1.
Municipal Borough of Enfield
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Enfield was a local government district in Middlesex, England from 1850 to 1965. The parish of Enfield adopted the Public Health Act 1848 in 1850, the local boards area was reconstituted by the Local Government Act 1894, and became Enfield Urban District. Enfield Urban District Council replaced the board, and was divided into four wards each returning three councillors, Town, Chase & Bulls Cross, Ordnance and Green Street & Ponders End. In 1909 two new wards, Bush Park and Hadley Wood & Cockfosters were formed and the UDC increased to 18 councillors. The municipal borough was divided into ten wards, each returning three councillors, Bush Hill Park, Cambridge Road, Chase, Enfield Wash, Green Street, Ordnance, Ponders End, Town, West and Willow. The borough included what is now known as Enfield Town, along with settlements such as Brimsdown, Enfield Wash. The urban district council was granted a coat of arms by the College of Arms in 1946 and this featured an enfield and a green chief with silver and blue wavy bars representing the New River, the Metropolitan Green Belt areas and open spaces. The crest was a stag representing Enfield Chase with a red rose for the Duchy of Lancaster, on incorporation as a borough, the council was eligible for a further grant of supporters, and a stag and an enfield were added on either side of the shield. Much of the symbolism was carried over to the new coat of arms of the London Borough of Enfield when the London Borough was created. Enfield Chronology, accessed January 28,2008 http, //www. visionofbritain. org. uk/relationships. jsp. u_id=10023737&c_id=10001043
2.
Nonconformist
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In English church history, a nonconformist was a Protestant Christian who did not conform to the governance and usages of the established Church of England. Broad use of the term was precipitated after the Restoration of the British monarchy in 1660, by the late 19th-century the term specifically included the Reformed Christians, plus the Baptists and Methodists. The English Dissenters such as the Puritans who violated the Act of Uniformity 1559 — typically by practising radical, sometimes separatist, in England and Wales in the late 19th century the new terms free churchman and Free Church started to replace dissenter or Nonconformist. One influential nonconformist minister is Matthew Henry, who beginning in 1710 published his multi-volume Commentary that is still used, issac Watts is an equally recognized nonconformist minister whose hymns are still sung by Christians worldwide. The Act of Uniformity of 1662 required churchmen to use all rites and ceremonies as prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer. Consequently, nearly 2,000 clergymen were ejected from the church for refusing to comply with the provisions of the act. The Great Ejection created an abiding public consciousness of non-conformity, thereafter, a Nonconformist was any English subject belonging to a non-Anglican church or a non-Christian religion. More broadly, any person who advocated religious liberty was typically called out as Nonconformist, culturally, in England and Wales, discrimination against Nonconformists endured even longer. Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Baptists, Calvinists, other reformed groups, following the act, other groups, including Methodists, Unitarians, Quakers, Plymouth Brethren, and the English Moravians were officially labelled as Nonconformists as they became established. A religious census in 1851 revealed Nonconformist comprised about half that of the people who attended services on Sundays. In the larger manufacturing areas, Nonconformists clearly outnumbered members of the Church of England, in Wales in 1850, Nonconformist chapel attendance significantly outnumbered Anglican church attendance. Historians distinguish two categories of Dissenters, or Nonconformists, in addition to the evangelicals or Low Church element in the Church of England, Old Dissenters, dating from the 16th and 17th centuries, included Baptists, Congregationalists, Quakers, Unitarians, and Presbyterians outside Scotland. New Dissenters emerged in the 18th century and were mainly Methodists, the Nonconformist Conscience was their moral sensibility which they tried to implement in British politics. The Nonconformist conscience of the Old group emphasized religious freedom and equality, pursuit of justice, and opposition to discrimination, compulsion, the New Dissenters stressed personal morality issues, including sexuality, temperance, family values, and Sabbath-keeping. Both factions were active, but until mid-19th century the Old group supported mostly Whigs and Liberals in politics. In the late 19th the New Dissenters mostly switched to the Liberal Party, the result was a merging of the two groups, strengthening their great weight as a political pressure group. The joined together on new issues especially regarding schools and temperance, by 1914 the linkage was weakening and by the 1920s it was virtually dead. Dissenters demanded removal of political and civil disabilities that applied to them, the Anglican establishment strongly resisted until 1828
3.
Articled clerk
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An articled clerk is someone who is studying to either be an accountant or lawyer. In doing so they are put under the supervision of someone already in the profession and this can be compared as being an intern for a company, the only difference is once the two years is over the trainee becomes the trainer. Trainees are obligated to sign a contract agree to the term of being an articled clerk, the articled clerk signs a contract, known as articles of clerkship, committing to a fixed period of employment. The contract is with a partner in the firm and not with the firm as a whole. Apprentice architects can also be articled, henry Percy Adams articled to Britwen Binyon, architect. In India, the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India undergo a programme for a period of 3/3. Those Students during the period of articleship are also known as Articled Clerk and they are known as Articled clerks during this period. A Comparative Study of Certain Accounting Institutions and Practice in England and the United States
4.
