1.
Jericho, Vermont
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Jericho is a town in Chittenden County, Vermont, United States. The population was 5,009 at the 2010 census and it was named after the ancient city of Jericho. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 35.6 square miles, of which 35.4 square miles is land and 0.15 square miles. The town of Jericho has a connection with the town of Underhill. The area has four distinct village areas, jerichos second village, Jericho Center, on Browns Trace Road, is home to several historic buildings, churches, and Jericho Center Country Store, Vermonts oldest continuously running general store. The Jericho Center Village has a green, or Common. Next, half of the Underhill Flats area on Route 15 actually sits in Jericho and this area features the multi-use Mills Riverside Park and two general stores. Underhill Center has two general stores as well as St. Thomas Catholic Church, a postal office. Jericho is home to the Chittenden East Wolverines of the Northern Vermont Youth Football League and one of Vermonts oldest and largest Boy Scout troops, the two towns share the Underhill-Jericho Fire Department. Local schools include Jericho Elementary School or Underhill ID Elementary School, Browns River Middle School teaches grades five through eight. There is one school in Jericho—Mount Mansfield Union High School—which serves students from Jericho, Underhill, Richmond, Huntington, Bolton, Jonesville. Students from Mount Mansfield Union High School are allowed to apply to a school for their junior and senior years. They can apply to either The Center for Technology, Essex, CTE is located in Essex Junction and is part of the larger Essex High School. MMU has 849 students enrolled as of 2016, making it the ninth most enrolled school in Vermont. On November 4,2014, the communities of Bolton, Jericho, Richmond, Underhill ID, as of the census of 2000, there were 5,015 people,1,751 households, and 1,402 families residing in the town. The population density was 141.7 people per square mile, there were 1,774 housing units at an average density of 50.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 97. 45% White,0. 68% Black or African American,0. 14% Native American,0. 56% Asian,0. 08% Pacific Islander,0. 30% from other races, and 0. 80% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1. 12% of the population,14. 3% of all households were made up of individuals and 4. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
2.
Americans
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Americans are citizens of the United States of America. The country is home to people of different national origins. As a result, Americans do not equate their nationality with ethnicity, although citizens make up the majority of Americans, non-citizen residents, dual citizens, and expatriates may also claim an American identity. See Names for United States citizens. S, virgin Islands and Northern Mariana Islands in the 20th century. It also includes influences of African-American culture, westward expansion integrated the Creoles and Cajuns of Louisiana and the Hispanos of the Southwest and brought close contact with the culture of Mexico. Large-scale immigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries from Southern and Eastern Europe introduced a variety of elements, immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America has also had impact. A cultural melting pot, or pluralistic salad bowl, describes the way in which generations of Americans have celebrated and exchanged distinctive cultural characteristics, in addition to the United States, Americans and people of American descent can be found internationally. As many as seven million Americans are estimated to be living abroad, the United States of America is a diverse country, racially, and ethnically. Some other race is also an option in the census and other surveys, people of European descent, or White Americans, constitute the majority of the 308 million people living in the United States, with 72. 4% of the population in the 2010 United States Census. They are considered people who trace their ancestry to the peoples of Europe, the Middle East. Of those reporting to be White American,7,487,133 reported to be Multiracial, with largest combination being white, additionally, there are 29,184,290 White Hispanics or Latinos. Non-Hispanic Whites are the majority in 46 states, there are four minority-majority states, California, Texas, New Mexico, and Hawaii. In addition, the District of Columbia has a non-white majority, the state with the highest percentage of non-Hispanic White Americans is Maine. The largest continental ancestral group of Americans are that of Europeans who have origins in any of the peoples of Europe. This includes people via African, North American, Caribbean, Central American or South American and Oceanian nations that have a large European diaspora, the Spanish were the first Europeans to establish a continuous presence in what is now the United States. Martín de Argüelles born 1566, San Agustín, La Florida, was the first person of European descent born in what is now the United States. Twenty-one years later, Virginia Dare born 1587 Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina, was the first child born in the Thirteen Colonies to English parents. 8% of the total population, Hispanic or Latino Americans constitute the largest ethnic minority in the United States. They form the second largest group after non-Hispanic Whites in the United States, hispanic/Latino Americans are very racially diverse, and as a result form an ethnic category, rather than a race
3.
Photography
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Typically, a lens is used to focus the light reflected or emitted from objects into a real image on the light-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel. A negative image on film is used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print. The word photography was created from the Greek roots φωτός, genitive of φῶς, light and γραφή representation by means of lines or drawing, several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Johann von Maedler, a Berlin astronomer, is credited in a 1932 German history of photography as having used it in an article published on 25 February 1839 in the German newspaper Vossische Zeitung. Both of these claims are now widely reported but apparently neither has ever been confirmed as beyond reasonable doubt. Credit has traditionally given to Sir John Herschel both for coining the word and for introducing it to the public. Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, later Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid also independently described a pinhole camera in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE. Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566, wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals in 1694. The fiction book Giphantie, published in 1760, by French author Tiphaigne de la Roche, the discovery of the camera obscura that provides an image of a scene dates back to ancient China. Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camera obscura that are formed by dark caves on the edge of a sunlit valley, a hole in the cave wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down image on a piece of paper. So the birth of photography was primarily concerned with inventing means to capture, renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. The camera obscura literally means dark chamber in Latin and it is a box with a hole in it which allows light to go through and create an image onto the piece of paper. Around the year 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a camera obscura by means of a light-sensitive substance and he used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. The shadow images eventually darkened all over, the first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later attempt to make prints from it. Niépce was successful again in 1825, in 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the earliest surviving photograph from nature. Because Niépces camera photographs required a long exposure, he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with one that was more practical. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy, Daguerres efforts culminated in what would later be named the daguerreotype process
4.
Snowflake
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A snowflake is either a single ice crystal or an aggregation of ice crystals which falls through the Earths atmosphere as snow. Each flake nucleates around a dust particle in supersaturated air masses by attracting supercooled water droplets. The main constituent shapes for ice crystals, from which combinations may occur, are needle, column, plate, Snowflakes appear white in color despite being made of clear ice. This is due to reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the small crystal facets. Once snowflakes land and accumulate, they undergo metamorphosis with changes in temperature, the characteristics of the snowpack reflect the changed nature of the constituent snow crystals. Snowflakes nucleate around mineral or organic particles in moisture-saturated, subfreezing air masses and they grow by net accretion to the incipient crystals in hexagonal formations. The cohesive forces are primarily electrostatic, in warmer clouds an aerosol particle or ice nucleus must be present in the droplet to act as a nucleus. The particles that make ice nuclei are very rare compared to nuclei upon which liquid droplets form, however. Clays, desert dust and biological particles may be effective, although to what extent is unclear, artificial nuclei include particles of silver iodide and dry ice, and these are used to stimulate precipitation in cloud seeding. Experiments show that homogeneous nucleation of cloud droplets only occurs at lower than −35 °C. Once a droplet has frozen, it grows in the supersaturated environment, the droplet then grows by deposition of water molecules in the air onto the ice crystal surface where they are collected. This process is known as the Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process, the corresponding depletion of water vapor causes the droplets to evaporate, meaning that the ice crystals grow at the droplets expense. These large crystals are an efficient source of precipitation, since they fall through the due to their mass. These aggregates are usually the type of ice particle that falls to the ground, guinness World Records list the worlds largest snowflakes as those of January 1887 at Fort Keogh, Montana, allegedly one measured 15 inches wide. Although this report by a farmer is doubtful, aggregates of three or four inches width have been observed, single crystals the size of a dime have been observed. Snowflakes encapsulated in rime form balls known as graupel, the exact details of the sticking mechanism remain controversial. Possibilities include mechanical interlocking, sintering, electrostatic attraction as well as the existence of a sticky layer on the crystal surface. The individual ice crystals often have hexagonal symmetry, the shape of the snowflake is determined broadly by the temperature and humidity at which it is formed
5.
Sublimation (chemistry)
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Sublimation is the phase transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas phase without passing through the intermediate liquid phase. Sublimation is a process that occurs at temperatures and pressures below a substances triple point in its phase diagram. The reverse process of sublimation is deposition or desublimation, in which a substance directly from a gas to a solid phase. Sublimation has also used as a generic term to describe a solid-to-gas transition followed by a gas-to-solid transition. At normal pressures, most chemical compounds and elements possess three different states at different temperatures, in these cases, the transition from the solid to the gaseous state requires an intermediate liquid state. The pressure referred to is the pressure of the substance. So, all solids that possess an appreciable vapor pressure at a temperature usually can sublimate in air. The term sublimation refers to a change of state and is not used to describe transformation of a solid to a gas in a chemical reaction. For example, the dissociation on heating of ammonium chloride into hydrogen chloride and ammonia is not sublimation. Similarly the combustion of candles, containing paraffin wax, to carbon dioxide and water vapor is not sublimation, sublimation requires additional energy and is an endothermic change. The enthalpy of sublimation can be calculated by adding the enthalpy of fusion, solid carbon dioxide sublimes everywhere along the line below the triple point, whereas its melting into liquid CO2 can occur only along the line at pressures and temperatures above the triple point. Snow and ice sublime, although more slowly, at temperatures below the freezing/melting point temperature line at 0 °C for most pressures, in freeze-drying, the material to be dehydrated is frozen and its water is allowed to sublime under reduced pressure or vacuum. The loss of snow from a snowfield during a spell is often caused by sunshine acting directly on the upper layers of the snow. Ablation is a process that includes sublimation and erosive wear of glacier ice, naphthalene, an organic compound commonly found in pesticide such as mothball also sublimes. It sublimes easily because it is made of molecules and has van der Waals intermolecular forces. Naphthalene is a solid that sublimes at atmospheric temperature with the sublimation point at around 80˚C or 176˚F. At low temperature, its pressure is high enough,1 mmHg at 53˚C. On the cool surface, the sublimated vapour will be solidified to form a needle-like crystal, iodine produces fumes on gentle heating
6.
