1.
Chestertown, Maryland
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Chestertown is a town in Kent County, Maryland, United States. The population was 5,252 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Kent County. Founded in 1706, Chestertown rose in stature when it was named one of the English colony of Marylands six Royal Ports of Entry, the shipping boom that followed this designation made the town at the navigable head of the Chester River wealthy. In the mid-eighteenth century, Chestertown trailed only Annapolis and was considered Marylands second leading port, a burgeoning merchant class infused riches into the town, reflected in the many brick mansions and townhouses that sprung up along the waterfront. Another area in which Chestertown is second only to Annapolis is in its number of existing eighteenth century homes, as of the 1790 census, Chestertown was the geographical center of population of the United States. Chestertown was incorporated in 1805, and was named for the Chester River. Airy Hill, the Bernice J.25, Grand Army of the Republic, Thornton, Washington College, Middle, East and West Halls, Chestertown is located at 39°13′10″N 76°4′6″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 2.91 square miles. As of the first US Census in 1790, Chestertown was the center of the nations population. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and cool, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Chestertown has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. As of the census of 2010, there were 5,252 people,1,971 households, the population density was 2,020.0 inhabitants per square mile. There were 2,361 housing units at a density of 908.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 74. 2% White,20. 4% African American,0. 3% Native American,1. 8% Asian,1. 0% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 4. 2% of the population. 42. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 22. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.00 and the average family size was 2.65. The median age in the town was 34.9 years. 12. 4% of residents were under the age of 18,28. 7% were between the ages of 18 and 24,16. 4% were from 25 to 44,19. 1% were from 45 to 64, and 23. 6% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the town was 43. 1% male and 56. 9% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 4,746 people,1,891 households, and 945 families residing in the town. The population density was 1,818.1 people per square mile, there were 2,164 housing units at an average density of 829.0 per square mile
2.
Chatham Borough, New Jersey
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This article is about a borough in New Jersey. For an adjacent township, see Chatham Township, for more information about their shared services, including school and library systems, see The Chathams. Chatham is a borough in Morris County, New Jersey, United States, the community that now is Chatham Borough was first settled by Europeans in 1710 within Morris Township, in what was then the Province of New Jersey. The residents of the community changed its name from John Days Bridge to Chatham, Chathams residents were active participants in the American Revolutionary War, which ended in 1783. Chatham Township was formed in the state of New Jersey on February 12,1806, on August 19,1892, Chatham adopted a new village form of government allowed within townships in the state after the revolution. The village of Chatham reincorporated for governance as a borough by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on March 1,1897 with complete independence from the surrounding Chatham Township. Chatham Borough is a community that covers less than 2.5 square miles, including a central business district. In July 2005, CNN/Money and Money magazine ranked Chatham ninth on its annual list of the 100 Best Places to Live in the United States. New Jersey Monthly magazine ranked Chatham as its twenty-fifth best place to live in its 2008 rankings of the Best Places To Live in New Jersey. Occupied for thousands of years by Native Americans, this land was overseen by clans of the Minsi and Lenni Lenape, who farmed, fished, and hunted upon it. They were organized into a matrilineal, agricultural, and mobile hunting society sustained with fixed, villages were established and relocated as the clans farmed new sections of the land when soil fertility lessened and moved among their fishing and hunting grounds. In 1498, John Cabot explored this portion of the New World, the land that would become Chatham was part of the Province of East Jersey, the Indian rights to Chatham were purchased in 1680 from members of the Minsi and Lenni Lenape tribes. They hunted and fished in the area and farmed on the lands of their settlements, the area was well connected with established paths among their settlements, to and from bountiful resources, and to neighboring settlements. Safe passageways through the valleys, marshes, swamps, and mountains of this portion of the Watchung Mountains connected the area which would become Chatham with other settlements in the area. In 1680, the British first purchased this Lenape land upon which John Day made the first European settlement in 1710 and he chose to settle upon the western bank of the Fishawack Crossing on the traditional Lenape Minisink Trail. Chatham was in the area delineated as Morris Township by the English and that traditional part of the Great Trail would become Route 24, leading to Madison, Morristown, Mendham, and Chester. It became known as Main Street in Chatham, before long, the village became known as John Days Bridge because of a bridge he built across the river at the shallow landing. By 1750, the village had a shop as well as a flour mill, a grist mill
3.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
4.
