1.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
2.
Painting
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Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface. The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, Painting is a mode of creative expression, and the forms are numerous. Drawing, gesture, composition, narration, or abstraction, among other aesthetic modes, may serve to manifest the expressive, Paintings can be naturalistic and representational, photographic, abstract, narrative, symbolistic, emotive, or political in nature. A portion of the history of painting in both Eastern and Western art is dominated by motifs and ideas. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action, the term painting is also used outside of art as a common trade among craftsmen and builders. What enables painting is the perception and representation of intensity, every point in space has different intensity, which can be represented in painting by black and white and all the gray shades between. In practice, painters can articulate shapes by juxtaposing surfaces of different intensity, thus, the basic means of painting are distinct from ideological means, such as geometrical figures, various points of view and organization, and symbols. In technical drawing, thickness of line is ideal, demarcating ideal outlines of an object within a perceptual frame different from the one used by painters. Color and tone are the essence of painting as pitch and rhythm are the essence of music, color is highly subjective, but has observable psychological effects, although these can differ from one culture to the next. Black is associated with mourning in the West, but in the East, some painters, theoreticians, writers and scientists, including Goethe, Kandinsky, and Newton, have written their own color theory. Moreover, the use of language is only an abstraction for a color equivalent, the word red, for example, can cover a wide range of variations from the pure red of the visible spectrum of light. There is not a register of different colors in the way that there is agreement on different notes in music. For a painter, color is not simply divided into basic, painters deal practically with pigments, so blue for a painter can be any of the blues, phthalocyanine blue, Prussian blue, indigo, cobalt, ultramarine, and so on. Psychological and symbolical meanings of color are not, strictly speaking, colors only add to the potential, derived context of meanings, and because of this, the perception of a painting is highly subjective. The analogy with music is quite clear—sound in music is analogous to light in painting, shades to dynamics and these elements do not necessarily form a melody of themselves, rather, they can add different contexts to it. Modern artists have extended the practice of painting considerably to include, as one example, collage, some modern painters incorporate different materials such as sand, cement, straw or wood for their texture. Examples of this are the works of Jean Dubuffet and Anselm Kiefer, there is a growing community of artists who use computers to paint color onto a digital canvas using programs such as Adobe Photoshop, Corel Painter, and many others. These images can be printed onto traditional canvas if required, rhythm is important in painting as it is in music
3.
Brattleboro, Vermont
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Brattleboro, originally Brattleborough, is a town in Windham County, Vermont, United States. The town is located in the southeast corner of the state along the line with New Hampshire. The population is 11,765 according to the U. S. Census Bureaus 2014 estimates and it is the most populous municipality along Vermonts eastern border and is situated on the west bank of the Connecticut River at the point where Vermonts West River flows into it. Marlboro College Center for Graduate and Professional Studies and SIT Graduate Institute are located in the town, there are satellite campuses of three colleges as well, Community College of Vermont, Union Institute and University, and Vermont Technical College. The town is home to the New England Center for Circus Arts, the Brattleboro Retreat, a not-for-profit mental health and addictions psychiatric hospital, is also located in the town. The Abenaki would transit this area annually between Missisquoi in northwestern Vermont, and Squakheag near what is now Northfield, Massachusetts, the specific Abenaki band who lived here and traversed this place were called Sokoki, meaning people who go their own way or people of the lonely way. Lieutenant-governor William Dummer signed the measure, and construction of Fort Dummer began on February 3,1724, on October 11 of that year, the French attacked the fort and killed some soldiers. By 1728, and in subsequent peaceful periods, the served as a trading post for commerce among the colonial settlers. But violence flared up from time to time throughout the first half of the 18th century, in 1744, what became known as King Georges War broke out, lasting until 1748. During this period a body of British colonial troops were posted at the fort. Although the area was part of the Equivalent Lands, the township became one of the New Hampshire grants. It was named Brattleborough, after Colonel William Brattle, Jr. of Boston, hostilities having ceased, Brattleboro developed quickly in peacetime, and soon was second to none in the state for business and wealth. In 1771, Stephen Greenleaf opened Vermonts first store in the east village, and in 1784, a bridge was built across the Connecticut River to Hinsdale, New Hampshire in 1804. In 1834, the Brattleboro Retreat, then called the Vermont Asylum for the Insane, was established through a generous bequest by Hinsdale, until the Water Cure closed in 1871, the town was widely known as a curative health resort. Whetstone Falls, very close to where Brattleboros Whetstone Brook flows into the Connecticut River, was a source of water power for watermills, initially a sawmill. In 1888, the spelling of the name was shortened to Brattleboro. The Estey Organ company, the largest organ manufacturer in the United States, the companys main factory was located southwest of downtown Brattleboro, on the south side of Whetstone Brook between Birge and Organ Streets. At its height, the complex had more than 20 buildings, many of which were interconnected by raised walkways, one of the buildings now houses the Estey Organ Museum
4.
Jonathan Hunt (Vermont Representative)
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Jonathan Hunt was an American lawyer and politician from Vermont. He was a member of the United States House of Representatives for the state of Vermont and was a member of the prominent Hunt family of Vermont, born in Vernon, Windham County, Vermont, Hunt graduated from Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, in 1807. Afterwards, Hunt studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1812, Hunt commenced practice in Brattleboro, Vermont in 1812. He was the first president of the Old Brattleboro Bank in 1821, the first bank established in Brattleboro and he also carried the rank of General in the Vermont militia, as had his uncle Arad Hunt. Hunt held many positions in Vermont, and served as a member of the Vermont House of Representatives in 1811,1816,1817. He was elected as an Adams candidate to represent Vermonts 1st congressional district in 1827 and he served in the United States House of Representatives during the Twentieth, Twenty-first, and Twenty-second Congresses, serving from March 4,1827 until his death on May 15,1832. Hunt was a friend of statesman and orator Daniel Webster. The brick home that Hunt had built in Brattleboro, later known as the Colonel Hooker home, was the first brick built in town. Hunt died in Washington D. C. on May 15,1832 while still in office, at his death he left an estate valued in excess of $150,000. He was buried in the plot in the Old Cemetery on the Hill in Brattleboro. A graduate of Dartmouth, Hunt served as a trustee of Vermonts Middlebury College, Hunt was the son of Jonathan Hunt and Lavinia Hunt. His father was born in Massachusetts and was an early pioneer and he served as Lieutenant Governor of Vermont from 1794–1796. Hunts uncle was composer and poet Timothy Swan, and his aunt was married to U. S, Hunt married Jane Maria Leavitt of Suffield, Connecticut. She was part of the New England Dwight family which was involved in the shipping business. Janes father, Thaddeus Leavitt, was a merchant whose clipper ships traded with the West Indies. He invented an early cotton gin and was one of the purchasers of the Western Reserve lands in Ohio. Following Hunts death, his wife took their children to Geneva, Paris, the Hunt children were able to study the arts in European academies and become part of an American expatriate community in Europe. Four of Hunts children returned to America, the fifth, his namesake son Jonathan, remained in Paris, where he studied medicine at the University of Paris and subsequently practiced medicine until his early death, a suicide in 1874
5.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
6.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
7.
Thaddeus Leavitt
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Leavitt also kept a journal in which he noted everything from the weather to cures for various ailments to the adoption of the United States Constitution. Thaddeus Leavitt, Esq. was born September 9,1750 in Suffield to farmer and carpenter John Leavitt, Thaddeus Leavitt married Elizabeth King, daughter of Ensign William King of Suffield and his wife Lucy Hatheway. A piece of French furniture was emblazoned with a plaque to commemorate the couples marriage. Leavitt became an early Suffield merchant, selectman and Justice of the Peace and he ran a store in Suffield, and from an early age began investing in the shipping business. Leavitt was one of Hartford Countys leading citizens, and became wealthy in his dealings as a merchant and his ships traded as far afield as the West Indies and other farflung destinations, and the entrepreneurial Leavitt acted as both importer and exporter. Thanks to his wealth, Leavitt built the home later known in Suffield as the Harmon House on High Street. Eventually Leavitts business interests extended as far as Spain, also investing in the Connecticut Land Company were other of the states most powerful men. One of the first settlers of the Western Reserve was John Leavitt, brother of Thaddeus, in 1803 Leavitt was among several Connecticut citizens chosen to resolve a dispute between the states of Connecticut and Massachusetts concerning the border between the two states. Leavitt was one of a succession of trustees ordered to resolve the conflict between the two New England states. Leavitts appointment to the border commission flowed from his interests in the region. In 1805, he joined with several citizens of Connecticut and Massachusetts to form a company designated by the legislature as The Proprietors of the Springfield Bridge, the corporations aim was building a bridge over the Connecticut River linking West Springfield and Springfield, Massachusetts. Within the state of Connecticut, Leavitts interests came to embrace the burgeoning development. He served as one of the earliest directors of the newly-incorporated Hartford Bank, merchant Leavitt even had his fingers in the states agricultural economy, serving on the committee of the Hartford County Agricultural Society. Unusually for a merchant, pressed for time, Leavitt kept a long-running diary about events in Suffield. Joshua Leavitt, first Suffield ancestor and grandfather of Thaddeus Leavitt, smugmug. edu
8.
Harvard College
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Harvard College is the undergraduate liberal arts college of Harvard University. Founded in 1636 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, it is the oldest institution of learning in the United States. The school came into existence in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony—though without a single building, in 1638, the college became home for North Americas first known printing press, carried by the ship John of London. Three years later, the college was renamed in honor of deceased Charlestown minister John Harvard who had bequeathed to the school his entire library, Harvards first instructor was schoolmaster Nathaniel Eaton, in 1639, he also became its first instructor to be dismissed, for overstrict discipline. The schools first students were graduated in 1642, in 1665, Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck from the Wampanoag … did graduate from Harvard, the first Indian to do so in the colonial period. The colleges of Englands Oxford and Cambridge Universities are communities within the university, each an association of scholars sharing room. The Indian College was active from 1640 to no later than 1693, the body known as The President and Fellows of Harvard College retains its traditional name despite having governance of the entire University. Radcliffe College originally paid Harvard faculty to repeat their lectures for women students, since the 1970s, Harvard has been responsible for undergraduate governance matters for women, women were still formally admitted to and graduated from Radcliffe until a final merger in 1999. About 2,000 students are admitted each year, representing between five and ten percent of those applying, of those admitted, approximately three-quarters choose to attend and these figures make Harvard perhaps the most selective and sought-after college in the world. Midway through the year, most undergraduates join one of fifty standard fields of concentration. Joint concentrations and special concentrations are also possible, a smaller number receive the Scientiarum Baccalaureus. There are also special programs, such as a five-year program leading to both a Harvard undergraduate degree and a Master of Arts from the New England Conservatory of Music. In 2012, dozens of students were disciplined for cheating on an exam in one course. The university instituted a code beginning in the fall of 2015. The total annual cost of attendance, including tuition and room and board, under financial aid guidelines adopted in 2012, families with incomes below $65,000 no longer pay anything for their children to attend, including room and board. Families with incomes between $65,000 to $150,000 pay no more than 10% of their annual income, grants total 88% of Harvards aid for undergraduate students, with aid also provided by loans and work-study. Each house is presided over by a senior-faculty Faculty Dean, while its Allston Burr Resident Dean supervises undergraduates day-to-day academic, many tutors reside in the House, as do the Faculty Dean and Resident Dean. The way in which students come to live in particular Houses has changed greatly over time, under the original draft system, Masters negotiated privately over the assignment of rising sophomores considered most—or least—promising
9.
