1.
Marmara Region
–
The Marmara Region is a geographical region of Turkey. At the center of the region is the Sea of Marmara, among the seven geographical regions, the Marmara Region has the second-smallest area, yet the largest population, it is the most densely populated region in the country. Islands in the Aegean Sea are Gökçeada and Bozcaada, and in the Sea of Marmara are Marmara Island, Avşa, Paşalimanı, İmralı, summers are warm to hot, humid and moderately dry whereas winters are cold and wet and sometimes snowy. The coastal climate keeps the temperatures relatively mild, provinces of Turkey Golyaka Village, Bursa
2.
Turkey
–
Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
3.
Turkish language
–
Outside of Turkey, significant smaller groups of speakers exist in Germany, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Northern Cyprus, Greece, the Caucasus, and other parts of Europe and Central Asia. Cyprus has requested that the European Union add Turkish as an official EU language, in 1928, as one of Atatürks Reforms in the early years of the Republic of Turkey, the Ottoman Turkish alphabet was replaced with a Latin alphabet. The distinctive characteristics of Turkish are vowel harmony and extensive agglutination, the basic word order of Turkish is subject–object–verb. Turkish has no classes or grammatical gender. Turkish has a strong T–V distinction and usage of honorifics, Turkish uses second-person pronouns that distinguish varying levels of politeness, social distance, age, courtesy or familiarity toward the addressee. The plural second-person pronoun and verb forms are used referring to a person out of respect. Turkic languages belong to the Altaic language group, the Turkic family comprises some 30 living languages spoken across Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Siberia. Turkish is a member of the Oghuz group of languages, a subgroup of the Turkic language family, there is a high degree of mutual intelligibility between Turkish and the other Oghuz Turkic languages, including Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Qashqai, Gagauz, and Balkan Gagauz Turkish. The earliest known Old Turkic inscriptions are the three monumental Orkhon inscriptions found in modern Mongolia, erected in honour of the prince Kul Tigin and his brother Emperor Bilge Khagan, these date back to the second Turk Kaghanate. The Seljuqs of the Oghuz Turks, in particular, brought their language, following the adoption of Islam c. Turkish literature during the Ottoman period, particularly Divan poetry, was influenced by Persian, including the adoption of poetic meters. One of the tasks of the newly established association was to initiate a reform to replace loanwords of Arabic. By banning the usage of imported words in the press, the association succeeded in removing several hundred words from the language. While most of the words introduced to the language by the TDK were newly derived from Turkic roots, owing to this sudden change in the language, older and younger people in Turkey started to differ in their vocabularies. While the generations born before the 1940s tend to use the terms of Arabic or Persian origin. The past few decades have seen the work of the TDK to coin new Turkish words to express new concepts and technologies as they enter the language. Many of these new words, particularly information technology terms, have received widespread acceptance, however, the TDK is occasionally criticized for coining words which sound contrived and artificial. Some earlier changes—such as bölem to replace fırka, political party—also failed to meet with popular approval, some words restored from Old Turkic have taken on specialized meanings, for example betik is now used to mean script in computer science
4.
Wind turbine
–
A wind turbine is a device that converts the winds kinetic energy into electrical power. Wind turbines are manufactured in a range of vertical and horizontal axis types. The smallest turbines are used for such as battery charging for auxiliary power for boats or caravans or to power traffic warning signs. Slightly larger turbines can be used for making contributions to a power supply while selling unused power back to the utility supplier via the electrical grid. Wind turbines were used in Persia about 500–900 A. D, the windwheel of Hero of Alexandria marks one of the first known instances of wind powering a machine in history. However, the first known practical wind turbines were built in Sistan and these Panemone were vertical axle wind turbines, which had long vertical drive shafts with rectangular blades. Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these turbines were used to grind grain or draw up water. Wind turbines first appeared in Europe during the Middle Ages, the first historical records of their use in England date to the 11th or 12th centuries and there are reports of German crusaders taking their windmill-making skills to Syria around 1190. By the 14th century, Dutch wind turbines were in use to areas of the Rhine delta. Advanced wind mills were described by Croatian inventor Fausto Veranzio, in his book Machinae Novae he described vertical axis wind turbines with curved or V-shaped blades. The first electricity-generating wind turbine was a battery charging machine installed in July 1887 by Scottish academic James Blyth to light his home in Marykirk. Some months later American inventor Charles F, although Blyths turbine was considered uneconomical in the United Kingdom electricity generation by wind turbines was more cost effective in countries with widely scattered populations. In Denmark by 1900, there were about 2500 windmills for mechanical loads such as pumps and mills, the largest machines were on 24-meter towers with four-bladed 23-meter diameter rotors. By 1908 there were 72 wind-driven electric generators operating in the United States from 5 kW to 25 kW, around the time of World War I, American windmill makers were producing 100,000 farm windmills each year, mostly for water-pumping. By the 1930s, wind generators for electricity were common on farms, in this period, high-tensile steel was cheap, and the generators were placed atop prefabricated open steel lattice towers. A forerunner of modern wind generators was in service at Yalta. This was a 100 kW generator on a 30-meter tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV distribution system and it was reported to have an annual capacity factor of 32 percent, not much different from current wind machines. In the autumn of 1941, the first megawatt-class wind turbine was synchronized to a utility grid in Vermont, the Smith-Putnam wind turbine only ran for 1,100 hours before suffering a critical failure
5.
Natural gas
–
It is formed when layers of decomposing plant and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of years. The energy that the plants originally obtained from the sun is stored in the form of bonds in the gas. Natural gas is a fuel used as a source of energy for heating, cooking. It is also used as fuel for vehicles and as a feedstock in the manufacture of plastics. Natural gas is found in underground rock formations or associated with other hydrocarbon reservoirs in coal beds. Petroleum is another resource and fossil fuel found in proximity to. Most natural gas was created over time by two mechanisms, biogenic and thermogenic, biogenic gas is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material. In petroleum production gas is burnt as flare gas. The World Bank estimates that over 150 cubic kilometers of gas are flared or vented annually. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, most, Natural gas is often informally referred to simply as gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal. However, it is not to be confused with gasoline, especially in North America, Natural gas was used by the Chinese in about 500 BCE. They discovered a way to transport gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to salt water to extract the salt. The worlds first industrial extraction of gas started at Fredonia, New York. By 2009,66000 km³ had been used out of the total 850000 km³ of estimated remaining reserves of natural gas. An annual increase in usage of 2–3% could result in currently recoverable reserves lasting significantly less, unwanted natural gas was a disposal problem in the active oil fields. If there was not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was expensive to pipe to the end user. In the 19th century and early 20th century, unwanted gas was burned off at oil fields
6.