Morristown, New Jersey
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Morristown is a town in Morris County, New Jersey, United States and the seat of Morris County. Morristown has been called the capital of the American Revolution because of its strategic role in the war for independence from Great Britain. Today this history is visible in a variety of locations throughout the town that make up Morristown National Historical Park. According to British colonial records, the first permanent European settlement at Morristown occurred in 1715, Morris County was created on March 15,1739, from portions of Hunterdon County. The county, and ultimately Morristown itself, was named for the popular Governor of the Province, Lewis Morris, who championed benefits for the colonists. Morristown was incorporated as a town by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on April 6,1865, within Morris Township, the area was inhabited by the Lenni Lenape Native Americans for up to 6,000 years prior to exploration by Europeans. Morristown was settled around 1715 by English Presbyterians from Southold, New York on Long Island and New Haven, the towns central location and road connections led to its selection as the seat of the new Morris County shortly after its separation from Hunterdon County on March 15,1739. The village and county were named for Lewis Morris, the first, by the middle of the 18th century, Morristown had 250 residents, with two churches, a courthouse, two taverns, two schools, several stores, and numerous mills and farms nearby. George Washington first came to Morristown in May 1773, two years before the Revolutionary War broke out, and traveled there to New York City together with John Parke Custis. In 1777, General George Washington and the Continental Army marched from the victories at Trenton and Princeton to encamp near Morristown from January to May, Washington had his headquarters during that first encampment at Jacob Arnolds Tavern located at the Morristown Green in the center of the town. Morristown was selected for its strategic location. It was between Philadelphia and New York and near New England, the churches were used for inoculations for smallpox. That first headquarters, Arnolds Tavern, was eventually moved.5 miles south of the green onto Mount Kemble Avenue to become All Souls Hospital in the late 19th century. It suffered a fire in 1918, and the structure was demolished. From December 1779 to June 1780 the Continental Armys second encampment at Morristown was at Jockey Hollow, then, Washingtons headquarters in Morristown was located at the Ford Mansion, a large mansion near what was then the edge of town. Fords widow and children shared the house with Martha Washington and officers of the Continental Army, the winter of 1780 was the worst winter of the Revolutionary War. The starvation was complicated by inflation of money and lack of pay for the army. The entire Pennsylvania contingent successfully mutinied and later,200 New Jersey soldiers attempted to emulate them, during Washingtons second stay, in March 1780, he declared St. Patricks Day a holiday to honor his many Irish troops
5.
American Philosophical Society
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Considered the first learned society in the United States, it has played an important role in American cultural and intellectual life for over 270 years. Philosophical Hall, now a museum, is located just east of Independence Hall in Independence National Historical Park and it was founded two years after the University of Pennsylvania, with which it remains closely tied. Since its inception, the society attracted Americas finest minds, the society also recruited philosophers from other countries as members, including Alexander von Humboldt, the Marquis de Lafayette, Baron von Steuben, Tadeusz Kościuszko, and Princess Dashkova. By 1746 the society had lapsed into inactivity, Benjamin Franklin was elected the first president. The canal, which had proposed by Thomas Gilpin, Sr. would not become reality until the 1820s. After the American Revolution, the society looked for leadership to Francis Hopkinson, under his influence, the society received land from the government of Pennsylvania, along with a plot of land in Philadelphia where Philosophical Hall now stands. Illustrious names have continually added to the membership roster, reflecting the societys scope. Charles Darwin, Robert Frost, Louis Pasteur, Elizabeth Cabot Agassiz, John James Audubon, Linus Pauling, Margaret Mead, Maria Mitchell, and Thomas Edison became members of the society. Many members of the Society of the Cincinnati were among the APSs first board members and contributors, today the APS, the APS has published the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society since 1771. Currently five issues each year. The Proceedings have appeared since 1838, they publish the papers delivered at the meetings of the society. The society has published the collected papers of Benjamin Franklin, Joseph Henry, William Penn. Jane Aitken bound some 400 volumes for the society, in 2001, it was opened to the public as The American Philosophical Society Museum, hosting revolving, thematic exhibitions that explore the intersections of history, art, and science. In 1789–90, the Library Company of Philadelphia built its headquarters directly across 5th Street from APS, LCP sold its building in 1884, which was demolished for the expansion of the Drexel & Company Building in 1887. This building itself was demolished in the mid-1950s, during the creation of Independence National Historical Park, APS built a library on the site in 1958, and recreated the facade of the old LCP building. APS restored the former Farmers & Mechanics Bank building at 425–29 Chestnut Street and it is the site of meetings and most major events hosted or produced by the society. It now contains offices and the Philadelphia Area Center for History of Science, notable American Women, 1607–1950, A Biographical Dictionary
6.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
7.