Kenneth G. Libbrecht
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Kenneth Libbrecht is a professor of physics and department chairman at the California Institute of Technology. Libbrecht received a B. S. in physics at Caltech in 1980 and he was originally trained as a solar astronomer, studying under Robert Dicke at Princeton University and received his Ph. D. in 1984. However, much of his recent research has focused on the properties of ice crystals, Libbrecht won the 2004 National Outdoor Book Award for The Snowflake, Winters Secret Beauty
7.
Buffalo Museum of Science
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The Buffalo Museum of Science is a science museum located at Martin Luther King Jr. Park in Buffalo, New York, United States, northeast of the downtown district, near the Kensington Expressway. The historic building was designed by August Esenwein and James A. Johnson, the attractions include exhibits showcasing animals, astronomy, the science of technology, and additional science topics. Explorations is a gallery for children ages two to seven featuring new themes every month. Explore You is a systems science studio. The space was remodeled and opened in March 2012, the Rethink Extinct Science Studio opened in March 2015 as remodel of the previous Extinction Gallery. This exhibit focuses on all aspects of extinction throughout the history of life on this planet including present-day extinctions and endangered plants, the Extinction Gallery was a collection of fossils and cultural pieces relating to organisms that have gone extinct on the planet. Many of the pieces in this space come from the previous Dinosaurs and our Place is Space features an astronomy gallery with five different themed areas. Areas include the subjects of the planets and constellations, meteorites, a look at earth from space. Nano is an exhibition that engages family audiences in nanoscale science, engineering. Hands-on exhibits present the basics of nanoscience and engineering, introduce some real world applications, additional exhibitions include the Artifacts Science Studio, the In Motion Science Studio, the Our Marvelous Earth Science Studio, and the Bug Works Science Studio. Whem Ankh was an exhibit displaying artifacts from the life as lived on the banks of the lower Nile River 2,200 years ago. Over 250 artifacts are included in the collection, including the mummies of Nes-hor and of Nes-min, priests in the temple of the Egyptian fertility god Min, and the coffin of Djed-hor-ef-ankh. Whem Ankh closed in July 2013 to make way for construction of the Culture Science Studio which was set to open in April 2014, the Marchand Hall of Wildflowers displayed numerous wax models of species of plant life created throughout several decades by naturalists George and Paul Marchand. The museum also features the National Geographic 3D Cinema, Elements Cafe, the Buffalo Museum of Science homepage
8.
Micrograph
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A micrograph or photomicrograph is a photograph or digital image taken through a microscope or similar device to show a magnified image of an item. This is opposed to an image, which is at a scale that is visible to the naked eye. Micrography is the practice or art of using microscopes to make photographs, a micrograph contains extensive details that form the features of a microstructure. The neuropathologist Solomon C. Fuller designed and created the first photomicrograph in 1900, micrographs are widely used in all fields of microscopy. A light micrograph or photomicrograph is a micrograph prepared using an optical microscope, at a basic level, photomicroscopy may be performed simply by hooking up a regular camera to a microscope, thereby enabling the user to take photographs at reasonably high magnification. Roman Vishniac was a pioneer in the field of photomicroscopy, specializing in the photography of living creatures in full motion and he also made major developments in light-interruption photography and color photomicroscopy. An electron micrograph is a micrograph prepared using an electron microscope, however, the term electron micrograph is not used in electron microscopy. Digital micrography is a digital picture obtained either directly with a microscope or by scanning of a photomicrograph, digital micrographs are now commonly obtained using a USB microscope attached directly to a home computer or laptop. Today, an add-on three-in-one macro lens which has capability to take wide-angle, fish-eye and macro with 7x, 14x, micrographs usually have micron bars, or magnification ratios, or both. Magnification is a ratio between size of object on a picture and its real size, unfortunately, magnification is somewhat a misleading parameter. It depends on a size of a printed picture. Editors of journals and magazines routinely resize a figure to fit the page, a scale bar, or micron bar, is a bar of known length displayed on a picture. The bar can be used for measurements on a picture, when a picture is resized a bar is also resized. If a picture has a bar, the magnification can be easily calculated, ideally, all pictures destined for publication/presentation should be supplied with a scale bar, the magnification ratio is optional. All but one of the micrographs presented on this page do not have a bar, supplied magnification ratios are likely incorrect. The microscope has been used for scientific discovery. It has also linked to the arts since its invention in the 17th century. At first scientists used the microscope to view and draw objects not visible with the unaided eye, early adopters of the microscope, such as Robert Hooke and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, were excellent illustrators
9.
Snow
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Snowstorms organize and develop by feeding on sources of atmospheric moisture and cold air. Snowflakes nucleate around particles in the atmosphere by attracting supercooled water droplets, snowflakes take on a variety of shapes, basic among these are platelets, needles, columns and rime. As snow accumulates into a snowpack, it may blow into drifts, over time, accumulated snow metamorphoses, by sintering, sublimation and freeze-thaw. Where the climate is cold enough for year-to-year accumulation, a glacier may form, otherwise, snow typically melts seasonally, causing runoff into streams and rivers and recharging groundwater. Major snow-prone areas include the regions, the upper half of the Northern Hemisphere and mountainous regions worldwide with sufficient moisture. In the Southern Hemisphere, snow is confined primarily to mountainous areas, Snow affects ecosystems, as well, by providing an insulating layer during winter under which plants and animals are able to survive the cold. Snow develops in clouds that themselves are part of a weather system. The physics of snow crystal development in clouds results from a set of variables that include moisture content. The resulting shapes of the falling and fallen crystals can be classified into a number of shapes and combinations. Occasionally, some plate-like, dendritic and stellar-shaped snowflakes can form under clear sky with a cold temperature inversion present. Two additional and locally productive sources of snow are lake-effect storms and elevation effects, miid-latitude cyclones are low pressure areas which are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild snow storms to heavy blizzards. During a hemispheres fall, winter, and spring, the atmosphere over continents can be cold enough through the depth of the troposphere to cause snowfall, in the Northern Hemisphere, the northern side of the low pressure area produces the most snow. For the southern mid-latitudes, the side of a cyclone that produces the most snow is the southern side, a cold front, the leading edge of a cooler mass of air, can produce frontal snowsqualls—an intense frontal convective line, when temperature is near freezing at the surface. The strong convection that develops has enough moisture to produce whiteout conditions at places which line passes over as the wind causes intense blowing snow. This type of snowsquall generally lasts less than 30 minutes at any point along its path, in cases where there is a large amount of vertical growth and mixing the squall may develop embedded cumulonimbus clouds resulting in lightning and thunder which is dubbed thundersnow. A warm front can produce snow for a period, as warm, moist air overrides below-freezing air, often, snow transitions to rain in the warm sector behind the front. The same effect occurs over bodies of salt water, when it is termed ocean-effect or bay-effect snow. The effect is enhanced when the air mass is uplifted by the orographic influence of higher elevations on the downwind shores
10.
Crystal
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A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, the scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification, the word crystal derives from the Ancient Greek word κρύσταλλος, meaning both ice and rock crystal, from κρύος, icy cold, frost. Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt, most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i. e. many microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid. Examples of polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, a third category of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have no periodic structure whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax, and many plastics, Crystals are often used in pseudoscientific practices such as crystal therapy, and, along with gemstones, are sometimes associated with spellwork in Wiccan beliefs and related religious movements. The scientific definition of a crystal is based on the arrangement of atoms inside it. A crystal is a solid where the form a periodic arrangement. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse. Most macroscopic inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including almost all metals, ceramics, ice, rocks, solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as glass, are called amorphous solids, also called glassy, vitreous, or noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically, there are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids, most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion, but forming a crystal does. A crystal structure is characterized by its cell, a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement. The unit cells are stacked in three-dimensional space to form the crystal, the symmetry of a crystal is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. There are 219 possible crystal symmetries, called space groups. These are grouped into 7 crystal systems, such as cubic crystal system or hexagonal crystal system, Crystals are commonly recognized by their shape, consisting of flat faces with sharp angles. Euhedral crystals are those with obvious, well-formed flat faces, anhedral crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one grain in a polycrystalline solid. The flat faces of a crystal are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying atomic arrangement of the crystal. This occurs because some surface orientations are more stable than others, as a crystal grows, new atoms attach easily to the rougher and less stable parts of the surface, but less easily to the flat, stable surfaces
11.
