1.
Glasgow
–
Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and third largest in the United Kingdom. Historically part of Lanarkshire, it is now one of the 32 council areas of Scotland and it is situated on the River Clyde in the countrys West Central Lowlands. Inhabitants of the city are referred to as Glaswegians, Glasgow grew from a small rural settlement on the River Clyde to become the largest seaport in Britain. From the 18th century the city grew as one of Great Britains main hubs of transatlantic trade with North America. Glasgow was the Second City of the British Empire for much of the Victorian era and Edwardian period, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Glasgow grew in population, reaching a peak of 1,128,473 in 1939. The entire region surrounding the conurbation covers about 2.3 million people, at the 2011 census, Glasgow had a population density of 8, 790/sq mi, the highest of any Scottish city. Glasgow hosted the 2014 Commonwealth Games and is well known in the sporting world for the football rivalry of the Old Firm between Celtic and Rangers. Glasgow is also known for Glasgow patter, a dialect that is noted for being difficult to understand by those from outside the city. Glasgow is the form of the ancient Cumbric name Glas Cau. Possibly referring to the area of Molendinar Burn where Glasgow Cathedral now stands, the later Gaelic name Baile Glas Chu, town of the grey dog, is purely a folk-etymology. The present site of Glasgow has been settled since prehistoric times, it is for settlement, being the furthest downstream fording point of the River Clyde, the origins of Glasgow as an established city derive ultimately from its medieval position as Scotlands second largest bishopric. Glasgow increased in importance during the 10th and 11th centuries as the site of this bishopric, reorganised by King David I of Scotland and John, there had been an earlier religious site established by Saint Mungo in the 6th century. The bishopric became one of the largest and wealthiest in the Kingdom of Scotland, bringing wealth, sometime between 1189 and 1195 this status was supplemented by an annual fair, which survives as the Glasgow Fair. Glasgow grew over the following centuries, the first bridge over the River Clyde at Glasgow was recorded from around 1285, giving its name to the Briggait area of the city, forming the main North-South route over the river via Glasgow Cross. The founding of the University of Glasgow in 1451 and elevation of the bishopric to become the Archdiocese of Glasgow in 1492 increased the towns religious and educational status and landed wealth. Its early trade was in agriculture, brewing and fishing, with cured salmon and herring being exported to Europe, Glasgow was subsequently raised to the status of Royal Burgh in 1611. The citys Tobacco Lords created a water port at Port Glasgow on the Firth of Clyde. By the late 18th century more than half of the British tobacco trade was concentrated on Glasgows River Clyde, at the time, Glasgow held a commercial importance as the city participated in the trade of sugar, tobacco and later cotton
Glasgow
–
Clockwise from top-left: View of
Glasgow Science Centre, Duke of Wellington statue outside
Gallery of Modern Art,
Royal Exchange Square, cityscape view from
The Lighthouse, Gilbert Scott Building of
University of Glasgow,
Finnieston Crane,
Glasgow City Chambers
Glasgow
–
The
seal or signet of
Jocelin,
Bishop of Glasgow, founder of the burgh of Glasgow.
Glasgow
–
Shipping on the Clyde,
Atkinson Grimshaw, 1881.
Glasgow
–
Glasgow University in the 1890s
2.
High Wycombe
–
High Wycombe, often referred to as Wycombe, is a large town in Buckinghamshire, England. It is 29 miles west north west of Charing Cross in London and it is also 17 miles south of the county town of Aylesbury,27 miles southeast of Oxford,23 miles north east of Reading and 9 miles north of Maidenhead. According to the ONS official estimates for 2015, High Wycombe has a population of 124,475, High Wycombe Urban Area, the conurbation of which the town is the largest component, has a population of 133,204. High Wycombe is mostly an area in the Wycombe district. Wycombe is a combination of industrial and market town, with a emphasis on furniture production. There has been a market held in the High Street since at least the Middle Ages, Wycombe appears in the Domesday Book and was noted for having six mills. The town once featured a Roman villa which was excavated three times, most recently in 1954, mosaics and a bathhouse were unearthed at the site on what is now the Rye parkland. High Wycombe was the home of 19th century Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, the existence of a settlement at High Wycombe was first documented as Wicumun in 970. The parish church was consecrated by Wulfstan, the visiting Bishop of Worcester, the town received market borough status in 1222, and built its first moot hall in 1226, with a market hall being built later in 1476. High Wycombe remained a town through Medieval and Tudor times, manufacturing lace. It was also a point on the way from Oxford to London. The paper industry was notable in 17th and 18th century High Wycombe, the Wyes waters were rich in chalk, and therefore ideal for bleaching pulp. The paper industry was soon overtaken by the cloth industry, Wycombes most famous industry, furniture took hold in the 19th century, with furniture factories setting up all over the town. Many terraced workers houses were built to the east and west of town to accommodate those working in the furniture factories, in 1875, it was estimated that there were 4,700 chairs made per day in High Wycombe. Wycombe Museum includes many examples of locally made chairs and information on the local furniture, the towns population grew from 13,000 residents in 1881 to 29,000 in 1928. By the 1920s, many of the areas of Wycombe had decayed into slums. However, some such as St. Marys Street contained beautiful old buildings with fine examples of 18th and 19th century architecture. From 1940 to 1968 High Wycombe was the seat of the RAF Bomber Command
High Wycombe
–
High Wycombe Guildhall, located at the end of the High Street
High Wycombe
–
Crest of High Wycombe. Motto: "Industria ditat" "Industry enriches"
High Wycombe
–
A map of High Wycombe from 1945
High Wycombe
–
River Wye near
Wooburn Industrial Estate
3.
Buckinghamshire
–
Development in this region is restricted by the Metropolitan Green Belt. Other large settlements include the county town of Aylesbury, Marlow in the south near the Thames and Princes Risborough in the west near Oxford. Some areas without rail links to London, such as around the old county town of Buckingham. The largest town is Milton Keynes in the northeast, which with the area is administered as a unitary authority separately to the rest of Buckinghamshire. The remainder of the county is administered by Buckinghamshire County Council as a non-metropolitan county, in national elections, Buckinghamshire is considered a reliable supporter of the Conservative Party. A large part of the Chiltern Hills, an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, runs through the south of the county and attracts many walkers, in this area older buildings are often made from local flint and red brick. Chequers, an estate owned by the government, is the country retreat of the incumbent Prime Minister. To the north of the county lies rolling countryside in the Vale of Aylesbury, the Thames forms part of the county’s southwestern boundary. Notable service amenities in the county are Pinewood Film Studios, Dorney rowing lake, many national companies have offices in Milton Keynes. Heavy industry and quarrying is limited, with agriculture predominating after service industries, the name Buckinghamshire is Anglo-Saxon in origin and means The district of Buccas home. Buccas home refers to Buckingham in the north of the county, the county has been so named since about the 12th century, however, the county has existed since it was a subdivision of the kingdom of Mercia. Historically, the biggest change to the county came in the 19th century, Buckinghamshire is a popular home for London commuters, leading to greater local affluence, however, some pockets of relative deprivation remain. As a result, most county institutions are now based in the south of the county or Milton Keynes, the county can be split into two sections geographically. The county includes parts of two of the four longest rivers in England, the River Thames forms the southern boundary with Berkshire, which has crept over the border at Eton and Slough so that the river is no longer the sole boundary between the two counties. The River Great Ouse rises just outside the county in Northamptonshire and flows east through Buckingham, Milton Keynes, the main branch of the Grand Union Canal passes through the county as do its arms to Slough, Aylesbury, Wendover and Buckingham. The canal has been incorporated into the landscaping of Milton Keynes, the southern part of the county is dominated by the Chiltern Hills. The two highest points in Buckinghamshire are Haddington Hill in Wendover Woods at 267 metres above sea level, quarrying has taken place for chalk, clay for brickmaking and gravel and sand in the river valleys. Flint, also extracted from quarries, was used to build older local buildings
Buckinghamshire
Buckinghamshire
–
Buckinghamshire shown within England
Buckinghamshire
–
Map of Bucks (1904)
Buckinghamshire
–
The River Thames at Medmenham
4.