Classics
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Classics or Classical Studies is the study of classical antiquity. It encompasses the study of the Graeco-Roman world, particularly of its languages, and literature but also it encompasses the study of Graeco-Roman philosophy, history, and archaeology. Traditionally in the West, the study of the Greek and Roman classics was considered one of the cornerstones of the humanities and it has been traditionally a cornerstone of a typical elite education. The word Classics is derived from the Latin adjective classicus, meaning belonging to the highest class of citizens, the word was originally used to describe the members of the highest class in ancient Rome. By the 2nd century AD the word was used in literary criticism to describe writers of the highest quality, for example, Aulus Gellius, in his Attic Nights, contrasts classicus and proletarius writers. By the 6th century AD, the word had acquired a meaning, referring to pupils at a school. Thus the two meanings of the word, referring both to literature considered to be of the highest quality, and to the standard texts used as part of a curriculum. In the Middle Ages, classics and education were tightly intertwined, according to Jan Ziolkowski, while Latin was hugely influential, however, Greek was barely studied, and Greek literature survived almost solely in Latin translation. The works of even major Greek authors such as Hesiod, whose names continued to be known by educated Europeans, were unavailable in the Middle Ages. Along with the unavailability of Greek authors, there were differences between the classical canon known today and the works valued in the Middle Ages. Catullus, for instance, was almost entirely unknown in the medieval period, the Renaissance led to the increasing study of both ancient literature and ancient history, as well as a revival of classical styles of Latin. From the 14th century, first in Italy and then increasingly across Europe, Renaissance Humanism, Humanism saw a reform in education in Europe, introducing a wider range of Latin authors as well as bringing back the study of Greek language and literature to Western Europe. This reintroduction was initiated by Petrarch and Boccaccio who commissioned a Calabrian scholar to translate the Homeric poems, the late 17th and 18th centuries are the period in Western European literary history which is most associated with the classical tradition, as writers consciously adapted classical models. Classical models were so prized that the plays of William Shakespeare were rewritten along neoclassical lines. From the beginning of the 18th century, the study of Greek became increasingly important relative to that of Latin, in this period Johann Winckelmanns claims for the superiority of the Greek visual arts influenced a shift in aesthetic judgements, while in the literary sphere, G. E. Lessing returned Homer to the centre of artistic achievement, in the United Kingdom, the study of Greek in schools began in the late 18th century. The poet Walter Savage Landor claimed to have one of the first English schoolboys to write in Greek during his time at Rugby School. The 19th century saw the influence of the world, and the value of a classical education, decline, especially in the US
5.
University College London
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University College London is a public research university in London, England, and a constituent college of the federal University of London. It is the largest postgraduate institution in the UK by enrollment and is regarded as one of the worlds leading research universities. UCL also makes the claims of being the third-oldest university in England. In 1836 UCL became one of the two founding colleges of the University of London, which was granted a charter in the same year. UCL has its campus in the Bloomsbury area of central London, with a number of institutes and teaching hospitals elsewhere in central London. UCL is organised into 11 constituent faculties, within there are over 100 departments, institutes. In 2015/16, UCL had around 38,300 students and 12,000 staff and had an income of £1.36 billion. UCL ranks highly in national and international league tables and its graduates rank among the most employable in the world, UCL academics discovered five of the naturally occurring noble gases, co-discovered hormones, invented the vacuum tube, and made several foundational advances in modern statistics. There are at least 29 Nobel Prize winners and 3 Fields medalists amongst UCLs alumni and current, UCL was founded on 11 February 1826 under the name London University, as an alternative to the Anglican universities of Oxford and Cambridge. London Universitys first Warden was Leonard Horner, who was the first scientist to head a British university and this suggests that while his ideas may have been influential, he himself was less so. In 1827, the Chair of Political Economy at London University was created, with John Ramsay McCulloch as the first incumbent, in 1828 the university became the first in England to offer English as a subject and the teaching of Classics and medicine began. In 1830, London University founded the London University School, which would later become University College School, in 1833, the university appointed Alexander Maconochie, Secretary to the Royal Geographical Society, as the first professor of geography in the UK. In 1834, University College Hospital opened as a hospital for the universitys medical school. In 1836, London University was incorporated by charter under the name University College. The Slade School of Fine Art was founded as part of University College in 1871, in 1878, the University of London gained a supplemental charter making it the first British university to be allowed to award degrees to women. The same year, UCL admitted women to the faculties of Arts and Law and of Science, although women remained barred from the faculties of Engineering and of Medicine. Armstrong College, an institution of Newcastle University, also allowed women to enter from its foundation in 1871. Women were finally admitted to medical studies during the First World War in 1917, in 1898, Sir William Ramsay discovered the elements krypton, neon and xenon whilst professor of chemistry at UCL
6.