Renewable energy
–
Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas, electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, based on REN21s 2016 report, renewables contributed 19. 2% to humans global energy consumption and 23. 7% to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 8. 9% coming from biomass,4. 2% as heat energy,3. 9% hydro electricity and 2. 2% is electricity from wind, solar, geothermal. Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$286 billion in 2015, with countries like China, globally, there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer. As of 2015 worldwide, more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable, Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation. In international public opinion there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade, for example, in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply to 100% renewable energy by 2050. While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. Renewable energy systems are becoming more efficient and cheaper. Their share of energy consumption is increasing. Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables, in its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits. New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the financial crisis better than many other sectors. As of 2011, small solar PV systems provide electricity to a few million households, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. Some countries have much higher long-term policy targets of up to 100% renewables, outside Europe, a diverse group of 20 or more other countries target renewable energy shares in the 2020–2030 time frame that range from 10% to 50%
7.
Wind farm
–
A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electricity. A wind farm can also be located offshore, many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in Germany, China and the United States. For example, the largest wind farm in the world, Gansu Wind Farm in China has a capacity of over 6,000 MW of power in 2012 with a goal of 20,000 MW by 2020. The Muppandal Wind farm in Tamil Nadu, India is the largest onshore wind farm outside of China, with a capacity of 1,500 MW. As of April 2013, the 630 MW London Array in the UK is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, followed by the 504 MW Greater Gabbard wind farm in the UK. There are many wind farms under construction, including Fosen Vind, Sinus Holding Wind Farm, Lincs Wind Farm, Lower Snake River Wind Project. As a general rule, economic wind generators require windspeed of 4.5 m/s or greater, an ideal location would have a near constant flow of non-turbulent wind throughout the year, with a minimum likelihood of sudden powerful bursts of wind. An important factor of turbine siting is also access to local demand or transmission capacity, usually sites are screened on the basis of a wind atlas, and validated with wind measurements. Meteorological wind data alone is not sufficient for accurate siting of a large wind power project. Collection of site specific data for wind speed and direction is crucial to determining site potential in order to finance the project, local winds are often monitored for a year or more, and detailed wind maps constructed before wind generators are installed. The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the influence of drag. The increase in velocity with altitude is most dramatic near the surface and is affected by topography, surface roughness, typically, the increase of wind speeds with increasing height follows a wind profile power law, which predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude. Doubling the altitude of a turbine, then, increases the wind speeds by 10%. In general, a distance of 7D is set between each turbine in a fully developed wind farm, but micrositing optimizes placement, particularly in hilly areas, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage transmission system. Construction of a wind farm requires installation of the collector system and substation. The worlds first wind farm was 0.6 MW, consisting of 20 wind turbines rated at 30 kilowatts each, onshore turbine installations in hilly or mountainous regions tend to be on ridgelines generally three kilometres or more inland from the nearest shoreline. This is done to exploit the topographic acceleration as the wind accelerates over a ridge, the additional wind speeds gained in this way can increase energy produced because more wind goes through the turbines
8.
Kilowatt hour
–
The kilowatt-hour is a derived unit of energy equal to 3.6 megajoules. If the energy is being transmitted or used at a constant rate over a period of time, the kilowatt-hour is commonly used as a billing unit for energy delivered to consumers by electric utilities. The kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy equivalent to one kilowatt of power sustained for one hour. 1 k W ⋅ h = =3600 =3600 k J =3.6 M J One watt is equal to 1 J/s. One kilowatt-hour is 3.6 megajoules, which is the amount of energy converted if work is done at a rate of one thousand watts for one hour. The base unit of energy within the International System of Units is the joule, the hour is a unit of time outside the SI, making the kilowatt-hour a non-SI unit of energy. The kilowatt-hour is not listed among the non-SI units accepted by the BIPM for use with the SI, although the hour, an electric heater rated at 1000 watts, operating for one hour uses one kilowatt-hour of energy. A television rated at 100 watts operating for 10 hours continuously uses one kilowatt-hour, a 40-watt light bulb operating continuously for 25 hours uses one kilowatt-hour. Electrical energy is sold in kilowatt-hours, cost of running equipment is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours, the unit price of electricity may depend upon the rate of consumption and the time of day. Industrial users may also have extra charges according to their peak usage, the symbol kWh is commonly used in commercial, educational, scientific and media publications, and is the usual practice in electrical power engineering. Other abbreviations and symbols may be encountered, kW h is less commonly used and it is consistent with SI standards. This is supported by a standard issued jointly by an international and national organization. However, at least one major usage guide and the IEEE/ASTM standard allow kWh, One guide published by NIST specifically recommends avoiding kWh to avoid possible confusion. KW·h is, like kW h, preferred with SI standards, the US official fuel-economy window sticker for electric vehicles uses the abbreviation kW-hrs. Variations in capitalization are sometimes seen, KWh, KWH, kwh, the notation kW/h, as a symbol for kilowatt-hour, is not correct. To convert a quantity measured in a unit in the column to the units in the top row, multiply by the factor in the cell where the row. All the SI prefixes are commonly applied to the watt-hour, a kilowatt-hour is 1,000 W·h (symbols kW·h, kWh or kW h, a megawatt-hour is 1 million W·h, a milliwatt-hour is 1/1000 W·h and so on. Megawatt-hours, gigawatt-hours, and terawatt-hours are often used for metering larger amounts of energy to industrial customers
9.