Noble gases
–
The noble gases make a group of chemical elements with similar properties, under standard conditions, they are all odorless, colorless, monatomic gases with very low chemical reactivity. The six noble gases that occur naturally are helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, oganesson is predicted to be a noble gas as well, but its chemistry has not yet been investigated. For the first six periods of the table, the noble gases are exactly the members of group 18 of the periodic table. Noble gases are typically highly unreactive except when under particular extreme conditions, the inertness of noble gases makes them very suitable in applications where reactions are not wanted. The melting and boiling points for a noble gas are close together, differing by less than 10 °C. Neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are obtained from air in an air separation unit using the methods of liquefaction of gases, Noble gases have several important applications in industries such as lighting, welding, and space exploration. After the risks caused by the flammability of hydrogen became apparent, it was replaced with helium in blimps, Noble gas is translated from the German noun Edelgas, first used in 1898 by Hugo Erdmann to indicate their extremely low level of reactivity. The name makes an analogy to the noble metals, which also have low reactivity. The noble gases have also referred to as inert gases. Rare gases is another term that was used, but this is inaccurate because argon forms a fairly considerable part of the Earths atmosphere due to decay of radioactive potassium-40. Pierre Janssen and Joseph Norman Lockyer discovered a new element on August 18,1868 while looking at the chromosphere of the Sun, no chemical analysis was possible at the time, but helium was later found to be a noble gas. Before them, in 1784, the English chemist and physicist Henry Cavendish had discovered that air contains a proportion of a substance less reactive than nitrogen. A century later, in 1895, Lord Rayleigh discovered that samples of nitrogen from the air were of a different density than nitrogen resulting from chemical reactions, with this discovery, they realized an entire class of gases was missing from the periodic table. During his search for argon, Ramsay also managed to isolate helium for the first time while heating cleveite, Ramsay continued to search for these gases using the method of fractional distillation to separate liquid air into several components. In 1898, he discovered the elements krypton, neon, and xenon, and named them after the Greek words κρυπτός, νέος, and ξένος, respectively. Rayleigh and Ramsay received the 1904 Nobel Prizes in Physics and in Chemistry, respectively, for their discovery of the noble gases, the discovery of the noble gases aided in the development of a general understanding of atomic structure. In 1895, French chemist Henri Moissan attempted to form a reaction between fluorine, the most electronegative element, and argon, one of the noble gases, but failed. Scientists were unable to prepare compounds of argon until the end of the 20th century, in 1962, Neil Bartlett discovered the first chemical compound of a noble gas, xenon hexafluoroplatinate
Noble gases
–
Helium (He) 2
Noble gases
–
Neon (Ne) 10
Noble gases
–
Argon (Ar) 18
Noble gases
–
Krypton (Kr) 36
5.
Davy Medal
–
The Davy Medal is awarded by the Royal Society of London for an outstandingly important recent discovery in any branch of chemistry. Named after Humphry Davy, the medal is awarded with a gift of £1000, the medal was first awarded in 1877 to Robert Wilhelm Bunsen and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff for their researches & discoveries in spectrum analysis, and has since been awarded 131 times. The medal is awarded annually, and unlike other Royal Society medals, such as the Hughes Medal, source, Royal Society General Davy Medal
Davy Medal
–
Robert Bunsen and
Gustav Kirchhoff, the first recipients of the award. They were awarded the medal "for their researches & discoveries in spectrum analysis".
Davy Medal
6.
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
–
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of chemistry. It is one of the five Nobel Prizes established by the will of Alfred Nobel in 1895, awarded for outstanding contributions in chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and awarded by Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on proposal of the Nobel Committee for Chemistry which consists of five elected by Academy. The award is presented in Stockholm at a ceremony on December 10. The first Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded in 1901 to Jacobus Henricus van t Hoff, of the Netherlands, for his discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions. From 1901 to 2016, the award has been bestowed on a total of 174 individuals, though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died, and signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences were to award the Prize in Chemistry. The committee and institution serving as the board for the prize typically announce the names of the laureates in October. The prize is awarded at formal ceremonies held annually on December 10. The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm is when each Nobel Laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of His Majesty the King of Sweden, the Nobel Laureate receives three things, a diploma, a medal and a document confirming the prize amount. Later the Nobel Banquet is held in Stockholm City Hall, a maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected. The award can be given to a maximum of three recipients per year and it consists of a gold medal, a diploma, and a cash grant. The Nobel Laureates in chemistry are selected by a committee that consists of five elected by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In its first stage, several people are asked to nominate candidates
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
–
Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff (1852–1911) was the first person to receive the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, for his discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and
osmotic pressure in solutions.
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
–
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry
7.
Elliott Cresson Medal
–
The Elliott Cresson Medal, also known as the Elliott Cresson Gold Medal, was the highest award given by the Franklin Institute. The award was established by Elliott Cresson, life member of the Franklin Institute, the medal was first awarded in 1875,21 years after Cressons death. The Franklin Institute continued awarding the medal on a basis until 1998 when they reorganized their endowed awards under one umbrella. A total of 268 Elliott Cresson Medals were given out during the awards lifetime
Elliott Cresson Medal
–
Elliott Cresson Medal given to
Emile Berliner in 1913
8.
Chemistry
–
Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
Chemistry
–
Solutions of substances in reagent bottles, including
ammonium hydroxide and
nitric acid, illuminated in different colors
Chemistry
–
Democritus ' atomist philosophy was later adopted by
Epicurus (341–270 BCE).
Chemistry
–
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier is considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry".
Chemistry
–
Laboratory, Institute of Biochemistry,
University of Cologne.
9.