Bell Labs
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Nokia Bell Labs is an American research and scientific development company, owned by Finnish company Nokia. Its headquarters are located in Murray Hill, New Jersey, in addition to laboratories around the rest of the United States. The historic laboratory originated in the late 19th century as the Volta Laboratory, Bell Labs was also at one time a division of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company, half-owned through its Western Electric manufacturing subsidiary. Eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories, in 1880, the French government awarded Alexander Graham Bell the Volta Prize of 50,000 francs, approximately US$10,000 at that time for the invention of the telephone. Bell used the award to fund the Volta Laboratory in Washington, D. C. in collaboration with Sumner Tainter, the laboratory is also variously known as the Volta Bureau, the Bell Carriage House, the Bell Laboratory and the Volta Laboratory. The laboratory focused on the analysis, recording, and transmission of sound, Bell used his considerable profits from the laboratory for further research and education to permit the diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf. This resulted in the founding of the Volta Bureau c,1887, located at Bells fathers house at 1527 35th Street in Washington, D. C. where its carriage house became their headquarters in 1889. In 1893, Bell constructed a new building, close by at 1537 35th St. specifically to house the lab, the building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1972. In 1884, the American Bell Telephone Company created the Mechanical Department from the Electrical, the first president of research was Frank B. Jewett, who stayed there until 1940, ownership of Bell Laboratories was evenly split between AT&T and the Western Electric Company. Its principal work was to plan, design, and support the equipment that Western Electric built for Bell System operating companies and this included everything from telephones, telephone exchange switches, and transmission equipment. Bell Labs also carried out consulting work for the Bell Telephone Company, a few workers were assigned to basic research, and this attracted much attention, especially since they produced several Nobel Prize winners. Until the 1940s, the principal locations were in and around the Bell Labs Building in New York City. Of these, Murray Hill and Crawford Hill remain in existence, the largest grouping of people in the company was in Illinois, at Naperville-Lisle, in the Chicago area, which had the largest concentration of employees prior to 2001. Since 2001, many of the locations have been scaled down or closed. The Holmdel site, a 1.9 million square foot structure set on 473 acres, was closed in 2007, the mirrored-glass building was designed by Eero Saarinen. In August 2013, Somerset Development bought the building, intending to redevelop it into a commercial and residential project. The prospects of success are clouded by the difficulty of readapting Saarinens design and by the current glut of aging, eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work completed at Bell Laboratories
8.