Siemens Wind Power
–
Siemens Wind Power, is a wind turbine manufacturer established in 1980 as Danregn Vindkraft. Bonus Energy was acquired by Siemens of Germany in 2004, the organisation became a separate division of Siemens in 2011, with headquarters established in Hamburg, Germany. In 2015 Siemens Wind had a market share of 63% of European offshore wind turbines. In 2011, Siemens Wind Power had 6. 3% share of the wind turbine market. In 2016 Siemens Wind and Gamesa agreed a 59,41 merger of their wind businesses, in 1991, eleven 450 kW Bonus turbines were installed in the Vindeby Offshore Wind Farm, the first offshore wind farm in the world. The company sourced its first blades from Viborg based company Økær Vind Energi, later it sourced blades from LM Wind Power. In the late 1990s Bonus began to develop its own blades, Bonus AS was sold to Siemens in 2004 for an undisclosed amount, but before the sale the value was assessed to be somewhere between DKK1.5 and 2.5 billion. The sales and project management headquarters moved to Hamburg, Germany in May 2009. Between 2004 and 2011, Siemens grew wind power from 0. 5% to 5% of the combined Siemens turnover, with employees growing from 800 to 7,800, of which 5,200 are in Denmark, and 1,000 in Germany. Additionally Bonus Energy sales and service partner company AN Windenergie GmbH in Bremen was acquired in 2005, a prototype of the new direct drive design, an IEC61400 wind class IA, 3MW machine was installed near Brande, Denmark in 2009. The 3MW design was launched as a product in April 2010 and significantly reduced complexity, a 2. 3MW version for lower wind speeds was launched in 2011. In 2010 Siemens Wind Power acquired 49% of A2SEA from DONG Energy for a price of DKK 860m, a factory established in Linggang near the Yangshan Deep Water Port began production in 2010. Additionally in December 2010 Siemens announced it would install a factory at an existing unused facility in Tillsonburg, Ontario. In early 2011 Siemens and ABP announced the development of a £210 million turbine assembly plant, in May 2011 testing began of a prototype 6MW direct drive design with a 120 to 154 m rotor, the design was launched as a product in November 2011. In 2013 Siemens announced a development of its 3. 6MW design, the four initial product ranges were Siemens G2, G4, D3 and D6. In July 2012, the agreed to supply Dong Energy with 300 direct drive. Two turbines are to be installed for testing at the Gunfleet Sands offshore wind farm, the value of the contract was estimated at over £2 billion. Prototype 6MW machines were installed at the Gunfleet Sands 2 wind farm in 2013, in 2014 the planned factory at Paull was abandoned, with all production to be concentrated at the Alexandra dock site
10.
Research and development
–
Research and development, also known in Europe as research and technical development, is a general term for activities in connection with corporate or governmental innovation. Research and development is situated at the front end of the life cycle. R&D differs from the vast majority of activities in that it is not intended to yield immediate profit, and generally carries greater risk. New product design and development is more often not a crucial factor in the survival of a company. In an industry that is changing fast, firms must continually revise their design and this is necessary due to continuous technology change and development as well as other competitors and the changing preference of customers. Without an R&D program, a firm must rely on strategic alliances, acquisitions, a system driven by marketing is one that puts the customer needs first, and produces goods that are known to sell. Market research is carried out, which establishes what is needed, if the development is technology driven R&D is directed toward developing products to meet the unmet need. Statistics on organizations devoted to R&D may express the state of an industry, some common measures include, budgets, numbers of patents or on rates of peer-reviewed publications. Bank ratios are one of the best measures, because they are maintained, public. In the United States, a ratio of research and development for an industrial company is about 3. 5% of revenues. A high technolog company, such as a manufacturer, might spend 7% or a pharmaceutical companies such as Merck & Co.14. 1% or Novartis 15. 1%. That is, gross profits will be as much as 90% of the sales cost, with manufacturing costing only 10% of the product price, most industrial companies get 40% revenues only. On a technical level, high tech organizations explore ways to re-purpose and they often reuse advanced manufacturing processes, expensive safety certifications, specialized embedded software, computer-aided design software, electronic designs and mechanical subsystems. Research from 2000 has shown that firms with a persistent R&D strategy outperform those with an irregular or no R&D investment program. Research and development are very difficult to manage, since the feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, higher R&D spending does not guarantee more creativity, research is the most risky financing area because both the development of an invention and its successful realization carries uncertainty including the profitability of the invention. One way of reducing the uncertainty of researching know-hows is to obtain already researched know-hows, president Barack Obama requested $147.696 billion for research & development in FY2012. Much of this spending was devoted to research on the mechanisms of disease
11.
Manisa Province
–
Manisa Province is a province in western Turkey. Its neighboring provinces are İzmir to the west, Aydın to the south, Denizli to the south east, Uşak to the east, Kütahya to the north east, the seat of the province is the city of Manisa. Its provincial capital is the city of Manisa, the code is 45. The Mount Sipylus national park near the city of Manisa covers a richly forested area, hot springs, and the famous crying rock of Niobe, the park boasts of having within its boundaries about 120 varieties of native plants, especially wild tulips. The park provides opportunities for mountaineering and camping, sardis, in Salihli, was the ancient capital of Lydia, once ruled by King Croesus, who was renowned for his wealth. Due to numerous earthquakes, most of the remains date back only to Roman times. There are the remains of the temple of Artemis and a restored gymnasium, the splendid synagogue from the 3rd century is worth visiting, with its elaborate mosaics and artfully carved colored-stone panels. Akhisar, the ancient city of Thyatira, was one of the seven churches of the Book of Revelation, more recently, it became an important commercial center in the province and is its second largest after Manisa. The city of Alaşehir is where the remains of the ancient city of Philadelphia, there is little left of the ancient city, except some ruins of a Byzantine church. Kula houses provide beautiful examples of Ottoman architecture, the villages of the Mount Yunt, the towns of Gördes, Kula and Demirci are famous for their precious carpets and kilims. In addition there are thermal springs throughout the area. The province is highly developed in terms of activities which are concentrated especially in the largest four centers of Manisa, Turgutlu, Akhisar
12.
Hatay Province
–
Hatay Province is a province in southern Turkey, on the eastern Mediterranean coast. The administrative capital is Antakya, and the major city in the province is the port city of İskenderun. It is bordered by Syria to the south and east and the Turkish provinces of Adana, the province is part of Çukurova, a geographical, economical and cultural region that covers the provinces of Mersin, Adana, Osmaniye, and Hatay. There are border crossing points with Syria in the district of Yayladağı, although the two countries have remained generally peaceful in their dispute over the territory, Syria has never formally renounced its claims to it. The region was the center of the Hellenistic Seleucid empire, home to the four Greek cities of the Syrian tetrapolis, from 64 BC onwards the city of Antioch became an important regional centre of the Roman Empire. The area was conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate in 638 and later it came under the control of the Ummayad, from the 11th century onwards, the region was controlled by the Aleppo-based Hamdanids after a brief rule of Ikhshidids. In 969 the city of Antioch was recaptured by the Byzantine Empire and it was conquered by Philaretos Brachamios, a Byzantine general in 1078. He founded a principality from Antioch to Edessa and it was captured by Suleiman I, who was Sultan of Rum, in 1084. It passed to Tutush I, Sultan of Aleppo, in 1086, Seljuk rule lasted 14 years until Hatays capture by the Crusaders in 1098, when it became the centre of the Principality of Antioch. Hatay was captured from the Crusaders by the Mameluks in 1268, by the time it was taken from the Mameluks by the Ottoman Sultan Selim I in 1516, Antakya was a medium-sized town on 2 km² of land between the Orontes River and Mount Habib Neccar. Under the Ottomans the area was known as the sanjak of Alexandretta, a map published circa 1911 highlighted that the ethnic make up was majority Arab with smaller communities of Armenians and Turks. Many consider that Alexandretta had been part of Syria. Maps as far back as 1764 confirm this, during the First World War in which the Ottoman Empire was defeated most of Syria was occupied by the British forces. But when the Armistice of Mudros was signed at the end of the war, nevertheless, after the armistice it was occupied by the British forces an operation which was never accepted by the Ottoman side. Later like the rest of Syria it was handed to France by the British Empire, the subsequent Treaty of Lausanne also put Alexandretta within Syria. A French-Turkish treaty of 20 October 1921 rendered the Sanjak of Alexandretta autonomous, out of 220,000 inhabitants in 1921,87,000 were Turks. Along with Turks the population of the Sanjak included, Arabs of various denominations, Greek Catholics, Syriac-Maronites, Jews, Syriacs, Kurds. In 1923 Hatay was attached to the State of Aleppo, and in 1925 it was attached to the French mandate of Syria
13.