University of Glasgow
–
The University of Glasgow is the fourth oldest university in the English-speaking world and one of Scotlands four ancient universities. Along with the University of Edinburgh, the University was part of the Scottish Enlightenment during the 18th century and it is currently a member of Universitas 21, the international network of research universities, and the Russell Group. Glasgow University served all of students by preparing them for professions, the law, medicine, civil service, teaching. It also trained smaller but growing numbers for careers in science, originally located in the citys High Street, since 1870 the main University campus has been located at Gilmorehill in the West End of the city. Additionally, a number of university buildings are located elsewhere, such as the Veterinary School in Bearsden, and it is the second-oldest university in Scotland after St Andrews and the fourth-oldest in the English-speaking world. The universities of St Andrews, Glasgow and Aberdeen were ecclesiastical foundations, as one of the Ancient Universities of the United Kingdom, Glasgow University is one of only eight institutions to award undergraduate masters degrees in certain disciplines. The University has been without its original Bull since the mid-sixteenth century, in 1560, during the political unrest accompanying the Scottish Reformation, the then chancellor, Archbishop James Beaton, a supporter of the Marian cause, fled to France. He took with him, for safe-keeping, many of the archives and valuables of the Cathedral and the University, including the Mace, although the Mace was sent back in 1590, the archives were not. If they had not been lost by time, they certainly went astray during the French Revolution when the Scots College was under threat. Its records and valuables were moved for safe-keeping out of the city of Paris, the Bull remains the authority by which the University awards degrees. Teaching at the University began in the chapterhouse of Glasgow Cathedral, subsequently moving to nearby Rottenrow, the University was given 13 acres of land belonging to the Black Friars on High Street by Mary, Queen of Scots, in 1563. The Lion and Unicorn Staircase was also transferred from the old site and is now attached to the Main Building. To continue this work in his will he founded Andersons College, in 1973, Delphine Parrott became its first woman professor, as Gardiner Professor of Immunology. In October 2014, the university court voted for the University to become the first academic institution in Europe to divest from the fuel industry. The University is currently spread over a number of different campuses, the main one is the Gilmorehill campus, in Hillhead. The University has also established joint departments with the Glasgow School of Art, the Universitys initial accommodation including Glasgow University Library was part of the complex of religious buildings in the precincts of Glasgow Cathedral. In the mid-seventeenth century, the Hamilton Building was replaced with a very grand two-court building with a decorated west front facing the High Street, called the Nova Erectio, over the following centuries, the Universitys size and scope continued to expand. In 1757 it built the Macfarlane Observatory and later Scotlands first public museum and it was a centre of the Scottish Enlightenment and subsequently of the Industrial Revolution, and its expansion in the High Street was constrained
University of Glasgow
–
The East Quadrangle of the Main Building.
University of Glasgow
–
Coat of arms of the University of Glasgow
University of Glasgow
–
A model of the old High Street Building, in the
Hunterian Museum.
University of Glasgow
–
The University of Glasgow in 1650.
10.
University College, Bristol
–
University College, Bristol was an educational institution which existed from 1876 to 1909. It was the institution to the University of Bristol, which gained a Royal Charter in 1909. During its time the College mainly served the middle-classes of Bristol and he is credited with the initial idea that there should be a University in Bristol. Lewis Fry, an influence on the College and the subsequent University, is quoted as saying that it was to Pervical that they owed the foundation of the College. In 1872 Percival wrote a letter to the Oxford colleges noting the lack of a University culture in the provinces and this building now houses the University of Bristols Department of Geography. His promise of sponsorship initially helped the project and it was Percivals connections with the colleges of the Oxford which helped in lobbying for the creation of the University. On 11 June 1874 the Victoria Rooms hosted a meeting to promote what was described as a College of Science and Literature for the West of England, the meeting was attended by the then President of the British Association and Sir William Thompson. This meeting has been described as a success, as it gained the support of Albert Fry and Lewis Fry. Lewis Fry was a Quaker, lawyer and later a Liberal and Unionist Member of Parliament from 1885–1892, Albert Fry also gained distinction as the founder of the Bristol Wagon & Carriage Works Co. However, the fact that the project attracted large numbers of Quakers, Non-Conformists, tories made some initial grants to the project but soon focused their interest on a rival institution through the Society of Merchant Venturers which was considered mostly Conservative in politics. Ironically, the Society of Merchant Venturers, which was to become an institution during much of the Colleges history. Despite this initial donation, a lack of funds was to plague University College, initially the financial response to the meeting was disappointing, with the College gaining only £25,991 of the £40,000 funds which it asked for. It was at this stage that the Wills family became involved in the project with Henry Overton Wills donating £250 to the project. University College, Bristol opened on Tuesday 10 October 1876 at 9.00 a. m. with a Mathematics lecture by W. R. Bousfield, who also lectured in higher maths an hour later. The charges for such a course were three guineas for two each week during the Christmas and Easter terms, a student also had to pay 7s as an entrance fee to enroll. At its opening in 1876, two professors and five lecturers offered lectures in fifteen subject areas, the college was situated at 32 Park Row and was rented for £50 per annum. As requested by Jowett when giving money, the College was open to men and women on the same basis, general scholarships of £15 were also available. Despite the label of University however, the institution did not have the power to award degrees to its students, during the first year 30 men and 69 women registered for classes and there were 238 evening classes, which cost five shillings with a registration fee of one shilling
University College, Bristol
–
Benjamin Jowett was an early influence on the College. Later, he was to donate some of his own personal wealth to the College.
University College, Bristol
–
University College, Bristol at 11 Park Street. This photograph was taken in 1874.
University College, Bristol
–
Alfred Marshall was the first principal of the College, he was later an economist and teacher to
John Maynard Keynes.
University College, Bristol
–
William Ramsay, seen here in later life, was the second principal of the College. Today he is known for his discovery of the
noble gases.
11.
University College London
–
University College London is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. It is the largest postgraduate institution in the UK by enrollment and is regarded as one of the worlds leading research universities. UCL also makes the claims of being the third-oldest university in England. In 1836 UCL became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London, which was granted a charter in the same year. UCL has its campus in the Bloomsbury area of central London, with a number of institutes and teaching hospitals elsewhere in central London. UCL is organised into 11 constituent faculties, within there are over 100 departments, institutes. In 2015/16, UCL had around 38,300 students and 12,000 staff and had an income of £1.36 billion. UCL ranks highly in national and international league tables and its graduates rank among the most employable in the world, UCL academics discovered five of the naturally occurring noble gases, co-discovered hormones, invented the vacuum tube, and made several foundational advances in modern statistics. There are at least 29 Nobel Prize winners and 3 Fields medalists amongst UCLs alumni and current, UCL was founded on 11 February 1826 under the name London University, as an alternative to the Anglican universities of Oxford and Cambridge. London Universitys first Warden was Leonard Horner, who was the first scientist to head a British university and this suggests that while his ideas may have been influential, he himself was less so. In 1827, the Chair of Political Economy at London University was created, with John Ramsay McCulloch as the first incumbent, in 1828 the university became the first in England to offer English as a subject and the teaching of Classics and medicine began. In 1830, London University founded the London University School, which would later become University College School, in 1833, the university appointed Alexander Maconochie, Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, as the first professor of geography in the UK. In 1834, University College Hospital opened as a hospital for the universitys medical school. In 1836, London University was incorporated by charter under the name University College. The Slade School of Fine Art was founded as part of University College in 1871, in 1878, the University of London gained a supplemental charter making it the first British university to be allowed to award degrees to women. The same year, UCL admitted women to the faculties of Arts and Law and of Science, although women remained barred from the faculties of Engineering and of Medicine. Armstrong College, an institution of Newcastle University, also allowed women to enter from its foundation in 1871. Women were finally admitted to medical studies during the First World War in 1917, in 1898, Sir William Ramsay discovered the elements krypton, neon and xenon whilst professor of chemistry at UCL
University College London
–
The London University as drawn by
Thomas Hosmer Shepherd and published in 1827–1828 (now the
UCL Main Building)
University College London
–
Henry Tonks ' 1923 mural The Four Founders of UCL
University College London
–
William Ramsay is regarded as the " father of noble gases ".
University College London
–
The Wilkins Building in 1956
12.
Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig
–
Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig was a German chemist. Fittig discovered the pinacol coupling reaction, mesitylene, diacetyl and biphenyl and he studied the action of sodium on ketones and hydrocarbons. He discovered the Fittig reaction or Wurtz–Fittig reaction for the synthesis of alkylbenzenes, he proposed a structure for benzoquinone. He discovered and synthesized the first lactones and investigated structures of naphthalene and fluorene. Fittig studied chemistry at the University of Göttingen, graduating as Ph. D. with a dissertation on acetone in 1858, under the supervision of Heinrich Limpricht and Friedrich Wöhler. He subsequently held appointments at Göttingen, becoming Wöhlers assistant in 1858, privatdozent in 1860. In 1870 he was appointed professor at University of Tübingen and in 1876 at Strassburg. Fittigs research covered wide areas of organic chemistry, the aldehydes and ketones provided material for his earlier work. The unsaturated acids also received attention, and he discovered the internal anhydrides of oxyacids. In 1863 he introduced the reaction known by his name and his investigations on Perkins reaction led him to an explanation of its mechanism which appeared to be more in accordance with the facts. The question, however, is one of difficulty. These researches incidentally solved the constitution of coumarin, the principle of woodruff. They also investigated certain hydrocarbons occurring in the boiling point fraction of the coal tar distillate. We also owe much of our knowledge of the alkaloid piperine to Fittig, Fittig has published two widely used textbooks, be edited several editions of Wohlers Grundriss der organischen Chemie and wrote an Unorganische Chemie. His researches have been recognized by many societies and institutions. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Fittig. Genealogy database entry, University of Illinois
Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig
–
Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig
13.
Otto Hahn
–
Otto Hahn, OBE, ForMemRS was a German chemist and pioneer in the fields of radioactivity and radiochemistry. He was exclusively awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1944 for the discovery and he is referred to as the father of nuclear chemistry. Hahn was an opponent of socialism and Jewish persecution by the Nazi Party. Albert Einstein wrote that Hahn was one of the few who stood upright. After World War II, Hahn became a campaigner against the use of nuclear energy as a weapon. He served as the last President of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society in 1946, considered by many to be a model for scholarly excellence and personal integrity, he became one of the most influential and respected citizens of the new Federal Republic of Germany. Hahn was the youngest son of Heinrich Hahn, a glazier and entrepreneur. Together with his brothers Karl, Heiner and Julius, Otto was raised in a sheltered environment, at the age of 15, he began to take a special interest in chemistry, and carried out simple experiments in the laundry room of the family home. His father wanted Otto to study architecture, as he had built or acquired several residential and business properties, in 1897, after taking his Abitur at the Klinger Oberrealschule in Frankfurt, Hahn began to study chemistry and mineralogy at the University of Marburg. His subsidiary subjects were physics and philosophy, Hahn joined the Students Association of Natural Sciences and Medicine, a student fraternity and a forerunner of todays Landsmannschaft Nibelungia. He spent his third and fourth semester studying under Adolf von Baeyer at the University of Munich, in 1901, Hahn received his doctorate in Marburg for a dissertation entitled On Bromine Derivates of Isoeugenol, a topic in classical organic chemistry. Hahns intention had been to work in industry, with this in mind, and also to improve his knowledge of English, he took up a post at University College London in 1904, working under Sir William Ramsay, known for having discovered the inert gases. Here Hahn worked on radiochemistry, at time a very new field. In early 1905, in the course of his work with salts of radium, Hahn discovered a new substance he called radiothorium, Ramsay was very enthused when yet another new element was found in his institute, and he intended to announce the discovery in a correspondingly suitable way. In accordance with tradition this should be done before the committee of the venerable Royal Society, at the session of the Royal Society on the 16 March 1905 Ramsay communicated Hahns discovery of radiothorium, and even the press was interested. The Daily Telegraph informed its readers, A NEW ELEMENT - Very soon the scientific papers will be agog with a new discovery which has added to the many brilliant triumphs of Gower Street. Its activity is at least 250,000 times as great as that of thorium and it gives off a gas, identical with the radioactive emanation from thorium. - The discoverer read a paper on the subject to the Royal Society last week, and this should rank and it was the first of more than 250 scientific publications of Otto Hahn in the field of radiochemistry
Otto Hahn
–
Otto Hahn
Otto Hahn
–
Sir William Ramsay, London 1905
Otto Hahn
–
Ernest Rutherford at McGill University, Montreal 1905
Otto Hahn
–
Marble plaque in Latin by Professor Massimo Ragnolini, commemorating the honeymoon of Otto Hahn and his wife Edith at Punta San Vigilio,
Lake Garda, Italy, in March and April 1913. (Unveiled by Count Guglielmo Guarienti di Brenzone in 1983).
14.
Vanity Fair (British magazine)
–
The second Vanity Fair was a British weekly magazine published from 1868 to 1914. Subtitled A Weekly Show of Political, Social and Literary Wares, it was founded by Thomas Gibson Bowles, the first issue appeared in London on 7 November 1868. It offered its readership articles on fashion, current events, the theatre, books, social events, Thomas Allinson bought the magazine in 1911 from Frank Harris, by which time it was failing financially. He failed to revive it and the issue of Vanity Fair appeared on 5 February 1914, after which it was merged into Hearth. A full-page, colour lithograph of a celebrity or dignitary appeared in most issues. Subjects included artists, athletes, royalty, statesmen, scientists, authors, actors, soldiers, religious personalities, business people and scholars. More than two thousand of these images appeared, and they are considered the cultural legacy of the magazine
Vanity Fair (British magazine)
–
Cover, 1 September 1896 issue
Vanity Fair (British magazine)
–
Winter supplement (23 November 1899); double print: Caricature of
The trial of Dreyfus
Vanity Fair (British magazine)
–
The Duke of Abercorn by
Carlo Pellegrini in 25 September 1869 issue
Vanity Fair (British magazine)
–
Mansur Ali Khan of Bengal by "Atn"
Alfred Thompson in 16 April 1870 issue
15.
Leslie Ward
–
Sir Leslie Matthew Ward was a British portrait artist and caricaturist who over four decades painted 1,325 portraits which were regularly published by Vanity Fair, under the pseudonyms Spy and Drawl. The portraits were produced as watercolours and turned into chromolithographs for publication in the magazine and these were then usually reproduced on better paper and sold as prints. Such was his influence in the genre that all Vanity Fair caricatures are sometimes referred to as Spy Cartoons regardless of who the artist actually was, Ward was one of eight children of artists Edward Matthew Ward and Henrietta Ward, and the great-grandson of the artist James Ward. Although they had the surname before marriage, Wards parents were not related. She was niece and great-niece respectively of the portrait painter John Jackson, both parents had studios in their homes in Slough and Kensington in London, where they regularly entertained the London artistic and literary elite. Wards father was a gifted mimic who entertained Charles Dickens and other eminent guests, although they never gave their son formal training, they and their artistic friends encouraged the young Ward to draw, paint, and sculpt. Ward had started caricaturing while still at school at Eton College, using his classmates, in 1867 his bust of his brother was exhibited at the Royal Academy in London. At school Ward had been a student, and after he left Eton in 1869 his father encouraged him to train as an architect. Ward was too afraid to tell his father that he wanted to be an artist and he spent a year in the office of the architect Sydney Smirke. In 1873 he sent some of his work to Thomas Gibson Bowles and this led to his being hired to replace Ape, who had temporarily left the magazine after falling out with Bowles. As his nom de crayon, Ward suggested to Bowles that he use the name Spy, meaning to observe secretly, Ward drew 1,325 cartoons for Vanity Fair between 1873 and 1911, many of which captured the personality of his subjects. His portraits of royalty, nobility, and women, however, were over-sympathetic, sometimes they came to his studio to pose in their robes or uniforms. A caricaturist, Ward believed, was born, not made and he observed, A good memory, an eye for detail, and a mind to appreciate and grasp the whole atmosphere and peculiarity of the subject are of course essentials. A caricature, he noted, should never depend on a physical defect, if I could sum up the art in a sentence it would be that caricature should be a comic impression with a kindly touch, and always devoid of vulgarity. In an 1897 interview given by Oliver Armstrong Fry to Frank Banfield of Cassells Magazine, Ward was the most famous Vanity Fair artist, indeed, the whole genre tends to be named after him, the caricatures often being referred to as Spy Cartoons. He worked for Vanity Fair for over forty years, producing more than half of the 2,387 caricatures published. Wards clubs included the Arts, the Orleans, the Fielding, the Lotus, the Punch Bowl, and the Beefsteak, there he sketched many of his victims. Wards last cartoon for Vanity Fair appeared in June 1911 as he had begun to contribute his characteristic portraits to The World
Leslie Ward
–
Sir Leslie Ward
Leslie Ward
–
"Tommy" Bowles, founder of
Vanity Fair, caricatured by Leslie Ward in 1889
Leslie Ward
–
Leslie Ward
caricatured in 1889 by
'Pal'
Leslie Ward
–
Harold Hilton, 1903
16.
Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath
–
The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by George I on 18 May 1725. The name derives from the medieval ceremony for appointing a knight. The knights so created were known as Knights of the Bath, George I erected the Knights of the Bath into a regular Military Order. Prior to 1815, the order had only a class, Knight Companion. Recipients of the Order are now usually senior officers or senior civil servants. Commonwealth citizens who are not subjects of the Queen and foreign nationals may be made Honorary Members, in the Middle Ages, knighthood was often conferred with elaborate ceremonies. These usually involved the taking a bath during which he was instructed in the duties of knighthood by more senior knights. He was then put to bed to dry, clothed in a special robe, he was led with music to the chapel where he spent the night in a vigil. At dawn he made confession and attended Mass, then retired to his bed to sleep until it was fully daylight, in the early medieval period the difference seems to have been that the full ceremonies were used for men from more prominent families. Knights Bachelor continued to be created with the form of ceremony. The last occasion on which Knights of the Bath were created was the coronation of Charles II in 1661. From at least 1625, and possibly from the reign of James I, Knights of the Bath were using the motto Tria iuncta in uno, and wearing as a badge three crowns within a plain gold oval. These were both adopted by the Order of the Bath, a similar design of badge is still worn by members of the Civil Division. Their symbolism however is not entirely clear, the three joined in one may be a reference to the kingdoms of England, Scotland and either France or Ireland, which were held by English and, later, British monarchs. This would correspond to the three crowns in the badge, another explanation of the motto is that it refers to the Holy Trinity. The prime mover in the establishment of the Order of the Bath was John Anstis, Garter King of Arms, the Court remained the centre of the political world. The King was limited in that he had to choose Ministers who could command a majority in Parliament, the leader of an administration still had to command the Kings personal confidence and approval. A strong following in Parliament depended on being able to supply places, pensions, the attraction of the new Order for Walpole was that it would provide a source of such favours to strengthen his political position
Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath
–
Most Honourable Order of the Bath
Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath
–
A painting by
Edmund Leighton depicting a fictional scene of a knight receiving the
accolade
Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath
–
Mildmay Fane, 2nd Earl of Westmorland, KB, with sash.
Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath
–
Sir Robert Walpole, the first
Prime Minister, who used the Order of the Bath as a source of political patronage
17.
Fellow of the Royal Society
–
As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
Fellow of the Royal Society
–
The entrance to the Royal Society in Carlton House Terrace, London
Fellow of the Royal Society
–
The President, Council, and Fellows of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge
Fellow of the Royal Society
–
John Evelyn, who helped to found the Royal Society
Fellow of the Royal Society
–
Mace granted by Charles II
18.
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
–
The Royal Society of Edinburgh is Scotlands national academy of science and letters. It is a charity, operating on a wholly independent and non-party-political basis. As of 2014 it has more than 1,500 Fellows, the Society covers a broader selection of fields than the Royal Society of London including literature and history. Fellowship includes people from a range of disciplines – science & technology, arts, humanities, medicine, social science, business. The Medals were instituted in 2000 by Queen Elizabeth II, whose permission is required to make a presentation, past winners include, The Lord Kelvin Medal is the Senior Prize for Physical, Engineering and Informatics Sciences. It is awarded annually to a person who has achieved distinction nationally and internationally, winners receive a silver medal and are required to deliver a public lecture in Scotland. The award is named after William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin, who was a mathematical physicist and engineer. Senior Prize-winners are required to have a Scottish connection but can be based anywhere in the world, the Keith medal has been historically awarded every four years for a scientific paper published in the societys scientific journals, preference being given to a paper containing a discovery. It is awarded alternately for papers on Mathematics or Earth and Environmental Sciences, the medal was founded in 1827 as a result of a bequest by Alexander Keith of Dunottar, the first Treasurer of the Society. The prize was founded in 1855 by Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane, the cumbersome name was changed the following year to the Edinburgh Philosophical Society. Under the leadership of Prof. Thus, for the first four decades of the 19th century, by the 1850s, the society once again unified its membership under one journal. During the 19th century the society produced many scientists whose ideas laid the foundation of the modern sciences, from the 20th century onward, the society functioned not only as a focal point for Scotlands eminent scientists, but also the arts and humanities. It still exists today and continues to promote research in Scotland. In February 2014, Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell was announced as the societys first female president, taking up her position in October
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
–
The Royal Society building, at the junction of George Street and Hanover Street in the
New Town
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
–
The cover of a 1788 volume of the journal Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. This is the issue where
James Hutton published his Theory of the Earth.
19.
Lord Rayleigh
–
John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh OM PC PRS was a physicist who, with William Ramsay, discovered argon, an achievement for which he earned the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1904. He also discovered the now called Rayleigh scattering, which can be used to explain why the sky is blue. Rayleighs textbook, The Theory of Sound, is referred to by acoustic engineers today. John William Strutt, of Terling Place Essex, suffered from frailty and he attended Harrow School, before going on to the University of Cambridge in 1861 where he studied mathematics at Trinity College, Cambridge. He obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1865, and a Master of Arts in 1868 and he was subsequently elected to a Fellowship of Trinity. He held the post until his marriage to Evelyn Balfour, daughter of James Maitland Balfour and he had three sons with her. In 1873, on the death of his father, John Strutt, 2nd Baron Rayleigh and he was the second Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge, from 1879 to 1884. He first described dynamic soaring by seabirds in 1883, in the British journal Nature, from 1887 to 1905 he was Professor of Natural Philosophy at the Royal Institution. Around the year 1900 Lord Rayleigh developed the theory of human sound localisation using two binaural cues, interaural phase difference and interaural level difference. The theory posits that we use two primary cues for sound lateralisation, using the difference in the phases of sinusoidal components of the sound, in 1919, Rayleigh served as President of the Society for Psychical Research. The rayl unit of acoustic impedance is named after him, as an advocate that simplicity and theory be part of the scientific method, Lord Rayleigh argued for the principle of similitude. Lord Rayleigh was elected Fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1873, from time to time Lord Rayleigh participated in the House of Lords, however, he spoke up only if politics attempted to become involved in science. He died on 30 June 1919, in Witham, Essex and he was succeeded, as the 4th Lord Rayleigh, by his son Robert John Strutt, another well-known physicist. Lord Rayleigh was buried in the graveyard of All Saints Church in Terling in Essex, though he did not write about the relationship of science and religion, he retained a personal interest in spiritual matters. The Secretary to the Press suggested with many apologies that the reader might suppose that I was the Lord, still, he kept his wish and the quotation was printed in the five-volume collection of scientific papers. What is more, I think that Christ and indeed other spiritually gifted men see further and truer than I do, Lord Rayleigh was the president of the SPR in 1919. He gave an address the year of his death but did not come to any definite conclusions. Craters on Mars and the Moon are named in his honour as well as a type of surface wave known as a Rayleigh wave, the asteroid 22740 Rayleigh was named in his honour on 1 June 2007
Lord Rayleigh
–
The Lord Rayleigh
20.