Milton Friedman
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Friedmans challenges to what he later called naive Keynesian theory began with his 1950s reinterpretation of the consumption function. In the 1960s, he became the main advocate opposing Keynesian government policies and he theorized that there existed a natural rate of unemployment, and argued that employment above this rate would cause inflation to accelerate. He argued that the Phillips curve was, in the run, vertical at the natural rate. Friedman promoted an alternative macroeconomic viewpoint known as monetarism, and argued that a steady and his ideas concerning monetary policy, taxation, privatization and deregulation influenced government policies, especially during the 1980s. His monetary theory influenced the Federal Reserves response to the financial crisis of 2007–08. Friedman was an advisor to Republican U. S. President Ronald Reagan and his political philosophy extolled the virtues of a free market economic system with minimal intervention. He once stated that his role in eliminating U. S. conscription was his proudest accomplishment and his support for school choice led him to found the Friedman Foundation for Educational Choice, later renamed EdChoice. His books and essays have had influence, including in former communist states. Friedman was born in Brooklyn, New York on July 31,1912 and his parents, Sára Ethel and Jenő Saul Friedman, were Jewish immigrants from Beregszász in Carpathian Ruthenia, Kingdom of Hungary. They both worked as dry goods merchants, shortly after Miltons birth, the family relocated to Rahway, New Jersey. In his early teens, Friedman was injured in a car accident, a talented student, Friedman graduated from Rahway High School in 1928, just before his 16th birthday. In 1932, Friedman graduated from Rutgers University, where he specialized in mathematics and economics, during his time at Rutgers, Friedman became influenced by two economics professors, Arthur F. Burns and Homer Jones, who convinced him that modern economics could help end the Great Depression. After graduating from Rutgers, Friedman was offered two scholarships to do graduate work—one in mathematics at Brown University and the other in economics at the University of Chicago, Friedman chose the latter, thus earning a Master of Arts degree in 1933. He was strongly influenced by Jacob Viner, Frank Knight, and it was at Chicago that Friedman met his future wife, economist Rose Director. During the 1933–1934 academic year he had a fellowship at Columbia University and he was back in Chicago for the 1934–1935 academic year, working as a research assistant for Henry Schultz, who was then working on Theory and Measurement of Demand. That year, Friedman formed what would prove to be lifelong friendships with George Stigler, foreshadowing his later ideas, he believed price controls interfered with an essential signaling mechanism to help resources be used where they were most valued. During 1935, he work for the National Resources Committee. Ideas from this later became a part of his Theory of the Consumption Function
9.
Washington College
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Washington College is a private, independent liberal arts college located on a 112-acre campus in Chestertown, Maryland, on the Eastern Shore. Maryland granted Washington College its charter in 1782, Washington College is the 10th-oldest college in the United States and was the first college chartered after American independence. The school became coeducational in 1891 and he later served on Washington Colleges Board of Visitors and Governors — his only such involvement with an institution of higher learning during his lifetime. Joining General Washington on the Board of Visitors and Governors of the new college were such distinguished figures as U. S, senator John Henry, Congressman Joshua Seney and his Excellency William Paca, Governor of Maryland. The Maryland legislature granted its first college charter upon Washington College in May 1782, the following spring, on May 14,1783, the college held its first commencement. President Smith had envisaged Washington College as the Eastern Shore Campus of a public University of Maryland with St. Since Washington’s last visit to campus, Washington College has hosted five U. S. presidents, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Harry S Truman, Dwight Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy and George H. W. Bush. The original college building cornerstone was laid in May 1783, it opened in 1788 after selling off acreage, the hall was still incomplete by 1794 and was destroyed by a basement fire January 11,1827. The oldest existing building, Middle Hall, was erected in 1844 on the site of the college building. By 1860, Middle Hall was joined by East and West Halls, all three structures, known as the Hill Dorms, are on the Maryland Register of Historic Places. For the 2011-2012 academic year,56. 6% of applicants were accepted to the college, approximately 1,400 undergraduates and 100 graduate students attend Washington College,47 percent from Maryland and the balance from 35 other states and forty foreign nations. Approximately 8 percent of the American undergraduates are minority students and approximately 8 percent are international citizens, approximately 5 percent of the colleges student body is non-traditional. Approximately 80 percent of all live in college residence halls. Tuition for the 2012-2013 year is $39,208 and total expenses per annum are $48,768, approximately 85 percent of the student body receives some form of need-based financial aid or merit-based scholarship award. The cost of attendance has been rising in recent years, with the overall costs increasing by roughly $2,000 per year, in 2015, Washington College was ranked by The Princeton Review as 16th in the United States among Colleges With The Happiest Students In 2015-16. In the 2011 edition of U. S. News & World Report Best Colleges, each year, Washington College awards the nations largest undergraduate literary prize. Since 1968, the Sophie Kerr Prize has been presented to one graduating senior who demonstrates the greatest literary promise. The endowment created by Sophie Kerr, a writer who published 23 novels, at a ceremony held at the Poets House in New York City on May 17,2011, Lisa Jones was selected as the winner of the $61,000 Sophie Kerr Prize
10.
