts, the Confederate Army had both professional and political generals within it. Ranks throughout the CSA were roughly based on the U. S. Army in design and seniority. On February 27,1861, a staff for the army was authorized, consisting of four positions, an adjutant general, a quartermaster general, a commissary general. Initially the last of these was to be a staff officer only, the post of adjutant general was filled by Samuel Cooper and he held it throughout the Civil War, as well as the armys inspector general. As officers were appointed to the grades of general by Jefferson Davis. The dates of rank, as well as seniority of officers appointed to the grade on the same day, were determined by Davis usually following the guidelines established for the prewar U. S. Army. These generals were most often infantry or cavalry brigade commanders, aides to other higher ranking generals, and War Department staff officers. By wars end the Confederacy had at least 383 different men who held this rank in the PACS, the organization of regiments into brigades was authorized by the Congress on March 6,1861. Brigadier generals would command them, and these generals were to be nominated by Davis and these generals also often led sub-districts within military departments, with command over soldiers in their sub-district. These generals outranked Confederate Army colonels, who commonly led infantry regiments and this rank is equivalent to brigadier general in the modern U. S. army. These generals were most commonly infantry division commanders, aides to other higher ranking generals and they also led the districts that made up military departments, and had command over the troops in their districts. By wars end, the Confederacy had at least 88 different men who had held this rank, divisions were authorized by the Congress on March 6,1861, and major generals would command them. These generals were to be nominated by Davis and confirmed by the Senate, Major generals outranked brigadiers and all other lesser officers. This rank was not synonymous with the Unions use of it, as Northern major generals led divisions, corps and this rank is equivalent in most respects to major general in the modern U. S. Army. All of the Confederacys lieutenant generals were in the PACS, the Congress legalized the creation of army corps on September 18,1862, and directed that lieutenant generals lead them
General officers in the Confederate States Army
–
Robert E. Lee, the best known CSA general. Lee is shown with the insignia of a Confederate colonel, which he chose to wear throughout the war.
General officers in the Confederate States Army
–
CSA general collar insignia.
General officers in the Confederate States Army
–
P.G.T. Beauregard, the Confederacy's first brigadier general, later the fifth-ranking general
General officers in the Confederate States Army
–
Maj. Gen.
Benjamin Huger, CSA
14.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
American Civil War
–
New Orleans the largest cotton exporting port for New England and Great Britain textile mills, shipping Mississippi River Valley goods from North, South and Border states.
American Civil War
–
Clockwise from top:
Battle of Gettysburg,
Union Captain John Tidball's artillery,
Confederate prisoners,
ironclad USS Atlanta, ruins of
Richmond, Virginia,
Battle of Franklin
American Civil War
–
Sen. Stephen Douglas, author of the
Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854
American Civil War
–
Sen. John J. Crittenden, of the 1860
Crittenden Compromise
15.
Peninsula Campaign
–
The Peninsula Campaign of the American Civil War was a major Union operation launched in southeastern Virginia from March through July 1862, the first large-scale offensive in the Eastern Theater. The operation, commanded by Maj. Gen. George B, McClellan, was an amphibious turning movement against the Confederate States Army in Northern Virginia, intended to capture the Confederate capital of Richmond. McClellan landed his army at Fort Monroe and moved northwest, up the Virginia Peninsula, Magruders defensive position on the Warwick Line caught McClellan by surprise. His hopes for a quick advance foiled, McClellan ordered his army to prepare for a siege of Yorktown, just before the siege preparations were completed, the Confederates, now under the direct command of Johnston, began a withdrawal toward Richmond. The first heavy fighting of the campaign occurred in the Battle of Williamsburg, in which the Union troops managed some tactical victories, an amphibious flanking movement to Elthams Landing was ineffective in cutting off the Confederate retreat. In the Battle of Drewrys Bluff, an attempt by the U. S. Navy to reach Richmond by way of the James River was repulsed. As McClellans army reached the outskirts of Richmond, a battle occurred at Hanover Court House. The battle was inconclusive, with casualties, but it had lasting effects on the campaign. On August 20,1861, Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan formed the Army of the Potomac, with himself as its first commander. During the summer and fall, McClellan brought a degree of organization to his new army. It was an achievement, in which he came to personify the Army of the Potomac. He created defenses for Washington that were almost impregnable, consisting of 48 forts and strong points, on November 1,1861, Gen. Winfield Scott retired and McClellan became general in chief of all the Union armies. The president expressed his concern about the vast labor involved in the role of army commander and general in chief. On January 27, Lincoln issued an order that all of his armies to begin offensive operations by February 22. On January 31, he issued an order for the Army of the Potomac to move overland to attack the Confederates at Manassas Junction. Although Lincoln believed his plan was superior, he was relieved that McClellan finally agreed to begin moving, on March 8, doubting McClellans resolve, Lincoln called a council of war at the White House in which McClellans subordinates were asked about their confidence in the Urbanna plan. They expressed their confidence to varying degrees, after the meeting, Lincoln issued another order, naming specific officers as corps commanders to report to McClellan. McClellan retooled his plan so that his troops would disembark at Fort Monroe, Virginia, in the Battle of Hampton Roads, Virginia defeated wooden U. S
Peninsula Campaign
–
George B. McClellan and
Joseph E. Johnston, respective commanders of the
Union and
Confederate armies in the Peninsula Campaign.