Nobel Prize in Physics
–
The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
Nobel Prize in Physics
–
Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923), the first recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics.
Nobel Prize in Physics
–
The Nobel Prize in Physics
Nobel Prize in Physics
–
Three Nobel Laureates in Physics. Front row from left:
Albert A. Michelson (1907),
Albert Einstein (1921) and
Robert A. Millikan (1923).
21.
Argon
–
Argon is a chemical element with symbol Ar and atomic number 18. It is in group 18 of the table and is a noble gas. Argon is the third-most abundant gas in the Earths atmosphere, at 0. 934% and it is more than twice as abundant as water vapor,23 times as abundant as carbon dioxide, and more than 500 times as abundant as neon. Argon is the most abundant noble gas in Earths crust, comprising 0. 00015% of the crust, nearly all of the argon in Earths atmosphere is radiogenic argon-40, derived from the decay of potassium-40 in the Earths crust. In the universe, argon-36 is by far the most common argon isotope, the name argon is derived from the Greek word ἀργόν, neuter singular form of ἀργός meaning lazy or inactive, as a reference to the fact that the element undergoes almost no chemical reactions. The complete octet in the atomic shell makes argon stable. Its triple point temperature of 83.8058 K is a fixed point in the International Temperature Scale of 1990. Argon is produced industrially by the distillation of liquid air. Argon is also used in incandescent, fluorescent lighting, and other gas-discharge tubes, Argon makes a distinctive blue-green gas laser. Argon is also used in fluorescent glow starters, Argon has approximately the same solubility in water as oxygen and is 2.5 times more soluble in water than nitrogen. Argon is colorless, odorless, nonflammable and nontoxic as a solid, liquid or gas, Argon is chemically inert under most conditions and forms no confirmed stable compounds at room temperature. Although argon is a gas, it can form some compounds under extreme conditions. Argon fluorohydride, a compound of argon with fluorine and hydrogen that is stable below 17 K, has been demonstrated. Although the neutral ground-state chemical compounds of argon are presently limited to HArF, ions, such as ArH+, and excited-state complexes, such as ArF, have been demonstrated. Theoretical calculation predicts several more argon compounds that should be stable but have not yet been synthesized, Argon was suspected to be a component of air by Henry Cavendish in 1785. Argon was first isolated from air in 1894 by Lord Rayleigh and Sir William Ramsay at University College London by removing oxygen, carbon dioxide, water and they had determined that nitrogen produced from chemical compounds was 0. 5% lighter than nitrogen from the atmosphere. The difference was slight, but it was important enough to attract their attention for many months and they concluded that there was another gas in the air mixed in with the nitrogen. Argon was also encountered in 1882 through independent research of H. F. Newall, each observed new lines in the color spectrum of air that did not match known elements
Argon
–
Argon, 18 Ar
Argon
–
A small piece of rapidly melting solid argon.
Argon
–
Cylinders containing argon gas for use in extinguishing fire without damaging server equipment
Argon
–
A sample of
caesium is packed under argon to avoid reactions with air
22.
Neon
–
Neon is a chemical element with symbol Ne and atomic number 10 and is a noble gas. Neon is a colorless, odorless, inert gas under standard conditions. It was discovered in 1898 as one of the three residual rare inert elements remaining in dry air, after nitrogen, oxygen, argon and carbon dioxide were removed. Neon was the second of three rare gases to be discovered, and was immediately recognized as a new element from its bright red emission spectrum. The name neon is derived from the Greek word, νέον, neuter singular form of νέος, Neon is chemically inert and forms no uncharged chemical compounds. The compounds of neon include ionic molecules, molecules held together by van der Waals forces and clathrates, during cosmic nucleogenesis of the elements, large amounts of neon are built up from the alpha-capture fusion process in stars. Although neon is a common element in the universe and solar system. It composes about 18.2 ppm of air by volume, the reason for neons relative scarcity on Earth and the inner planets is that neon is highly volatile and forms no compounds to fix it to solids. As a result, it escaped from the planetesimals under the warmth of the newly ignited Sun in the early Solar System, even the atmosphere of Jupiter is somewhat depleted of neon, presumably for this reason. It is also lighter than air, causing it to escape even from Earths atmosphere, Neon gives a distinct reddish-orange glow when used in low-voltage neon glow lamps, high-voltage discharge tubes and neon advertising signs. The red emission line from neon also causes the well known red light of helium–neon lasers, Neon is used in some plasma tube and refrigerant applications but has few other commercial uses. It is commercially extracted by the distillation of liquid air. Since air is the source, it is considerably more expensive than helium. Neon, was discovered in 1898 by the British chemists Sir William Ramsay, Neon was discovered when Ramsay chilled a sample of air until it became a liquid, then warmed the liquid and captured the gases as they boiled off. The gases nitrogen, oxygen, and argon had been identified, first to be identified was krypton. The next, after krypton had been removed, was a gas which gave a brilliant red light under spectroscopic discharge and this gas, identified in June, was named neon, the Greek analogue of novum, suggested by Ramsays son. A second gas was reported along with neon, having approximately the same density as argon but with a different spectrum – Ramsay. However, subsequent spectroscopic analysis revealed it to be contaminated with carbon monoxide
Neon
–
Neon, 10 Ne
Neon
–
Spectral lines of neon in the visible region
Neon
–
Neon
gas-discharge lamps forming the symbol for neon "Ne"
Neon
–
The first evidence for isotopes of a stable element was provided in 1913 by experiments on neon plasma. In the bottom right corner of
J. J. Thomson 's photographic plate are the separate impact marks for the two isotopes neon-20 and neon-22.
23.
Krypton
–
Krypton is a frame-based computer programming language. Brachman, Ronald J. Gilbert, Victoria Pigman, Levesque, an Essential Hybrid Reasoning System, Knowledge and Symbol Level Accounts of KRYPTON. 9th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, archived from the original on 2008-03-07. This article is based on material taken from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing prior to 1 November 2008 and incorporated under the terms of the GFDL
Krypton
24.