Osmaniye Province
–
Ossdtipppmaniye Province is a Turkish province located in southern Turkey. It existed as a province by the name Cebel-i Bereket in the republic until 1933. It was made a province again in 1996 and it covers an area of 3,767 km² and has a population of 479,221. The province is situated in Çukurova, a geographical, economical and cultural region, the capital of the province is Osmaniye. The next largest towns are Kadirli and Düziçi
14.
Istanbul Province
–
Istanbul Province, also the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality is a province located in north-west Turkey. It has an area of 5,343.02 square kilometres and it is surrounded by the provinces of Tekirdağ to the west, Kocaeli to the east, the Black Sea to the northern part and the Sea of Marmara to the south. The Bosphorus Strait divides the province in two parts, the European side and the Asian side, out of a population of 12.9 million in 2009, roughly 8 million lived on the European side and the remaining 5 million lived on the Asian. The metropolitan municipality of Istanbul has had the boundaries as the province since 2004
15.
Kayseri Province
–
The Kayseri Province is situated in central Turkey. The population is 1,255,349 of which around 1,000,000 live in the city of Kayseri and it covers an area of 16,917 km² and it borders with Sivas, Adana, Niğde, Kahramanmaraş, Yozgat and Nevşehir provinces. The province is an area that has linked with mythological stories as well as important figures in Turkish history. It is located in Anatolia, and surrounded by the Mount Erciyes, the Mount Hasan, the Ali mountain is named like that in honor of Ali Baba, who is said to have lived in the area. Kayseri was first known as the city of Masaka, later, during the Roman period, the provinces name was changed to Kaesarea, then Kayzer before becoming known with its modern name of Kayseri. Danishmend Gazi conquered Kayseri in 1084, the Seljuk Empire then modernised the province, with new buildings and mosques being built around. During this period, the Şifahane, Kayseris first hospital, and it was built in honor of Princess Gevher Nesibe Hatun, daughter of the Sultan. She died of a disease at a young age, construction of the hospital was completed in 1206. Later on, Kayseri became a mecca of poets, artists in Turkey. Seyyid Burhaneddin lived there, and so did others such as Kadı Burhaneddin and Seyrani, sinan the Great, an Ottoman architect, was also from Kayseri. According to Turkish mythology, a man named Hasan Baba would cross mountains during the month of August every year and bring Ali Baba snow, Kayseri is nowadays a province filled with modern buildings and museums. Some of Turkeys most famous statues and monuments are located there, the modern city of Kayseri is in the Melikgazi district
16.
Solar power in Turkey
–
Turkey is located in an advantageous position in the Middle East for solar energy. Compared to the rest of the region, insolation values are higher, the government is aiming for at least 3 gigawatts by 2023. Solar power in Turkey is increasing massively, although solar panel prices are decreasing but still the generation cost of solar power is high as compare to the other power generation methods. Solar potential is high in Turkey, especially in South Eastern Anatolia. The annual average total insolation duration is 2640 hours, average annual solar radiation is 1311 kW·h/ or 3.6 kW·h/. Covering one half of one percent of the area of Turkey with solar panels would be sufficient to generate all of the electricity used. Turkey enacted its second Renewable Energy Law, namely Law No.6094 Concerning the use of Renewable Energy Resources for the Generation of Electrical Energy, turkish government is also encouraging expansion and the utilization of solar energy for electricity generation. EMRA is the competent authority to grant the RER Certificates, systems producing up to 50KW are more lightly regulated than larger ones. Systems producing up to 1-megawatt of energy do not need a license, systems producing over 1-megawatt of energy must be licensed, but only if they feed into the grid. Such licences often become mired in the bureaucracy which is meant to ensure the grid can cope, as of May 2015 600MW of these larger installation tenders have been approved. The one off fee per MW varies considerably depending on the result of each tender, Turkey has a fair feed in tariff. Turkey is already at grid parity for private households and commercial users, in the coming years solar energy will be feasible without any feed-in-tariff mechanism. The main solar energy utilizations in Turkey are the flat-plate collectors in domestic hot water systems, Turkey is one of the leading countries in the world with a total installed capacity of 10 GWth as of 2011 The industry is well developed with high quality manufacturing and export capacity. The number of companies is around 100 and annual manufacturing capacity is 750,000 m², photovoltaics are expected to grow dramatically in the next few years. Solar power plants are manufactured in Turkey and also a prototype dye-sensitized solar cell production plant is to be set up, in 2015, PV produced nearly 700 TeraJoule. The Greenway CSP Mersin Solar Tower Plant has a power of 5 MW constructed at Mersin by Greenway CSP
17.