Emanuel Leutze
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Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze was a German American history painter best known for his painting Washington Crossing the Delaware. He is associated with the Düsseldorf school of painting, Leutze was born in Schwäbisch Gmünd, Württemberg, Germany, and was brought to the United States as a child. His parents settled first in Fredericksburg, Virginia, and then at Philadelphia and his early education was good, though not especially in the direction of art. The first development of his artistic talent occurred while he was attending the sickbed of his father, at 14, he was painting portraits for $5 apiece. Through such work, he supported himself after the death of his father, in 1834, he received his first instruction in art in classes of John Rubens Smith, a portrait painter in Philadelphia. He soon became skilled, and promoted a plan for publishing, in Washington, portraits of eminent American statesmen, however, he met with, in 1840, one of his paintings attracted attention and procured him several orders, which enabled him to go to the Kunstakademie Düsseldorf. In due to his attitude, he studied only one year at the academy. Mainly Leutze was affected by the painter Lessing, in 1842 he went to Munich, studying the works of Cornelius and Kaulbach, and, while there, finished his Columbus before the Queen. The following year he visited Venice and Rome, making studies from Titian and his first work, Columbus before the Council of Salamanca was purchased by the Düsseldorf Art Union. In 1845, after a tour in Italy, he returned to Düsseldorf, marrying Juliane Lottner, during his years in Düsseldorf, he was a resource for visiting Americans, he found them places to live and work, provided introductions, and emotional and even financial support. A strong supporter of Europes Revolutions of 1848, Leutze decided to paint an image that would encourage Europes liberal reformers with the example of the American Revolution. Using American tourists and art students as models and assistants, Leutze finished a first version of Washington Crossing the Delaware in 1850, just after it was completed, the first version was damaged by fire in his studio, subsequently restored, and acquired by the Kunsthalle Bremen. On September 5,1942, during World War II, it was destroyed in a raid by the Allied forces. It is owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, in 1859, Leutze returned to the United States and opened a studio in New York City. He divided his time between New York City and Washington, D. C, in 1859, he painted a portrait of Chief Justice Roger Brooke Taney which hangs in the Harvard Law School. In a 1992 opinion, Justice Antonin Scalia described the portrait of Taney and he sits facing the viewer and staring straight out. There seems to be on his face, and in his deep-set eyes, Leutze also executed other portraits, including one of fellow painter William Morris Hunt. In 1860 Leutze was commissioned by the U. S, late in life, he became a member of the National Academy of Design
10.
Thomas Couture
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Thomas Couture was an influential French history painter and teacher. He taught such later luminaries of the art world as Édouard Manet, Henri Fantin-Latour, John La Farge, Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, Karel Javůrek, Couture was born at Senlis, Oise, France. When he was 11, his family moved to Paris, where he would study at the arts school. He failed the prestigious Prix de Rome competition at the six times. Couture finally did win the prize in 1837, in 1840, he began exhibiting historical and genre pictures at the Paris Salon, earning several medals for his works, in particular for his masterpiece, Romans During the Decadence. Shortly after this success, Couture opened an independent atelier meant to challenge the École des Beaux-Arts by turning out the best new history painters, coutures innovative technique gained much attention, and he received Government and Church commissions for murals during the late 1840s through the 1850s. He never completed the first two commissions, and the third met with mixed criticism. Upset by the reception of his murals, in 1860 he left Paris, for a time returning to his hometown of Senlis. In 1867, he thumbed his nose at the establishment by publishing a book on his own ideas. It was also translated to Conversations on Art Methods in 1879, asked by a publisher to write an autobiography, Couture responded, Biography is the exaltation of personality—and personality is the scourge of our time. In 1879, he died at Villiers-le-Bel, Val-dOise, and was interred in Père Lachaise Cemetery, romanticism and The School of Nature, Nineteenth-century drawings and paintings from the Karen B. Cohen collection. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, media related to Thomas Couture at Wikimedia Commons Thomas Couture at Find a Grave Article on Thomas Couture
11.
Richard Morris Hunt
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Richard Morris Hunt was an American architect of the nineteenth century and a preeminent figure in the history of American architecture. Design critic Paul Goldberger wrote in The New York Times that Hunt was American architectures first, Hunt also founded both the American Institute of Architects and the Municipal Art Society. Born at Brattleboro, Vermont, Hunt was a son of Jane Maria Leavitt, born to a family of Suffield, Connecticut. Jonathan Hunt, a U. S. congressman whose own father was the lieutenant governor of Vermont, Richard Morris Hunt was the brother of the Boston painter William Morris Hunt, and the photographer and lawyer Leavitt Hunt. Following the early death of his father, Hunts mother took the family to Europe, Hunt began his education at the Boston Latin School. Hunt later entered the Paris atelier of Hector Lefuel in 1846, the aspiring architect Hunt became the first American to attend the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. Hunt would later regale aspiring young architect Louis Sullivan with stories of his work on the New Louvre in Lefuels atelier libre and his philosophy of architectural work may be summed up in his quote The first thing youve got to remember is that its your clients money youre spending. Your goal is to achieve the best results by following their wishes, if they want you to build a house upside down standing on its chimney, its up to you to do it. Hunts greatest influence was his insistence that architects be treated, and paid, as legitimate and he sued one of his early clients for non-payment of his five percent fee, which established an important legal precedent. Hunt married Catherine Clinton Howland on April 2,1861 and she was the daughter of Samuel S. Howland. His extensive social connections in Newport among the richest Americans of his generation, were informed by his energy, legend has it that while on a final walk-through of one of his Vanderbilt mansions, Hunt discovered a mysterious tent-like object in one of the ballrooms. Investigating, he found it was covering a life-sized statue of himself, dressed in stonecutters clothes. Vanderbilt permitted the statue to be placed on the roof of the mansion, most who came into contact with Hunt came away struck by the man. On their first meeting in 1869 Ralph Waldo Emerson spoke of one remarkable person new to me, Hunt designed New Yorks Tribune Building, one of the earliest with an elevator, in 1873. Other buildings of note that Hunt designed include the Theological Library and Marquand Chapel in Princeton, the Scroll and Key building at Yale, until the Lenox Library, none of Hunts American works were in the Beaux-Arts style with which he is associated. Late in his life he became involved in the Chicagos Worlds Columbian Exposition in 1893, in New York City, Hunts handiwork can be seen on the austere pedestal of the Statue of Liberty and on the elegant 5th Avenue facade of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Hunt often employed sculptor Karl Bitter to enrich his designs, according to Central Park historian Sarah Cedar Miller, Central Park Commissioner and influential New Yorker Andrew Haswell Green, was a major supporter of Hunt. When the park commissioners adopted Hunts design, Olmsted and his partner Calvert Vaux protested and resigned their positions with the Central Park project, Hunts plan for Scholars Gate was never built and Olmsted and Vaux subsequently rejoined the project
12.
David McCullough
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David Gaub McCullough is an American author, narrator, historian, and lecturer. He is a winner of the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award and a recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Born and raised in Pittsburgh, McCullough earned a degree in English literature from Yale University. His first book was The Johnstown Flood, and he has written nine more on such topics as Harry S. Truman, John Adams, the Brooklyn Bridge. McCullough has also narrated numerous documentaries, such as The Civil War by Ken Burns, as well as the 2003 film Seabiscuit, McCulloughs two Pulitzer Prize-winning books, Truman and John Adams, have been adapted by HBO into a TV film and a miniseries, respectively. McCullough was born in the Point Breeze neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and he was educated at Linden Avenue Grade School and Shady Side Academy, in his hometown of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. One of four sons, McCullough had a marvelous childhood with a range of interests, including sports. McCulloughs parents and his grandmother, who read to him often and his parents often talked about history, a topic he says should be discussed more often. McCullough loved school, every day, he contemplated many career choices, ranging from architect, actor, painter, writer, to lawyer, in 1951, McCullough began attending Yale University. He said that it was a privilege to study English at Yale because of faculty members such as John OHara, John Hersey, Robert Penn Warren, McCullough occasionally ate lunch with the Pulitzer Prize-winning novelist and playwright Thornton Wilder. Wilder, says McCullough, taught him that a competent writer maintains an air of freedom in the storyline, so that a reader will not anticipate the outcome, while at Yale, he became a member of Skull and Bones. He served apprenticeships at Time, Life, the United States Information Agency, and American Heritage, once I discovered the endless fascination of doing the research and of doing the writing, I knew I had found what I wanted to do in my life. While attending Yale, McCullough studied Arts and earned his bachelors degree in English and he graduated with honors in English literature. After graduation, McCullough moved to New York City, where Sports Illustrated hired him as a trainee and he later worked as an editor and writer for the United States Information Agency in Washington, D. C. After working for years, including a position at American Heritage, in editing and writing. McCullough had no anticipation that was going to write history, but stumbled upon a story that thought was powerful, exciting, while working at American Heritage, McCullough wrote in his spare time for three years. The Johnstown Flood, a chronicle of one of the worst flood disasters in United States history, was published in 1968 to high praise by critics, John Leonard, of The New York Times, said of McCullough, We have no better social historian. Despite rough financial times, he decided to become a full-time writer, after the success of The Johnstown Flood, two new publishers offered him contracts, one to write about the Great Chicago Fire and another about the San Francisco earthquake
13.
Thomas Gold Appleton
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Thomas Gold Appleton, son of merchant Nathan Appleton and Maria Theresa Gold, was an American writer, an artist, and a patron of the fine arts. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow became his brother-in-law after marrying Appletons sister Frances, Appleton was born on March 31,1812, in Boston, Massachusetts, he would later joke that he just missed being born an April fool. He graduated from Harvard College in 1831 and in October 1838 was admitted to the bar in Suffolk County, Massachusetts, he set up his office on Tremont Row. He became known for his witticisms, one of which, the oft-quoted Good Americans, Appleton and Holmes met in 1833 on their way to Paris. Appleton befriended the poet and professor Henry Wadsworth Longfellow during a trip to Europe in the 1830s, later, back in Massachusetts, Appleton encouraged Longfellow to pursue his sister Frances Appleton. In fact, Frances took several years before she was convinced to marry Longfellow, in the meantime, when Appleton prepared for a trip to Europe, Frances implied that she would need company in his absence, suggesting she had consented to marriage. The couples wedding in 1843 was held at the Appleton home in Beacon Hill, Appleton spent much of his life traveling. As he wrote, More and more the world needs, and learns to value and he visited Niagara Falls in 1842, for example. On another vacation in the 1840s, Appleton met Horace Mann and he wrote to his brother-in-law, You may conceive the length of face with which the leader of Normal instructors contemplated the Can-Can. Also in Paris, Appleton developed an interest in spiritualism and mesmerism, attempting a career as an artist, Appleton was disappointed by his prospects. In a letter to his father in July 1844, he wrote, You know as well as I do, that my life, I am fool enough to call myself a painter or a poet. The short and long of it is, that I have not any of the kind of talent needful to success here and it is a melancholy confession but true. In addition to art, Appleton tried his hand at poetry, the winter of 1842, he had been writing a tragedy in blank verse. Writing a tragedy was considered unusual by his friends, who knew Appleton for his humor, referring to him as T. G. Appleton, the Boston wit. On his return to the United States, Appleton became a member of the board of trustees of the Boston Public Library and he purchased a Greek Revival home near the Longfellows home in Cambridge, Massachusetts on October 1,1857. His sister Frances described it, Although snug, it is very pleasing and his sister died after accidentally catching fire in July 1861, Appleton was in Nahant, Massachusetts at the time and was very affected by her death. He never had children of his own, but set out to care for his nieces. He allowed the oldest of Longfellows children, Charles, to borrow his yacht for a trip across the Atlantic Ocean in 1866 and he took the girls on daily drives in his carriage, noting that they were cheerful and happy when they went out
14.