Gray's Inn
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The Honourable Society of Grays Inn, commonly known as Grays Inn, is one of the four Inns of Court in London. To be Called to the Bar and practise as a barrister in England and Wales, located at the intersection of High Holborn and Grays Inn Road in Central London, the Inn is both a professional body and a provider of office accommodation for many barristers. It is ruled by a council called Pension, made up of the Masters of the Bench, and led by the Treasurer. The Inn is known for its gardens, or Walks, which have existed since at least 1597, Grays Inn does not claim a specific foundation date, there is a tradition that none of the Inns of Court claims to be any older than the others. Law clerks and their apprentices have been established on the present site since at least 1370, during the 15th and 16th centuries, the Inn grew steadily with great prestige, reaching its pinnacle during the reign of Elizabeth I. The Inn was home to many important barristers and politicians, most notably Francis Bacon, thanks to the efforts of prominent members such as William Cecil and Gilbert Gerard, Grays Inn became the largest of the four by number, with over 200 barristers recorded as members. During this period, the Inn became noted for the masques and revels that it threw, the Inn continued to prosper during the reign of James I and the beginning of that of Charles I, when over 100 students per year were recorded as joining. Fortunes continued to decline after the English Restoration, which saw the end of the method of legal education. Although now more prosperous, Grays Inn is today the smallest of the Inns of Court, Grays Inn and the other three Inns of Court remain the only bodies legally allowed to call a barrister to the Bar, allowing him or her to practise in England and Wales. The Inn remains a collegiate self-governing, unincorporated association of its members, providing within its precincts library, dining, residential and office accommodation, members of the Bar from other Inns may use these facilities to some extent. During the 12th and 13th centuries, law was taught in the City of London, as a result, the existing system of legal education fell apart. The common lawyers migrated to the hamlet of Holborn, the nearest place to the law courts at Westminster Hall that was outside the City, the early records of all four Inns of Court have been lost, and it is not known precisely when each was founded. The records of Grays Inn itself are lost until 1569, Lincolns Inn has the earliest surviving records. Grays Inn dates from at least 1370, and takes its name from Baron Grey of Wilton, a lease was taken for various parts of the inn by practising lawyers as both residential and working accommodation, and their apprentices were housed with them. From this the tradition of dining in commons, probably by using the main hall. Outside records from 1437 show that Grays Inn was occupied by socii, or members of a society, in 1456 Reginald de Gray, the owner of the Manor itself, sold the land to a group including Thomas Bryan. A few months later, the members signed deeds of release. In 1506 the Inn was sold by the Gray family to Hugh Denys, during the reign of Elizabeth I, Grays Inn rose in prominence, and that period is considered the golden age of the Inn, with Elizabeth serving as the Patron Lady
7.
University College School
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University College School, generally known as UCS Hampstead, is an independent day school in Hampstead, northwest London, England. The school was founded in 1830 by University College London and inherited many of that institutions progressive, according to the Good Schools Guide, the school Achieves impressive exam results with a relaxed atmosphere. UCS aims to combine the highest standards of achievement and pastoral care with outstanding facilities for all-round education with a distinctive liberal ethos. The UCS Hampstead Foundation is composed of four entities, The UCS Pre-Prep or The Phoenix as it was previously known. This was acquired by UCS in 2003, the Junior Branch, for boys aged 7 to 11 on the Holly Hill site in the heart of Hampstead. The Senior School, for boys aged 11 to 16 and co-educational for ages 16 to 18 on the Frognal site, the main campus and the Great Hall are noted examples of Edwardian architecture. Inside the hall is a magnificent Walker pipe organ, used for concerts, professional recordings and other festivities. The Playing Fields are situated in West Hampstead on Ranulf Road, UCS is a member of the Eton Group of twelve independent schools, the Haileybury Group of 26 independent schools, and the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference. It also has ties with the Equatorial College School in Uganda. The school motto is Paulatim Sed Firmiter, in 2016, the school updated its school logo to incorporate its widely known name of UCS Hampstead and to include the full motto in its distinctive roundel emblem. The schools colours are maroon and black which are shown to the distinctive vertical striped blazers. UCS publishes an online newsletter called The Frognal and a yearly printed magazine called The Gower sent to current. The latest editions are available on the school website, in the Lower School, there is one form per year in each house. Kestrel – Blue Eagle – Yellow Hawk – Black Falcon – Green Students in the Middle School and Upper School are arranged into Demes and this is similar to a school house. In the Middle School, there is one form per year in each Deme, as well as a Deme Warden, each deme has two or three Deme Captains. Deme, Half and Full Colours are awarded through an accumulation of academic, there are regular inter-Deme competitions in sport, music and drama throughout the year. In the Middle School, the school blazer carries a coloured school logo on the breast pocket depicting the pupils Deme. Entry at 4+, 5+, 6+ by assessment of the Headmistress, Junior Branch, at age 7, judged by a combination of internal exam and interview
8.
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography
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The work was last reissued in 2005. 268–71 Review of Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography by William Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography, works related to Dictionary of Greek and Roman Geography at Wikisource
9.
Quarterly Review
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The Quarterly Review was a literary and political periodical founded in March 1809 by the well known London publishing house John Murray. Initially, the Quarterly was set up primarily to counter the influence on public opinion of the Edinburgh Review and its first editor, William Gifford, was appointed by George Canning, at the time Foreign Secretary, later Prime Minister. Under Gifford, the journal took the Canningite liberal-conservative position on matters of domestic and foreign policy and it opposed major political reforms, but it supported the gradual abolition of slavery, moderate law reform, humanitarian treatment of criminals and the insane, and the liberalizing of trade. In a series of brilliant articles in its pages, Southey advocated a philosophy of social reform. Because two of his key writers, Scott and Southey, were opposed to Catholic emancipation, Gifford did not permit the journal to take a position on that issue. Reflecting divisions in the Tory party itself, under its editor, John Gibson Lockhart. While Croker continued to represent the Canningites and Peelites, the liberal wing. During its early years, reviews of new works were sometimes remarkably long and that of Henry Kosters Travels in Brazil ran to forty-three pages. Typical of early nineteenth-century journals, reviewing in the Quarterly was highly politicized, writers and publishers known for their Unitarian or radical views were among the early journals main targets. In an 1817 article, John Wilson Croker attacked John Keats in a review of Endymion for his association with Leigh Hunt, shelley blamed Crokers article for bringing about the death of the seriously ill poet, snuffed out, in Byrons ironic phrase, by an article. The Quarterly Review stopped publication in 1967, a publication taking this name was founded in 2007. Other members of the Editorial Board include philosophers Antony Flew and Thomas Molnar, ecologist Edward Goldsmith, economist Ezra Mishan, columnists include socialite Taki Theodoracopulos, ecologist Rev John Papworth and Roy Kerridge. The deputy editor is Dr Leslie Jones, and the editor is Luise Hemmer Pihl. Each issue of the new Quarterly Review includes an article from the original publication, in 2007, the archive was purchased by the National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh. The Quarterly Review Archive This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Wood, James. London and New York, Frederick Warne
10.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
11.