Geothermal power in Turkey
–
Geothermal energy is thermal energy which is derived from the earths internal heat. Geothermal power in Turkey began in the 1970s in a plant following systematic exploration of geothermal fields. In the 1980s, a first power plant has grown up out of the pilot facility. Turkey is ranked seventh richest country in the world in geothermal potential, the small-sized geothermal power plant was expanded to the countrys biggest one in 2013. Currently, two power plants operate in Turkey and its theoretical geothermal potential is 60GW and potential is 4. 5GW In addition to electric power generation, geothermal heat is used directly. The high geothermal potential is due to such as the Western Anatolian Graben systems. In 1965, the state-owned Turkish Mineral Research and Exploration Co. began with the first geological and geophysical surveys in southwestern Turkey. The Kızıldere geothermal reservoir, a field on the branch of Büyük Menderes Graben, was discovered in 1968 as a geothermal field suitable for electricity generation. The first power plant was built as a facility in 1974 with 500 kW intalled capacity. The generated electricity was distributed to the households in the vicinity free of charge, the state-owned Elektrik Üretim A. Ş. enlarged the installed capacity up to 17.4 MW in 1984. However, the actual power was around 10 MW. In 2008, the plant was transferred to Zorlu Energy in the frame of privatization. Zorlu Energy obtained the right of operating lease for 30 years, the company invested US$250 million to expand the facility. In December 2013, the Kızıldere Geothermal Power Plant reached a capacity of 95 MW making it Turkeys biggest. As of 2005, Turkey had the 5th highest direct usage, Turkeys capacity as of 2005 is 1,495 MWt with a usage of 24,839.9 TJ/year or 6,900.5 GWh/year at a capacity factor of 0.53. As of 2006 and 2010, there were two plants generating 8.5 and 11.5 MWe respectively, in Aydın, the direct-use heating has been mostly district heating serving 103,000 residences. There is also individual space heating,800,000 m2 of heated greenhouses and it is stated that at least 1.5 million houses, currently heated by natural gas, can switch to being heated by thermal waters. As of 2005,170 future geothermal prospects had been identified with 95% in the low-to medium enthalpy range suitable for direct-use applications, in 2010 the installed geothermal electricity generation capacity was 100 MWe while direct use installations were approximately 795 MWt. Gümüşköy Geothermal Power Plant, Germencik, Aydın Province Kızıldere Geothermal Power Plant, Sarayköy, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development is investing $275 million in geothermal energy
18.
Wind power
–
Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electric power. The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of power sources. Wind farms consist of individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network. Onshore wind is a source of electric power, competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or gas plants. Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land, and offshore farms have less visual impact, small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide electric power to isolated off-grid locations. Wind power gives variable power which is consistent from year to year. It is therefore used in conjunction with other power sources to give a reliable supply. As the proportion of power in a region increases, a need to upgrade the grid. In addition, weather forecasting permits the power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur. As of 2015, Denmark generates 40% of its power from wind. In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16% to 369,553 MW, yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4% of worldwide electric power usage,11. 4% in the EU. Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind, for more than two millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water. Wind power was available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams, or later. Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands, and in regions such as the American mid-west or the Australian outback, wind pumps provided water for live stock. The first windmill used for the production of power was built in Scotland in July 1887 by Prof James Blyth of Andersons College. Blyth offered the surplus power to the people of Marykirk for lighting the main street, however. The Brush wind turbine had a rotor 17 metres in diameter and was mounted on an 18 metres tower, although large by todays standards, the machine was only rated at 12 kW. The connected dynamo was used either to charge a bank of batteries or to operate up to 100 incandescent light bulbs, with the development of electric power, wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power
19.
Environmental impact of wind power
–
The environmental impact of wind power when compared to the environmental impacts of fossil fuels, is relatively minor. Compared with other low carbon sources, wind turbines have some of the lowest global warming potential per unit of electrical energy generated. At a residential distance of 300 metres this may be around 45 dB, at 1.5 km distance most wind turbines become inaudible. From a fundamental point of view, it is known that loud noise increases stress and stress causes diseases. Peer-reviewed research has supported the view that when properly sited wind turbines do not affect human health from noise. Aesthetic aspects of wind turbines and resulting changes of the landscape can be significant. Conflicts arise especially in scenic and heritage protected landscapes, siting restrictions have often been implemented to limit any intrusive environmental impacts. There are reports of bird and bat mortality at wind turbines as there are around other artificial structures, the scale of the ecological impact may or may not be significant, depending on specific circumstances. Prevention and mitigation of wildlife fatalities, and protection of bogs, affect the siting. The energy return on investment for wind energy is equal to the electricity generated divided by the cumulative primary energy required to build. However, this paper was rebutted by other scientists, who found serious methodological faults, EROI is strongly proportional to turbine size, and larger late-generation turbines average at the high end of this range, at or above 35. Wind power consumes no water for continuing operation, and has near negligible emissions directly related to its electricity production.05 c€/kWh. Wind power externality costs were found to be 0.09 -0. 12c€/kW, while nuclear energy had a 0.19 c€/kWh value and fossil fuels generated 1.6 -5.8 c€/kWh of downstream costs. With the exception of the fossil fuels, these are negligible costs in comparison to the cost of electricity production. By combining similar data from individual studies in a meta-analysis. However these relatively low pollution values begin to increase as greater and greater energy is added to the grid. Due to the effects of attempting to out the energy demands on the grid. With the latter combination presently being the more common, higher than the direct g/kWh value that is determined from looking at the power source in isolation and thus ignores all down-stream detrimental/inefficiency effects it has on the grid
20.
High-altitude wind power
–
High-altitude wind power is the harnessing of the power of winds high in the sky by use of tether and cable technology. An atlas of the wind power resource has been prepared for all points on Earth. A similar atlas of global assessment was developed at Joby Energy, the results were presented at the first annual Airborne Wind Energy Conference held at Stanford University by Airborne Wind Energy Consortium. Winds at higher altitudes become steadier, more persistent, and of higher velocity, with steadier and more predictable winds, high-altitude wind has an advantage over wind near the ground. Being able to locate HAWP to effective altitudes and using the dimension of airspace for wind farming brings further advantage using high-altitude winds for generating energy. High-altitude wind generators can be adjusted in height and position to maximize energy return, in each range of altitudes there are altitude-specific concerns being addressed by researchers and developers. As altitude increases, tethers increase in length, the temperature of the air changes, HAWP systems that are flown must climb through all intermediate altitudes up to final working altitudes—being at first a low- and then a high- altitude device. When a schemes purpose is to propel ships and boats, the objects tether-placed in the wind will tend to have most of the captured energy be in tension in the main tether. The aloft working bodies will be operated to maintain useful tension even while the ship is moving and this is the method for powerkiting sports. This sector of HAWP is the most installed method, the folklore is that Benjamin Franklin used the traction method of HAWP. George Pocock was a leader in tugging vehicles by traction, HAWP aircraft need to be controlled. Solutions in built systems have control mechanisms variously situated, some systems are passive, or active, or a mix. When a kite steering unit is lofted, the KSU may be robotic and self-contained, some systems have built sensors in the aircraft body that report parameters like position, relative position to other parts. The mechanical energy of the device may be converted to heat, sound, electricity, light, tension, pushes, pulls, laser, microwave, chemical changes, traction is a big direct use of the mechanical energy as in tugging cargo ships and kiteboarders. There are several methods of getting the mechanical energy from the kinetic energy. Lighter-than-air moored aerostats are employed as lifters of turbines, heavier-than-air tethered airfoils are being used as lifters or turbines themselves. Combinations of LTA and HTA devices in one system are being built, even a family of free-flight airborne devices are represented in the literature that capture the kinetic energy of high-altitude winds and a contemporary patent application by Dale C. The kite type AWTs extract energy through wind turbines suspended at high altitudes using kites such as multi-tethered kite, kite and dual purpose circular fan, a long array of secondary options include tugging water turbines, pumping of water, or compressing air or hydrogen
21.