Marshall Warren Nirenberg
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Marshall Warren Nirenberg was an American biochemist and geneticist. He shared a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1968 with Har Gobind Khorana and Robert W. Holley for breaking the genetic code, in the same year, together with Har Gobind Khorana, he was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University. It was not known, however, how DNA directed the expression of proteins, Nirenberg teamed up with Heinrich J. Matthaei at the National Institutes of Health to answer these questions. They produced RNA composed solely of uracil, a nucleotide that only occurs in RNA and they then added this synthetic poly-uracil RNA into a cell-free extract of Escherichia coli which contained the DNA, RNA, ribosomes and other cellular machinery for protein synthesis. They added DNase, which breaks apart the DNA, so no additional proteins would be produced other than that from their synthetic RNA. They then added 1 radioactively labeled amino acid, the blocks of proteins. Only in the containing the radioactively labeled phenylalanine, was the resulting protein also radioactive. This implied that the code for phenylalanine on RNA consisted of a repetition of uracil bases. Indeed, as we now, it is UUU. This was the first step in deciphering the codons of the genetic code, in August 1961, at the International Congress of Biochemistry in Moscow, Nirenberg presented a paper to a small group of scientists. Francis Crick convinced the leaders to invite Nirenberg to repeat his performance the next day. Speaking before the congress of more than a thousand people. He quickly received great attention for these experiments. Within a few years, his team had performed similar experiments and found that three-base repeats of adenosine produced the amino acid lysine. The next breakthrough came when Philip Leder, a researcher in Nirenbergs lab. This greatly sped up the assignment of three-base codons to amino acids so that 50 codons were identified in this way, khoranas experiments confirmed these results and completed the genetic code translation. Faced with the possibility of helping the first NIH scientist win a Nobel prize, dr. DeWitt Stetten, Jr. director of the National Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases, called this period of collaboration NIHs finest hour. Nirenbergs later research focused on neuroscience, neural development, and the homeobox genes, Nirenberg was born in New York City, the son of Minerva and Harry Edward Nirenberg, a shirtmaker
11.
Synthetic rubber
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A synthetic rubber is any artificial elastomer. These are mainly polymers synthesised from petroleum byproducts, about 15 billion kilograms of rubbers are produced annually, and of that amount two thirds are synthetic. Global revenues generated with synthetic rubbers are likely to rise to approximately US$56 billion in 2020, synthetic rubber, like natural rubber, has uses in the automotive industry for tires, door and window profiles, hoses, belts, matting, and flooring. The expanded use of vehicles, and particularly motor vehicle tires, starting in the 1890s. In 1909, a team headed by Fritz Hofmann, working at the Bayer laboratory in Elberfeld, Germany, succeeded in polymerizing Isoprene, the first rubber polymer synthesized from butadiene was created in 1910 by the Russian scientist Sergei Vasiljevich Lebedev. This form of synthetic rubber provided the basis for the first large-scale commercial production by the tsarist empire and this early form of synthetic rubber was again replaced with natural rubber after the war ended, but investigations of synthetic rubber continued. Russian American Ivan Ostromislensky who moved to New York in 1922 did significant early research on synthetic rubber, political problems that resulted from great fluctuations in the cost of natural rubber led to the enactment of the Stevenson Act in 1921. By 1925 the price of rubber had increased to the point that many companies were exploring methods of producing synthetic rubber to compete with natural rubber. K. Neoprene is highly resistant to heat and chemicals such as oil and gasoline, the company Thiokol applied their name to a competing type of rubber based on ethylene dichloride which was commercially available in 1930. The first rubber plant in Europe SK-1 was established by Sergei Lebedev in Yaroslavl under Joseph Stalins First Five-Year Plan on July 7,1932, in 1935, German chemists synthesized the first of a series