Peninsula Campaign
–
Brig. Gen.
Samuel P. Heintzelman
Peninsula Campaign
–
Brig. Gen.
Erasmus D. Keyes
Peninsula Campaign
–
Maj. Gen.
D. H. Hill
16.
Second Manassas
–
The Second Battle of Bull Run or Battle of Second Manassas was fought August 28–30,1862 in Prince William County, Virginia, as part of the American Civil War. Withdrawing a few miles to the northwest, Jackson took up strong concealed defensive positions on Stony Ridge, on August 28,1862, Jackson attacked a Union column just east of Gainesville, at Brawners Farm, resulting in a stalemate but successfully getting Popes attention. On that same day, the wing of Lees army commanded by Maj. Gen. James Longstreet broke through light Union resistance in the Battle of Thoroughfare Gap, Pope became convinced that he had trapped Jackson and concentrated the bulk of his army against him. On August 29, Pope launched a series of assaults against Jacksons position along a railroad grade. The attacks were repulsed with casualties on both sides. At noon, Longstreet arrived on the field from Thoroughfare Gap, on August 30, Pope renewed his attacks, seemingly unaware that Longstreet was on the field. The Union left flank was crushed and the army was back to Bull Run. Only an effective Union rear guard action prevented a replay of the First Manassas defeat, Popes retreat to Centreville was nonetheless precipitous. Success in this battle emboldened Lee to initiate the ensuing Maryland Campaign, after the collapse of Maj. Gen. George B. McClellans Peninsula Campaign in the Seven Days Battles of June 1862, Pope had achieved some success in the Western Theater, and Lincoln sought a more aggressive general than McClellan. Popes mission was to two basic objectives, protect Washington and the Shenandoah Valley, and draw Confederate forces away from McClellan by moving in the direction of Gordonsville. This allowed him to relocate Jackson to Gordonsville to block Pope, Lee had larger plans in mind. Since the Union Army was split between McClellan and Pope and they were separated, Lee saw an opportunity to destroy Pope before returning his attention to McClellan. He committed Maj. Gen. A. P. Hill to join Jackson with 12,000 men, on August 3, General-in-Chief Henry W. Halleck directed McClellan to begin his final withdrawal from the Peninsula and to return to Northern Virginia to support Pope. McClellan protested and did not begin his redeployment until August 14, on August 9, Nathaniel Bankss corps attacked Jackson at Cedar Mountain, gaining an early advantage, but a Confederate counterattack led by A. P. Hill drove Banks back across Cedar Creek. Jacksons advance was stopped, however, by the Union division of Brig. Gen. James B, by now Jackson had learned that Popes corps were all together, foiling his plan of defeating each in separate actions. He remained in position until August 12, then withdrew to Gordonsville, on August 13, Lee sent Longstreet to reinforce Jackson. From August 22 to 25, the two fought a series of minor actions along the Rappahannock River
Second Manassas
–
Second Battle of Bull Run, fought Augt. 29th 1862, 1860s lithograph by
Currier and Ives.
Second Manassas
–
Maj. Gen.
John Pope,
Army of Virginia (Commanding), USA
Second Manassas
–
Maj. Gen.
Irvin McDowell, III Corps,
Army of Virginia, USA
Second Manassas
–
Maj. Gen.
Fitz John Porter V Corps,
Army of the Potomac, USA
17.
Battle of Fredericksburg
–
A visitor to the battlefield described the battle to U. S. President Abraham Lincoln as a butchery. Burnsides plan was to cross the Rappahannock River at Fredericksburg in mid-November, bureaucratic delays prevented Burnside from receiving the necessary pontoon bridges in time and Lee moved his army to block the crossings. When the Union army was able to build its bridges and cross under fire. Union troops prepared to assault Confederate defensive positions south of the city, Burnside ordered the grand divisions of Maj. Gens. Sumner and Joseph Hooker to make frontal assaults against Lt. Gen. James Longstreets position on Maryes Heights. On December 15, Burnside withdrew his army, ending another failed Union campaign in the Eastern Theater, in November 1862, Lincoln needed to demonstrate the success of the Union war effort before the Northern public lost confidence in his administration. Confederate armies had been on the earlier in the fall, invading Kentucky and Maryland, and although each had been turned back. Lincoln urged Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant to advance against the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg, Mississippi. McClellan had stopped Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Antietam in Maryland, mcClellans replacement was Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside, the commander of the IX Corps. Burnside had established a reputation as an independent commander, with successful operations earlier that year in coastal North Carolina and, However, he felt himself unqualified for army-level command and objected when offered the position. Burnside assumed command on November 7, in response to prodding from Lincoln and general-in-chief Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck, Burnside planned a late fall offensive, he communicated his plan to Halleck on November 9. The plan relied on movement and deception. He would concentrate his army in a visible fashion near Warrenton, feigning a movement on Culpeper Court House, Orange Court House and he also believed that the Orange and Alexandria Railroad would be an inadequate supply line. Lincoln reluctantly approved the plan on November 14 but cautioned his general to move with great speed, the Union Army began marching on November 15, and the first elements arrived in Falmouth on November 17. Burnside first requisitioned the pontoon bridging on November 7 when he detailed his plan to Halleck, the plan was sent to the attention of Brig. Gen. George Washington Cullum, the chief of staff in Washington. Plans called for both riverine and overland movement of the trains to Falmouth. On November 14, the 50th New York Engineers reported the pontoons were ready to move, unknown to Burnside, most of the bridging was still on the upper Potomac. Communications between Burnsides staff engineer Cyrus B, comstock and the Engineer Brigade commander Daniel P. Woodbury indicate that Burnside had assumed the bridging was en route to Washington based on orders given on November 6
Battle of Fredericksburg
–
Maj. Gen.