Adolescence
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Adolescence is a transitional stage of physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to legal adulthood. Adolescence is usually associated with the years, but its physical, psychological or cultural expressions may begin earlier. For example, puberty now typically begins during preadolescence, particularly in females, physical growth, and cognitive development can extend into the early twenties. Thus age provides only a marker of adolescence, and scholars have found it difficult to agree upon a precise definition of adolescence. A thorough understanding of adolescence in society depends on information from various perspectives, including psychology, biology, history, sociology, education, and anthropology. Within all of these perspectives, adolescence is viewed as a period between childhood and adulthood, whose cultural purpose is the preparation of children for adult roles. It is a period of transitions involving education, training, employment and unemployment. The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country, Adolescence is usually accompanied by an increased independence allowed by the parents or legal guardians, including less supervision as compared to preadolescence. Major pubertal and biological changes include changes to the sex organs, height, weight, cognitive advances encompass both increment in knowledge and in the ability to think abstractly and to reason more effectively. The study of adolescent development often involves interdisciplinary collaborations, for example, researchers in neuroscience or bio-behavioral health might focus on pubertal changes in brain structure and its effects on cognition or social relations. Sociologists interested in adolescence might focus on the acquisition of social roles, developmental psychologists might focus on changes in relations with parents and peers as a function of school structure and pubertal status. Some scientists have questioned the universality of adolescence as a developmental phase, puberty is a period of several years in which rapid physical growth and psychological changes occur, culminating in sexual maturity. The average age of onset of puberty is at 11 for girls and 12 for boys, every persons individual timetable for puberty is influenced primarily by heredity, although environmental factors, such as diet and exercise, also exert some influences. These factors can contribute to precocious and delayed puberty. Some of the most significant parts of pubertal development involve distinctive physiological changes in height, weight, body composition. These changes are largely influenced by hormonal activity, puberty occurs through a long process and begins with a surge in hormone production, which in turn causes a number of physical changes. It is the stage of life characterized by the appearance and development of sex characteristics. This is triggered by the pituitary gland, which secretes a surge of hormonal agents into the blood stream, initiating a chain reaction to occur
12.
Microscope
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A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. The science of investigating small objects using such an instrument is called microscopy, microscopic means invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope. There are many types of microscopes, the most common is the optical microscope, which uses light to image the sample. Other major types of microscopes are the microscope, the ultramicroscope. The earliest microscopes were single lens magnifying glasses with limited magnification which date at least as far back as the wide use of lenses in eyeglasses in the 13th century. Compound microscopes, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image, the actual inventor of the compound microscope is unknown although many claims have been made over the years. These include what may be a claim by the son of Zacharias Janssen that his father invented the microscope and telescope as early as 1590. Historians note the compound microscope did not appear in the Netherlands until the 1620s, giovanni Faber coined the name microscope for the compound microscope Galileo submitted to the Accademia dei Lincei in 1625. The first detailed account of the construction of living tissue based on the use of a microscope did not appear until 1644, in Giambattista Odiernas Locchio della mosca. It was not until the 1660s and 1670s that the microscope was used extensively for research in Italy, marcello Malpighi in Italy began the analysis of biological structures, beginning with the lungs. Robert Hookes Micrographia had an impact, largely because of its impressive illustrations. A significant contribution came from Antonie van Leeuwenhoek who achieved up to 300 times magnification using a single lens microscope. He sandwiched a very small glass ball lens between the holes in two metal plates riveted together, and with a needle attached to mount the specimen. Then, Van Leeuwenhoek re-discovered red blood cells and spermatozoa, on 9 October 1676, he reported the discovery of micro-organisms. The performance of light microscopy depends as much on how the sample is illuminated as on how it is observed, early instruments were limited until this principle was fully appreciated and developed, and until electric lamps were available as light sources. In 1893 August Köhler developed a key principle of sample illumination, Köhler illumination and this method of sample illumination produces even lighting and overcomes the limited contrast and resolution imposed by early techniques of sample illumination. In the early 20th century a significant alternative to light microscopy was developed, ernst Ruska started development of the first electron microscope in 1931 which was the transmission electron microscope. The transmission electron microscope works on the principle as an optical microscope but uses electrons in the place of light
13.
View camera
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The view camera is a large format camera in which the lens forms an inverted image on a ground glass screen directly at the plane of the film. The image viewed is exactly the same as the image on the film and this type of camera was first developed in the era of the daguerreotype and still in use today, though with many refinements. It comprises a flexible bellows that forms a seal between two adjustable standards, one of which holds a lens, and the other a viewfinder or a photographic film holder. There are three types, the monorail camera, the field camera, and press or technical cameras. The bellows is a flexible, accordion-pleated box and it encloses the space between the lens and film, and flexes to accommodate the movements of the standards. The front standard is a board at the front of the camera that holds the lens and, usually, the front and rear standards can move in various ways relative to each other, unlike most other camera types. This provides control over focus, depth of field, and perspective, the camera is usually used on a tripod or other support. Several types of cameras are used for different purposes, and provide different degrees of movement. They include, Monorail camera - This is the most common type of view camera, with front. This design gives the greatest range of movements and flexibility, with front and rear standards able to tilt, shift, rise, fall, and swing in similar proportion. These are generally made of metal with leather or synthetic bellows, Sinar and Toyo are popular manufacturers of monorail view camera systems. ARCA-Swiss produces monorail cameras for use in addition to models for the more conventional studio applications. Many manufacturers also offer monorail extensions that move the front or rear standards farther away from each other to facilitate focusing on close objects. Field camera - These have the front and rear mounted on sliding rails fixed to a hinged flat bed that can be attached to a camera support. These cameras are made of wood, or sometimes lightweight. With the bellows fully retracted, the flat bed folds up, reducing the camera to a small, light. The trade off for this portability is that the standards are not as mobile or as adjustable as on a monorail design, the rear standard in particular may be fixed and offer no movement. These large format but transportable cameras are popular with landscape photographers, tachihara and Wisner are examples of modern field cameras at opposite ends of the price scale
14.
Blackboard
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A blackboard is a reusable writing surface on which text or drawings are made with sticks of calcium sulfate or calcium carbonate, known, when used for this purpose, as chalk. Blackboards were originally made of smooth, thin sheets of black or dark grey slate stone, a blackboard can simply be a piece of board painted with matte dark paint. Black plastic sign material, using the trade name sintra is also used to create custom chalkboard art, a more modern variation consists of a coiled sheet of plastic drawn across two parallel rollers, which can be scrolled to create additional writing space while saving what has been written. The highest grade blackboards are made of a rougher version porcelain enamelled steel, porcelain is very hard wearing and blackboards made of porcelain usually last 10–20 years in intensive use. Manufacturing of slate blackboards began by the 1840s, green chalkboards, generally made of porcelain enamel on a steel base, first appeared in the 1960s. Lecture theatres may contain a number of blackboards in a grid arrangement, the lecturer then moves boards into reach for writing and then moves them out of reach, allowing a large amount of material to be shown simultaneously. The chalk marks can be wiped off with a damp cloth. However, chalk marks made on some types of wet blackboard can be difficult to remove, sticks of processed chalk are produced especially for use with blackboards in white and also in various colours. These are often not from chalk rock but from calcium sulfate in its dihydrate form. Chalk sticks containing calcium carbonate typically contain 40-60% of CaCO3, as compared to whiteboards, blackboards have a variety of advantages, Chalk requires no special care, whiteboard markers must be capped or else they dry out. Chalk is an order of magnitude cheaper than whiteboard markers for a amount of writing. It is easier to draw lines of different weights and thicknesses with chalk than with whiteboard markers, dashed lines can be drawn very quickly using a technique involving the friction of the chalk and blackboard. Chalk has a smell, whereas whiteboard markers often have a pungent odor. Chalk writing often provides better contrast than whiteboard markers, Chalk can be easily erased, writing which has been left on a whiteboard for a prolonged period may require a solvent to remove. Chalk can be removed from most clothing, whiteboard markers often permanently stain fabric. On the other hand, chalk produces dust, the amount depending on the quality of chalk used, the dust also precludes the use of chalk in areas shared with dust-sensitive equipment such as computers. The writing on chalkboards is difficult to read in the dark, Chalk sticks are notorious for shrinking through use, and breaking in half unless inserted in a writing utensil designed to store chalk. According to a run by Michael Oehler, a professor at the University of Media and Communication in Cologne, Germany
15.
Microscope slide
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A microscope slide is a thin flat piece of glass, typically 75 by 26 mm and about 1 mm thick, used to hold objects for examination under a microscope. Typically the object is placed or secured on the slide, and this arrangement allows several slide-mounted objects to be quickly inserted and removed from the microscope, labeled, transported, and stored in appropriate slide cases or folders. Microscope slides are used together with a cover slip or cover glass. These sliders were popular in Victorian England until the Royal Microscopical Society introduced the standardized glass microscope slide, a standard microscope slide measures about 75 mm by 25 mm and is about 1 mm thick. A range of sizes are available for various special purposes, such as 75 x 50 mm and for geological use,46 x 27 mm for petrographic studies. Slides are usually made of glass and their edges are often finely ground or polished. Microscope slides are made of optical quality glass, such as soda lime glass or borosilicate glass. Fused quartz slides are used when ultraviolet transparency is important. While plain slides are the most common, there are specialized types. A concavity slide or cavity slide has one or more shallow depressions, designed to hold slightly thicker objects, if this system were used with a slide which did not incorporate these cut-off corners, the corners would chip and the slide could shatter. A graticule slide is marked with a grid of lines that allows the size of objects seen under magnification to be easily estimated, sometimes one square of the grid will itself be subdivided into a finer grid. Slides for specialized applications, such as counting, may have various reservoirs, channels. Various permanent markings or masks may be printed, sand-blasted, or deposited on the surface by the manufacturer, some slides have a frosted or enamel-coated area at one end, for labeling with a pencil or pen. Slides may have special coatings applied by the manufacturer, e. g. for chemical inertness or enhanced cell adhesion, the coating may have a permanent electric charge to hold thin or powdery samples. Common coatings include poly-L-lysine, silanes, epoxy resins, or even gold, the mounting of specimens on microscope slides is often critical for successful viewing. The problem has given much attention in the last two centuries and is a well-developed area with many specialized and sometimes quite sophisticated techniques. In a dry mount, the simplest kind of mounting, the object is placed on the slide. A cover slip may be placed on top to protect the specimen and this mounting can be successfully used for viewing specimens like pollen, feathers, hairs, etc
16.