Newport, Rhode Island
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Newport is a seaside city on Aquidneck Island in Newport County, Rhode Island, United States. The City of Newport is located approximately 37 miles southeast of Providence,21 miles south of Fall River and it is known as a New England summer resort and famous for its mansions. It was a major 18th-century port city and also contains a number of surviving buildings from the colonial era of the United States. The city is the county seat of Newport County and it was known for being the city of some of the Summer White Houses during the administrations of Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy. The population was 24,027 as of 2013 and its eight founders and first officers were Nicholas Easton, William Coddington, John Clarke, John Coggeshall, William Brenton, Jeremy Clark, Thomas Hazard, and Henry Bull. They left Portsmouth, Rhode Island after a fallout with Anne Hutchinson. As part of the agreement, Coddington and his followers took control of the side of the island. They were soon joined by Nicholas Easton, who had recently expelled from Massachusetts Bay Colony for holding heretical beliefs. The settlement grew to be the largest of the four settlements of Rhode Island. Many of the first colonists in Newport became Baptists, and the second Baptist congregation in Rhode Island was formed in 1640 under the leadership of John Clarke, peace did not last long in Newport, as many did not like Coddingtons autocratic style. As a result, a counter-faction was formed by 1650, led by Nicholas Easton, Newport became the most important port in colonial Rhode Island, and a public school was established in 1640. In 1658, a group of Jews were allowed to settle in Newport who were fleeing the Inquisition in Spain, the Newport congregation is now referred to as Congregation Jeshuat Israel and is the second-oldest Jewish congregation in the United States. It meets in Touro Synagogue, the oldest standing synagogue in the United States, in 1663, the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations received its Royal Charter, and Benedict Arnold was elected its first Governor at Newport. The commercial activity which raised Newport to its fame as a port was begun by a second wave of Portuguese Jews who settled there about the middle of the 18th century. They brought with them experience and connections, capital. Most prominent among those were Jacob Rodrigues Rivera who arrived in 1745, Rivera introduced into America the manufacture of sperm oil, which became one of the leading industries and made Newport rich. Newports inhabitants who were engaged in whaling developed 17 manufactories of oil and candles, Aaron Lopez fled to Newport from Lisbon in 1752 and is credited with making Newport an important center of trade. To him in a degree than to any one else was due the rapid commercial development which made Newport for a quarter of a century afterward the most formidable rival of New York
15.
Faial Island
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Faial Island, also known in English as Fayal, is a Portuguese island of the Central Group of the Azores. With its nearest neighbours, Pico and São Jorge, it forms an area known as the Triângulo. In no other place, do they prosper better, they need a covering of light, humidity and heat. they are in their place. Their blue, is the blue that adorns the Azores on lipid days. this is a blue that is more blue. They are in direction, rising along the roads and the fields forming hedges, they serve to divide the parcels. During a period of medieval legends and unsubstantiated stories of mystical lands, by 1427 they had discovered what most had suspected, islands in the middle of the Atlantic. In subsequent years there would occur new discoveries until, during his first voyage of exploration, by 1460, the nautical charts would refer to this island as Ilha de São Luis. It was at about time that Valentim Fernandes da Morávia. Pedro talked to van Huerter of the islands and that there existed deposits of silver, Van Huerter convinced 15 other men of the profitability of a venture in the archipelago. Around 1465, Huerter disembarked for the first time on Faial along the beach of Praia de Almofariz, the expedition remained in the area of Lomba dos Frades for about a year, until their supplies ran out. His compatriots were angered by the lack of the precious metals, and quickly van Huerter escaped to Flanders. He also noted that Isabella had ordered that criminals should be sent to the island. Infante D. Fernando gave Van Heutere the title of Captain-Major of the island, immediately, the new colonists had problems in their new colony, due to a lack of potable water. They moved their settlement to the adjacent valley, Van Huerter constructed a small chapel, consecrated in the name of Santa Cruz. He eventually returned temporarily to Lisbon, where he married D. Beatriz de Macedo, still an apt negotiator, he returned to Faial promoting the settlement of the colony and his holdings. He convinced a group of settlers, under the Flemish nobleman Willelm van der Hagen to bring his compatriots, their families. The settlers concentrated in the area of Conceição and Porto Pim, creating the nuclei of the Vila de Orta, by 1490, this Flemish community numbered approximately 1500 people, and were joined by several families from the Alentejo, Moinho and other islands in the archipelago. The rapid growth of the island, in phase, was the result of the cultivation of wheat
16.
Azores
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Its main industries are agriculture, dairy farming, livestock, fishing, and tourism, which is becoming the major service activity in the region. In addition, the government of the Azores employs a large percentage of the population directly or indirectly in the service, the main settlement of the Azores is Ponta Delgada. There are nine major Azorean islands and a cluster, in three main groups. These are Flores and Corvo, to the west, Graciosa, Terceira, São Jorge, Pico, and Faial in the centre, and São Miguel, Santa Maria, and they extend for more than 600 km and lie in a northwest-southeast direction. All the islands have volcanic origins, although some, such as Santa Maria, have had no recorded activity since the islands were settled, mount Pico, on the island of Pico, is the highest point in Portugal, at 2,351 m. The Azores are actually some of the tallest mountains on the planet, measured from their base at the bottom of the ocean to their peaks, which thrust high above the surface of the Atlantic. The climate of the Azores is very mild for such a location, being influenced by its distance to continents. Due to the influence, temperatures remain mild year-round. Daytime temperatures normally fluctuate between 16 °C and 25 °C depending on season, temperatures above 30 °C or below 3 °C are unknown in the major population centres. It is also generally wet and cloudy, the culture, dialect, cuisine, and traditions of the Azorean islands vary considerably, because these once-uninhabited and remote islands were settled sporadically over a span of two centuries. However, these kinds of structures have always used in the Azores to store cereals. Detailed examination and dating to authenticate the validity of these speculations is lacking and it is unclear whether these structures are natural or man-made and whether they predate the 15th-century Portuguese colonization of the Azores. Solid confirmation of a human presence in the archipelago has not yet been published. The islands were known in the century and parts of them appear in the Atlas Catalan. In 1427, a captain sailing for Henry the Navigator, possibly Gonçalo Velho, rediscovered the Azores, but this is not certain. In Thomas Ashes 1813 work, A History of the Azores, the author identified a Fleming, Joshua Vander Berg of Bruges and he stated that the Portuguese explored the area and claimed it for Portugal. Other stories note the discovery of the first islands by sailors in the service of Henry the Navigator, although there are few documents to support the claims. Although it is said that the archipelago received its name from the goshawk
17.
Barbizon school
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The Barbizon school of painters were part of an art movement towards Realism in art, which arose in the context of the dominant Romantic Movement of the time. The Barbizon school was active roughly from 1830 through 1870 and it takes its name from the village of Barbizon, France, near the Forest of Fontainebleau, where many of the artists gathered. Some of the most prominent features of school are its tonal qualities, color, loose brushwork. In 1824 the Salon de Paris exhibited works of John Constable and his rural scenes influenced some of the younger artists of the time, moving them to abandon formalism and to draw inspiration directly from nature. Natural scenes became the subjects of their paintings rather than mere backdrops to dramatic events, during the Revolutions of 1848 artists gathered at Barbizon to follow Constables ideas, making nature the subject of their paintings. The French landscape became a theme of the Barbizon painters. Millet extended the idea from landscape to figures — peasant figures, scenes of peasant life, in The Gleaners, for example, Millet portrays three peasant women working at the harvest. Gleaners are poor people who are permitted to gather the remains after the owners of the complete the main harvest. The owners and their laborers are seen in the back of the painting, Millet shifted the focus and the subject matter from the rich and prominent to those at the bottom of the social ladders. To emphasize their anonymity and marginalized position, he hid their faces, the womens bowed bodies represent their everyday hard work. In the spring of 1829, Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot came to Barbizon to paint in the Forest of Fontainebleau, while there he met the members of the Barbizon school, Théodore Rousseau, Paul Huet, Constant Troyon, Jean-François Millet, and the young Charles-François Daubigny. During the late 1860s, the Barbizon painters attracted the attention of a generation of French artists studying in Paris. Several of those artists visited Fontainebleau Forest to paint the landscape, including Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Alfred Sisley, in the 1870s those artists, among others, developed the art movement called Impressionism and practiced plein air painting. Both Théodore Rousseau and Jean-François Millet died at Barbizon, painters in other countries were also influenced by this art. Beginning in the nineteenth century, many artists came to Paris from Austria-Hungary to study the new movements. For instance, the Hungarian painter János Thorma studied in Paris as a young man, in 1896 he was one of the founders of the Nagybánya artists colony in what is now Baia Mare, Romania, which brought impressionism to Hungary. Marlatt Adolphe Joseph Thomas Monticelli Eugène Boudin Antonio Fontanesi American Barbizon school Art colony Naturalism landscape art Macchiaioli Catalogues des Collections des Musees de France, media related to Barbizon School at Wikimedia Commons Hecht Museum Cambridge Art Gallery
18.
Samuel Greene Wheeler Benjamin
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Samuel Greene Wheeler Benjamin was an American statesman. His parents were American missionaries in Greece, born in Argos, Greece, but then educated in the United States, he pursued careers as a journalist, author, and diplomat. In 1883, he was appointed as the first American Minister to Persia and it was he who first drafted the diplomatic code used by the American legation in Persia. US-Iran relations Lorentz, J. Historical Dictionary of Iran,1995, olsen, T. S. G. W. Benjamin, Thomson-Gale 2005/06. Political Graveyard, Benjamin, Samuel Greene Wheeler, Benjamin at Project Gutenberg Works by or about S. G. W
19.
William M. Evarts
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William Maxwell Evarts was an American lawyer and statesman from New York who served as U. S. Secretary of State, U. S. Attorney General and U. S. A eulogist summarized his career thus, Mr. Evarts most conspicuous, perhaps sole, title to fame is and his study of legal principles was profound, his acquaintance with literature was wide, his ideas of professional ethics were exalted. He held great National offices, but his title to them was rather as lawyer than statesman, William M. Evarts was born on February 6,1818, in Charlestown, Massachusetts, the son of Jeremiah Evarts and Mehitabel Barnes Sherman. Williams mother was the daughter of Roger Sherman, Connecticut founding father, a signatory to the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, Evarts attended Boston Latin School, then Yale College. In his college class were Morrison Waite, later Chief Justice of the United States, Samuel J. and Edwards Pierrepont, Evarts was one of the founders of Yale Literary Magazine in 1836. He graduated third in his class in 1837, after college he moved to Windsor, Vermont, where he taught school in order to save nenough to pay for his legal studies. He then attended Harvard Law School, where won the respect of Professors Joseph Story and he married Helen Minerva Bingham Wardner in 1843. She was the daughter of Allen Wardner, a prominent businessman and they had 12 children between 1845 and 1862, all born in New York City. After law school Evarts came to New York and entered the law office of Daniel Lord, one of his first cases involved the trial of the infamous forger Monroe Edwards. Evarts served as a counsel for the defense, which was headed by Senator John J. Crittenden of Kentucky. Edwards was convicted, but Evarts handling of his duties earned him notice as a promising lawyer, in 1851, Evarts began his partnership with Charles F. Southmayd, a partnership that would last for the rest of his professional career in one form or the other. In 1859 Evarts invited Joseph Hodges Choate to join the firm, but it was Southmayd that Evarts depended on to prepare the case, because Southmayd, it was said, was a lawyer of remarkable knowledge and capacity and dexterity in working up a case. In court, especially before a jury, however, it was Evarts who shined, in 1855, the State of Virginia hired attorneys to contest the decision of the New York Superior Court releasing eight black slaves in the famous Lemmon Slave Case. When Ogden Hoffman, the New York Attorney General died, the New York legislature appointed Evarts to replace him, the Appellate Division affirmed the ruling, and Virginia again appealed. Evarts again represented the state in the New York Court of Appeals, the case generated widespread interest, and Evartss arguments were reported in the daily press, as was nearly every step in the case. Thurlow Weed said that in view of his arguments Evarts placed beyond doubt his right to be ranked among the foremost lawyers of the country, in 1856 Evarts represented the widow of Henry Parish, who was the proponent of his will and codicils in probate. His brothers contested the will on the ground of incapacity and undue influence, the proceedings took on a Bleak House-like life of its own with eminent counsel on all sides. The estate was worth over $1.5 million at the beginning of the trial, there were 111 days of testimony before the Surrogate and two weeks of oral argument before the case closed on November 23,1857
20.