Ambrose E. Burnside, USA
Battle of Fredericksburg
–
The Battle of Fredericksburg by Kurz and Allison.
Battle of Fredericksburg
–
Maj. Gen.
William B. Franklin, USA
Battle of Fredericksburg
–
Gen.
Robert E. Lee, CSA
18.
Battle of Chancellorsville
–
The Battle of Chancellorsville was a major battle of the American Civil War, and the principal engagement of the Chancellorsville Campaign. It was fought from April 30 to May 6,1863, in Spotsylvania County, Virginia, two related battles were fought nearby on May 3 in the vicinity of Fredericksburg. The campaign pitted Union Army Maj. Gen. Joseph Hookers Army of the Potomac against a less than half its size. Chancellorsville is known as Lees perfect battle because his risky decision to divide his army in the presence of a larger enemy force resulted in a significant Confederate victory. The Chancellorsville Campaign began with the crossing of the Rappahannock River by the Union army on the morning of April 27,1863, Union cavalry under Maj. Gen. George Stoneman began a long distance raid against Lees supply lines at about the same time. Crossing the Rapidan River via Germanna and Elys Fords, the Federal infantry concentrated near Chancellorsville on April 30, combined with the Union force facing Fredericksburg, Hooker planned a double envelopment, attacking Lee from both his front and rear. Despite the objections of his subordinates, Hooker withdrew his men to the lines around Chancellorsville. On May 2, Lee divided his army again, sending Stonewall Jacksons entire corps on a march that routed the Union XI Corps. While performing a reconnaissance in advance of his line, Jackson was wounded by fire from his own men. Stuart temporarily replaced him as corps commander and that same day, Sedgwick advanced across the Rappahannock River, defeated the small Confederate force at Maryes Heights in the Second Battle of Fredericksburg, and then moved to the west. The Confederates fought a delaying action at the Battle of Salem Church and by May 4 had driven back Sedgwicks men to Banks Ford. Sedgwick withdrew across the early on May 5, and Hooker withdrew the remainder of his army across U. S. Ford the night of May 5–6, the campaign ended on May 7 when Stonemans cavalry reached Union lines east of Richmond. In the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War, the objective of the Union had been to advance and seize the Confederate capital, Richmond, Virginia. In the first two years of the war, four attempts had failed, the first foundered just miles away from Washington. Robert E. Lee in the Seven Days Battles and that summer, Maj. Gen. John Popes Army of Virginia was defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run. In January 1863, the Army of the Potomac, following the Battle of Fredericksburg, Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside decided to conduct a mass purge of the Army of the Potomacs leadership, eliminating a number of generals who he felt were responsible for the disaster at Fredericksburg. In reality, he had no power to anyone without the approval of Congress
Battle of Chancellorsville
–
Maj. Gen.
John F. Reynolds, USA
Battle of Chancellorsville
–
Battle of Chancellorsville by Kurz and Allison (depicts the wounding of Confederate Lt. Gen. Stonewall Jackson on May 2, 1863)
Battle of Chancellorsville
–
Maj. Gen.
Darius N. Couch, USA
Battle of Chancellorsville
–
Maj. Gen.
Daniel E. Sickles, USA
19.