Temperature
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A temperature is an objective comparative measurement of hot or cold. It is measured by a thermometer, several scales and units exist for measuring temperature, the most common being Celsius, Fahrenheit, and, especially in science, Kelvin. Absolute zero is denoted as 0 K on the Kelvin scale, −273.15 °C on the Celsius scale, the kinetic theory offers a valuable but limited account of the behavior of the materials of macroscopic bodies, especially of fluids. Temperature is important in all fields of science including physics, geology, chemistry, atmospheric sciences, medicine. The Celsius scale is used for temperature measurements in most of the world. Because of the 100 degree interval, it is called a centigrade scale.15, the United States commonly uses the Fahrenheit scale, on which water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F at sea-level atmospheric pressure. Many scientific measurements use the Kelvin temperature scale, named in honor of the Scottish physicist who first defined it and it is a thermodynamic or absolute temperature scale. Its zero point, 0K, is defined to coincide with the coldest physically-possible temperature and its degrees are defined through thermodynamics. The temperature of zero occurs at 0K = −273. 15°C. For historical reasons, the triple point temperature of water is fixed at 273.16 units of the measurement increment, Temperature is one of the principal quantities in the study of thermodynamics. There is a variety of kinds of temperature scale and it may be convenient to classify them as empirically and theoretically based. Empirical temperature scales are historically older, while theoretically based scales arose in the middle of the nineteenth century, empirically based temperature scales rely directly on measurements of simple physical properties of materials. For example, the length of a column of mercury, confined in a capillary tube, is dependent largely on temperature. Such scales are only within convenient ranges of temperature. For example, above the point of mercury, a mercury-in-glass thermometer is impracticable. A material is of no use as a thermometer near one of its phase-change temperatures, in spite of these restrictions, most generally used practical thermometers are of the empirically based kind. Especially, it was used for calorimetry, which contributed greatly to the discovery of thermodynamics, nevertheless, empirical thermometry has serious drawbacks when judged as a basis for theoretical physics. Theoretically based temperature scales are based directly on theoretical arguments, especially those of thermodynamics, kinetic theory and they rely on theoretical properties of idealized devices and materials
17.
Ephemerality
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Ephemerality is the concept of things being transitory, existing only briefly. Because different people may value the passage of time differently, the concept of ephemerality is a relative one, an ephemeral waterbody is a wetland, spring, stream, river, pond or lake that only exists for a short period following precipitation or snowmelt. They are not the same as intermittent or seasonal waterbodies, which exist for longer periods, examples of ephemeral streams are the Luni river in Rajasthan, India, Ugab River in Southern Africa, and a number of small ephemeral watercourses that drain Talak in northern Niger. Other notable ephemeral rivers include the Todd River and Sandover River in Central Australia as well as the Son River, Batha River, any endorheic basin, or closed basin, that contains a playa or dry lake at its drainage lowpoint can become an ephemeral lake. Examples include Lake Carnegie in Western Australia, Lake Cowal in New South Wales, Mystic Lake and Rogers Lake in California, even the driest and lowest place in North America, Death Valley, became flooded with a short-lived ephemeral lake in the spring of 2005. There are also ephemeral islands such as Banua Wuhu and Home Reef and these islands appear when volcanic activity increases their height above sea level, but disappear over several years due to wave erosion. Bassas da India, on the hand, is a near-sea level island that appears only at low tide. Many plants are adapted to a lifestyle, in which they spend most of the year or longer as seeds before conditions are right for a brief period of growth. The spring ephemeral plant mouse-ear cress is a well-known example, animals can be ephemeral, with brine shrimp and the mayfly being examples. The placenta is considered an ephemeral organ present during gestation and pregnancy, ephemeral can also be used as an adjective to refer to a fast-deteriorating importance or temporary nature of an object to a person. Brands are notoriously ephemeral assets, and magazine publishing was once much more ephemeral than it is today, a number of art forms can be considered ephemeral because of their temporary nature. Early land art and all sand sculptures, ice sculptures and chalk drawings on footpaths are examples of ephemeral art, G. Augustine Lynas and Duthain Dealbh create ephemeral sculptures. Ephemeroptera Christine Buci-Glucksmann, Esthetique De Lephemere, Galilee, ISBN 2-7186-0622-3
18.
George Henry Perkins
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George Henry Perkins was a United States naturalist. He was the state entomologist and geologist for Vermont and he was educated at the Knox Academy, Galesburg, Illinois, and at Yale, where he graduated in 1867, and in 1869 received the degree of Ph. D. there for postgraduate studies. In 1869 he was appointed as professor of history in the University of Vermont. Beginning in 1880, he held the office of state entomologist of Vermont, in 1895, he left that post to become the state geologist. He has also lectured on history with success in various places. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Wilson, James Grant, Fiske, John, eds
19.
Natural history
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Natural history is the research and study of organisms including animals, fungi and plants in their environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it, with articles nowadays more often published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the sciences, natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. That is a broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines. For example, geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists, a person who studies natural history is known as a naturalist or natural historian. The English term natural history is a translation of the Latin historia naturalis and its meaning has narrowed progressively with time, while the meaning of the related term nature has widened. In antiquity, it covered essentially anything connected with nature or which used materials drawn from nature. For example, Pliny the Elders encyclopedia of this title, published circa 77 to 79 AD, covers astronomy, geography, man and his technology, medicine and superstition as well as animals and plants. Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two divisions, the humanities and divinity, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry, natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits, the astronomer, William Herschel was also a natural historian. Instead of working with plants or minerals he worked with the stars and he spent his time building telescopes to see the stars and the rest of the time watching the stars. In the beginning, he believed there to be a known as a nebulae. Herschel can be considered a natural historian because he observed the natural world, in the process he made charts of all the stars and kept records of all that he saw. S. Wilcove and T. Eisner, The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior and it encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do. Some definitions go further, focusing on observation of organisms in their environment. Bartholomew, A student of history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants. A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a component, as seen in a recent definition by H. W. Greene
20.
University of Vermont
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The University of Vermont, officially The University of Vermont and State Agricultural College, is a public research university and, since 1862, the U. S. state of Vermonts sole land-grant university. Founded in 1791, UVM is among the oldest universities in the United States and is the institution of higher education established in the New England region of the U. S. northeast. It is also listed as one of the original eight Public Ivy institutions in the United States, the university is incorporated in the city of Burlington–Vermonts most populous municipality. The campus Dudley H. Davis Center was the first student center in the country to receive a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design Gold certification. The largest hospital complex in Vermont, the University of Vermont Medical Center, has its facility on the UVM campus and is affiliated with the Robert Larner College of Medicine. The University of Vermont was founded as a university in 1791. The university enrolled its first students 10 years later and its first president, the Rev. Daniel C. Sanders, was hired in 1800, and served as the faculty member for seven years. Instruction began in 1801, and the first class graduated in 1804, in 1865, the university merged with Vermont Agricultural College, emerging as the University of Vermont and State Agricultural College. Much of the funding and planning for the university was undertaken by Ira Allen. Allen donated a 50-acre parcel of land for the universitys establishment, most of this land has been maintained as the universitys main green, upon which stands a statue of Allen. The citizens of Burlington helped fund the universitys first edifice, and and this building came to be known as Old Mill for its resemblance to New England mills of the time. The Marquis de Lafayette, a French general who became a commander in the American Revolution, a statue of Lafayette stands at the north end of the main green. In 1871, UVM defied custom and admitted two women as students, Four years later, it was the first American university to admit women to full membership into the Phi Beta Kappa Society, the countrys oldest collegiate academic honor society. Likewise, in 1877, it initiated the first African American into the society, in 1924, the first radio broadcast in Vermont occurred from the college station, WCAX, run by students then, now the call sign of a commercial television station. For 73 years, UVM held an annual Kake Walk where students wore blackface, the University of Vermont comprises seven undergraduate schools, an honors college, a graduate college, and a college of medicine. The Honors College does not offer its own degrees, students in the Honors College concurrently enroll in one of the seven undergraduate colleges or schools. UVM is ranked tied for 92nd in U. S. News & World Reports 2017 national university rankings, and is ranked tied for 38th among public universities
21.