John Murray (publisher)
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Since 2004, it has been owned by conglomerate Lagardère under the Hachette UK brand. The business was founded in London in 1768 by John Murray I, an Edinburgh-born Royal Marines officer, John Murray the elder was one of the founding sponsors of the London evening newspaper The Star in 1788. He was succeeded by his son, John Murray II, who made the house one of the most important. He was a friend of leading writers of the day. He was the publisher of Jane Austen, Sir Walter Scott, Washington Irving, George Crabbe and his home and office at 50 Albemarle Street in Mayfair was the centre of a literary circle, fostered by Murrays tradition of Four oclock friends, afternoon tea with his writers. Murrays most notable author was Lord Byron, who became a close friend, Murray published many of his major works, paying him over £20,000 in rights. On 10 March 1812 Murray published Byrons second book, Childe Harolds Pilgrimage, on 17 May 1824 Murray participated in one of the most notorious acts in the annals of literature. Byron had given him the manuscript of his memoirs to publish later on. Together with five of Byrons friends and executors, he decided to destroy Byrons manuscripts because he thought the scandalous details would damage Byrons reputation, with only Thomas Moore objecting, the two volumes of memoirs were dismembered and burnt in the fireplace at Murrays office. It remains unknown what they contained, John Murray III also started the Murray Handbooks in 1836, a series of travel guides from which modern-day guides are directly descended. The rights to these guides were sold around 1900 and subsequently acquired in 1915 by the Blue Guides and his successor Sir John Murray IV was publisher to Queen Victoria. Among other works, he published Murrays Magazine from 1887 until 1891, competitor Smith, Elder & Co. was acquired in 1917. His son Sir John Murray V, grandson John Murray VI, in 2002, John Murray was acquired by Hodder Headline, which was itself acquired in 2004 by the French conglomerate Lagardère Group. Since then, it has been an imprint under Lagardère brand Hachette UK, on 26 January 2005, it was announced that the National Library was to be given £17. 7m by the Heritage Lottery Fund towards the £31. 2m price offered by John Murray. The Scottish Executive agreed to make a contribution of £8. 3m,1768 – John MacMurray, a former lieutenant of the Marines, buys a bookselling business at 32 Fleet Street. He changes his name to Murray and uses his contacts to build up a thriving business 1807 – The first bestseller. 1858-1864 by David and Charles Livingstone published 1912 – June, Published Behind The Night Light by Nancy Price, a Publisher and His Friends, Memoir and Correspondence of the Late John Murray. The first John Murray, and the late eighteenth-century London book trade, the Seven Lives of John Murray, The Story of a Publishing Dynasty
12.
Ecclesiastic
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The word ecclesiology was defined in the 19th century as the science of the building and decoration of church buildings and at least one publication still uses the word in this sense. The Ecclesiologist was first published in October 1841 and dealt with the study of the building and its successor Ecclesiology Today is still, as of 2017, being published by The Ecclesiological Society. The situation regarding the etymology has been summed up by Alister McGrath, is it a visible or earthly corporation, or a unified and visible society — a church in the sense of a specific denomination or institution, for instance. Or is it the body of all believing Christians, regardless of their denominational differences, what is the relationship between living Christians and departed Christians —do they constitute together the Church. What is the relationship between a believer and the Church and that is, what is the role of corporate worship in the spiritual lives of believers. Can salvation be found outside of formal membership in a faith community. What is the authority of the Church, who gets to interpret the doctrines of the Church. Is the organizational structure itself, either in a corporate body, or generally within the range of formal church structures. For example, is the Bible a written part of a wider revelation entrusted to the Church as faith community, or is the Bible the revelation itself, and the Church is to be defined as a group of people who claim adherence to it. What are the sacraments, divine ordinances, and liturgies, in the context of the Church, what is the comparative emphasis and relationship between worship service, spiritual formation, and mission, and is the Churchs role to create disciples of Christ or some other function. Is the Eucharist the defining element of the rest of the sacramental system, is the Church to be understood as the vehicle for salvation, or the salvific presence in the world, or as a community of those already saved. How should the Church be governed, what was the mission and authority of the Apostles, and is this handed down through the sacraments today. What are the methods of choosing clergy such as bishops and priests. Who are the leaders of a church, must there be a policy-making board of leaders within a church and what are the qualifications for this position, and by what process do these members become official, ordained leaders. Must leaders and clergy be ordained, and is possible only by those who have been ordained by others. What are the roles of spiritual gifts in the life of the church, how does the Churchs New Covenant relate to the covenants expressed in scripture with Gods chosen people, the Jewish people. What is the destiny of the Church in Christian eschatology. This shift is most clearly marked by the encyclical Divino afflante Spiritu in 1943, avery Robert Cardinal Dulles, S. J. contributed greatly to the use of models in understanding ecclesiology
13.