Charles Francis Adams, Sr.
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Charles Francis Adams Sr. was an American historical editor, politician and diplomat. He was a son of President John Quincy Adams and grandson of President John Adams and that meant conducting dialogue with both sides and monitoring the British connection in the supply of commerce raiders. He became an overseer of Harvard University, and built Adams National Historical Park and he was born in Boston and attended Boston Latin School and Harvard College, where he graduated in 1825. He then studied law with Daniel Webster and practiced in Boston and he wrote numerous reviews of works about American and British history for the North American Review. Charles Adams and his brothers, John and George, were all rivals for the woman, their cousin, Mary Catherine Hellen. In 1828 John married Mary Hellen at a ceremony in the White House, from the 1840s Adams became one of the finest historical editors of his era. He developed his expertise in part because of the example of his father, the senior Adams began a life of his father, John Adams, but wrote only a few chapters before resuming his political career in 1830 with his election to the US House of Representatives. The edition, titled The Works of John Adams, Esq and he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1857. As a Republican, Adams was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1858, where he chaired the Committee on Manufactures. He was re-elected in 1860, but resigned to become U. S. minister to the Court of St Jamess, powerful Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner had wanted the position and became alienated from Adams. Part of his duties included correspondence with British civilians including Karl Marx, back in Boston, Adams declined the presidency of Harvard University but became one of its overseers in 1869. In 1870 he built the first presidential library in the United States to honor his father John Quincy Adams, the Stone Library includes over 14,000 books written in twelve languages. The library is located on the property of the Old House at Adams National Historical Park in Quincy, Adams served as U. S. arbiter on the 1871–72 international commission to settle the Alabama claims that met in Geneva. He is considered one of the contributors on this seminal work in forwarding the concept of world law through arbitration. During the 1876 electoral college controversy, Adams sided with Democrat Samuel J. Tilden over Republican Rutherford B. Hayes for the presidency and he was the last surviving child of John Quincy Adams. Abigails health and spirits worsened after her husbands death and she died at Peacefield June 6,1889, butterfield, L. H. et al. eds. Multivolume letterpress edition of all letters to and from members of the Adams family, plus their diaries. Donald, Aida Dipace and Donald, David Herbert, eds, Charles Francis Adams Sr. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
21.
James Freeman Clarke
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James Freeman Clarke was an American theologian and author. Born in Hanover, New Hampshire, James Freeman Clarke attended the Boston Latin School, graduated from Harvard College in 1829, and Harvard Divinity School in 1833. Ordained into the Unitarian church he first became a minister at Louisville, Kentucky, then a slave state. His mild theology was unusual for the town and, reportedly. As he wrote to his friend Margaret Fuller, I am a broken-winged hawk, seeking to fly at the sun, but fluttering in the dust. In 1839 he returned to Boston where he and his friends established the Church of the Disciples which brought together a body of people to apply the Christian religion to social problems of the day. One of the features that distinguished his church was Clarkes belief that ordination could make no distinction between him and them and they also were called to be ministers of the highest religious life. Of this church he was the minister from 1841 until 1850 and he was also secretary of the Unitarian Association and, in 1867-1871, professor of natural religion and Christian doctrine at Harvard. Clarke contributed essays to The Christian Examiner, The Christian Inquirer, The Christian Register, The Dial, Harpers, The Index, in addition to sermons, speeches, hymnals, and liturgies, he published 28 books and over 120 pamphlets during his lifetime. Copies of this magazine are now valued by collectors for containing the earliest printed poems of Ralph Waldo Emerson, a personal friend, Clarke became a member of the Transcendental Club alongside Emerson and several others. For the Western Messenger, Clarke requested written contributions from Margaret Fuller, Clarke published Fullers first literary review—criticisms of recent biographies on George Crabbe and Hannah More. She later became the first full-time book reviewer in journalism working for Horace Greeleys New York Tribune, after Fullers death in 1850, Clarke worked with William Henry Channing and Emerson as editors of The Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli, published in February 1852. The trio censored or reworded many of Fullers letters, they believed the public interest in Fuller would be temporary, nevertheless, for a time, the book was the best-selling biography of the decade and went through thirteen editions before the end of the century. In 1855, Clarke purchased the site of Brook Farm. This never came to pass, instead the land was offered to President Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War, in November 1861, Clarke was in Washington, D. C. with Samuel Gridley Howe and Julia Ward Howe. After hearing the song John Browns Body, he suggested that Mrs. Howe write new lyrics, Clarke was an advocate of human rights. Tempered and moderate in his views of life, he was a reformer and he published few verses, but is regarded by some as a poet at heart. A diligent scholar, among the books by which he well known is one called Ten Great Religions
22.
United States Senate
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The United States Senate is the upper chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the House of Representatives, the lower chamber, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution. S. From 1789 until 1913, Senators were appointed by the legislatures of the states represented, following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. The Senate chamber is located in the wing of the Capitol, in Washington. It further has the responsibility of conducting trials of those impeached by the House, in the early 20th century, the practice of majority and minority parties electing their floor leaders began, although they are not constitutional officers. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise, there was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a Peoples House directly elected by the people, the other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally, the Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation. First convened in 1789, the Senate of the United States was formed on the example of the ancient Roman Senate, the name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders. James Madison made the comment about the Senate, In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people. An agrarian law would take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation, landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority, the senate, therefore, ought to be this body, and to answer these purposes, the people ought to have permanency and stability. The Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may be created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that states consent, the District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation in either House of the Congress. The District of Columbia elects two senators, but they are officials of the D. C. city government. The United States has had 50 states since 1959, thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly 70 times the population of Wyoming and this means some citizens are effectively two orders of magnitude better represented in the Senate than those in other states. Seats in the House of Representatives are approximately proportionate to the population of each state, before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, Senators were elected by the individual state legislatures
23.
Charles Sumner
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Charles Sumner was an American politician and senator from Massachusetts. During Reconstruction, he fought to minimize the power of the ex-Confederates, in the speech, Sumner characterized the attackers cousin, South Carolina Senator Andrew Butler, a Democrat, as a pimp for slavery. The episode played a role in the coming of the Civil War. During the war Sumner was a leader of the Radical Republican faction that criticized President Abraham Lincoln for being too moderate on the South, Sumners expertise and energy made him a powerful chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. Sumner, teaming with House leader Thaddeus Stevens, battled Andrew Johnsons reconstruction plans, although Sumner forcefully advocated the annexation of Alaska in the Senate, he was against the annexation of the Dominican Republic, then known by the name of its capital, Santo Domingo. After leading Senators to defeat President Ulysses S. Grants Santo Domingo Treaty in 1870, Sumner broke with Grant, and denounced him in such terms that reconciliation was impossible. In 1871, President Grant and his Secretary of State Hamilton Fish retaliated, through Grants supporters in the Senate, Sumner had become convinced that Grant was a corrupt despot and that the success of Reconstruction policies called for new national leadership. Sumner bitterly opposed Grants reelection by supporting the Liberal Republican candidate Horace Greeley in 1872, less than two years later, he died in office. Sumner was born on Irving Street in Boston on January 6,1811 and his father had been born in poverty and his mother shared a similar background and worked as a seamstress prior to her marriage. Sumners parents were described as formal and undemonstrative. In 1825 Charles P. Sumner became Sheriff of Suffolk County, the family attended Trinity Church, but after 1825, the family occupied a pew in Kings Chapel. Sumners father hated slavery and told Sumner that freeing the slaves would do us no good unless they were treated equally by society, Sumner was a close associate of William Ellery Channing, an influential Unitarian minister in Boston. Channing believed that human beings had a potential to improve themselves. Expanding on this argument, Sumner concluded that environment had an important, by creating a society where knowledge, virtue and religion took precedence, the most forlorn shall grow into forms of unimagined strength and beauty. Moral law, he believed, was as important for governments as it was for individuals, while Sumner often viewed contemporary society critically, his faith in reform was unshakable. When accused of utopianism, he replied The Utopias of one age have been the realities of the next, the increased income Charles P. Sumner enjoyed after becoming Sheriff enabled him to afford higher education for his children. Charles Sumner attended the Boston Latin School, where he counted Robert Charles Winthrop, James Freeman Clarke, Samuel Francis Smith, and Wendell Phillips, among his closest friends. He graduated in 1830 from Harvard College, where he lived in Hollis Hall, at Harvard, he was a member of the Porcellian Club
24.
Lemuel Shaw
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Lemuel Shaw was an American jurist who served as Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court. Prior to his appointment he served for several years in the Massachusetts House of Representatives. In 1847 Shaw became the father-in-law of author Herman Melville, Shaw was born in West Barnstable, Massachusetts, the second son of Oakes Shaw and his second wife Susanna, who was a daughter of John H. Hayward of Braintree. The Shaws were descendants of Abraham Shaw, who left Halifax, England in 1636, Oakes Shaw, a Congregationalist minister, was pastor of the West Church in Barnstable for forty-seven years. Lemuel was named for his uncle, Dr. Hayward of Boston, father of George Hayward, educated at home by his father except for a few months at Braintree, he entered Harvard in 1796. There, he taught school in winter vacations, after graduating with high honors in 1800, he taught for a year in a Boston public school, and wrote articles and read proof for the Boston Gazette, a Federalist newspaper. In August 1801, he began studying law in Boston under David Everett, meanwhile, he learned French proficiently from a refugee, Antoine Jay, afterwards a founder in France of the liberal newspaper Le Constitutionnel. In 1802, he moved with Everett to Amherst, New Hampshire, where besides doing legal work he contributed a poem on dancing and translations from French to the Farmers Cabinet, a local newspaper. He became engaged to Nancy Melvill, daughter of Maj. Thomas Melvill of Boston, admitted to the bar in Hillsborough County, New Hampshire, in September 1804, and in Plymouth County, Massachusetts that November, Shaw began practice in Boston. When his associate left Boston after being acquitted of murder in a political quarrel, in about 1822, Shaw took Sidney Bartlett, an able trial lawyer, as his junior partner. His practice gradually became large, but he was known as an advocate than as the adviser of important commercial enterprises. Shaw was prepared for his career by numerous public positions. He was elected a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, serving in 1811-14,1820 and 1829 and he served as a member of the constitutional convention of 1820. He also held offices in Boston. Shaw was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, in 1822, with few precedents to guide him, he drafted the first charter of the city, which lasted until 1913. On the death of Chief State Justice Isaac Parker, Governor Levi Lincoln offered Shaw the appointment, daniel Webster successfully urged Shaw to accept, though it meant giving up a practice of $15,000 to $20,000 a year for a salary of $3,500. And for this, if nothing else, Webster later thought the public owed him a debt of gratitude, Shaws commission was issued August 30,1830, and he served 30 years, resigning August 21,1860. His exceptionally long judicial career coincided with the development of important industries, so that he made law on such matters as water power, railroads
25.