of synthetic rubbers known as Buna rubbers. These were copolymers, meaning the polymers were made up from two monomers in alternating sequence, other brands included Koroseal, which Waldo Semon developed in 1935, and Sovprene, which Russian researchers created in 1940. B. F. Goodrich Company scientist Waldo Semon developed a new, Ameripol made synthetic rubber production much more cost effective, helping to meet the United States needs during World War II. The production of rubber in the United States expanded greatly during World War II. Military trucks needed rubber for tires, and rubber was used in almost every other war machine, the U. S. government launched a major effort to improve synthetic rubber production. A large team of chemists from many institutions were involved, including Calvin Souther Fuller of Bell Labs, the rubber designated GRS, a copolymer of butadiene and styrene, was the basis for U. S. synthetic rubber production during World War II. By 1944, a total of 50 factories were manufacturing it and it still represents about half of total world production. The Ferrara, Italy, synthetic rubber factory was bombed August 23,1944, three other synthetic rubber facilities were at Ludwigshafen/Oppau, Hanover/Limmer, and Leverkusen. A synthetic rubber plant at Oświęcim in Nazi-occupied Poland, was construction on March 5,1944
12.
Robert Solow
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Robert Merton Solow is an American economist, particularly known for his work on the theory of economic growth that culminated in the exogenous growth model named after him. He was awarded the John Bates Clark Medal in 1961, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1987, three of his PhD students, George Akerlof, Joseph Stiglitz, and Peter Diamond, later received Nobel Memorial Prizes in Economic Sciences in their own right. Robert Solow was born in Brooklyn, New York, into a Jewish family on August 23,1924 and he was well educated in the neighborhood public schools and excelled academically early in life. In September 1940, Solow went to Harvard College with a scholarship at the age of 16, at Harvard, his first studies were in sociology and anthropology as well as elementary economics. By the end of 1942, Solow left the university and joined the U. S. Army and he served briefly in North Africa and Sicily, and later served in Italy during World War II until he was discharged in August 1945. He returned to Harvard in 1945, and studied under Wassily Leontief, as his research assistant he produced the first set of capital-coefficients for the input–output model. Then he became interested in statistics and probability models, from 1949–50, he spent a fellowship year at Columbia University to study statistics more intensively. In 1949, just before going off to Columbia he was offered and accepted an Assistant Professorship in the Economics Department at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and he taught courses in statistics and econometrics. Solows interest gradually changed to macroeconomics, for almost 40 years, Solow and Paul Samuelson worked together on many landmark theories, von Neumann growth theory, theory of capital, linear programming and the Phillips curve. Solow also held government positions, including senior economist for the Council of Economic Advisers. His studies focused mainly in the fields of employment and growth policies, in 1961 he won the American Economic Associations John Bates Clark Award, given to the best economist under age forty. In 1979 he served as president of that association, in 1987, he won the Nobel Prize for his analysis of economic growth and in 1999, he received the National Medal of Science. In 2011, he received a degree in Doctor of Science from Tufts University. Solow is Founder of the Cournot Foundation and the Cournot Centre and he is a trustee of the Economists for Peace and Security. Solows past students include 2010 Nobel Prize winner Peter Diamond, as well as Michael Rothschild, Halbert White, Charlie Bean, Michael Woodford and he is ranked 23rd among economists on RePEc in terms of the strength of economists who have studied under him. The reason these models are called exogenous growth models is the rate is taken to be exogenously given. Subsequent work derives savings behavior from an inter-temporal utility-maximizing framework, using his model, Solow calculated that about four-fifths of the growth in US output per worker was attributable to technical progress. Solow also was the first to develop a model with different vintages of capital