Xenon
–
Xenon is a chemical element with symbol Xe and atomic number 54. It is a colorless, dense, odorless gas found in the Earths atmosphere in trace amounts. Although generally unreactive, xenon can undergo a few chemical reactions such as the formation of xenon hexafluoroplatinate, Xenon is used in flash lamps and arc lamps, and as a general anesthetic. The first excimer laser used a xenon dimer molecule as the lasing medium. Xenon is used to search for hypothetical weakly interacting massive particles, naturally occurring xenon consists of eight stable isotopes. More than 40 unstable xenon isotopes undergo radioactive decay, and the ratios of xenon are an important tool for studying the early history of the Solar System. Radioactive xenon-135 is produced by beta decay from iodine-135, and is the most significant neutron absorber in nuclear reactors, Xenon was discovered in England by the Scottish chemist William Ramsay and English chemist Morris Travers in September 1898, shortly after their discovery of the elements krypton and neon. They found xenon in the left over from evaporating components of liquid air. Ramsay suggested the name xenon for this gas from the Greek word ξένον, neuter singular form of ξένος, meaning foreign, strange, in 1902, Ramsay estimated the proportion of xenon in the Earths atmosphere to be one part in 20 million. During the 1930s, American engineer Harold Edgerton began exploring strobe light technology for high speed photography and this led him to the invention of the xenon flash lamp in which light is generated by passing brief electric current through a tube filled with xenon gas. In 1934, Edgerton was able to generate flashes as brief as one microsecond with this method, in 1939, American physician Albert R. Behnke Jr. began exploring the causes of drunkenness in deep-sea divers. He tested the effects of varying the breathing mixtures on his subjects, from his results, he deduced that xenon gas could serve as an anesthetic. Xenon was first used as an anesthetic in 1951 by American anesthesiologist Stuart C. Cullen, who used it with two patients. Xenon and the noble gases were for a long time considered to be completely chemically inert. Since O2 and xenon have almost the same first ionization potential, on March 23,1962, he mixed the two gases and produced the first known compound of a noble gas, xenon hexafluoroplatinate. Bartlett thought its composition to be Xe+−, but later revealed that it was probably a mixture of various xenon-containing salts. By 1971, more than 80 xenon compounds were known, in November 1989, IBM scientists demonstrated a technology capable of manipulating individual atoms
Xenon
–
A xenon-filled
discharge tube glowing light blue
Xenon
–
Spectral lines of xenon
Xenon
–
Xenon flash (
animated version)
Xenon
–
XeF 4 crystals, 1962
25.
Geologist
–
A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter that constitutes the Earth as well as the processes that shape it. Geologists usually study geology, although backgrounds in physics, chemistry, biology, field work is an important component of geology, although many subdisciplines incorporate laboratory work. Some geologists work in the mining business searching for metals, oils and they are also in the forefront of natural hazards and disasters prevention and mitigation, studying natural hazards such as earthquakes, volcanic activity, tsunamis, weather storms. Their studies are used to warn the public of the occurrence of these events. Geologists are also important contributors to climate change discussions, james Hutton is often viewed as the first modern geologist. In 1785 he presented a paper entitled Theory of the Earth to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Hutton published a two-volume version of his ideas in 1795. The first geological map of the U. S. was produced in 1809 by William Maclure, in 1807, Maclure commenced the self-imposed task of making a geological survey of the United States. Almost every state in the Union was traversed and mapped by him and this antedates William Smiths geological map of England by six years, although it was constructed using a different classification of rocks. Sir Charles Lyell first published his famous book, Principles of Geology and this book, which influenced the thought of Charles Darwin, successfully promoted the doctrine of uniformitarianism. This theory states that slow geological processes have occurred throughout the Earths history and are still occurring today, in contrast, catastrophism is the theory that Earths features formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter. Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism, the idea was not widely accepted at the time, most geologists also need skills in GIS and other mapping techniques. Geology students often spend portions of the year, especially the summer though sometimes during a January term, geologists may concentrate their studies or research in one or more of the following disciplines, Dendrochronology, the study of dating based on tree ring patterns. Economic geology, the study of ore genesis, and the mechanisms of ore creation, geochemistry, the applied branch deals with the study of the chemical makeup and behaviour of rocks, and the study of the behaviour of their minerals. Geochronology, the study of isotope geology specifically toward determining the date within the past of rock formation, metamorphism, mineralization and geological events. Geomorphology, the study of landforms and the processes that create them Hydrogeology, igneous petrology, the study of igneous processes such as igneous differentiation, fractional crystallization, intrusive and volcanological phenomena. Isotope geology, the case of the composition of rocks to determine the processes of rock. Metamorphic petrology, the study of the effects of metamorphism on minerals, marine geology, the study of the seafloor, involves geophysical, geochemical, sedimentological and paleontological investigations of the ocean floor and coastal margins. Marine geology has strong ties to physical oceanography and plate tectonics, palaeoclimatology, the application of geological science to determine the climatic conditions present in the Earths atmosphere within the Earths history
Geologist
–
"The Geologist" -
Carl Spitzweg, circa 1860
Geologist
–
Scotsman James Hutton, father of modern geology
Geologist
–
"Geologists at work" from the U.S. Geological and Geographic Survey of the Territories. (1874 - 06/30/1879) Photographer:
William Henry Jackson
Geologist
–
A young geologist learns about
flow banding
26.
Andrew Ramsay (geologist)
–
Sir Andrew Crombie Ramsay was a Scottish geologist. He was first stationed at Tenby, and to that circumstance may be attributed the fact that so much of his work dealt with Wales. His first book, The Geology of the Isle of Arran, was published in 1841, in 1845 he became local director for Great Britain, but he continued to carry on a certain amount of field-work until 1854. In 1866 he published The Geology of North Wales, of which an edition was published in 1881. He was chosen as a professor of geology at University College, London, in 1848, eleven years later he was elected to the presidential chair of the Geological Society of London, and in 1872 he succeeded Murchison as director-general of the Geological Survey. In 1880 he acted as president of the British Association at Swansea, in 1860 he published a book entitled The Old Glaciers of Switzerland and North Wales. The study of this led him to discuss the Glacial Origin of Certain Lakes in Switzerland. He dealt also with the origin of The Red Rocks of England and The River Courses of England and his lectures to working men, given in 1863 in the Museum of Practical Geology, formed the nucleus of his Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain. He died at Beaumaris in Anglesey and is buried at St Sadwrns church in Llansadwrn where his grave is marked by a glacial erratic boulder, clan Ramsay This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Memoir of Sir Andrew Crombie Ramsay
Andrew Ramsay (geologist)
–
Andrew Ramsay (geologist)
27.