Horace Gray
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Horace Gray was an American jurist who ultimately served on the United States Supreme Court. He was active in service and a great philanthropist to the City of Boston. Gray was born in Boston, Massachusetts, to the prominent Boston Brahmin merchant family of William Gray. He enrolled at Harvard College at the age of 13, graduated four years later and he studied law at Harvard, although he did not receive a degree. Gray entered the bar in 1851, Grays home later became the site of the Third Church of Christ, Scientist Horace Grays half-brother, John Chipman Gray went on to become a lawyer and long-time professor at Harvard Law School. This reputation made him a choice when a vacancy opened up on the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court in 1864. At age 36, Gray was youngest appointee in that courts history, while serving as chief justice, Gray hired Louis D. Brandeis as a clerk, becoming the first justice of that court to hire a clerk. In 1881, President Chester A. Arthur nominated Gray to a vacancy on the Supreme Court of the United States, he was confirmed the following day, replacing Nathan Clifford. In 1889, Gray married Jane Matthews, who was the daughter of his colleague on the court. As he had been in Massachusetts, Gray was the first Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court to hire a law clerk and he used his own funds to pay the clerks salary, as no government money was appropriated for this purpose at the time. Gray served on the US Supreme Court for over 20 years, resigning in July,1902 and he was succeeded by a fellow Massachusetts native, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. who, like Gray, previously served on the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court. His opinions, both concurring and dissenting, were very long and weighted with legal history. Gray is well known for his decision in Pollock v. Farmers Loan & Trust Co, after the first hearing, Gray wrote that he sided with the defendant, arguing that the tax was indeed constitutional. He was in the minority, however, after the second hearing, Gray changed his stance, joining with the majority in favor of the plaintiff. He chose not to write a dissenting or concurring opinion, in either hearing, probably the most famous of Justice Grays opinions is Mut. This holding gained wide acceptance and is now codfied in Rule 803 of the Federal Rules of Evidence, Horace Gray was also the author of the 1898 case United States v.169 U. S.649,705. Horace Gray sided with the majority in the infamous case Plessy v. Ferguson that upheld racial segregation, samuel Williston who worked as Justice Grays private secretary Data drawn in part from the Supreme Court Historical Society and Oyez. Legal Historian on the United States Supreme Court, Justice Horace Gray, Jr. koslosky, Daniel Ryan, Ghosts of Horace Gray, Customary International Law as Expectation in Human Rights Litigation 97 Kentucky Law Journal 615
26.
Great Boston Fire of 1872
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The Great Boston fire of 1872 was Bostons largest urban fire, and still ranks as one of the most costly fire-related property losses in American history. The conflagration began at 7,20 p. m. on November 9,1872, in the basement of a commercial warehouse at 83-87 Summer Street. The fire was finally contained 12 hours later, after it had consumed about 65 acres of Bostons downtown,776 buildings and much of the financial district, despite these devastations, only thirteen people died in the inferno. Many factors contributed to Bostons Great Fire, Bostons building regulations were not enforced, there was no authority to stop faulty construction practices. Buildings were often insured at full value or above value, over-insurance meant owners had no incentive to build fire-safe buildings. Flammable wooden French Mansard roofs were common on most buildings, the fire was able to spread quickly from roof to roof, and flames even leapt across the narrow streets onto other buildings. Flying embers and cinders started fires on even more roofs, Fire alarm boxes in Boston were locked to prevent false alarms, therefore delaying the Boston Fire Department by twenty minutes. Merchants were not taxed for inventory in their attics, therefore offering incentive to stuff their wood attics with flammable goods such as wool, textiles, most of the downtown area had old water pipes with low water pressure. Fire hydrant couplings were not standardized, the number of fire hydrants and cisterns was insufficient for a commercial district. A horse flu epizootic had immobilized Bostons fire department horses, as a result, all of the fire equipment had to be pulled to the fire by teams of volunteers on foot. Looters and bystanders interfered with fire fighting efforts, steam engine pumpers were not able to draw enough water to reach the wooden roofs of tall downtown buildings. Gas supply lines connected to street lamps and used for lighting in buildings could not be shut off promptly, gas lines exploded and fed the flames. Notable events of the fire, Author Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. watched the fire from his home on Beacon Hill and he wrote a poem about the event called After the Fire. Alexander Graham Bell wrote his own account of the fire in a letter to the newspaper The Boston Globe. Unimpressed by Bells prose, the paper did not publish his letter, the Great Chicago Fire had occurred just one year earlier, in October 1871. A committee of concerned citizens and property owners who were deputized to demolish buildings in the path of the fire with gunpowder kegs, the explosions did more harm than good by most accounts. The glow in the sky over the fire was noted in ships logs off the coast of Maine, Fire departments from every state in New England, except Vermont, arrived on trains carrying pumpers, fire fighters, and more spectators. Of these were two Amoskeag Steamers from Manchester, New Hampshire, one was the first Amoskeag ever constructed, owned by the Manchester Fire Department, the other was the first self-propelled Amoskeag that the manufacturer sent down
27.
Metropolitan Museum of Art
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The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially the Met, is located in New York City and is the largest art museum in the United States, and is among the most visited art museums in the world. Its permanent collection contains two million works, divided among seventeen curatorial departments. The main building, on the edge of Central Park along Manhattans Museum Mile, is by area one of the worlds largest art galleries. A much smaller second location, The Cloisters at Fort Tryon Park in Upper Manhattan, contains a collection of art, architecture. On March 18,2016, the museum opened the Met Breuer museum at Madison Avenue in the Upper East Side, it extends the museums modern, the Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, Indian, and Islamic art. The museum is home to collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, as well as antique weapons. Several notable interiors, ranging from first-century Rome through modern American design, are installed in its galleries, the Metropolitan Museum of Art was founded in 1870. The founders included businessmen and financiers, as well as leading artists and thinkers of the day and it opened on February 20,1872, and was originally located at 681 Fifth Avenue. The Met maintains extensive holdings of African, Asian, Oceanian, Byzantine, the museum is also home to encyclopedic collections of musical instruments, costumes and accessories, and antique weapons and armor from around the world. A number of interiors, ranging from 1st century Rome through modern American design, are permanently installed in the Mets galleries. In addition to its permanent exhibitions, the Met organizes and hosts traveling shows throughout the year. The director of the museum is Thomas P. Campbell, a long-time curator and it was announced on February 28th,2017 that Campbell will be stepping down as the Mets director and CEO, effective June. On March 1st,2017 the BBC reported that Daniel Weiss shall be the acting CEO until a replacement is found, Beginning in the late 19th century, the Met started to acquire ancient art and artifacts from the Near East. From a few tablets and seals, the Mets collection of Near Eastern art has grown to more than 7,000 pieces. The highlights of the include a set of monumental stone lamassu, or guardian figures. The Mets Department of Arms and Armor is one of the museums most popular collections. Among the collections 14,000 objects are many pieces made for and used by kings and princes, including armor belonging to Henry VIII of England, Henry II of France, Rockefeller donated his more than 3, 000-piece collection to the museum. The Mets Asian department holds a collection of Asian art, of more than 35,000 pieces, the collection dates back almost to the founding of the museum, many of the philanthropists who made the earliest gifts to the museum included Asian art in their collections
28.
Albany, New York
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Albany is the capital of the U. S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County. Roughly 150 miles north of New York City, Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River, the population of the City of Albany was 97,856 according to the 2010 census. With a Census-estimated population of 98,4242013, the Capital District is the third-most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States. Fortune 500 companies that have offices in Albany include American Express, J. P. Morgan and Chase, Merrill Lynch, General Electric, Verizon, Goldman Sachs, International Paper, and Key Bank. In the 21st century, the Capital District has emerged as an anchor of Tech Valley. This was the first European settlement in the state, settled by Dutch colonists who built Fort Nassau for fur trading in 1614 and they formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples, two major Native American nations in the region. The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange, in 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements, renaming the city as Albany, in honor of the then Duke of Albany, the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The city was chartered in 1686 under English rule. It became the capital of New York State in 1797, following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War, Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies, and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. Its charter is possibly the longest-running instrument of government in the Western Hemisphere. During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th, Albany was a center of trade, Albanys main exports at the time were beer, lumber, published works, and ironworks. Beginning in 1810, Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States, in the 20th century, the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world, the precursor of todays Albany International Airport. During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital and it marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities. In the early 21st century, Albany has experienced growth in the high-technology industry, Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century, with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services. The city has rebounded from the decline of the 1970s and 1980s. Albany is known for its history, commerce, culture, architecture. Albany won the All-America City Award in both 1991 and 2009, Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States. The Hudson River area was inhabited by Algonquian-speaking Mohican, who called it Pempotowwuthut-Muhhcanneuw
29.
Boston Museum of Fine Arts
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The Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, Massachusetts, is the fourth largest museum in the United States. It contains more than 450,000 works of art, making it one of the most comprehensive collections in the Americas, with more than one million visitors a year, it is the 55th most-visited art museum in the world as of 2014. Founded in 1870, the moved to its current location in 1909. The museum is affiliated with the Tufts School of the Museum of Fine Arts, the Museum of Fine Arts was founded in 1870 and opened in 1876, with most of its initial collection taken from the Boston Athenæum Art Gallery. Francis Davis Millet, a local artist, was instrumental in starting the Art School affiliated with the museum and it was built almost entirely of red brick and terracotta with a small amount of stone in its base. The brick was produced by the Peerless Brick Company of Philadelphia, in 1907, plans were laid to build a new home for the museum on Huntington Avenue in Bostons Fenway-Kenmore neighborhood near the renowned Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum. Museum trustees decided to hire architect Guy Lowell to create a design for a museum so that could be built in stages as funding was obtained for each phase, two years later, the first section of Lowell’s neoclassical design was completed. It featured a 500-foot façade of granite and a grand rotunda, the museum moved to its new location later that year, the Copley Square Hotel eventually would replace the old building. The second phase of construction built a wing along the The Fens to house paintings galleries and it was funded entirely by Maria Antoinette Evans Hunt, the wife of wealthy business magnate Robert Dawson Evans, and opened in 1915. From 1916 through 1925, the noted artist John Singer Sargent painted the frescoes that adorn the rotunda, numerous additions enlarged the building throughout the years, including the Decorative Arts wing in 1928 and the Norma Jean Calderwood Garden Court and Terrace in 1997. The West Wing, designed by I. M. Pei, opened in 1981 and this wing now houses the museums cafe, restaurant, and gift shop as well as a special exhibition space. In the mid-2000s, the museum launched an effort to renovate. In 2011, Moodys Investors Service calculated that the museum had over $180 million in outstanding debt, however, the agency cited growing attendance, a large endowment, and positive cash flow as reasons to believe that the museums finances would become stable in the near future. The renovation included a new Art of the Americas Wing to feature artwork from North, South, in 2006, the groundbreaking ceremonies took place. The landscape architecture firm Gustafson Guthrie Nichol redesigned the Huntington Avenue and Fenway entrances, gardens, access roads, the wing opened on November 20,2010 with free admission to the public. Mayor Thomas Menino declared it Museum of Fine Arts Day, the 12, 000-square-foot glass-enclosed courtyard features a 42. 5-foot high glass sculpture, titled the Lime Green Icicle Tower, by Dale Chihuly. In 2014, the Art of the Americas Wing was recognized for its architectural achievement by being awarded the Harleston Parker Medal. In 2015, the museum renovated its Japanese garden, Tenshin-en, the garden, which originally opened in 1988, was designed by Japanese professor Kinsaku Nakane
30.