Smith's Bible Dictionary
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Smiths Bible Dictionary, originally named A Dictionary of the Bible, was a 19th-century Bible dictionary containing upwards of four thousand entries that became named after its editor, William Smith. Its popularity was such that condensed dictionaries appropriated the title, Smiths Bible Dictionary, the original dictionary was published as a three volume set in 1863, in London and Boston, USA. The original publications are now in the domain, some derivative. One of the contributors to the bible, was George Edward Post, a Dictionary of the Bible edited by William Smith. A Dictionary of the Bible edited by William Smith, 2nd edition
14.
Henry Wace (priest)
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Henry Wace was Principal of Kings College, London and Dean of Canterbury. He is described in the Dictionary of National Biography as an administrator, a Protestant churchman of deep scholarship. Wace was educated at Marlborough College, Rugby School, Kings College, London and he took Holy Orders and served curacies at St Lukes, Berwick Street, St Jamess, Piccadilly, and Grosvenor Chapel. He moved to Lincolns Inn, where he served first as Chaplain and he was additionally Chaplain of the Inns of Court Rifle Volunteers and the Warburton Lecturer for 1896. In 1875 he became Professor of Ecclesiastical History at Kings College, London and he was Rector of St Michaels, Cornhill 1896-1903 and Dean of Canterbury from 1903 until his death in 1924. He is buried in the courtyard of the cloister of the cathedral. He wrote, contributed to, and edited, many publications in Christian, from 1902 to 1905 he was editor of The Churchman, an evangelical Anglican academic journal. He delivered the Boyle Lectures in 1874 and 1875 and the Bampton Lectures at the University of Oxford in 1879 and he was Select Preacher at Oxford in 1880-81 and 1907 and at Cambridge in 1876,1891,1903, and 1910. He was appointed Prebendary of St Pauls Cathedral in 1881 and received the freedom of the City of Canterbury in 1921. Works by or about Henry Wace at Internet Archive Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature Kings College London archives
15.
George Grove
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Sir George Grove, CB was an English writer on music, known as the founding editor of Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Grove was trained as a engineer, and successful in that profession. When responsible for the orchestral concerts at the Crystal Palace. Their researches led to their discovery of the lost score of Schuberts Rosamunde music in 1867, Grove was the first director of the Royal College of Music, from its foundation in 1883 until his retirement in 1894. In addition to his work, Grove had a deep. He contributed to the English literature on the subject, including a concordance in 1854 and he was a co-founder of the Palestine Exploration Fund. Grove was born in Clapham, the eighth of the children of Thomas Grove, fishmonger and venison dealer. He went to a school, on Clapham Common, where one of his schoolfellows was George Granville Bradley, later Dean of Westminster. He next entered Stockwell Grammar School, run by Charles Pritchard, the astronomer, the educational curriculum was based on classics, divinity, mathematics and natural philosophy, and rigorously tested by annual examination. Pritchard also encouraged his pupils to develop interests in literature and music, Grove was a regular worshipper at Holy Trinity church, Clapham, where he heard the music of Bach and Handel. By the age of sixteen, he was competent in classics and mathematics, he left the school in 1836 and was apprenticed to Alexander Gordon, in his free time, he immersed himself in music, attending concerts and studying scores. After completing his apprenticeship, Grove was admitted as a graduate of the Institution of Civil Engineers, a year later he went to Glasgow, gaining further experience in the factory of Robert Napier. In 1841 Grove had an affair with a woman called Elizabeth Blackwell, between 1841 and 1846, Grove spent most of his time in the West Indies, as resident engineer during the building of cast-iron lighthouses. After this he joined the staff of the Chester and Holyhead Railway and then assistant to Edwin Clark. An account of the first floating of the tubes of the bridge is recorded in The Spectator of 23 June 1849, during this period, he lived in Chester, hearing music in the cathedral and also becoming familiar with Welsh folksong. While working on the Britannia Bridge Grove came into contact with Robert Stephenson, Isambard Kingdom Brunel, Sir Charles Barry and these distinguished men, Grove later recalled, noticed me and were as good as gold to me. They counselled me to go to London and forced me into the secretaryship of the Society of Arts and this was in 1849, when the Great Exhibition of 1851 was in preparation. Grove was the secretary for the duration of the exhibition
16.