Battle of Gettysburg
–
The Battle of Gettysburg was fought July 1–3,1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, by Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War. The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the war and is often described as the wars turning point. Union Maj. Gen. George Meades Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lees Army of Northern Virginia, ending Lees attempt to invade the North. After his success at Chancellorsville in Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his army through the Shenandoah Valley to begin his second invasion of the North—the Gettysburg Campaign. Prodded by President Abraham Lincoln, Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker moved his army in pursuit, but was relieved of command just three days before the battle and replaced by Meade. Elements of the two armies collided at Gettysburg on July 1,1863, as Lee urgently concentrated his forces there, his objective being to engage the Union army. Low ridges to the northwest of town were defended initially by a Union cavalry division under Brig. Gen. John Buford, on the second day of battle, most of both armies had assembled. The Union line was out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon of July 2, Lee launched an assault on the Union left flank, and fierce fighting raged at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devils Den. On the Union right, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culps Hill, all across the battlefield, despite significant losses, the Union defenders held their lines. The charge was repulsed by Union rifle and artillery fire, at great loss to the Confederate army, Lee led his army on a torturous retreat back to Virginia. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the battle, the most costly in US history. Shortly after the Army of Northern Virginia won a victory over the Army of the Potomac at the Battle of Chancellorsville. Such a move would upset U. S. plans for the campaigning season. The invasion would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravaged Virginia a much-needed rest, in addition, Lees 72, 000-man army could threaten Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington, and possibly strengthen the growing peace movement in the North. Thus, on June 3, Lees army began to shift northward from Fredericksburg, the Cavalry Division remained under the command of Maj. Gen. J. E. B. The Union Army of the Potomac, under Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker, consisted of seven corps, a cavalry corps. The first major action of the campaign took place on June 9 between cavalry forces at Brandy Station, near Culpeper, Virginia
Battle of Gettysburg
–
The Battle of Gettysburg, by
Thure de Thulstrup
Battle of Gettysburg
–
First shot monument
Battle of Gettysburg
–
Union
breastworks on Culp's Hill
Battle of Gettysburg
–
The "High Water Mark" on Cemetery Ridge as it appears today. The monument to the 72nd Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiment ("Baxter's Philadelphia Fire Zouaves") appears at right, the Copse of Trees to the left.
20.
Overland Campaign
–
The Overland Campaign, also known as Grants Overland Campaign and the Wilderness Campaign, was a series of battles fought in Virginia during May and June 1864, in the American Civil War. Although Grant suffered severe losses during the campaign, it was a strategic Union victory and it inflicted proportionately higher losses on Lees army and maneuvered it into a siege at Richmond and Petersburg, Virginia, in just over eight weeks. Crossing the Rapidan River on May 4,1864, Grant sought to defeat Lees army by quickly placing his forces between Lee and Richmond and inviting an open battle. Lee surprised Grant by attacking the larger Union army aggressively in the Battle of the Wilderness, Lees army was able to get into position to block this movement. Grant maneuvered again, meeting Lee at the North Anna River, here, Lee held clever defensive positions that provided an opportunity to defeat portions of Grants army, but illness prevented Lee from attacking in time to trap Grant. Resorting to maneuver a final time, Grant surprised Lee by stealthily crossing the James River, threatening to capture the city of Petersburg, the resulting Siege of Petersburg led to the eventual surrender of Lees army in April 1865 and the effective end of the Civil War. The campaign included two long-range raids by Union cavalry under Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan, in a raid toward Richmond, legendary Confederate cavalry commander Maj. Gen. J. E. B. Stuart was mortally wounded at the Battle of Yellow Tavern, in March 1864, Grant was summoned from the Western Theater, promoted to lieutenant general, and given command of all Union armies. He chose to make his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman succeeded Grant in command of most of the western armies. Johnston, and capture Atlanta, George Crook and William W. Averell to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia and this was the first time the Union armies would have a coordinated offensive strategy across a number of theaters. Lincoln had long advocated this strategy for his generals, recognizing that the city would fall after the loss of its principal defensive army. Grant ordered Meade, Wherever Lee goes, there you will go also, although he hoped for a quick, decisive battle, Grant was prepared to fight a war of attrition. Both Union and Confederate casualties could be high, but the Union had greater resources to replace lost soldiers, despite Grants superior numbers, he had manpower challenges. Furthermore, since many of his soldiers three-year enlistments were about to expire, to deal with these challenges, Grant supplemented his forces by reassigning soldiers manning the heavy artillery batteries around Washington, D. C. to infantry regiments. The Overland Campaign began as Grants forces crossed the Rapidan River on May 4,1864, Grants objective was to force an engagement with Lee, outside of his Mine Run fortifications, by either drawing his forces out or turning them. By forcing a fight here, Lee effectively neutralized the Unions advantage in artillery and he ordered Ewells Corps to advance on the Orange Turnpike, A. P. Hills in parallel on the Orange Plank Road, and Longstreets from the distant Gordonsville. Early on May 5, Warrens V Corps was advancing south toward the Plank Road when Ewells Corps appeared in the west on the Turnpike, Meade halted his army and directed Warren to attack if the Confederates were a small, isolated group. Ewells men erected earthworks on the end of the clearing known as Saunders Field
Overland Campaign
–
Ulysses S. Grant and
Robert E. Lee, respectively, opposing commanders in the Overland Campaign
Overland Campaign
–
Union staff meeting at
Massaponax Baptist Church on May 21, 1864. Grant has his back to the smaller tree with
Charles Anderson Dana to his left, while Meade is seated at the far left.
Overland Campaign
–
Maj. Gen.
William F. "Baldy" Smith
Overland Campaign
–
Cold Harbor, Virginia. African Americans collecting bones of soldiers killed in the battle. Photo by
John Reekie, April 1865.
21.