Winslow Homer
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Winslow Homer was an American landscape painter and printmaker, best known for his marine subjects. He is considered one of the foremost painters in 19th-century America, largely self-taught, Homer began his career working as a commercial illustrator. He subsequently took up oil painting and produced major studio works characterized by the weight and he also worked extensively in watercolor, creating a fluid and prolific oeuvre, primarily chronicling his working vacations. Born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1836, Homer was the second of three sons of Charles Savage Homer and Henrietta Benson Homer, both from long lines of New Englanders and his mother was a gifted amateur watercolorist and Homers first teacher. She and her son had a relationship throughout their lives. Homer took on many of her traits, including her quiet, strong-willed, terse, sociable nature, her dry sense of humor, Homer had a happy childhood, growing up mostly in then rural Cambridge, Massachusetts. He was a student, but his art talent was evident in his early years. Homers father was a volatile, restless businessman who was looking to make a killing. When Homer was thirteen, Charles gave up the store business to seek a fortune in the California gold rush. When that failed, Charles left his family and went to Europe to raise capital for other schemes that didnt materialize. After Homers high school graduation, his father saw a newspaper advertisement, Homers apprenticeship at the age of 19 to J. H. Bufford, a Boston commercial lithographer, was a formative but treadmill experience. He worked repetitively on sheet music covers and other work for two years. By 1857, his career was underway after he turned down an offer to join the staff of Harpers Weekly. From the time I took my nose off that lithographic stone, Homer later stated, I have had no master, Homers career as an illustrator lasted nearly twenty years. His quick success was due to this strong understanding of graphic design. Before moving to New York in 1859, Homer lived in Belmont and his uncles Belmont mansion, the 1853 Homer House, was the inspiration for a number of his early illustrations and paintings, including several of his 1860s croquet pictures. The Homer House, owned by the Belmont Womans Club, is open for public tours, in 1859, he opened a studio in the Tenth Street Studio Building in New York City, the artistic and publishing capital of the United States. Until 1863, he attended classes at the National Academy of Design, and studied briefly with Frédéric Rondel, in only about a year of self-training, Homer was producing excellent oil work
31.
Childe Hassam
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Frederick Childe Hassam was an American Impressionist painter, noted for his urban and coastal scenes. Along with Mary Cassatt and John Henry Twachtman, Hassam was instrumental in promulgating Impressionism to American collectors, dealers, and museums. He produced over 3,000 paintings, oils, watercolors, etchings, and lithographs over the course of his career, Hassam was born in his family home on Olney Street in Dorchester, Boston, in 1859. His father Frederick was a moderately successful cutlery businessman with a collection of art. He descended from a line of New Englanders. His mother, Rosa, a native of Maine, shared an ancestor with American novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne and his father claimed descent from a seventeenth-century English immigrant whose name, Horsham, had been corrupted over time to Hassam. With his dark complexion and heavily lidded eyes, many took Childe Hassam to be of Middle Eastern descent - speculation which he enjoyed stoking, Hassam demonstrated an interest in art early. He had his first lessons in drawing and watercolor while attending The Mather School, as a child, Hassam excelled at boxing and swimming at Dorchester High School. A disastrous fire in November 1872 wiped out much of Bostons commercial district, Hassam left high school after two years despite his uncles offer to pay for a Harvard education. Hassam preferred to support his family by working. His father arranged a job in the department of publisher Little. During that time, Hassam studied the art of engraving and found employment with George Johnson. He quickly proved an adept draftsman and he produced designs for commercial engravings such as letterheads, around 1879, Hassam began creating his earliest oil paintings, but his preferred medium was watercolor, mostly outdoor studies. In 1882, Hassam became an illustrator, and established his first studio. He specialized in illustrating childrens stories for such as Harpers Weekly, Scribners Monthly. He continued to develop his technique while attending drawing classes at the Lowell Institute and at the Boston Art Club, by 1883, Hassam was exhibiting publicly and had his first solo exhibition, of watercolors, at the Williams and Everett Gallery in Boston. The following year, his friend Celia Thaxter convinced him to drop his first name and he also began to add a crescent symbol in front of his signature, the meaning of which remains unknown. Having had relatively little formal art training, Hassam was advised by his friend Edmund H. Garrett to take a study trip with Garrett to Europe during the summer of 1883
32.
John Joseph Enneking
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John Joseph Enneking was an American Impressionist painter associated with the Boston School. Enneking was born of German ancestry in Minster, Ohio and he was educated at Mount St. From 1873 to 1876 he studied in Münich under Schleich and Leier, and in Paris under Daubigny and Bonnat, and in 1878-1879 he studied in Paris again and sketched in the Netherlands. Enneking is a plein air painter, and his subject is the November twilight of New England, and more generally the half lights of early spring, late autumn. Enneking died at Boston in 1916, the Enneking Parkway in Hyde Park, Massachusetts is named after Enneking. Paintings by John J. Enneking, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries Bedford Fine Art Gallery
33.
Frank Hill Smith
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Frank Hill Smith was an artist and interior designer in Boston, Massachusetts, United States in the 19th century. He painted landscapes and figures, and designed wall frescos, stage curtains, stained glass windows, among his works are ceiling frescoes in the Representatives Hall in the Massachusetts State House. In Boston Smith trained with Hammatt Billings and also studied at the Lowell Institute, as part of his training he drew from the antique at the Athenaeum. He travelled in Europe in the 1860s, studying at the atelier Suisse, in Paris, and. with Bonnat and other noted French painters. In the 1870s there is no doubt that Smith, Bicknell, Robinson, Cole, Hunt, Waterman, and, later on, Vinton and they were constantly together, working like brothers in the cause. Smith, Robinson, and Hunt used to paint a great deal together, in fact, they formed a club to sass one anothers pictures. In 1880 New Yorks Union League Club, contracted with John La Farge, Frank Hill Smith, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, and Will H. In 1886 Smith was working on the plans of a Casino, to be erected in Green Bay, the designs are drawn in a broad, artistic manner, and are the most extensive for comfort and elegance of any known in this country. It is estimated that it will require $350,000 to erect, around this time he designed a cottage intended for Walt Whitman, it was never built. He painted an elegant drop curtain for the Fairhaven Town Hall auditorium, in Massachusetts, Smith also painted ceiling frescoes in the Representatives Hall in the Massachusetts State House, depicting portraits of Samuel Adams, John Hancock, James Otis and Joseph Warren. In Bostons Beacon Hill, he lived in the Sunflower House on the corner of River, a local newspaper described it, One of the things to see here is the house of Mr. Frank Hill Smith, the artist. He has transformed an old building at the corner of Mt. Vernon and River Streets into the most attractive. Smith exhibited works in the Museum of Fine Arts in Copley Square and he belonged to Bostons St. Botolph Club. He also acted as a judge in the 1876 U. S, around the 1880s he served on the Permanent Committee of the School of Drawing and Painting of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Smith died at Boston in 1904 and his descendants included artist Fannie Hillsmith. Fay, John William, Linen, Herbert M. Dearborn, the Cyclopædia of American Biography, Volume 5. Champlin, John Denison and Perkins, Charles Callahan, Cyclopædia of painters and paintings, Volume 4. Mantle Fieldings Dictionary of American Painters, Sculptors & Engravers, living New England Artists, Biographical sketches, reproductions of original drawings and paintings by each artist
34.
Thomas Handasyd Perkins
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Colonel Thomas Handasyd Perkins, or T. H. Perkins, was a wealthy Boston merchant and an archetypical Boston Brahmin. Starting with bequests from his grandfather and father-in-law, he amassed a huge fortune, as a young man he was a slave trader in Haiti, a Maritime Fur Trader, trading furs from the American Northwest to China, and then a major smuggler of Turkish opium into China. His parents, James Perkins and Elizabeth Peck, had ten children in eighteen years, when Perkins was twelve, he was in the crowd which first heard the Declaration of Independence read to the citizens of Boston. The family had planned to send Perkins to Harvard College, until 1793 Perkins engaged in the slave trade at Cap-Haïtien Haiti. In 1785, when China opened the port of Canton to foreign businesses and he sailed on the Astrea to Canton in 1789 with a cargo including ginseng, cheese, lard, wine, and iron. On the trip back it carried tea and silk cloth, in 1815 Perkins and his brother James opened a Mediterranean office to buy Turkish opium for resale in China. Perkins was also an industrial investor within Massachusetts. In addition, Perkins was politically active in the Federalist Party, serving terms as state senator, additionally, he invested in many of the mills on Lowell, MA including Appleton Mills. In later years Perkins became a philanthropist and he was also a major benefactor to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, McLean Hospital, and helped found the Massachusetts General Hospital. Upon retirement, Perkins built a home on Swan Island in the Kennebec River near Richmond. He helped the island achieve independent municipal status by paying legal fees for its charter and it is now Perkins Township, a ghost town. Colonel Perkins died on January 11,1854 in Brookline, Massachusetts, Perkins married Sarah Sally Elliott on March 25,1788, in Boston, Massachusetts. They had three children, Colonel Thomas Handasyd Perkins, Jr. whose daughter Louisa married the Boston painter William Morris Hunt, Elizabeth Perkins Cabot, and Caroline Perkins Gardiner. His nephew John Perkins Cushing was active in Perkins China business for 30 years and his great nephew Charles Callahan Perkins became a well known artist, author and philanthropist like his grandfather James Perkins. Carl Seaburg and Stanley Paterson, Merchant Prince of Boston, bulletin of the Business Historical Society, Vol.6, No.2. Massachusetts Historical Society Thomas Handasyd Perkins papers, 1783-1892 guide Portrait of James Perkins, brother of T. H. Perkins
35.
Claude Monet
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Monets ambition of documenting the French countryside led him to adopt a method of painting the same scene many times in order to capture the changing of light and the passing of the seasons. From 1883 Monet lived in Giverny, where he purchased a house and property, Claude Monet was born on 14 November 1840 on the fifth floor of 45 rue Laffitte, in the 9th arrondissement of Paris. He was the son of Claude Adolphe Monet and Louise Justine Aubrée Monet. On 20 May 1841, he was baptized in the parish church, Notre-Dame-de-Lorette, as Oscar-Claude. Despite being baptized Catholic, Monet later became an atheist, in 1845, his family moved to Le Havre in Normandy. His father wanted him to go into the familys ship-chandling and grocery business and his mother was a singer, and supported Monets desire for a career in art. On 1 April 1851, Monet entered Le Havre secondary school of the arts, locals knew him well for his charcoal caricatures, which he would sell for ten to twenty francs. Monet also undertook his first drawing lessons from Jacques-François Ochard, a student of Jacques-Louis David. On the beaches of Normandy around 1856 he met fellow artist Eugène Boudin, Boudin taught Monet en plein air techniques for painting. Both received the influence of Johan Barthold Jongkind, on 28 January 1857, his mother died. At the age of sixteen, he left school and went to live with his widowed, childless aunt, when Monet traveled to Paris to visit the Louvre, he witnessed painters copying from the old masters. Having brought his paints and other tools with him, he would go and sit by a window. Monet was in Paris for several years and met other painters, including Édouard Manet and others who would become friends. After drawing a low number in March 1861, Monet was drafted into the First Regiment of African Light Cavalry in Algeria for a seven-year period of military service. His prosperous father could have purchased Monets exemption from conscription but declined to do so when his son refused to give up painting. While in Algeria Monet did only a few sketches of scenes, a single landscape. In a Le Temps interview of 1900 however he commented that the light, after about a year of garrison duty in Algiers, Monet contracted typhoid fever and briefly went absent without leave. Following convalescence, Monets aunt intervened to get him out of the army if he agreed to complete a course at an art school and it is possible that the Dutch painter Johan Barthold Jongkind, whom Monet knew, may have prompted his aunt on this matter
36.