University of London
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The University of London is a collegiate research university located in London, England, consisting of 18 constituent colleges, nine research institutes and a number of central bodies. The university moved to a structure in 1900. The specialist colleges of the university include the London Business School, Imperial College London was formerly a member before leaving the university in 2007. City is the most recent constituent college, having joined on 1 September 2016, in post-nominals, the University of London is commonly abbreviated as Lond. or, more rarely, Londin. From the Latin Universitas Londiniensis, after its degree abbreviations, University College London was founded under the name London University in 1826 as a secular alternative to the religious universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In response to the controversy surrounding such educational establishment, Kings College London was founded and was the first to be granted a royal charter. Yet to receive a charter, UCL in 1834 renewed its application for a royal charter as a university. In response to this, opposition to exclusive rights grew among the London medical schools, the idea of a general degree awarding body for the schools was discussed in the medical press. And in evidence taken by the Select Committee on Medical Education, in 1835, the government announced the response to UCLs petition for a charter. Following the issuing of its charter on 28 November 1836, the university started drawing up regulations for degrees in March 1837. The death of William IV in June, however, resulted in a problem – the charter had been granted during our Royal will and pleasure, queen Victoria issued a second charter on 5 December 1837, reincorporating the university. The university awarded its first degrees in 1839, all to students from UCL, the university established by the charters of 1836 and 1837 was essentially an examining board with the right to award degrees in arts, laws and medicine. However, the university did not have the authority to grant degrees in theology, in medicine, the university was given the right to determine which medical schools provided sufficient medical training. Beyond the right to students for examination, there was no other connection between the affiliated colleges and the university. In 1849 the university held its first graduation ceremony at Somerset House following a petition to the senate from the graduates, about 250 students graduated at this ceremony. The London academic robes of this period were distinguished by their rich velvet facings, the list of affiliated colleges grew by 1858 to include over 50 institutions, including all other British universities. In that year, a new charter effectively abolished the affiliated colleges system by opening up the examinations to everyone whether they attended a college or not. The expanded role meant the university needed more space, particularly with the number of students at the provincial university colleges
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Edward Gibbon
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Edward Gibbon FRS was an English historian, writer and Member of Parliament. Edward Gibbon was born in 1737, the son of Edward and Judith Gibbon at Lime Grove and he had six siblings, five brothers and one sister, all of whom died in infancy. As a youth, Gibbons health was under constant threat and he described himself as a puny child, neglected by my Mother, starved by my nurse. At age nine, he was sent to Dr. Woddesons school at Kingston upon Thames and he then took up residence in the Westminster School boarding house, owned by his adored Aunt Kitty, Catherine Porten. Following a stay at Bath in 1752 to improve his health, at the age of 15 Gibbon was sent by his father to Magdalen College, Oxford, where he was enrolled as a gentleman-commoner. He was ill-suited, however, to the atmosphere and later rued his 14 months there as the most idle and unprofitable of his life. In that tract, Middleton denied the validity of such powers, Gibbon promptly objected and he was further corrupted by the free thinking deism of the playwright/poet couple David and Lucy Mallet, and finally Gibbons father, already in despair, had had enough. David Womersley has shown, however, that Gibbons claim to having been converted by a reading of Middleton is very unlikely, and was introduced only into the final draft of the Memoirs in 1792–93. Within weeks of his conversion, the adolescent was removed from Oxford and sent to live under the care and tutelage of Daniel Pavillard, Reformed pastor of Lausanne, Switzerland. It was here that he one of his lifes two great friendships, that of Jacques Georges Deyverdun, and that of John Baker Holroyd. Just a year and a later, after his father threatened to disinherit him, on Christmas Day,1754. The various articles of the Romish creed, he wrote, disappeared like a dream, Gibbon returned to England in August 1758 to face his father. There could be no refusal of the elders wishes, Gibbon put it this way, I sighed as a lover, I obeyed as a son. He proceeded to cut off all contact with Curchod, even as she vowed to wait for him and their final emotional break apparently came at Ferney, France in the spring of 1764, though they did see each other at least one more time a year later. The following year he embarked on the Grand Tour, which included a visit to Rome, Womersley notes the existence of good reasons to doubt the statements accuracy. In June 1765, Gibbon returned to his fathers house, and these years were considered by Gibbon as the worst five of his life, but he tried to remain busy by making early attempts towards writing full histories. His first historical narrative known as the History of Switzerland, which represented Gibbons love for Switzerland, was never published nor finished, even under the guidance of Deyverdun, Gibbon became too critical of himself, and completely abandoned the project, only writing 60 pages of text. However, after Gibbons death, his writings on Switzerlands history were discovered and published by Lord Sheffield in 1815, soon after abandoning his History of Switzerland, Gibbon made another attempt towards completing a full history
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Henry Hart Milman
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The Very Reverend Henry Hart Milman was an English historian and ecclesiastic. He was born in London, the son of Sir Francis Milman, 1st Baronet. Educated at Eton and at Brasenose College, Oxford, his university career was brilliant, in 1816 he was ordained, and two years later became parish priest of St Marys, Reading. In 1821 Milman was elected professor of poetry at Oxford, and in 1827 he delivered the Bampton lectures on The character and conduct of the Apostles considered as an evidence of Christianity. In 1835, Sir Robert Peel made him Rector of St Margarets, Westminster, and Canon of Westminster and he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1864. Milman was buried in the crypt of St. Pauls Cathedral, when the Chapel of the Order of the British Empire was created, the original tomb was replaced by a slab in the floor. Milman made his appearance as a dramatist with his tragedy Fazio and he also wrote Samor, the Lord of The Bright City, the subject of which was taken from British legend, the bright city being Gloucester. In subsequent poetical works he was successful, notably the Fall of Jerusalem and The Martyr of Antioch. The influence of Byron is seen in his Belshazzar, another tragedy, Anne Boleyn, followed in 1826. His poetical works were published in three volumes in 1839, in consequence, the author was attacked and his preferment was delayed. In 1838 he had edited Edward Gibbons Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Milman wrote the hymn, Ride On, Ride On in Majesty. By his wife, Mary Ann, a daughter of Lieut. -General William Cockell, Milman had four sons and his nephew, Robert Milman, was Bishop of Calcutta from 1867 until his death, and was the author of a Life of Torquato Tasso. H. C. G. Matthew, Milman, Henry Hart, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, Sept 2004, online edn, Oct 2006. W. M. Parker, Dean Milman and the Quarterly Review, Quarterly Review,293, 30–43 Works by Henry Hart Milman at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Henry Hart Milman at Internet Archive