Appomattox Campaign
–
In the following eleven weeks after Lees surrender, the American Civil War ended as other Confederate armies surrendered and Confederate government leaders were captured or fled the country. As the Richmond–Petersburg Campaign ended, Lees army was outnumbered and exhausted from a winter of trench warfare over an approximately 40 mi front, numerous battles, disease, hunger, Grants well-equipped and well-fed army was growing in strength. Lee ordered the evacuation of Confederate forces from both Petersburg and Richmond on the night of April 2–3 before Grants army could cut off any escape, Confederate government leaders also fled west from Richmond that night. The Confederates marched west, heading toward Danville, Virginia or Lynchburg, Lee planned to resupply his army at one of those cities and march southwest into North Carolina where he could unite his army with the Confederate army commanded by General Joseph E. Johnston. Grants Union Army pursued Lees fleeing Confederates relentlessly, during the next week, the Union troops fought a series of battles with Confederate units, cut off or destroyed Confederate supplies and blocked their paths to the south and ultimately to the west. On April 6,1865, the Confederate Army suffered a significant defeat at the Battle of Sailors Creek, Virginia, where they lost about 7,700 men killed and captured, nonetheless, Lee continued to move the remainder of his battered army to the west. Soon cornered, short of food and supplies and outnumbered, Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia to Grant on April 9,1865 at Appomattox Court House, Virginia. By June 18, the Army of Northern Virginia reinforced the Confederate defenders, during the fall of 1864 and the winter of 1864–1865, Grant slowly extended the Union Army line south of Petersburg westward. Lee extended the Confederate line to match the Union moves, the action of the II Corps, which was promptly joined by the V Corps, in moving to protect the attacking force and to defend their advanced positions, resulted in the extension of the lines. Fighting continued in bad weather on February 6 and 7 after which the Union force built trenches, the Confederates matched the Union works by extending their Boydton Plank Road Line to the south and their White Oak Road line to the west. With the additions, the lines of the south of Petersburg extended 15 miles from the Appomattox River to Hatchers Run. After the Battle of Hatchers Run, Lee knew his army lacked the number of men needed to continue extension of his line, on February 22,1865, Lee advised Confederate States Secretary of War John C. Breckinridge that he expected Grant to draw out his left, with the intent of enveloping me and he told Breckinridge and Lieutenant General James Longstreet that supplies should be collected at Burkeville, Virginia in preparation for the army to move west. Shermans armies already operating in North Carolina, could arrive at Petersburg, after discussing the situation with Major General John B. Gordon on March 4,1865, Lee approved Gordons proposal to attempt to capture or break a portion of the Union lines. Then, Lee could shorten his line and send part of his army to help Johnston in North Carolina, in the alternative, Lee could move his entire army to help take on Sherman first and, if successful, turn the combined Confederate force back against Grant. On March 24,1865, Grant issued orders for an offensive to begin on March 29,1865, Grant planned for Major General Philip H. Grants top priority was to force an engagement in order to defeat the Confederate army with the railroad raid as a secondary objective. Grant also intended that his forces block a Confederate retreat to the west, Grant also initially ordered Warrens corps to seize Dinwiddie Court House, where they also could capture a segment of the Boydton Plank Road, a task later given to Sheridan. Grant ordered Major General Edward Ord, to move units from the Army of the James to fill in the portion of the Petersburg line that the II Corps then occupied
Appomattox Campaign
–
Ulysses S. Grant and
Robert E. Lee, opposing commanders in the Appomattox Campaign
Appomattox Campaign
–
Major General
John B. Gordon
Appomattox Campaign
–
Major General
John G. Parke
Appomattox Campaign
–
The Peacemakers by
George Peter Alexander Healy, 1868, depicts the historic 1865 meeting on the River Queen
22.
Civil engineer
–
The term civil engineer was established in 1750 to contrast engineers working on civil projects with the military engineers, who worked on armaments and defenses. Over time, various sub-disciplines of civil engineering have become recognized, other engineering practices became recognized as independent engineering disciplines, including chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering. In some places, an engineer may perform land surveying, in others, surveying is limited to construction surveying. Civil engineers generally work in a variety of locations and conditions, many spend time outdoors at construction sites so that they can monitor operations or solve problems onsite. The job is typically a blend of in-office and on-location work, in many countries, civil engineers are subject to licensure. In some jurisdictions with mandatory licensing, people who do not obtain a license may not call themselves civil engineers, in Belgium, Civil Engineer is a legally protected title applicable to graduates of the five-year engineering course of one of the six universities and the Royal Military Academy. Their speciality can be all fields of engineering, civil, structural, electrical, mechanical, chemical, physics and this use of the title may cause confusion to the English speaker as the Belgian civil engineer can have a speciality other than civil engineering. In fact, Belgians use the adjective civil in the sense of civilian, traditionally, students were required to pass an entrance exam on mathematics to start civil engineering studies. This exam was abolished in 2004 for the Flemish Community, but is organised in the French Community. Today the degree spans over all fields within engineering, like engineering, mechanical engineering, computer science, electronics engineering. A civil engineer is the most well-known of the two, still, the area of expertise remains obfuscated for most of the public. A noteworthy difference is the courses in mathematics and physics, regardless of the equivalent masters degree. This is because the educational system is not fully adopted to the international standard graduation system. Today this is starting to change due to the Bologna process, a Scandinavian civilingenjör will in international contexts commonly call herself Master of Science in Engineering and will occasionally wear an engineering class ring. At the Norwegian Institute of Technology, the tradition with an NTH Ring goes back to 1914, in Norway, the title Sivilingeniør will no longer be issued after 2007, and has been replaced with Master i teknologi. In the English translation of the diploma, the title will be Master of Science, since Master of Technology is not a title in the English-speaking world. The extra overlapping year of studies have also been abolished with this change to make Norwegian degrees more equal to their international counterparts, in Spain, a civil engineering degree can be obtained after four years of study in the various branches of mathematics, physics, mechanics, etc. The earned degree is called Grado en Ingeniería Civil, further studies at a graduate school include masters and doctoral degrees
Civil engineer
–
While all civil engineers tend to spend at least some time working "on site", much of the modern civil engineering work is done in offices, working with plans or computers.