Niagara Falls
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They form the southern end of the Niagara Gorge. From largest to smallest, the three waterfalls are the Horseshoe Falls, the American Falls and the Bridal Veil Falls, the Horseshoe Falls lies on the border of the United States and Canada with the American Falls entirely on the American side, separated by Goat Island. The smaller Bridal Veil Falls are also on the American side, the international boundary line was originally drawn through Horseshoe Falls in 1819, but the boundary has long been in dispute due to natural erosion and construction. Located on the Niagara River, which drains Lake Erie into Lake Ontario, Horseshoe Falls is the most powerful waterfall in North America, as measured by vertical height and flow rate. The falls are 17 miles north-northwest of Buffalo, New York, while not exceptionally high, the Niagara Falls are very wide. More than six cubic feet of water falls over the crest line every minute in high flow. The Niagara Falls are famed both for their beauty and as a source of hydroelectric power. Balancing recreational, commercial, and industrial uses has been a challenge for the stewards of the falls since the 19th century. The Horseshoe Falls drop about 188 feet, while the height of the American Falls varies between 70 and 100 feet because of the presence of giant boulders at its base. The larger Horseshoe Falls are about 2,600 feet wide, the distance between the American extremity of the Niagara Falls and the Canadian extremity is 3,409 feet. The volume of water approaching the falls during peak season may sometimes be as much as 225,000 cubic feet per second. The average annual rate is 85,000 cubic feet per second. Since the flow is a function of the Lake Erie water elevation. This is accomplished by employing a weir – the International Control Dam – with movable gates upstream from the Horseshoe Falls. The falls flow is further halved at night, and, during the low tourist season in the winter, water diversion is regulated by the 1950 Niagara Treaty and is administered by the International Niagara Board of Control. The current rate of erosion is approximately 1 foot per year and it is estimated that 50,000 years from now, even at this reduced rate of erosion, the remaining 20 miles to Lake Erie will have been undermined and the falls will cease to exist. The features that became Niagara Falls were created by the Wisconsin glaciation about 10,000 years ago, the same forces also created the North American Great Lakes and the Niagara River. All were dug by an ice sheet that drove through the area, deepening some river channels to form lakes
37.
Boston Athenaeum
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The Boston Athenæum is one of the oldest independent libraries in the United States. It is also one of a number of libraries, meaning that patrons pay a yearly subscription fee to use the Athenæums services. The institution was founded in 1807 by the Anthology Club of Boston and it is located at 10 1/2 Beacon Street on Beacon Hill. Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. John Quincy Adams, Margaret Fuller, Francis Parkman, Amy Lowell, John F. Kennedy, in 1803, a young Harvard graduate by the name of Phineas Adams established the magazine The Monthly Anthology, or Magazine of Polite Literature. By 1805, these young men founded the Anthology Society, the Boston Athenæum was founded in 1807 by members of the Anthology Society, literary individuals who began with a plan to have a reading room. The first librarian, William Smith Shaw, and the new trustees had ambitious plans for the Athenæum, basing their vision on the Athenæum and Lyceum in Liverpool, England. The first yearly subscriptions were sold for ten dollars, only members were allowed to enter the Athenæums rooms, the Athenæum’s collections were initially non-circulating, meaning that even members could not check out books to take home. In 1823, Shaw stepped down as librarian, and the Kings Chapel Library, work was begun on a shelf catalog in 1827. That same year, the art gallery was established, and the first annual exhibition opened, measures were undertaken in 1830 to turn the collections into a circulating library. Once the Athenæum became a library, only four books were allowed to be checked out at a time. By the early 1840s, Boston was a city, and Pearl Street was built up commercially. The trustees moved to construct a new building in order to access to the Athenæum. Land was acquired on Beacon Street overlooking the Old Granary Burying Ground, in 1849, the current location opened at 10½ Beacon Street. It was the first space designed for the Boston Athenæum’s specific needs, the first floor held the sculpture gallery, the second, the library, and the third, the paintings gallery. The neo-Palladian façade of Patterson sandstone was unique in Boston and remains so today, the Boston Athenæum included sculptures by John Frazee. Charles Ammi Cutter became librarian in 1869, succeeding William Frederick Poole, until this point, work had been uninspired on the comprehensive catalog of the library’s holdings. The Athenæum’s exhibition area opened up when the Museum of Fine Arts moved the collections into their own space overlooking Copley Square, Cutter took advantage of the space, using it to spread out the collections and to revise and complete the five-volume catalog. He created his own system, known as Expansive Classification, in order to revise
38.
Exposition Universelle (1867)
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The International Exposition of 1867, was the second worlds fair to be held in Paris, from 1 April to 3 November 1867. Forty two nations were represented at the fair, following a decree of Emperor Napoleon III, the exposition was prepared as early as 1864, in the midst of the renovation of Paris, marking the culmination of the Second French Empire. In 1864, Napoleon III decreed that an international exposition should be held in Paris in 1867, a commission was appointed with Prince Jerome Napoleon as president, under whose direction the preliminary work began. In addition to the building, there were nearly 100 smaller buildings on the grounds. There were 50,226 exhibitors, of whom 15,055 were from France and her colonies,6176 from Great Britain and Ireland,703 from the United States and a small contingent from Canada. In the gallery of Labour History Jacques Boucher de Perthes, exposes one of the first prehistoric tools whose authenticity has been recognized with the accuracy of these theories. The exhibition also included two prototypes of the acclaimed and prize-winning hydrochronometer invented in 1867 by Gian Battista Embriaco. Farcot and sculptor Albert-Ernest Carrier-Be Belleuse, farcot exhibited several units, one of them it is currently in the Roosevelt Hotel in New Orleans. Its base, which features the face and inner mechanical movements, is carved from solid onyx marble. Atop the base, a sculpture depicting a robed female figure holds a scepter. Rotating soundlessly from the subjects hand, the scepter provides consistent motion that adds to the clocks sense of grandeur. From its base to the top of the figure stands at nearly 10 feet tall. Carrier de Belleuse was one of the most important and renowned sculptors of the 19th century, the exposition was formally opened on 1 April and closed on 31 October 1867, and was visited by 9,238,967 persons, including exhibitors and employees. This exposition was the greatest up to its time of all international expositions, for the first time Japan presented art pieces to the world in a national pavilion, especially pieces from the Satsuma and Saga clans in Kyushu. The Paris street near Champs de Mars, Rue de LExposition was named in hommage to this 1867 universal exhibition. Jules Verne visited the exhibition in 1867, his take on the newly publicized discovery of electricity inspiring him heavily in his writing of 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. A famous revival of the ballet Le Corsaire was staged by the Ballet Master Joseph Mazilier in honor of the exhibition at the Théâtre Impérial de l´Opéra on 21 October 1867. The World Rowing Championships were held on the Seine River in July and was won by the underdog Canadian team from Saint John, rejtan This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Gilman, D. C
39.
William James
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William James was an American philosopher and psychologist who was also trained as a physician. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked James as the 14th most cited psychologist of the 20th century and he also developed the philosophical perspective known as radical empiricism. James work has influenced intellectuals such as Émile Durkheim, W. E. B, du Bois, Edmund Husserl, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Hilary Putnam, and Richard Rorty, and has even influenced Presidents, such as Jimmy Carter. Born into a family, James was the son of the Swedenborgian theologian Henry James Sr. James wrote widely on topics, including epistemology, education, metaphysics, psychology, religion. William James was born at the Astor House in New York City and he was the son of Henry James Sr. a noted and independently wealthy Swedenborgian theologian well acquainted with the literary and intellectual elites of his day. William James received an eclectic trans-Atlantic education, developing fluency in both German and French, education in the James household encouraged cosmopolitanism. The family made two trips to Europe while William James was still a child, setting a pattern that resulted in thirteen more European journeys during his life. In his early adulthood, James suffered from a variety of ailments, including those of the eyes, back, stomach. Two younger brothers, Garth Wilkinson and Robertson, fought in the Civil War, the other three siblings all suffered from periods of invalidism. He took up studies at Harvard Medical School in 1864. His studies were interrupted once again due to illness in April 1867 and he traveled to Germany in search of a cure and remained there until November 1868, at that time he was 26 years old. During this period, he began to publish, reviews of his works appeared in periodicals such as the North American Review. James finally earned his M. D. degree in June 1869, what he called his soul-sickness would only be resolved in 1872, after an extended period of philosophical searching. He married Alice Gibbens in 1878, in 1882 he joined the Theosophical Society. Jamess time in Germany proved intellectually fertile, helping him find that his interests lay not in medicine but in philosophy. Later, in 1902 he would write, I originally studied medicine in order to be a physiologist, I never had any philosophic instruction, the first lecture on psychology I ever heard being the first I ever gave. In 1875–1876, James, Henry Pickering Bowditch, Charles Pickering Putnam, G. Stanley Hall, Henri Bergson and Sigmund Freud
40.
National Academy of Design
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Durand, Thomas Cole, Martin E. Thompson, and others to promote the fine arts in America through instruction and exhibition. The Academy is an honorary organization, a school. The school offers instruction, master classes, intensive critiques, various workshops. The museum houses a collection of over 7,000 works of American art from the 19th, 20th. The Academy has been located at several locations over the years, notable among them was a building built during 1863-1865, designed by architect P. B. Wight in Venetian Gothic style, which was modeled on the Doges Palace in Venice, another locale was at West 109th Street and Amsterdam Avenue in Manhattan. Since 1942 the academy has occupied a mansion that was the home of sculptor Anna Hyatt Huntington and Archer Milton Huntington at Fifth Avenue. The original founders of the National Academy of Design were students of the American Academy of the Fine Arts, samuel F. B. Morse and other students set about forming the drawing association to meet several times each week for the study the art of design. Still, the association was viewed as a dependent organization of the American Academy, an attempt was made to reconcile the difference and maintain a single academy by appointing six of the artists from the association as directors of the American Academy. When four of the nominees were not elected, however, the frustrated artists resolved to form a new academy, among the teaching staff were numerous artists, including Will Hicok Low, who taught from 1889 to 1892. The famous American poet William Cullen Bryant also gave lectures, architect Alexander Jackson Davis taught at the Academy. Painter Lemuel Wilmarth was the first full-time instructor Gulian C, verplanck, a Congressman and a man of letters, gave an address at the school in 1824. and Silas Dustin was a curator
41.
Ralph Waldo Emerson
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Ralph Waldo Emerson was an American essayist, lecturer, and poet who led the transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. Emerson gradually moved away from the religious and social beliefs of his contemporaries, following this work, he gave a speech entitled The American Scholar in 1837, which Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. considered to be Americas intellectual Declaration of Independence. Emerson wrote most of his important essays as lectures first and then revised them for print and his first two collections of essays, Essays, First Series and Essays, Second Series, represent the core of his thinking. They include the well-known essays Self-Reliance, The Over-Soul, Circles, The Poet, together with Nature, these essays made the decade from the mid-1830s to the mid-1840s Emersons most fertile period. Emersons nature was more philosophical than naturalistic, Philosophically considered, the universe is composed of Nature, Emerson is one of several figures who took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world. He remains among the linchpins of the American romantic movement, and his work has influenced the thinkers, writers. When asked to sum up his work, he said his doctrine was the infinitude of the private man. Emerson is also known as a mentor and friend of Henry David Thoreau. Emerson was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on May 25,1803, a son of Ruth Haskins and the Rev. William Emerson and he was named after his mothers brother Ralph and his fathers great-grandmother Rebecca Waldo. Ralph Waldo was the second of five sons who survived adulthood, the others were William, Edward, Robert Bulkeley. Three other children—Phebe, John Clarke, and Mary Caroline—died in childhood, Emerson was entirely of English ancestry, and his family had been in New England since the early colonial period. Emersons father died from cancer on May 12,1811. Emerson was raised by his mother, with the help of the women in the family. She lived with the family off and on and maintained a constant correspondence with Emerson until her death in 1863, Emersons formal schooling began at the Boston Latin School in 1812, when he was nine. In October 1817, at 14, Emerson went to Harvard College and was appointed freshman messenger for the president, requiring Emerson to fetch delinquent students and send messages to faculty. Midway through his year, Emerson began keeping a list of books he had read. He took outside jobs to cover his expenses, including as a waiter for the Junior Commons and as an occasional teacher working with his uncle Samuel in Waltham. By his senior year, Emerson decided to go by his middle name, Emerson served as Class Poet, as was custom, he presented an original poem on Harvards Class Day, a month before his official graduation on August 29,1821, when he was 18
42.