History of wind power
–
Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind. For more than two millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water, Wind power was widely available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams, or later, requiring sources of fuel. Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands, and in regions such as the American mid-west or the Australian outback, wind pumps provided water for livestock. With the development of power, wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power. By 2014, over 240,000 commercial-sized wind turbines were operating in the world, sailboats and sailing ships have been using wind power for at least 5,500 years, and architects have used wind-driven natural ventilation in buildings since similarly ancient times. The use of wind to provide mechanical power came somewhat later in antiquity, the Babylonian emperor Hammurabi planned to use wind power for his ambitious irrigation project in the 17th century BC. The windwheel of the Greek engineer Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is the earliest known instance of using a wheel to power a machine. Another early example of a wheel was the prayer wheel, which has been used in ancient India, Tibet. The first practical windmills were in use in Sistan, a region in Iran and bordering Afghanistan, at least by the 9th century and these Panemone windmills were horizontal windmills, which had long vertical driveshafts with six to twelve rectangular sails covered in reed matting or cloth. These windmills were used to water, and in the gristmilling. The use of windmills became widespread use across the Middle East and Central Asia, vertical windmills were later used extensively in Northwestern Europe to grind flour beginning in the 1180s, and many examples still exist. By 1000 AD, windmills were used to pump seawater for salt-making in China, wind-powered automata are known from the mid-8th century, wind-powered statues that turned with the wind over the domes of the four gates and the palace complex of the Round City of Baghdad. The Green Dome of the palace was surmounted by the statue of a carrying a lance that was believed to point toward the enemy. This public spectacle of wind-powered statues had its counterpart in the Abbasid palaces where automata of various types were predominantly displayed. The first windmills in Europe appear in sources dating to the twelfth century and these early European windmills were sunk post mills. In medieval England rights to waterpower sites were often confined to nobility and clergy, in addition, windmills, unlike water mills, were not rendered inoperable by the freezing of water in the winter. By the 14th century Dutch windmills were in use to areas of the Rhine River delta. Windmills were used to water for salt making on the island of Bermuda
22.
Wind power by country
–
As of the end of 2015, the worldwide total cumulative installed electricity generation capacity from wind power amounted to 432,883 MW, an increase of 17% compared to the previous year. Global wind power installations increased by 63,330 MW,51,447 MW and 35,467 MW in 2015,2014 and 2013 respectively. Since 2010 more than half of all new power was added outside of the traditional markets of Europe and North America, mainly driven by the continuing boom in China. At the end of 2015, China had 145 GW of wind power installed, in 2015, China installed close to half of the worlds added wind power capacity. As of 2011,83 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis, Wind powers share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3. 1%. This section provides end-of-year figures of worldwide installed wind capacity by country. The data is sourced from Global Wind Energy Council, in 2015, global wind power capacity increased by 63,330 MW or 17. 14% from 369,553 MW to 432,883 MW. Electricity Generation by Wind, This table provides end-of-year installed wind capacity for the countries of the world for the years 2004 through 2013. The data source for the 2004 through 2013 figures is the World Wind Energy Association, Installed Wind Energy Capacity, Installed Wind Energy Capacity, Total does not match sum of totals because of different sources
23.
Wind-powered vehicle
–
Wind-powered vehicles derive their power from sails, kites or rotors and ride on wheels—which may be linked to a wind-powered rotor—or runners. At the same time, such vehicles are subject to low forward resistance. As a result, such vehicles are capable of speeds exceeding that of the wind. The wind-powered speed record is by a vehicle with a sail on it, Greenbird, other wind-powered conveyances include sailing vessels that travel on water, and balloons and sailplanes that travel in the air, all of which are beyond the scope of this article. Sail-powered vehicles travel over land or ice at apparent wind speeds that are higher than the wind speed, close-hauled on most points of sail. Both land yachts and ice boats have low resistance to speed. Aerodynamic forces on sails depend on speed and direction and the speed. The direction that the craft is traveling with respect to the wind is called the point of sail. The speed of the craft at a point of sail contributes to the apparent wind —the wind speed. Depending on the alignment of the sail with the apparent wind, because wind-powered vehicles typically sail at apparent wind angles aligned with the leading edge of the sail, the sail acts as an airfoil and lift is the predominant component of propulsion. Land sailing has evolved from a novelty, since the 1950s, the vehicles used in sailing are known as land or sand yachts. They typically have three wheels and function much like a sailboat, except that they are operated from a sitting or lying position, Land sailing is best suited for windy flat areas, races often take place on beaches, airfields, and dry lake beds in desert regions. Iceboats designs are generally supported by three skate blades called runners supporting a triangular or cross-shaped frame with the runner in front. Once the lateral force has been countered by the runner edge. That power increases as the speed of the boat increases, allowing the boat to go faster than the wind. Limitations to iceboat speed are windage, friction, the camber of the shape, strength of construction. Iceboats can sail as close as 7 degrees off the apparent wind, ice boats can achieve speeds as high as ten times the wind speed in good conditions. International DN iceboats often achieve speeds of 48 knots while racing, kite-powered vehicles include buggies that one can ride in and boards that one can stand on as it slides over snow and ice or rolls on wheels over land
24.