National Geographic
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National Geographic is the official magazine of the National Geographic Society. It has been published continuously since its first issue in 1888 and it primarily contains articles about science, geography, history, and world culture. The magazine is known for its thick square-bound glossy format with a rectangular border. The magazine is published monthly, and additional map supplements are also included with subscriptions and it is available in a traditional printed edition and through an interactive online edition. On occasion, special editions of the magazine are issued and this includes a US circulation of 3.5 million. From the 1970s through about 2010 the magazine was printed in Corinth, Mississippi, the current Editor-in-Chief of the National Geographic Magazine is Susan Goldberg. Goldberg is also Editorial Director for National Geographic Partners, overseeing the print and she is responsible for News, Books, National Geographic Traveler magazine, National Geographic History magazine, Maps, and all digital content with the exception of National Geographic Kids. Goldberg reports to Declan Moore, CEO of National Geographic Partners, the first issue of National Geographic Magazine was published on September 22,1888, nine months after the Society was founded. The June 1985 cover portrait of the presumed to be 12-year-old Afghan girl Sharbat Gula, shot by photographer Steve McCurry, in the late 1990s, the magazine began publishing The Complete National Geographic, a digital compilation of all the past issues of the magazine. It was then sued over copyright of the magazine as a work in Greenberg v. National Geographic and other cases. The magazine eventually prevailed in the dispute, and in July 2009 it resumed publishing a compilation containing all issues through December 2008. The compilation was updated to make more recent issues available. National Geographic Kids, the version of the magazine, was launched in 1975 under the name National Geographic World. The January 2017 issue of National Geographic has a nine-year-old transgender girl on the cover, the magazine printed articles on Berlin, de-occupied Austria, the Soviet Union, and Communist China that deliberately downplayed politics to focus on culture. In its coverage of the Space Race, National Geographic focused on the scientific achievement while largely avoiding reference to the connection to nuclear arms buildup. There were also articles in the 1930s, 40s and 50s about the individual states and their resources. Many of these articles were written by longtime staff such as Frederick Simpich, there were also articles about biology and science topics. In later years articles became outspoken on issues such as issues, deforestation, chemical pollution, global warming
22.
Nature (journal)
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Nature is an English multidisciplinary scientific journal, first published on 4 November 1869. Nature claims a readership of about 3 million unique readers per month. The journal has a circulation of around 53,000. There are also sections on books and arts, the remainder of the journal consists mostly of research papers, which are often dense and highly technical. There are many fields of research in which important new advances, the papers that have been published in this journal are internationally acclaimed for maintaining high research standards. In 2007 Nature received the Princess of Asturias Award for Communications, the enormous progress in science and mathematics during the 19th century was recorded in journals written mostly in German or French, as well as in English. Britain underwent enormous technological and industrial changes and advances particularly in the half of the 19th century. In addition, during this period, the number of popular science periodicals doubled from the 1850s to the 1860s. According to the editors of these popular science magazines, the publications were designed to serve as organs of science, in essence, Nature, first created in 1869, was not the first magazine of its kind in Britain. While Recreative Science had attempted to more physical sciences such as astronomy and archaeology. Two other journals produced in England prior to the development of Nature were the Quarterly Journal of Science and Scientific Opinion, established in 1864 and 1868 and these similar journals all ultimately failed. The Popular Science Review survived longest, lasting 20 years and ending its publication in 1881, Recreative Science ceased publication as the Student, the Quarterly Journal, after undergoing a number of editorial changes, ceased publication in 1885. The Reader terminated in 1867, and finally, Scientific Opinion lasted a mere 2 years, janet Browne has proposed that far more than any other science journal of the period, Nature was conceived, born, and raised to serve polemic purpose. Perhaps it was in part its scientific liberality that made Nature a longer-lasting success than its predecessors and this is what Lockyers journal did from the start. Norman Lockyer, the founder of Nature, was a professor at Imperial College and he was succeeded as editor in 1919 by Sir Richard Gregory. Gregory helped to establish Nature in the scientific community. During the years 1945 to 1973, editorship of Nature changed three times, first in 1945 to A. J. V. Gale and L. J. F. Brimble, then to John Maddox in 1965, and finally to David Davies in 1973. In 1980, Maddox returned as editor and retained his position until 1995, philip Campbell has since become Editor-in-chief of all Nature publications
23.
Popular Science
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Popular Science is an American bi-monthly magazine carrying popular science content, which refers to articles for the general reader on science and technology subjects. Popular Science has won over 58 awards, including the American Society of Magazine Editors awards for its excellence in both 2003 and 2004. With roots beginning in 1872, PopSci has been translated into over 30 languages and is distributed to at least 45 countries. The Popular Science Monthly, as the publication was called, was founded in May 1872 by Edward L. Youmans to disseminate scientific knowledge to the educated layman. Youmans had previously worked as an editor for the weekly Appletons Journal, early issues were mostly reprints of English periodicals. William Jay Youmans, Edwards brother, helped found Popular Science Monthly in 1872 and was an editor as well and he became editor-in-chief on Edwards death in 1887. The publisher, D. Appleton & Company, was forced for economic reasons to sell the journal in 1900, james McKeen Cattell became the editor in 1900 and the publisher in 1901. Cattell had a background in academics and continued publishing articles for educated readers, by 1915 the readership was declining and publishing a science journal was a financial challenge. The existing journal would continue the tradition as Scientific Monthly. Existing subscribers would remain subscribed under the new name, Scientific Monthly was published until 1958 when it was absorbed into Science. The Modern Publishing Company acquired the Popular Science Monthly name and this company had purchased Electrician and Mechanic magazine in 1914 and over the next two years merged several magazines together into a science magazine for a general audience. The October 1915 issue was titled Popular Science Monthly and Worlds Advance, the volume number was that of Popular Science but the content was that of Worlds Advance. The new editor was Waldemar Kaempffert, an editor of Scientific American. The change in Popular Science Monthly was dramatic, the old version was a scholarly journal that had eight to ten articles in a 100-page issue. There would be ten to twenty photographs or illustrations, the new version had hundreds of short, easy to read articles with hundreds of illustrations. Editor Kaempffert was writing for the craftsman and hobbyist who wanted to know something about the world of science. The circulation doubled in the first year, from the mid-1930s to the 1960s, the magazine featured fictional stories of Gus Wilsons Model Garage, centered on car problems. An annual review of changes to the new model year cars ran in 1940 and 41 and it continued until the mid-1970s when the magazine reverted to publishing the new models over multiple issues as information became available
24.
Scientific American
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Scientific American is an American popular science magazine. Many famous scientists, including Albert Einstein, have contributed articles in the past 170 years and it is the oldest continuously published monthly magazine in the United States. Scientific American was founded by inventor and publisher Rufus M. Porter in 1845 as a weekly newspaper. Throughout its early years, much emphasis was placed on reports of what was going on at the U. S, current issues include a this date in history section, featuring excerpts from articles originally published 50,100, and 150 years earlier. Topics include humorous incidents, wrong-headed theories, and noteworthy advances in the history of science, Porter sold the publication to Alfred Ely Beach and Orson Desaix Munn a mere ten months after founding it. Until 1948, it remained owned by Munn & Company, under Munns grandson, Orson Desaix Munn III, it had evolved into something of a workbench publication, similar to the twentieth-century incarnation of Popular Science. In the years after World War II, the fell into decline. Thus the partners—publisher Gerard Piel, editor Dennis Flanagan, and general manager Donald H. Miller, Miller retired in 1979, Flanagan and Piel in 1984, when Gerard Piels son Jonathan became president and editor, circulation had grown fifteen-fold since 1948. In 1986, it was sold to the Holtzbrinck group of Germany, in the fall of 2008, Scientific American was put under the control of Nature Publishing Group, a division of Holtzbrinck. Donald Miller died in December 1998, Gerard Piel in September 2004, Mariette DiChristina is the current editor-in-chief, after John Rennie stepped down in June 2009. Scientific American published its first foreign edition in 1890, the Spanish-language La America Cientifica, a Russian edition V Mire Nauki was launched in the Soviet Union in 1983, and continues in the present-day Russian Federation. Kexue, a simplified Chinese edition launched in 1979, was the first Western magazine published in the Peoples Republic of China, founded in Chongqing, the simplified Chinese magazine was transferred to Beijing in 2001. Later in 2005, an edition, Global Science, was published instead of Kexue. A traditional Chinese edition, known as 科學人, was introduced to Taiwan in 2002, the Hungarian edition Tudomány existed between 1984 and 1992. In 1986, an Arabic edition, Oloom magazine, was published, in 2002, a Portuguese edition was launched in Brazil. From 1902 to 1911, Scientific American supervised the publication of the Encyclopedia Americana and it originally styled itself The Advocate of Industry and Enterprise and Journal of Mechanical and other Improvements. On the front page of the first issue was the engraving of Improved Rail-Road Cars, the masthead had a commentary as follows, Scientific American published every Thursday morning at No.11 Spruce Street, New York, No.16 State Street, Boston, and No. 2l Arcade Philadelphia, by Rufus Porter, five copies will be sent to one address six months for four dollars in advance
25.
William Jackson Humphreys
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William Jackson Humphreys was an American physicist and atmospheric researcher. Humphreys was born on February 3,1862 in Gap Mills, West Virginia to Jackson and Eliza Ann Humphreys. He studied physics at Washington & Lee University in Virginia and later at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore and he worked in the fields of spectroscopy, atmospheric physics and meteorology. In the field of spectroscopy he found the shift of spectral lines under pressure, in atmospheric physics he found a very good model for the stratosphere in 1909. He wrote numerous books, including a textbook titled Physics of the Air, first published in 1920 and considered a work of the time. He also held teaching positions at universities. He concluded that the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora was responsible for the subsequent cooling known as the Year Without a Summer, from 1905 to 1935 he worked as a physicist for the U. S. Weather Bureau, predecessor of the National Weather Service. He died on November 10,1949 in Washington, D. C, Physics of the Air Weather proverbs and paradoxes Fogs and clouds, The Williams & Wilins Co. Rain making and Other weather vagaries Snow crystals
26.