James Russell Lowell
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James Russell Lowell was an American Romantic poet, critic, editor, and diplomat. He is associated with the Fireside Poets, a group of New England writers who were among the first American poets that rivaled the popularity of British poets and these writers usually used conventional forms and meters in their poetry, making them suitable for families entertaining at their fireside. Lowell graduated from Harvard College in 1838, despite his reputation as a troublemaker and he published his first collection of poetry in 1841 and married Maria White in 1844. The couple had children, though only one survived past childhood. After moving back to Cambridge, Lowell was one of the founders of a journal called The Pioneer and he gained notoriety in 1848 with the publication of A Fable for Critics, a book-length poem satirizing contemporary critics and poets. The same year, he published The Biglow Papers, which increased his fame and he went on to publish several other poetry collections and essay collections throughout his literary career. Maria died in 1853, and Lowell accepted a professorship of languages at Harvard in 1854 and he traveled to Europe before officially assuming his teaching duties in 1856, and married Frances Dunlap shortly thereafter in 1857. That year, Lowell also became editor of The Atlantic Monthly and it was not until 20 years later that he received his first political appointment, the ambassadorship to the Kingdom of Spain. He was later appointed ambassador to the Court of St. Jamess and he spent his last years in Cambridge in the same estate where he was born, and died there in 1891. Lowell believed that the poet played an important role as a prophet and he used poetry for reform, particularly in abolitionism. However, his commitment to the anti-slavery cause wavered over the years and he attempted to emulate the true Yankee accent in the dialogue of his characters, particularly in The Biglow Papers. This depiction of the dialect, as well as his satires, was an inspiration to writers such as Mark Twain. James Russell Lowell was born February 22,1819 and he was a member of the eighth generation of the Lowell family, the descendants of Percival Lowle who settled in Newbury, Massachusetts, in 1639. His parents were the Reverend Charles Russell Lowell, Sr. a minister at a Unitarian church in Boston who had studied theology at Edinburgh. By the time that James Russell Lowell was born, the owned a large estate in Cambridge called Elmwood. He was the youngest of six children, his siblings were Charles, Rebecca, Mary, William, Lowells mother built in him an appreciation for literature at an early age, especially in poetry, ballads, and tales from her native Orkney. In his sophomore year, he was absent from required chapel attendance 14 times, in his senior year, he became one of the editors of Harvardiana literary magazine, to which he contributed prose and poetry that he admitted was of low quality. As he said later, I was as great an ass as ever brayed & thought it singing, during his undergraduate years, Lowell was a member of Hasty Pudding and served both as Secretary and Poet
43.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
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Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was an American poet and educator whose works include Paul Reveres Ride, The Song of Hiawatha, and Evangeline. He was also the first American to translate Dante Alighieris Divine Comedy, Longfellow was born in Portland, Maine, which was then a part of Massachusetts. After spending time in Europe he became a professor at Bowdoin and, later and his first major poetry collections were Voices of the Night and Ballads and Other Poems. Longfellow retired from teaching in 1854, to focus on his writing, living the remainder of his life in Cambridge, Massachusetts and his first wife Mary Potter died in 1835, after a miscarriage. His second wife Frances Appleton died in 1861, after sustaining burns when her dress caught fire, after her death, Longfellow had difficulty writing poetry for a time and focused on translating works from foreign languages. Longfellow wrote many lyric poems known for their musicality and often presenting stories of mythology and he became the most popular American poet of his day and also had success overseas. He has been criticized, however, for imitating European styles and his father was a lawyer, and his maternal grandfather, Peleg Wadsworth, was a general in the American Revolutionary War and a Member of Congress. He was named after his mothers brother Henry Wadsworth, a Navy lieutenant who had died three years earlier at the Battle of Tripoli, Longfellow was the second of eight children, his siblings were Stephen, Elizabeth, Anne, Alexander, Mary, Ellen and Samuel. Longfellow was of entirely English ancestry, all of which had been in New England since the early 1600s, Longfellow attended a dame school at the age of three and by age six was enrolled at the private Portland Academy. In his years there he earned a reputation as being very studious and his mother encouraged his enthusiasm for reading and learning, introducing him to Robinson Crusoe and Don Quixote. He published his first poem, a patriotic and historical four-stanza poem called The Battle of Lovells Pond and he stayed at the Portland Academy until the age of fourteen. He spent much of his summers as a child at his grandfather Pelegs farm in the western Maine town of Hiram, in the fall of 1822, the 15-year-old Longfellow enrolled at Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, along with his brother Stephen. His grandfather was a founder of the college and his father was a trustee, there Longfellow met Nathaniel Hawthorne, who would later become his lifelong friend. He boarded with a clergyman for a time before rooming in 1823 on the floor of what is now known as Winthrop Hall. He joined the Peucinian Society, a group of students with Federalist leanings, in his senior year, Longfellow wrote to his father about his aspirations, I will not disguise it in the least. The fact is, I most eagerly aspire after future eminence in literature, my whole soul burns most ardently after it, and every earthly thought centres in it. I am almost confident in believing, that if I can ever rise in the world it must be by the exercise of my talents in the field of literature. He pursued his goals by submitting poetry and prose to various newspapers and magazines
44.
Edward Clarke Cabot
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Edward Clarke Cabot was an American architect and artist. Cabots father was Samuel Cabot Jr. a shipping businessman and his mother was Eliza Perkins Cabot. He had six siblings, Thomas Handasyd Cabot, Samuel Cabot III, James Elliot Cabot, Stephen Cabot, Walter Channing Cabot, and Louis Cabot. Cabot designed the Gibson House for widow Catherine Hammond Gibson and her son Charles Hammond Gibson, after the opening of the Boston Athenaeum, he became a leading figure in Boston architectural circles. The Athenaeum was influenced by Charles Barrys Italianate club house in London and he is also noted for producing several distinguished Queen Anne Style houses in the 1870s. Cabot later formed a firm Cabot and Chandler which built numerous residences in the Back Bay, the same year the firm designed 12 Fairfield Street in Bostons Back Bay for Georgiani Lowell. In 1842, Cabot married Martha Eunice Robinson, in 1873, he married Louisa Winslow Sewall. A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture
45.
Martin Brimmer
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Martin Brimmer was an American businessman and politician, who served in the Massachusetts House of Representatives, in the Boston Board of Aldermen, and as the mayor of Boston, Massachusetts. Brimmer was born in Roxbury, Massachusetts on June 8,1793 to Martin, a merchant on Brimmers T wharf, Brimmer attended Harvard, graduating in 1814. Brimmer married Harriet E Wadsworth of Geneseo, New York, Brimmer began his business career working with Isaac Winslow on Long Wharf. Later Brimmer ran a room on Brimmers Wharf. Brimmer was a Member of the Boston Board of Aldermen from January 1,1838 to January 7,1839, Brimmer serve in the Massachusetts House of Representatives in 1838 and 1839. On December 12,1842 Brimmer was elected Mayor of Boston for 1843, Brimmer died on April 25,1847. Timeline of Boston, 1830s–1840s Image from Mayors of Boston, An Illustrated Epitome of who the Mayors Have Been and What they Have Done, Boston, MA, State Street Trust Company, Martin Brimmer at Find a Grave
46.
James Thomas Fields
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James Thomas Fields was an American publisher, editor, and poet. He was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire on December 31,1817 and named James Field and his father was a sea captain and died before Fields was three. He and his brother were raised by their mother and her siblings, their aunt Mary, at the age of 14, Fields took a job at the Old Corner Bookstore in Boston as an apprentice to publishers Carter and Hendee. In 1839, he joined William Ticknor and became partner in the publishing and bookselling firm known after 1845 as Ticknor. Ticknor oversaw the business side of the firm while Fields was its literary expert and he became known for being likable, for his ability to find creative talent, and for his ability to promote authors and win their loyalty. With this company, Fields became the publisher of leading contemporary American writers and he was also the American publisher of some of the best-known British writers of his time, some of whom he also knew intimately. The company paid royalties to these British authors, including Charles Dickens and William Makepeace Thackeray, the first collected edition of Thomas de Quinceys works was published by his firm. Sometime in 1844, Fields was engaged to Mary Willard, a woman six years younger than him. Before they could be married, she died of tuberculosis on April 17,1845 and he maintained a close friendship with her family and, on March 13,1850, married her 18-year-old sister Eliza Willard at Bostons Federal Street Church. Also sick with tuberculosis, she died on July 13,1851, grief-stricken, he left the United States for a time and traveled to Europe. In 1854, Fields married Annie Adams, who was an author herself, mrs. Fields was instrumental in helping Mr. Fields establish literary salons at their home at 37 Charles Street in Boston, where they entertained many well-known writers. One such writer was Nathaniel Hawthorne, in 1867, he performed the same role after the death of Nathaniel Parker Willis, along with Holmes, Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, and Samuel Gridley Howe. Ticknor and Fields purchased The Atlantic Monthly for $10,000 and, at a New Years Eve party in 1865, he met William Dean Howells and 10 days later offered him a position as assistant editor of the Atlantic. Howells accepted but was dismayed by Fieldss close supervision. Ticknor died in 1864, leaving Fields the senior partner for the firm, Fields was less concerned with the retail store owned by the company and wanted to focus on publishing. On November 12,1864, he sold the Old Corner Bookstore and moved Ticknor, in 1868 the business became Fields, Osgood, and Company, recognizing James R. Osgood. On New Years Day,1871, Fields announced his retirement at a gathering of friends. No longer involved with editorial duties, he devoted himself to lecturing and writing
47.
Erastus Brigham Bigelow
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Erastus Brigham Bigelow was an American inventor of weaving machines. Erastus Bigelow was born in West Boylston, Massachusetts and he showed an inventive genius at the early age of 14, when he invented a machine to manufacture piping cord, for which he received $100. Before he had reached the age of 18, he had devised a handloom for suspender webbing and his work on Stenography, a short manual on shorthand writing, was written and published about this time. In 1838, he invented a loom for weaving knotted counterpanes. In 1839 he contracted to produce a capable of weaving two-ply ingrain carpets, such as had been hitherto woven exclusively by the handloom. With his first loom he succeeded in obtaining ten or twelve yards daily, afterward he invented a power loom for weaving Brussels and velvet tapestry carpets, his most important invention, which attracted much attention at the Worlds Fair in London in 1851. The carpet loom made his name widely known, Bigelow and his brother Horatio are credited with founding the town of Clinton, which was originally part of the town of Lancaster. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, Bigelow founded the Bigelow Mechanics Institute in 1846, which is today known as the Bigelow Free Public Library located in Clinton, Massachusetts. He was also an incorporator of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Bigelows only child, Helen Bigelow Merriman, became an artist and art collector and one of the founders of the Worcester Art Museum and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Wood, James, ed. article name needed. London and New York, Frederick Warne
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hunt, William Morris". Encyclopædia Britannica. 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 938–939.