Offshore wind power
–
Offshore wind power or offshore wind energy is the use of wind farms constructed offshore, usually on the continental shelf, to harvest wind energy to generate electricity. The cost of wind power has historically been higher than that of onshore wind generation. Similarly, €49. 90/MWh was achieved at the 600 MW Kriegers Flak, as of 2013 the 630 megawatt London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, with the 504 Greater Gabbard wind farm the second largest, followed by the 367 MW Walney Wind Farm. All are off the coast of the UK and these projects will be dwarfed by subsequent wind farms that are in the pipeline, including Dogger Bank at 4,800 MW, Norfolk Bank, and Irish Sea. At the end of June 2013 total European combined offshore wind capacity was 6,040 MW. UK installed 513.5 MW offshore windpower in the first half year of 2013, Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind farms in bodies of water to generate electricity from wind. Europe is the leader in offshore wind power, with the first offshore wind farm being installed in Denmark in 1991. In 2013, offshore wind power contributed to 1,567 MW of the total 11,159 MW of wind power capacity constructed that year, Denmark is second with 1,271 MW installed and Belgium is third with 571 MW. Germany comes fourth with 520 MW, followed by the Netherlands, Sweden, Finland, Ireland, Spain, Norway, by January 2014, the total installed capacity of offshore wind farms in European waters had reached 6,562 MW. By 2015, Siemens Wind Power had installed 63% of the worlds 11 GW offshore wind capacity, Vestas had 19%, Senvion comes third with 8%. Projections for 2020 calculate a wind capacity of 40 GW in European waters. The Chinese government has set targets of 5 GW of installed offshore wind capacity by 2015 and 30 GW by 2020 that would eclipse capacity in other countries. In May 2014 the capacity of wind power in China was 565 MW. Offshore capacity increased by 832 MW in 2016, of which 636 MW were made in China, as of 2010 Siemens and Vestas were turbine suppliers for 90% of offshore wind power, while Dong Energy, Vattenfall and E. on were the leading offshore operators. As of 1 January 2016, about 12 gigawatts of wind power capacity was operational, mainly in Northern Europe. According to BTM Consult, more than 16 GW of additional capacity will be installed before the end of 2014, Offshore wind power capacity is expected to reach a total of 75 GW worldwide by 2020, with significant contributions from China and the United States. More than 100 GW of offshore projects are proposed or under development in Europe, the European Wind Energy Association has set a target of 40 GW installed by 2020 and 150 GW by 2030. There are many large wind farms under construction including Gwynt y Môr, Borkum West II
25.
Wind turbines on public display
–
The great majority of wind turbines around the world belong to individuals or corporations who use them to generate electric power or to perform mechanical work. As such, wind turbines are designed to be working devices. However, the size and height above surroundings of modern industrial wind turbines, combined with their moving rotors. A few localities have exploited the attention-getting nature of wind turbines by placing them on display, either with visitor centers on their bases. Also doubles as a centre, cafe and education provider. The center sits on a ridge at 3,500 ft. in the middle of the 149 turbine facility, the Wild Horse Wind Farm is open to visitors from 9, 00-5,30 daily, from April through November. The observation decks are accessed with stairs inside the tower, Austria Wind turbine at Pesendorf, Lichtenegg, Lower Austria. Germany One wind turbine at Windpark Holtriem, type Enercon E-66 Visitor wind turbine Windfang nearby Aachen. Type Enron Wind 1. 5s United Kingdom Another Enercon E-66 wind turbine with an observation deck belonging to Ecotricity is in the English town of Swaffham
26.
Windmill
–
A windmill is a mill that converts the energy of wind into rotational energy by means of vanes called sails or blades. Centuries ago, windmills usually were used to mill grain, pump water, thus they often were gristmills, windpumps, or both. The majority of modern windmills take the form of wind turbines used to generate electricity, the windwheel of the Greek engineer Heron of Alexandria in the first century is the earliest known instance of using a wind-driven wheel to power a machine. Another early example of a wheel was the prayer wheel. It has been claimed that the Babylonian emperor Hammurabi planned to use wind power for his ambitious project in the seventeenth century BCE. The first practical windmills had sails that rotated in a horizontal plane, according to Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, these panemone windmills were invented in eastern Persia as recorded by the Persian geographer Estakhri in the ninth century. The authenticity of an anecdote of a windmill involving the second caliph Umar is questioned on the grounds that it appears in a tenth-century document. Made of six to 12 sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grain or draw up water, Windmills were in widespread use across the Middle East and Central Asia, and later spread to China and India from there. A similar type of windmill with rectangular blades, used for irrigation, can also be found in thirteenth-century China. Horizontal windmills were built, in numbers, in Europe during the 18th and nineteenth centuries, for example Fowlers Mill at Battersea in London. Due to a lack of evidence, debate occurs among historians as to whether or not Middle Eastern horizontal windmills triggered the development of European windmills. In northwestern Europe, the horizontal-axis or vertical windmill is believed to date from the last quarter of the century in the triangle of northern France, eastern England. The earliest certain reference to a windmill in Europe dates from 1185, a number of earlier, but less certainly dated, twelfth-century European sources referring to windmills have also been found. These earliest mills were used to grind cereals, the evidence at present is that the earliest type of European windmill was the post mill, so named because of the large upright post on which the mills main structure is balanced. The body contains all the milling machinery, the first post mills were of the sunken type, where the post was buried in an earth mound to support it. Later, a wooden support was developed called the trestle and this was often covered over or surrounded by a roundhouse to protect the trestle from the weather and to provide storage space. This type of windmill was the most common in Europe until the nineteenth century, in a hollow-post mill, the post on which the body is mounted is hollowed out, to accommodate the drive shaft. This makes it possible to drive machinery below or outside the body still being able to rotate the body into the wind
27.
Wind-turbine aerodynamics
–
The primary application of wind turbines is to generate energy using the wind. Hence, the aerodynamics is an important aspect of wind turbines. Like most machines, there are different types of wind turbines. Though the details of the aerodynamics depend very much on the topology, every topology has a maximum power for a given flow, and some topologies are better than others. The method used to power has a strong influence on this. In general, all turbines may be grouped as being either lift-based, or drag-based, the difference between these groups is the aerodynamic force that is used to extract the energy. The most common topology is the wind turbine. It is a wind turbine with very good performance. Accordingly, it is a choice for commercial applications and much research has been applied to this turbine. Despite being a popular lift-based alternative in the part of the 20th century. The Savonius wind turbine is the most common drag type turbine, despite its low efficiency, it remains in use because of its robustness and simplicity to build and maintain. The governing equation for power extraction is stated below, Where, P is the power, F is the force vector, the force F is generated by the winds interaction with the blade. The magnitude and distribution of force is the primary focus of wind-turbine aerodynamics. The most familiar type of force is drag. The direction of the force is parallel to the relative wind. Typically, the wind turbine parts are moving, altering the flow around the part, an example of relative wind is the wind one would feel cycling on a calm day. To extract power, the part must move in the direction of the net force. In the drag force case, the wind speed decreases subsequently
28.