U.S. Weather Bureau
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It is a part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration branch of the Department of Commerce, and is headquartered in Silver Spring, Maryland. The agency was known as the United States Weather Bureau from 1890 until it adopted its current name in 1970, the NWS performs its primary task through a collection of national and regional centers, and 122 local weather forecast offices. As the NWS is a government agency, most of its products are in the public domain, the agency was placed under the Secretary of War as Congress felt military discipline would probably secure the greatest promptness, regularity, and accuracy in the required observations. Within the Department of War, it was assigned to the U. S. Army Signal Service under Brigadier General Albert J. Myer, General Myer gave the National Weather Service its first name, The Division of Telegrams and Reports for the Benefit of Commerce. The agency first became an enterprise in 1890, when it became part of the Department of Agriculture. The first Weather Bureau radiosonde was launched in Massachusetts in 1937, the Bureau would later be moved to the Department of Commerce in 1940. On July 12,1950, bureau chief Francis W, the Weather Bureau became part of the Environmental Science Services Administration when that agency was formed in August 1966. The Environmental Science Services Administration was renamed the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration on October 1,1970, at this time, the Weather Bureau became the National Weather Service. NEXRAD, a system of Doppler radars deployed to improve the detection and warning time of local storms, replaced the WSR-57. Bob Glahn has written a history of the first hundred years of the National Weather Service. The NWS, through a variety of sub-organizations, issues different forecast products to users, although, throughout history, text forecasts have been the means of product dissemination, the NWS has been using more forecast products of a digital, gridded, image or other modern format. Each of the 122 Weather Forecast Offices send their graphical forecasts to a server to be compiled in the National Digital Forecast Database. The NDFD is a collection of weather observations used by organizations and the public, including precipitation amount, temperature. Specific points in the database can be accessed using an XML SOAP service. The National Weather Service issues many products relating to wildfires daily, for example, a Fire Weather Forecast, which have a forecast period covering up to seven days, is issued by local Weather Forecast Offices daily, with updates as needed. The forecasts contain weather information relevant to fire control and smoke management for the next 12 to 48 hours, such as direction and speed. The appropriate crews use this information to plan for staffing and equipment levels, the ability to conduct scheduled controlled burns, and assess the daily fire danger. Once per day, NWS meteorologists issue a coded fire weather forecast for specific United States Forest Service observation sites that are input into the National Fire Danger Rating System
27.
Illustration
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The origin of the word “illustration” is late Middle English, via Old French from Latin illustratio, from the verb illustrate. Contemporary illustration uses a range of styles and techniques, including drawing, painting, printmaking, collage, montage, digital design, multimedia. Most illustrators work on a freelance basis, depending on the purpose, illustration may be expressive, stylised, realistic or highly technical. This may include exploded views, cutaways, fly-throughs, reconstructions, instructional images, component designs, in contemporary illustration practice, 2D and 3D software is often used to create accurate representations that can be updated easily, and reused in a variety of contexts. In the art world, illustration has at times been considered of less importance than graphic design, original illustration art has been known to attract high prices at auction. The US artist Norman Rockwells painting Breaking Home Ties sold in a 2006 Sothebys auction for USD15.4 million, many other illustration genres are equally valued, with pinup artists such as Gil Elvgren and Alberto Vargas, for example, also attracting high prices. Historically, the art of illustration is closely linked to the processes of printing and publishing. The illustrations of medieval codices were known as illuminations, and were hand drawn. With the invention of the press during the 15th century, books became more widely distributed. Subjects included traditional folk tales, popular figures and every day life, hokusai’s The Great Wave of Kanazawa is a famous image of the time. During the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe, the main reproduction processes for illustration were engraving and etching, in 18th Century England, a notable illustrator was William Blake, who used relief etching. By the early 19th century, the introduction of lithography substantially improved reproduction quality, in Europe, notable figures of the early 19th Century were John Leech, George Cruikshank, Dickens illustrator Hablot Knight Browne, and, in France, Honoré Daumier. All contributed to both satirical and “serious” publications, at this time, there was a great demand for caricature drawings encapsulating social mores, types and classes. Although all fine art trained, their reputations were gained primarily as illustrators, in common with similar magazines such as the Parisian Le Voleur, Punch realised good illustration sold as well as good text. With publication continuing into the 21st Century, Punch chronicles a gradual shift in popular illustration, from the early 1800s newspapers, mass market magazines, and illustrated books had become the dominant consumer media in Europe and the New World. By the 19th Century, improvements in printing technology freed illustrators to experiment with color, in America, this led to a golden age of illustration from before the 1880s until the early 20th Century. A small group of illustrators became highly successful, with the imagery they created considered a portrait of American aspirations of the time
28.
Fog
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Fog consists of visible cloud water droplets or ice crystals suspended in the air at or near the Earths surface. Fog can be considered a type of low-lying cloud and is influenced by nearby bodies of water, topography. In turn, fog has affected many human activities, such as shipping, travel, the term fog is typically distinguished from the more generic term cloud in that fog is low-lying, and the moisture in the fog is often generated locally. By definition, fog reduces visibility to less than 1 kilometre, for aviation purposes in the UK, a visibility of less than 5 kilometres but greater than 999 metres is considered to be mist if the relative humidity is 70% or greater, below 70%, haze is reported. Fog forms when the difference between air temperature and dew point is less than 2.5 °C or 4 °F, Fog begins to form when water vapor condenses into tiny liquid water droplets suspended in the air. Water vapor normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, Fog, like its elevated cousin stratus, is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass. Fog normally occurs at a relative humidity near 100% and this occurs from either added moisture in the air, or falling ambient air temperature. However, fog can form at lower humidities, and can fail to form with relative humidity at 100%. At 100% relative humidity, the air cannot hold additional moisture, thus, Fog can form suddenly and can dissipate just as rapidly. The sudden formation of fog is known as flash fog, Fog commonly produces precipitation in the form of drizzle or very light snow. Drizzle occurs when the humidity of fog attains 100% and the cloud droplets begin to coalesce into larger droplets. This can occur when the fog layer is lifted and cooled sufficiently, drizzle becomes freezing drizzle when the temperature at the surface drops below the freezing point. The inversion boundary varies its altitude primarily in response to the weight of the air above it, the marine layer, and any fogbank it may contain, will be squashed when the pressure is high, and conversely, may expand upwards when the pressure above it is lowering. Fog can form in a number of ways, depending on how the cooling that caused the condensation occurred, radiation fog is formed by the cooling of land after sunset by thermal radiation in calm conditions with clear sky. The warm ground produces condensation in the air by heat conduction. In perfect calm the fog layer can be less than a meter deep, radiation fogs occur at night, and usually do not last long after sunrise, but they can persist all day in the winter months especially in areas bounded by high ground. Radiation fog is most common in autumn and early winter, examples of this phenomenon include the Tule fog. Ground fog is fog that obscures less than 60% of the sky, advection fog occurs when moist air passes over a cool surface by advection and is cooled
29.
Drop (liquid)
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A drop or droplet is a small column of liquid, bounded completely or almost completely by free surfaces. A drop may form when liquid accumulates at the end of a tube or other surface boundary. Drops may also be formed by the condensation of a vapor or by atomization of a mass of liquid. Liquid forms drops because the liquid surface tension. A simple way to form a drop is to allow liquid to flow slowly from the end of a vertical tube of small diameter. The surface tension of the causes the liquid to hang from the tube. When the drop exceeds a size it is no longer stable. The falling liquid is also a drop held together by surface tension, in the pendant drop test, a drop of liquid is suspended from the end of a tube by surface tension. The force due to surface tension is proportional to the length of the boundary between the liquid and the tube, with the proportionality constant usually denoted γ. Since the length of boundary is the circumference of the tube. The limit of this formula, as α goes to 90°, gives the weight of a pendant drop for a liquid with a given surface tension. M g = π d γ This relationship is the basis of a convenient method of measuring surface tension, more sophisticated methods are available to take account of the developing shape of the pendant as the drop grows. These methods are used if the tension is unknown. In medicine, droppers have a diameter, in such a way that 1 millilitre is equivalent to 20 drops. And, for the cases when smaller amounts are necessary, microdroppers are used, the drop adhesion to a solid can be divided to two categories, lateral adhesion and normal adhesion. Normal adhesion is the required to detach a drop from the surface in the normal direction. The measurement of both forms can be done with the Centrifugal Adhesion Balance. The CAB uses a combination of centrifugal and gravitational forces to any ratio of lateral and normal forces
30.
Physicist
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A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
31.
Johnson State College
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Johnson State College is a small public liberal arts college, founded in 1828 by John Chesamore at Johnson in the U. S. state of Vermont. Johnsons president is Elaine C. Collins and its chair is M. Jerome Diamond. Both the college, and the town of Johnson are named for William Samuel Johnson, American jurist, statesman, following the Declaration of Independence, and the emergence of the Vermont Republic, the town was instead granted to William Samuel Johnson by Vermonts Council of Censors in 1782. Johnson represented Connecticut in the Continental Congress, and argued for Vermonts admission to the federal Union and he later became president of Columbia University. John Chesamore founded Johnson State College as Johnson Academy, a grammar school instructing students in Greek, Latin, algebra, in 1867 the school became a Vermont state normal school, a term based on the French école normale – a school to educate teachers. Early on Johnson embraced the ideas of learning experience. The college was among the first Vermont universities to introduce electives, through the early to mid-twentieth century Johnson emerged as a college of the liberal arts and natural sciences. That tradition continues, bringing filmmakers, political and spiritual leaders, recent visitors to the campus include Japanese and Cuban drummers, New Orleans jazz musicians, and Buddhist monks who installed an environmental art work at Lower Pond. Johnson State College teams participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Associations Division III, the Badgers are a member of the North Atlantic Conference. Mens sports include basketball, cross country, golf, lacrosse, soccer and tennis, while womens sports include basketball, cross country, soccer, softball, tennis, Johnson emphasizes the self-development of undergraduate students with what the college terms education by engagement. The student is engaged not solely on her or his degree program but as a citizen with emphasis on their place in, and contribution to, their society, nation. After a year of study, students file a Plan of Study during the sophomore year. This becomes a guiding yet flexible road map for completion of degree work. Degree programs include the sciences, business, fine and performing arts, education, mathematics, literature, health sciences, writing and literature. Precepts of Vermont educator-philosopher John Dewey inform Johnsons emphasis on students self evolution with emphasis on learning by doing and learning by teaching, the college emphasizes the individuals civic contribution to their larger society. The college has a faculty-student ratio of 1,14, ninety-one percent of the colleges faculty hold a Ph. D. or equivalent doctorate level terminal degree in their area of instruction. Nearly 60% of undergraduate students come from Vermont, with approximately 40% coming from other U. S. states, graduate programs at Johnson include an M. F. A. in Studio Arts, a Master of Arts in Education, and Master of Arts in Counseling. Parts of these programs can be completed with a low residency requirement, portions of the M. F. A. in Studio Arts program includes course work in conjunction with the Vermont Studio Center, located in the village of Johnson
32.