Glasgow Academy
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The Glasgow Academy is a coeducational independent day school for pupils aged 3–18 in Glasgow, Scotland. It is the third best secondary school in Scotland according to its Higher exam results, founded in 1845, it is the oldest continuously fully independent school in Glasgow, Scotland. In 1991, Glasgow Academy merged with Westbourne School for Girls, adopting the distinctive purple of its uniform in the school badge and it is located in the Kelvinbridge area and has approximately 1350 pupils, split between three preparatory school sites and a senior school. The current rector is Peter Brodie, who has held the position since 2005, the Academy is part of a select number of schools in Scotland which are Stonewall School Champions, an LGBT initiative which provides training for staff and pupils against homophobic bullying. HMIe last inspected the school in November 2008, in the Senior School, House assemblies are normally held once a week and are run by two teachers, one male and one female, as Head of Houses. Senior Pupils enter a range of activities competing in Houses. These activities include football, rugby, hockey, debating as well as an annual House singing competition, frederick Anderson, Chairman, Municipal Council, Shanghai International Settlement, 1905-06. John Arthur, Church of Scotland missionary to East Africa, J. M. Miller Caldwell, Author, UNESCO Camp Manager at Mundihar in Pakistan Sir David Young Cameron, Scottish painter and etcher. Billy Campbell, winner of the 2009 Scottish BAFTA Best Fictional Film award for Life of a Pigeon, Sir John Cargill, Chairman of Burmah Oil Company, 1904–1943 Jackson Carlaw, Scottish Conservative Party MSP. Horatio Scott Carslaw, Professor of Pure and Applied Mathematics at the University of Sydney, archibald Corbett, 1st Baron Rowallan, politician and philanthropist. C. S. I. The Glasgow Academy 150 Years, Official website The Glasgow Academys page on Scottish Schools Online Profile on the Independent Schools Council website
Glasgow Academy
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The Glasgow Academy
Glasgow Academy
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Independent schools
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Thomas Anderson (chemist)
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Thomas Anderson was a 19th-century Scottish chemist. In 1853 his work on led him to discover the correct structure for codeine. In 1868 he discovered pyridine and related compounds such as picoline through studies on the distillation of bone oil. As well as his work on chemistry, Anderson made important contributions to agricultural chemistry, writing over 130 reports on soils, fertilisers. He kept abreast of all areas of science, and was able to advise his colleague Joseph Lister on Pasteurs germ theory, born in Leith, Thomas Anderson graduated from the University of Edinburgh with a medical doctorate in 1841. Returning to Edinburgh, he worked at the University of Edinburgh and at the Highland, in 1852, he was appointed Regius Professor of Chemistry at the University of Glasgow and remained in that post for the rest of his career. His later years were marred by a neurological disease which may have been syphilis. He resigned his chair in early 1874, and died later that year in Chiswick and his chair was filled by John Ferguson. Works by Thomas Anderson at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Thomas Anderson at Internet Archive
Thomas Anderson (chemist)
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Thomas Anderson (chemist)
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Toluene
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Toluene /ˈtɒljuːiːn/, also known as toluol /ˈtɒljuːɒl/, is a colorless, water-insoluble liquid with the smell associated with paint thinners. It is a benzene derivative, consisting of a CH3 group attached to a phenyl group. As such, its IUPAC systematic name is methylbenzene, Toluene is widely used as an industrial feedstock and a solvent. In 2013, worldwide sales of toluene amounted to about 24.5 billion US-dollars, as the solvent in some types of paint thinner, contact cement and model airplane glue, toluene is sometimes used as a recreational inhalant and has the potential of causing severe neurological harm. The compound was first isolated in 1837 through a distillation of oil by a Polish chemist named Filip Walter. In 1843, Jöns Jacob Berzelius recommended the name toluin, in 1850, French chemist Auguste Cahours isolated from a distillate of wood a hydrocarbon which he recognized as similar to Devilles benzoène and which Cahours named toluène. Toluene reacts as an aromatic hydrocarbon in electrophilic aromatic substitution. Because the methyl group has greater electron-releasing properties than an atom in the same position. It undergoes sulfonation to give p-toluenesulfonic acid, and chlorination by Cl2 in the presence of FeCl3 to give ortho, importantly, the methyl side chain in toluene is susceptible to oxidation. Toluene reacts with Potassium permanganate to yield benzoic acid, and with chromyl chloride to yield benzaldehyde, the methyl group undergoes halogenation under free radical conditions. For example, N-bromosuccinimide heated with toluene in the presence of AIBN leads to benzyl bromide, the same conversion can be effected with elemental bromine in the presence of UV light or even sunlight. Toluene may also be brominated by treating it with HBr and H2O2 in the presence of light. C6H5CH3 + Br2 → C6H5CH2Br + HBr C6H5CH2Br + Br2 → C6H5CHBr2 + HBr The methyl group in toluene undergoes deprotonation only with strong bases. Catalytic hydrogenation of toluene gives methylcyclohexane, the reaction requires a high pressure of hydrogen and a catalyst. Final separation and purification is done by any of the distillation or solvent extraction processes used for BTX aromatics, Toluene is so inexpensively produced industrially that it is not prepared in the laboratory. In principle it could be prepared by a variety of methods, Toluene is mainly used as a precursor to benzene via hydrodealkylation, C6H5CH3 + H2 → C6H6 + CH4 The second ranked application involves its disproportionation to a mixture of benzene and xylene. When oxidized it yields benzaldehyde and benzoic acid, two important intermediates in chemistry, in addition to the synthesis of benzene and xylene, toluene is a feedstock for toluene diisocyanate, trinitrotoluene, and a number of synthetic drugs. Toluene is a solvent, e. g. for paints, paint thinners, silicone sealants, many chemical reactants, rubber, printing ink, adhesives, lacquers, leather tanners
Toluene
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University of Strathclyde
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The University of Strathclyde is a Scottish public research university located in Glasgow, United Kingdom. Founded in 1796 as the Andersonian Institute, it is Glasgows second-oldest university and it takes its name from the historic Kingdom of Strathclyde. The University of Strathclyde is Scotlands third-largest university by number of students, with students, the institution was awarded University of the Year 2012 and Entrepreneurial University of the year 2013 by Times Higher Education. Entry into many of the courses in the university is competitive and this means that successful applicants to Strathclyde have the third-highest average score in Scotland, and is ranked twelfth overall in the UK. It is also one of the 39 old universities in the UK comprising the second cluster of elite universities after Oxbridge. The University later named its city centre campus after him, in 1828, the institution was renamed Andersons University, partially fulfilling Andersons vision of two universities in the city of Glasgow. The name was changed in 1887, to reflect the fact there was no legal authority for the use of the title of university. Undergraduate students could qualify for degrees of the University of Glasgow or the equivalent Associate of the Royal College of Science, the University of Strathclyde was the UKs first technological university reflecting its history, teaching and research excellence in technological education. In 1993, the University incorporated Jordanhill College of Education, in July 2015, Her Majesty The Queen has opened the Technology and Innovation Centre, at the University of Strathclyde. The centrepiece building has long been the massive Royal College Building, started in 1903 and completed in 1912, it was partially opened in 1910 and at the time was the largest educational building in Europe for technical education. Originally built as the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College Building, it now houses Bioscience, Chemistry, meanwhile, a new biomedical sciences building was opened in early 2010. It was designed by Shepparrd Robson, and aims to bring the multi-faceted disciplines of the Institute together under one roof, sited on Cathedral Street in Glasgow, the 8,000 m2 building is the gateway to the University campus and city centre from the motorway. The James Weir Building has been reconstructed and reopened in 2014 after a fire resulted in many rooms being unusable. The Architecture Building, completed in 1967, is considered to be the best post-war building on campus and it was designed by Frank Fielden and Associates, Frank Fielden being the Professor of Architecture in the Architecture School at the time. In 2012, Historic Scotland granted Listed Building Status to it, along with the Wolfson Building designed by Morris,2012 also saw the 20th Century Society select the Architecture Building as their Building of the Month for September due to its cultural significance and enduring appeal. The Andersonian Library is the library of the University of Strathclyde. Established in 1796, it is one of the largest of its type in Scotland and it is situated in the Curran building. Situated over 5 floors at present, the Andersonian Library has more than 2,000 reader places,450 computer places and extensive wi-fi zones for laptop use
University of Strathclyde
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Jordonhill Campus, Strathclyde University
University of Strathclyde
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University of Strathclyde
University of Strathclyde
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Royal College Building, Strathclyde University
University of Strathclyde
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Barony Hall, Strathclyde University