23.
Railroad
–
Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks. It is also referred to as train transport. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a flat surface. Tracks usually consist of rails, installed on ties and ballast, on which the rolling stock, usually fitted with metal wheels. Other variations are possible, such as slab track, where the rails are fastened to a concrete foundation resting on a prepared subsurface. Rolling stock in a transport system generally encounters lower frictional resistance than road vehicles, so passenger. The operation is carried out by a company, providing transport between train stations or freight customer facilities. Power is provided by locomotives which either draw electric power from a railway system or produce their own power. Most tracks are accompanied by a signalling system, Railways are a safe land transport system when compared to other forms of transport. The oldest, man-hauled railways date back to the 6th century BC, with Periander, one of the Seven Sages of Greece, Rail transport blossomed after the British development of the steam locomotive as a viable source of power in the 19th centuries. With steam engines, one could construct mainline railways, which were a key component of the Industrial Revolution, also, railways reduced the costs of shipping, and allowed for fewer lost goods, compared with water transport, which faced occasional sinking of ships. The change from canals to railways allowed for markets in which prices varied very little from city to city. In the 1880s, electrified trains were introduced, and also the first tramways, starting during the 1940s, the non-electrified railways in most countries had their steam locomotives replaced by diesel-electric locomotives, with the process being almost complete by 2000. During the 1960s, electrified high-speed railway systems were introduced in Japan, other forms of guided ground transport outside the traditional railway definitions, such as monorail or maglev, have been tried but have seen limited use. The history of the growth, decline and restoration to use of transport can be divided up into several discrete periods defined by the principal means of motive power used. The earliest evidence of a railway was a 6-kilometre Diolkos wagonway, trucks pushed by slaves ran in grooves in limestone, which provided the track element. The Diolkos operated for over 600 years, Railways began reappearing in Europe after the Dark Ages. The earliest known record of a railway in Europe from this period is a window in the Minster of Freiburg im Breisgau in Germany
Railroad
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Four
BNSF GE C44-9W diesel locomotives hauling a mixed freight train along the banks of the
Columbia River, between
Kennewick and
Wishram,
Washington State, United States
Railroad
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Horsecar in
Brno, Czech Republic
Railroad
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A British steam locomotive-hauled train
Railroad
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Tren a las Nubes (Train to the Clouds), located in
Salta,
Argentina
24.
Great Dismal Swamp
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The Great Dismal Swamp is a large swamp in the Coastal Plain Region of southeastern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina, between Norfolk, Virginia, and Elizabeth City, North Carolina. It is located in parts of the southern Virginia independent cities of Chesapeake and Suffolk and northern North Carolina counties of Gates, Pasquotank, some estimates place the size of the original swamp at over one million acres, stretching from Norfolk, Virginia to Edenton, North Carolina. Lake Drummond, a 3, 100-acre natural lake, is located in the heart of the swamp, the lake, a remarkably circular body of water, is one of only two natural lakes in Virginia. Along the Great Dismal Swamps eastern edge runs the Dismal Swamp Canal, the refuge was officially established through the Dismal Swamp Act of 1974, and today consists of over 112,000 acres of forested wetlands. Outside the boundaries of the refuge, the state of North Carolina has preserved and protected additional portions of the swamp through the establishment of the Dismal Swamp State Park, the park protects 22 square miles of forested wetland. A45, 611-acre remnant of the swamp was declared a National Natural Landmark in 1973. The origin of Lake Drummond, one of two natural lakes in Virginia, is not entirely clear as there is no apparent network of natural streams emptying into the lake. Archaeological evidence suggests varying cultures of humans have inhabited the swamp for 13,000 years, in 1650, Algonquian-speaking Native Americans of coastal tribes lived in the swamp. In 1665, William Drummond, the first governor of North Carolina, was the first European recorded as discovering the swamps lake, settlers did not appreciate the ecological importance of wetlands. In 1763, George Washington visited the area, and he and others founded the Dismal Swamp Company in a venture to drain the swamp, the company later turned to the more profitable goal of timber harvesting. Several African-American maroon societies lived in the Great Dismal Swamp during early American history and these Great Dismal Swamp maroons consisted of black refugee slaves who had escaped to seek safety and liberty. The swamps role in the history of slavery in the United States is reflected in Harriet Beecher Stowes second novel, Dred, A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp. The Underground Railroad Education Pavilion, a set up to educate visitors about the fugitive slaves who lived in the swamp, was opened February 24,2012. The Dismal Swamp Canal was authorized by Virginia in 1787 and by North Carolina in 1790, construction began in 1793 and was completed in 1805. The canal, as well as a railroad constructed through part of the swamp in 1830, the canal deteriorated after the Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal was completed in 1858. In 1929, the United States Government bought the Dismal Swamp Canal, the canal is now the oldest operating artificial waterway in the country. Like the Albemarle and Chesapeake canals, it is part of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway and this area is along the Atlantic Flyway of migrating species. S. During this time, a 45, 611-acre portion of the swamp was declared a National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service in 1973 due to its combination of geological and ecological features
Great Dismal Swamp
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Photograph of
Lake Drummond,
Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge,
Virginia
Great Dismal Swamp
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Refugee slaves in the Great Dismal Swamp before the Civil War, painted 1888
Great Dismal Swamp
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Photograph of the reddish-colored sand of the shallow water on a calm day of
Lake Drummond,
Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge,
Virginia
Great Dismal Swamp
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Locator map of the Great Dismal Swamp
25.