Johnson, Vermont
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Johnson is a town in Lamoille County, Vermont, United States. The population was 3,274 at the 2000 census, Johnson is home of Johnson State College, a part the Vermont State Colleges system. The Vermont Studio Center is located in the village of Johnson, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 45.1 square miles, of which 45.1 square miles is land and 0. 02% is water. According to Esther Munroe Swifts book Vermont Place-names, Footprints of History the town of Johnson is named for the American jurist, statesman and educator William Samuel Johnson. Johnson, Vermont and a part of neighboring Cambridge, Vermont were together known as Kings College Tract being created by a charter of British King George III in 1774. The Kings College Tract was reserved for the expansion of Kings College in New York. After the Declaration of Independence, Vermonts Council of Censors granted the town to Johnson in 1785, as of the census of 2000, there were 3,274 people,1,170 households, and 669 families residing in the town. The population density was 72.6 people per square mile, there were 1,263 housing units at an average density of 28.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 96. 58% White,0. 61% Black or African American,0. 43% Native American,0. 67% Asian,0. 31% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 73% of the population. 28. 2% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.99. In the town, the population was out with 21. 6% under the age of 18,26. 4% from 18 to 24,25. 4% from 25 to 44,18. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 26 years, for every 100 females there were 103.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.2 males, the median income for a household in the town was $31,343, and the median income for a family was $38,224. Males had an income of $28,257 versus $20,610 for females. The per capita income for the town was $15,014, about 13. 8% of families and 18. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21. 6% of those under age 18 and 11. 7% of those age 65 or over. Vermonters, Oral Histories from Down Country to the Northeast Kingdom, University Press of New England,1986. Vermont Place Names, Footprints of History, the Stephen Greene Press,1996 ISBN 0-8289-0291-7. Johnson Vermont Official Town Website Johnson Woolen Mills Johnson State College Vermont Studio Center The Johnson Connection, A Business listing site with information about the town
33.
McGraw-Hill
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The company also provides reference and trade publications for the medical, business, and engineering professions. McGraw-Hill Education currently operates in 28 countries, has more than 4,800 employees globally and this shift has accelerated in recent years with an increased focus on developing adaptive learning systems that enable classroom teaching to come closer to a one-to-one student-teacher interaction. These systems allow personalized learning by assessing each students skill level, McGraw-Hill Education provides digital products and services to over 11 million users. In 2013, the acquired the ALEKS Corporation and after acquiring 20 percent equity stake in Area9 ApS went on to acquire the company. In 2015 MHE opened a new R&D office in Boston’s innovation district, in September 2016 the company acquired adaptive learning technology and content provider Redbird Learning. The company currently offers over 1,500 adaptive products in higher education, McGraw-Hill Education traces its history back to 1888 when James H. McGraw, co-founder of the company, purchased the American Journal of Railway Appliances. He continued to add further publications, eventually establishing The McGraw Publishing Company in 1899 and his co-founder, John A. Hill, had also produced several technical and trade publications and in 1902 formed his own business, The Hill Publishing Company. In 1909 both men agreed upon an alliance and combined the book departments of their publishing companies into The McGraw-Hill Book Company, John Hill served as President, with James McGraw as Vice-President. 1917 saw the merger of the parts of each business into The McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. In 1986, McGraw-Hill bought out competitor The Economy Company, then the nations largest publisher of educational material, the buyout made McGraw-Hill the largest educational publisher in the U. S. In 1979 McGraw-Hill Publishing Company purchased Byte from its owner/publisher Virginia Williamson who then became a vice-president of McGraw-Hill, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, Inc became The McGraw-Hill Companies in 1995, as part of a corporate identity rebranding. In 2007, The McGraw-Hill Companies launched a student study network. This offering gave McGraw-Hill an opportunity to connect directly with its end users, the site closed on April 29,2012. On November 26,2012, The McGraw-Hill Companies announced it was selling its entire education division to Apollo Global Management for $2.5 billion, on March 22,2013, it announced it had completed the sale and the proceeds were for $2.4 billion in cash. In 2014, McGraw Hill Education India partnered with GreyCampus to promote Online Learning Courses among University Grants Commission- National eligibility Test Aspirants, McGraw Hill Education India is located in Noida area of Delhi/NCR. Operating segments of McGraw-Hill Education include, McGraw-Hill Education K-12, which develops solutions and content for early childhood education, K-12 learners. McGraw-Hill Education Higher Ed, which focuses on post-secondary education, McGraw-Hill Education Professional, focused on post-graduate and professional learners. McGraw-Hill Education International, which focuses on learners and professionals outside of the United States, in 2013, McGraw-Hill Education acquired the entirety of shares in Tata McGraw-Hill Education Private Limited, the companys long-existing joint venture with Tata Group in India
34.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
35.
Caldecott Medal
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The Randolph Caldecott Medal annually recognizes the preceding years most distinguished American picture book for children, beginning with 1937 publications. It is awarded to the illustrator by the Association for Library Service to Children, the Caldecott and Newbery Medals are the most prestigious American childrens book awards. The award is named for Randolph Caldecott, a nineteenth-century English illustrator, rene Paul Chambellan designed the Medal in 1937. The obverse scene is derived from Randolph Caldecotts front cover illustration for The Diverting History of John Gilpin, the reverse is based on Four and twenty blackbirds baked in a pie, one of Caldecotts illustrations for the nursery rhyme Sing a Song of Sixpence. Beside the Caldecott Medal, the awards a variable number of citations to worthy runners-up. The Honor was introduced in 1971, but some runners-up had been identified annually, the number of Honors or runners-up had always been one to five, and it had been two to four since 1994, until five were named in 2013 and six in 2015. The Honor Books must be a subset of the runners-up on the final ballot, the artist must be a US citizen or resident and the illustrations must be original to the book, which must be published first or simultaneously in the US in English during the preceding year. A picture book provides a visual experience, a picture book has a collective unity of story-line, theme, or concept, developed through the series of pictures that constitute the book. Picture books for any audience up to age 14 should be considered, the Medal is for distinguished illustrations in a picture book and for excellence of pictorial presentation for children. The book must be self-contained, independent of media for its enjoyment. Components other than illustration should be considered as they bear on effectiveness as a picture book. The committee that decides on the Caldecott Award winner comprises fifteen members, eight are elected by the entire ALSC membership and seven including the chairperson are appointed by the ALSC President. Many publishers send copies of books to the committee,2009 members each received more than 700, to help identify possible contenders, the chairperson generally asks for committee members to identify strong contenders each month. In the fall each member of the committee may formally nominate seven books, publications late in the year should receive equal consideration. As of 2009/2010 each committee member must nominate three and no books in October, two in November, two in December, and January identification of worthy December publications is solicited. The latest winner of the Caldecott Medal, awarded in 2016, is Sophie Blackall for Finding Winnie, The True Story of the World’s Most Famous Bear, the 2016 committee named four Caldecott Honor Books. The annual number of runners-up has ranged from one to six, same as for the Newbery Medal during the same timespan, indeed, for twenty years from 1993 to 2012 there were two to four Honors every year. Robert Lawson alone has won both a Caldecott Medal and a Newbery Medal, the 1941 Caldecott for They Were Strong and Good and he both wrote and illustrated both books
36.
Snowflake Bentley (book)
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Snowflake Bentley is a childrens picture book written by Jacqueline Briggs Martin and illustrated by Mary Azarian. Published in 1998, the book is about Wilson Bentley, the first known photographer of snowflakes, Azarian won the 1999 Caldecott Medal for her illustrations. Snowflake Bentley is a medium size book, measuring 10 ½ by 10 ¼ inches, majority of the pictures are large colorful prints, which is the typical art style of artist Mary Azarian, and each picture summarizes the wording for that page. Many of the pages have a side bar in each layout, with a light blue background. Azarian also uses a black frame around her illustrations, which tries to represent a photo that has been taken. Based on a story, Martin has written about the first known snowflake photographer, Wilson Bentley. Wilson lived on a farm with his family in Jericho, Vermont, the annual snowfall there can reach up to about 120 inches. Wilson was very fond of snowflakes, and wanted to one day capture them to share with others, with a telescope, Wilson tries to depict the snowflakes through drawings, but is never able to finish as the snow would melt too quickly. As Wilson grew older, he asked his parents if they could get him a camera, Wilson’s parents decide to spend theirs savings to buy Wilson his camera, because they wanted to support his dreams in capturing snowflake photos. With his new camera, Wilson went out to take hundreds of pictures. At the beginning Wilson’s photos were a bunch of failures, Wilson furthered himself by experimenting more with lighting, lenses and camera exposures. Although, not many people were interested in what Wilson was up to, when it wasnt winter, Wilson loved taking pictures of nature, but taking snow pictures would always be his favorite. Wilson would even hold evening slideshows on his lawn to show his friends, later down the road, Wilson wrote a book about snow and published his photos in magazines. When Wilson went to go publish his first book to share to the world, he got caught in a blizzard on his trip, which caused him to catch pneumonia, two weeks later, Wilson dies of the illness. In memory of him, Wilson’s friends and neighbors built a museum of his work so all would know of “Snowflake” Bentley
37.