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Doctor of Civil Law
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Doctor of Civil Law is a degree offered by some universities, such as the University of Oxford, instead of the more common Doctor of Laws degrees. As of June 2016, the DCL has been suspended, pending a reform of the higher doctorates, the DCL is senior to all degrees save the Doctor of Divinity which was traditionally the highest degree bestowed by the Universities. The degree of Doctor of Canon Law was replaced by the DCL after the Reformation, the degree of Doctor of Civil Law by Diploma is customarily conferred on foreign Heads of State, as well as on the Chancellor of the University
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University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
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University of Dublin
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The University of Dublin, corporately designated the Chancellor, Doctors and Masters of the University of Dublin, is a university located in Dublin, Ireland. It is the awarding body for Trinity College, Dublin. It was founded in 1592 when Queen Elizabeth I issued a charter for Trinity College, as the mother of a university, the University of Dublin is one of the seven ancient universities of Britain and Ireland. It is a member of the Irish Universities Association, Universities Ireland, the University of Dublin was modelled on the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge as a collegiate university, Trinity College being named by the Queen as the mater universitatis. The founding Charter also conferred a general power on the College to make provision for university functions to be carried out, no other college has ever been established, and Trinity remains the sole constituent college of the university. The project of establishing another college within the University was seriously considered on at least two occasions, but the required finance or endowment was never available, the most recent authoritative statement of the position is in the Universities Act,1997. In the section relating to interpretation it specifies that, -3. to date the other rights have not been exercised. Current Officers of the University are either unpaid and purely honorary, or have duties relating to the college also, for which they are paid, traditionally, sports clubs also use the moniker University rather than College. The university is governed by the university senate, chaired by the chancellor or their pro-chancellor, consequently, the Senate does not determine its own composition. However this is countered by the role of the Visitors, each meeting of the Senate is headed by a Caput, consisting of the Chancellor, the Provost of Trinity College and the Senior Master Non-Regent. The practical significance of the Caput is that no meeting of the Senate may be convened with out it, Meetings of the Senate are of two kinds. In each academic year, the Senate holds not less than four Stated Meetings for the Conferring of Degrees, of these Meetings, the proceedings of these meetings, conducted in a highly formal and scripted manner, are carried out in Latin. Although voting takes place at meetings, discussion does not. Voting takes place to elect a Senior Master Non Regent, or on whether degrees should be conferred on named candidates, Honorary Degrees, while being conferred at a commencements are not even formally voted on there. Voting on a candidate for an Honorary degree takes place at a business meeting of the Senate, so if any objection to a proposed Honorary Degree award is to be made. It follows that no objection to an Honorary Degree can be made at a Public Commencements, at the first Public Commencements of the academic year the Senior Master Non-Regent is elected on the proposition of the Chancellor and the Provost. The Senate votes on the name put forward by a voice vote, the Senior Master Non Regent is elected for a one-year term, but may be re elected. The Senior and Junior Proctors and the Registrar also make the declaration which is appropriate to their respective offices, in attendance also are, usually, the Registrar and the Junior and Senior Proctors
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Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
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Wikisource
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Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
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Project Gutenberg
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Project Gutenberg is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, to encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks. It was founded in 1971 by Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital library, most of the items in its collection are the full texts of public domain books. The project tries to make these as free as possible, in long-lasting, as of 3 October 2015, Project Gutenberg reached 50,000 items in its collection. The releases are available in plain text but, wherever possible, other formats are included, such as HTML, PDF, EPUB, MOBI, most releases are in the English language, but many non-English works are also available. There are multiple affiliated projects that are providing additional content, including regional, Project Gutenberg is also closely affiliated with Distributed Proofreaders, an Internet-based community for proofreading scanned texts. Project Gutenberg was started by Michael Hart in 1971 with the digitization of the United States Declaration of Independence, Hart, a student at the University of Illinois, obtained access to a Xerox Sigma V mainframe computer in the universitys Materials Research Lab. Through friendly operators, he received an account with an unlimited amount of computer time. Hart has said he wanted to back this gift by doing something that could be considered to be of great value. His initial goal was to make the 10,000 most consulted books available to the public at little or no charge and this particular computer was one of the 15 nodes on ARPANET, the computer network that would become the Internet. Hart believed that computers would one day be accessible to the general public and he used a copy of the United States Declaration of Independence in his backpack, and this became the first Project Gutenberg e-text. He named the project after Johannes Gutenberg, the fifteenth century German printer who propelled the movable type printing press revolution, by the mid-1990s, Hart was running Project Gutenberg from Illinois Benedictine College. More volunteers had joined the effort, all of the text was entered manually until 1989 when image scanners and optical character recognition software improved and became more widely available, which made book scanning more feasible. Hart later came to an arrangement with Carnegie Mellon University, which agreed to administer Project Gutenbergs finances, as the volume of e-texts increased, volunteers began to take over the projects day-to-day operations that Hart had run. Starting in 2004, an online catalog made Project Gutenberg content easier to browse, access. Project Gutenberg is now hosted by ibiblio at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Italian volunteer Pietro Di Miceli developed and administered the first Project Gutenberg website and started the development of the Project online Catalog. In his ten years in this role, the Project web pages won a number of awards, often being featured in best of the Web listings, Hart died on 6 September 2011 at his home in Urbana, Illinois at the age of 64. In 2000, a corporation, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Long-time Project Gutenberg volunteer Gregory Newby became the foundations first CEO, also in 2000, Charles Franks founded Distributed Proofreaders, which allowed the proofreading of scanned texts to be distributed among many volunteers over the Internet