Battle of the Crater
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The Battle of the Crater was a battle of the American Civil War, part of the Siege of Petersburg. It took place on July 30,1864, between the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, commanded by General Robert E. Lee and the Union Army of the Potomac, commanded by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade. After weeks of preparation, on July 30, Union forces exploded a mine in Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnsides IX Corps sector, blowing a gap in the Confederate defenses of Petersburg, from this propitious beginning, everything deteriorated rapidly for the Union attackers. Unit after unit charged into and around the crater, where soldiers milled in confusion, Grant considered the assault the saddest affair I have witnessed in the war. The Confederates quickly recovered and launched several counterattacks led by Brig. Gen. William Mahone, the breach was sealed off, and Union forces were repulsed with severe casualties. Brig. Gen. Edward Ferreros division of soldiers were badly mauled. This may have been Grants best chance to end the Siege of Petersburg, instead, the soldiers settled in for another eight months of trench warfare. Burnside was relieved of command for the last time for his role in the debacle, during the Civil War, Petersburg, Virginia, was an important railhead, where four railroad lines from the south met before continuing to Richmond, Virginia, the capital of the Confederacy. Most of the supplies to Lees army and to the city of Richmond funneled through this point, consequently, the Union regarded it as the back door to Richmond, without which defending the Confederate capital would be impossible. The result was the Siege of Petersburg, after Lee held at bay Grants attempt to seize Petersburg on June 15, the battle settled into a stalemate. Grant had learned a lesson at Cold Harbor about attacking Lee in a fortified position and was chafing at the inactivity to which Lees trenches. Finally, Lt. Col. Henry Pleasants, commanding the 48th Pennsylvania Infantry of Maj. Gen. Ambrose E. Burnsides IX Corps, if successful, this would not only kill all the defenders in the area, it would also open a hole in the Confederate defenses. Digging began in late June, but even Grant and Meade saw the operation as, A mere way to keep the men occupied, and doubted it of any actual tactical value. They quickly lost interest and Pleasants soon found himself with few materials for his project, to the extent that his men had to forage for wood to support the structure. The shaft was elevated as it moved toward the Confederate lines to make sure moisture did not clog up the mine, a canvas partition isolated the miners air supply from outside air. The miners had constructed a vertical exhaust shaft located well behind Union lines, at the vertical shafts base, a fire was kept continuously burning. A wooden duct ran the length of the tunnel and protruded into the outside air. The fire heated stale air inside of the tunnel, drawing it up the exhaust shaft, the resulting vacuum then sucked fresh air in from the mine entrance via the wooden duct, which carried it down the length of the tunnel to the location where the miners were working
Battle of the Crater
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Scene of the explosion Saturday July 30th
Alfred R. Waud, artist.
Battle of the Crater
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Contemporary sketch of Col. Pleasants supervising the placement of powder in the mine.
Battle of the Crater
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Sketch of the explosion seen from the Union line.
Battle of the Crater
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Crater with Union soldier in 1865.
26.
Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad
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Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad was formed in 1870 in Virginia from 3 east-west railroads which traversed across the southern portion of the state. Organized and led by former Confederate general William Mahone, the 428-mile line linked Norfolk with Bristol, Virginia by way of Suffolk, Petersburg, Lynchburg, and Salem. The AM&O was promoted as a link to the west. It was heavily backed by investors from England and Scotland, the AM&O went into receivership after the U. S. After several years of continuing problems, Mahones relationship with the bondholders soured, and he was removed as trustee. Finally, in 1881, the AM&O was sold at auction and it was acquired by other U. S. interests based in Philadelphia who outbid Mahone. They were already building Shenandoah Valley Railroad and had a new commodity in mind, the AM&O was renamed to Norfolk and Western Railway. Norfolk & Western Railway was expanded west into the coalfields, and later into a large system, eventually tapping the Ohio Valley. The N&W was combined with the Southern Railway, another profitable carrier, today, much of the former Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad remains in service for Norfolk Southern. Most of the former AM&O lines are part of the NS rail network. Three pre-civil war era railroad lines were combined to form the AM&O and they are listed from east to west, The Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad, organized by Dr. Francis Mallory of Norfolk was built between 1853 and 1858 by a young civil engineer named William Mahone. It featured an innovative and durable roadbed through a portion of the Great Dismal Swamp, Mahone was named its head in 1860. The oldest predecessor was the City Point Railroad a 9 miles long line to Petersburg completed in 1838, in 1854, it became part of the South Side Railroad. The South Side Railroad was the section of the AM&O. The Virginia and Tennessee Railroad extended 204 miles from Lynchburg to Bristol and it made important westward connections which reached New Orleans, Louisiana, before the war began in 1861. All three railroads were damaged during the American Civil War. After the end of hostilities, defeated Confederate General Robert E. Lee advised his generals to go back to work rebuilding. The war had demonstrated the need to consolidate resources and connections, and he was president of all three by the end of 1867
Atlantic, Mississippi and Ohio Railroad
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Advertisement for the Atlantic, Mississippi & Ohio Railroad from 1880, one year before its merger into the Norfolk and Western Railway
27.
African Americans
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
African Americans
–
An artist's conception of
Crispus Attucks (1723–1770), the first "
martyr " of the
American Revolution. He was of
Native American and African American descent.
African Americans
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Jesse Owens shook racial stereotypes both with Nazis and segregationists in the USA at the 1936 Berlin Olympics.
African Americans
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An African-American boy outside of
Cincinnati,
Ohio in the 1940s.
African Americans
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March on Washington, August 28, 1963, shows civil rights leaders and union leaders.
28.
Courtland, Virginia
–
Courtland is an incorporated town in Southampton County, Virginia, United States. The population was 1,284 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Southampton County. Originally named Jerusalem by English colonists, the town was given its present name in 1888 and it served as Southampton Countys only town through the 18th century, and has been the county seat since then. This town was formed in 1791 on the shore of the Nottoway River. In 1831, the town became notorious as the site of the trials and subsequent executions of Nat Turner, the town was the boyhood home of Confederate Major General William Mahone, whose father Fielding Mahone ran a tavern. General George H. Thomas, Rock of Chickamauga, and a native of Southampton County, was a Union general and graduate of the United States Military Academy, Rochelle was clerk of court for Southampton County, and lived three houses from Mahones Tavern. Elm Grove, Mahones Tavern, Rochelle-Prince House, Simmons-Sebrell-Camp House, courtland is located at 36°42′57″N 77°3′58″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 0.9 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,270 people,460 households, the population density was 1,373.2 people per square mile. There were 498 housing units at a density of 538.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 52. 28% White,47. 01% African American,0. 16% Native American,0. 08% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 24% of the population. 32. 6% of all households were made up of individuals and 17. 0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.96. In the town, the population was out with 23. 1% under the age of 18,7. 6% from 18 to 24,27. 0% from 25 to 44,23. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 93.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.7 males, the median income for a household in the town was $31,750, and the median income for a family was $43,229. Males had an income of $34,464 versus $20,714 for females. The per capita income for the town was $18,474, about 19. 2% of families and 21. 6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 30. 6% of those under age 18 and 22. 1% of those age 65 or over
Courtland, Virginia
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A view of Main Street in Courtland, Virginia
29.
Ireland
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Ireland is an island in the North Atlantic. It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, Ireland is the second-largest island of the British Isles, the third-largest in Europe, and the twentieth-largest on Earth. Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, in 2011, the population of Ireland was about 6.4 million, ranking it the second-most populous island in Europe after Great Britain. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland, the islands geography comprises relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain, with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild, thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages. As of 2013, the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11% of the total, there are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland. The Irish climate is moderate and classified as oceanic. As a result, winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area, however, summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe. Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant, the earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10,500 BC. Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century CE, the island was Christianised from the 5th century onward. Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century, England claimed sovereignty over Ireland, however, English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th–17th century Tudor conquest, which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain. In the 1690s, a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters, with the Acts of Union in 1801, Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s and this subsided following a political agreement in 1998. In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom, Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures, especially in the fields of literature. Alongside mainstream Western culture, an indigenous culture exists, as expressed through Gaelic games, Irish music. The culture of the island shares many features with that of Great Britain, including the English language, and sports such as association football, rugby, horse racing. The name Ireland derives from Old Irish Eriu and this in turn derives from Proto-Celtic *Iveriu, which is also the source of Latin Hibernia. Iveriu derives from a root meaning fat, prosperous, during the last glacial period, and up until about 9000 years ago, most of Ireland was covered with ice, most of the time
Ireland
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Satellite image of Ireland on 11 October 2010
Ireland
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The
Gowran Ogham Stone,
Christianised c.6th Century. On display in
St. Mary's Collegiate Church Gowran.
Ireland
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The Uragh Stone Circle a
Neolithic stone circle in Gleninchaquin Park,
County Kerry
Confederate States
Confederate States Army
Major General