Patterns in nature
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Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world. These patterns recur in different contexts and can sometimes be modelled mathematically, Natural patterns include symmetries, trees, spirals, meanders, waves, foams, tessellations, cracks and stripes. Early Greek philosophers studied pattern, with Plato, Pythagoras and Empedocles attempting to order in nature. The modern understanding of patterns developed gradually over time. In the 19th century, Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau examined soap films, german biologist and artist Ernst Haeckel painted hundreds of marine organisms to emphasise their symmetry. Scottish biologist DArcy Thompson pioneered the study of patterns in both plants and animals, showing that simple equations could explain spiral growth. In the 20th century, British mathematician Alan Turing predicted mechanisms of morphogenesis which give rise to patterns of spots, Hungarian biologist Aristid Lindenmayer and French American mathematician Benoît Mandelbrot showed how the mathematics of fractals could create plant growth patterns. Mathematics, physics and chemistry can explain patterns in nature at different levels, Patterns in living things are explained by the biological processes of natural selection and sexual selection. Studies of pattern formation make use of models to simulate a wide range of patterns. Early Greek philosophers attempted to order in nature, anticipating modern concepts. Plato — looking only at his work on natural patterns — argued for the existence of universals and he considered these to consist of ideal forms of which physical objects are never more than imperfect copies. Thus, a flower may be circular, but it is never a perfect mathematical circle. Pythagoras explained patterns in nature like the harmonies of music as arising from number, Empedocles to an extent anticipated Darwins evolutionary explanation for the structures of organisms. In 1202, Leonardo Fibonacci introduced the Fibonacci number sequence to the world with his book Liber Abaci. Fibonacci gave an example, on the growth in numbers of a theoretical rabbit population. The discourses central chapter features examples and observations of the quincunx in botany, in 1917, DArcy Wentworth Thompson published his book On Growth and Form. His description of phyllotaxis and the Fibonacci sequence, the relationships in the spiral growth patterns of plants, is classic. He showed that simple equations could describe all the apparently complex spiral growth patterns of animal horns, the Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau formulated the mathematical problem of the existence of a minimal surface with a given boundary, which is now named after him
38.
Ukichiro Nakaya
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Ukichiro Nakaya was a Japanese physicist and science essayist known for his work in glaciology and low-temperature sciences. He is credited with making the first artificial snowflakes, Nakaya later wrote that his father wanted him to be a potter and sent him to live with a potter while he was in primary school. Nakaya was inspired to study physics in high school by the hypotheses of Kant and Laplace. He majored in physics under Torahiko Terada at Tokyo Imperial University. Soon thereafter, he became Teradas research assistant at the Institute of Physical and Chemical Research, Nakaya studied electrostatic discharge as an assistant professor at Tokyo Imperial University. In 1928 and 1929, he continued his studies at Kings College London under Owen Willans Richardson. When he arrived at Hokkaido University, the department had a minimum of equipment. But there was a supply of natural snow, so Nakaya began his research into snow crystals. From over 3,000 photomicrographs he established a classification of natural snow crystals. In 1935, he opened the Low Temperature Science Laboratory, and on March 12,1936, from 1936 until 1938, Nakaya and his family lived at a hot springs resort on the Izu Peninsula while he recuperated from a bout of clonorchiasis. After his recovery, he began his studies of frost heaving which eventually led to the founding of the Laboratory of Agricultural Physics at Hokkaido University in 1946, in 1941, he received the Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy for his contributions to snow crystal research. In 1943, two years after the Pacific War began, Nakaya moved to a newly built atmospheric icing observatory at Mt. Niseko-Annupuri, a Zero fighter plane was brought to the observatory in the hope of finding ways to prevent atmospheric icing. The following year, Nakaya moved to the Nemuro coast to study artificial dissipation of fog, after the war, he continued his research for the Laboratory of Agricultural Physics into flood and snowmelt in drainage basins. Nakaya always enjoyed field work as well as laboratory research and his studies took him to locations ranging from the top of Mauna Loa, Hawaii to the ice island T-3 in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. In 1949, on the invitation of the International Glaciological Society, Nakaya toured the United States and Canada, from 1952 until 1954, he was a research fellow at SIPRE. In 1957 he visited Greenland as a member of the United States expedition for the International Geophysical Year and he visited Greenland several more times, usually staying for a month or two at a time, to observe the glaciological ice cap at the latitude 78° observatory site. In 1960, Nakaya underwent surgery for cancer at the hospital at the University of Tokyo. He died on April 11,1962, of osteomyelitis, in recognition of his achievements, he was posthumously decorated with one of the highest orders awarded by the Japanese government
39.
Karl Blossfeldt
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Karl Blossfeldt was a German photographer, sculptor, teacher, and artist who worked in Berlin, Germany. He is best known for his photographs of plants and living things, published in 1929 as. He was inspired, as was his father, by nature and he believed that the plant must be valued as a totally artistic and architectural structure. Among his students at the Berlin Arts and Crafts School was Heinz Warneke, from 1924, he was professor at the Vereinigte Staatsschulen für freie und angewandete Kunst in Berlin, Germany. Blossfeldt made many of his photographs with a camera that could magnify the subject up to thirty times its size. Appointed for a teaching post at the Institute of Royal Arts Museum in 1898, Blossfeldt never received formal training in photography. Blossfeldt developed a series of cameras that allowed him to photograph plant surfaces in unprecedented magnified detail. This reflected his enduring interest in the patterns found in natures textures. His contemporaries were impressed by the shapes and structures in nature that he revealed. He compared him to Maholy-Nagy and the pioneers of New Objectivity, the Surrealists also championed him, and George Bataille included his images in the periodical Documents in 1929. In 2001 Urformen der Kunst was included in The Book of 101 Books as one of the seminal books of the twentieth century. Website Karl-Blossfeldt-Archiv The Portfolio Blossfeldts Urformen der Kunst Masters of Photography article Fine Rare Prints Antique Prints
40.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
41.
WorldCat
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WorldCat is a union catalog that itemizes the collections of 72,000 libraries in 170 countries and territories that participate in the Online Computer Library Center global cooperative. It is operated by OCLC Online Computer Library Center, Inc, the subscribing member libraries collectively maintain WorldCats database. OCLC was founded in 1967 under the leadership of Fred Kilgour and that same year, OCLC began to develop the union catalog technology that would later evolve into WorldCat, the first catalog records were added in 1971. It contains more than 330 million records, representing over 2 billion physical and digital assets in 485 languages and it is the worlds largest bibliographic database. OCLC makes WorldCat itself available free to libraries, but the catalog is the foundation for other subscribtion OCLC services, in 2006, it became possible to search WorldCat directly at its website. In 2007, WorldCat Identities began providing pages for 20 million identities, predominantly authors, WorldCat operates on a batch processing model rather than a real-time model. That is, WorldCat records are synchronized at intermittent intervals with the library catalogs instead of real-time or every day. Consequently, WorldCat shows that an item is owned by a particular library. WorldCat does not indicate whether or not an item is borrowed, lost, undergoing restoration or repair. Furthermore, WorldCat does not show whether or not a library owns multiple copies of a particular title, copac Faceted Application of Subject Terminology Library and Archives Canada Research Libraries UK Online Computer Library Center Grossman, Wendy M. Why you cant find a book in your search engine. Official website OCLC - Web scale discovery and delivery of library resources OCLC Bibliographic Formats and Standards WorldCat Identities
42.
Bibsys
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BIBSYS is an administrative agency set up and organized by the Ministry of Education and Research in Norway. They are a provider, focusing on the exchange, storage and retrieval of data pertaining to research. BIBSYS are collaborating with all Norwegian universities and university colleges as well as research institutions, Bibsys is formally organized as a unit at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, located in Trondheim, Norway. The board of directors is appointed by Norwegian Ministry of Education, BIBSYS offer researchers, students and others an easy access to library resources by providing the unified search service Oria. no and other library services. They also deliver integrated products for the operation for research. As a DataCite member BIBSYS act as a national DataCite representative in Norway and thereby allow all of Norways higher education, all their products and services are developed in cooperation with their member institutions. The purpose of the project was to automate internal library routines, since 1972 Bibsys has evolved from a library system supplier for two libraries in Trondheim, to developing and operating a national library system for Norwegian research and special libraries. The target group has expanded to include the customers of research and special libraries. BIBSYS is an administrative agency answerable to the Ministry of Education and Research. In addition to BIBSYS Library System, the product consists of BISBYS Ask, BIBSYS Brage, BIBSYS Galleri. All operation of applications and databases is performed centrally by BIBSYS, BIBSYS also offer a range of services, both in connection with their products and separate services independent of the products they supply
43.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