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Internet Archive
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The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of universal access to all knowledge. As of October 2016, its collection topped 15 petabytes, in addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. Its web archive, the Wayback Machine, contains over 150 billion web captures, the Archive also oversees one of the worlds largest book digitization projects. Founded by Brewster Kahle in May 1996, the Archive is a 501 nonprofit operating in the United States. It has a budget of $10 million, derived from a variety of sources, revenue from its Web crawling services, various partnerships, grants, donations. Its headquarters are in San Francisco, California, where about 30 of its 200 employees work, Most of its staff work in its book-scanning centers. The Archive has data centers in three Californian cities, San Francisco, Redwood City, and Richmond, the Archive is a member of the International Internet Preservation Consortium and was officially designated as a library by the State of California in 2007. Brewster Kahle founded the Archive in 1996 at around the time that he began the for-profit web crawling company Alexa Internet. In October 1996, the Internet Archive had begun to archive and preserve the World Wide Web in large quantities, the archived content wasnt available to the general public until 2001, when it developed the Wayback Machine. In late 1999, the Archive expanded its collections beyond the Web archive, Now the Internet Archive includes texts, audio, moving images, and software. It hosts a number of projects, the NASA Images Archive, the contract crawling service Archive-It. According to its web site, Most societies place importance on preserving artifacts of their culture, without such artifacts, civilization has no memory and no mechanism to learn from its successes and failures. Our culture now produces more and more artifacts in digital form, the Archives mission is to help preserve those artifacts and create an Internet library for researchers, historians, and scholars. In August 2012, the Archive announced that it has added BitTorrent to its file download options for over 1.3 million existing files, on November 6,2013, the Internet Archives headquarters in San Franciscos Richmond District caught fire, destroying equipment and damaging some nearby apartments. The nonprofit Archive sought donations to cover the estimated $600,000 in damage, in November 2016, Kahle announced that the Internet Archive was building the Internet Archive of Canada, a copy of the archive to be based somewhere in the country of Canada. The announcement received widespread coverage due to the implication that the decision to build an archive in a foreign country was because of the upcoming presidency of Donald Trump. Kahle was quoted as saying that on November 9th in America and it was a firm reminder that institutions like ours, built for the long-term, need to design for change. For us, it means keeping our cultural materials safe, private and it means preparing for a Web that may face greater restrictions
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Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
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National Diet Library
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The National Diet Library is the only national library in Japan. It was established in 1948 for the purpose of assisting members of the National Diet of Japan in researching matters of public policy, the library is similar in purpose and scope to the United States Library of Congress. The National Diet Library consists of two facilities in Tokyo and Kyoto, and several other branch libraries throughout Japan. The Diets power in prewar Japan was limited, and its need for information was correspondingly small, the original Diet libraries never developed either the collections or the services which might have made them vital adjuncts of genuinely responsible legislative activity. Until Japans defeat, moreover, the executive had controlled all political documents, depriving the people and the Diet of access to vital information. The U. S. occupation forces under General Douglas MacArthur deemed reform of the Diet library system to be an important part of the democratization of Japan after its defeat in World War II. In 1946, each house of the Diet formed its own National Diet Library Standing Committee, hani Gorō, a Marxist historian who had been imprisoned during the war for thought crimes and had been elected to the House of Councillors after the war, spearheaded the reform efforts. Hani envisioned the new body as both a citadel of popular sovereignty, and the means of realizing a peaceful revolution, the National Diet Library opened in June 1948 in the present-day State Guest-House with an initial collection of 100,000 volumes. The first Librarian of the Diet Library was the politician Tokujirō Kanamori, the philosopher Masakazu Nakai served as the first Vice Librarian. In 1949, the NDL merged with the National Library and became the national library in Japan. At this time the collection gained a million volumes previously housed in the former National Library in Ueno. In 1961, the NDL opened at its present location in Nagatachō, in 1986, the NDLs Annex was completed to accommodate a combined total of 12 million books and periodicals. The Kansai-kan, which opened in October 2002 in the Kansai Science City, has a collection of 6 million items, in May 2002, the NDL opened a new branch, the International Library of Childrens Literature, in the former building of the Imperial Library in Ueno. This branch contains some 400,000 items of literature from around the world. Though the NDLs original mandate was to be a library for the National Diet. In the fiscal year ending March 2004, for example, the library reported more than 250,000 reference inquiries, in contrast, as Japans national library, the NDL collects copies of all publications published in Japan. The NDL has an extensive collection of some 30 million pages of documents relating to the Occupation of Japan after World War II. This collection include the documents prepared by General Headquarters and the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers, the Far Eastern Commission, the NDL maintains a collection of some 530,000 books and booklets and 2 million microform titles relating to the sciences
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Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Smith, Sir William". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 270–271.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 