Airborne wind turbine
–
An electrical generator may be on the ground or airborne. Airborne wind turbines may operate in low or high altitudes, they are part of a class of Airborne Wind Energy Systems addressed by high-altitude wind power. When the generator is on the ground, then the tethered aircraft need not carry the mass or have a conductive tether. When the generator is aloft, then a conductive tether would be used to transmit energy to the ground or used aloft or beamed to receivers using microwave or laser. Kites and helicopters come down there is insufficient wind, kytoons. Also, bad weather such as lightning or thunderstorms, could temporarily suspend use of the machines, probably requiring them to be back down to the ground. Some schemes require a power cable and, if the turbine is high enough. As of July 2015, no commercial airborne wind turbines are in regular operation, an aerodynamic airborne wind power system relies on the wind for support. Miles L. Loyd proposed and analyzed an efficient AWES in his work Crosswind Kite Power in 1980, Power output of AWES with crosswind wing motion is proportional to a square of a lift/drag ratio of the wing. According to its designers, while some of the energy in the wind would be lost on lift, since the winds usually blow horizontally, the turbines would be at an angle from the horizontal, catching winds while still generating lift. Deployment could be done by feeding electricity to the turbines, which would turn them into electric motors, the Dutch ex-astronaut and physicist Wubbo Ockels, working with the Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands, has designed and demonstrated an airborne wind turbine he called a Laddermill. It consists of a loop of kites. The kites lift up one end of the loop. A team from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in the United States has developed a smaller-scale with an output of about 1 kW. It uses a kite to induce a rocking motion in a pivoting beam. The KiteGen uses a prototype wind turbine. It is a plan that consists of one wind farm with a vertical spin axis. Generating equipment would remain on the ground, and only the airfoils are supported by the wind, such a wind power plant would be capable of producing the energy equivalent to a nuclear plant, while using an area of few square kilometres, without occupying it exclusively
29.
Crosswind kite power
–
These systems at many scales from toy to power-grid-feeding sizes may be used as high-altitude wind power devices or low-altitude wind power devices without having to use towers. Flexible wings or rigid wings may be used in the kite system, a tethered wing, flying in crosswind at many times wind speed, harvests wind power from an area that is many times exceeding the wing’s own area. Additionally, the wings of the CWKPS may vary in aerodynamic efficiency, however, a conventional traverse-to-wind rotating blade set carried aloft in a kite-power system has the blade set cutting to crosswind and is a form of crosswind kite power. Miles L. Loyd furthered studies on crosswind kite power systems in his work Crosswind Kite Power in 1980, some believe that crosswind kite power was introduced by P. Payne and C. How a system extracts energy from the wind and transfers energy to useful purposes helps to define types of crosswind kite power systems, one typing parameter regards the position of the generator or pump or tasking line or device. Some types are distinguished by fast motion transfer or slow motion transfer, types of crosswind kite power devices are also distinguished by scale, purpose, intended life, and cost level. Typing by economic success occurs, is the system effective in the energy or task market or not. Some CWKPS are a type called lifters, they are purposed just for lifting loads, perhaps humans, a single crosswind kite power system may be a hybrid complex performing aloft energy generation while also performing ground-based work through tether pulling of loads. The crosswind kite power systems that involve fluttering elements are being explored in research centers. Researchers are showing types of CWKPS that are difficult to classify or type, in the systems of this type of CWKPS, the pulling tether set drives the resisting people and objects to various points on the surface of water bodies or land or points in the atmosphere. In this type of crosswind kite power operation, the design of the resistive objects makes for further types, crosswinding of the upper flying wings provide power to achieve certain final objectives. The objectives are found in such as kiteboarding, kite windsurfing, snowkiting, yacht kiting, freighter-ship sailing, kite boating, in the systems of this type, an electrical generator, pump, or tasking line is installed on the ground. There are two subtypes, with or without a secondary vehicle. g, a figure-8 flight path, or optimized lemniscate paths, or circular paths. The turning drum rotates the rotor of the generator or pump through, perhaps, in some systems two tethers are used instead of one. In another subtype, a vehicle is used. Such a vehicle can be a carousel, a car, railed cart, wheeled land vehicle, the electrical generator is installed on the vehicle. The rotor of the generator is brought in motion by the carousel. In the systems of type, one or more flying blades
30.
Darrieus wind turbine
–
The Darrieus wind turbine is a type of vertical axis wind turbine used to generate electricity from the energy carried in the wind. The turbine consists of a number of curved aerofoil blades mounted on a rotating shaft or framework. The curvature of the blades allows the blade to be stressed only in tension at high rotating speeds, there are several closely related wind turbines that use straight blades. This design of wind turbine was patented by Georges Jean Marie Darrieus, there are major difficulties in protecting the Darrieus turbine from extreme wind conditions and in making it self-starting. This arrangement is equally effective no matter which direction the wind is blowing—in contrast to the conventional type, when the Darrieus rotor is spinning, the aerofoils are moving forward through the air in a circular path. Relative to the blade, this oncoming airflow is added vectorially to the wind and this generates a net force pointing obliquely forwards along a certain line-of-action. This force can be projected inwards past the turbine axis at a distance, giving a positive torque to the shaft. The aerodynamic principles which rotate the rotor are equivalent to that in autogiros, the rotor spins at a rate unrelated to the windspeed, and usually many times faster. The energy arising from the torque and speed may be extracted and converted into power by using an electrical generator. The aeronautical terms lift and drag are, strictly speaking, forces across and along the approaching net relative airflow respectively and we really want to know the tangential force pulling the blade around, and the radial force acting against the bearings. When the rotor is stationary, no net rotational force arises, thus the design is not normally self-starting. Under rare conditions, Darrieus rotors can self-start, so some form of brake is required to hold it when stopped. One problem with the design is that the angle of attack changes as the turbine spins and this leads to a sinusoidal power cycle that complicates design. In particular, almost all Darrieus turbines have resonant modes where, at a rotational speed. For this reason, most Darrieus turbines have mechanical brakes or other speed control devices to keep the turbine spinning at these speeds for any lengthy period of time. Another problem arises because the majority of the mass of the mechanism is at the periphery rather than at the hub. This leads to very high centrifugal stresses on the mechanism, which must be stronger and heavier than otherwise to withstand them. One common approach to minimise this is to curve the wings into a shape such that they are self-supporting and do not require such heavy supports
31.
Wind turbine design
–
Wind turbine design is the process of defining the form and specifications of a wind turbine to extract energy from the wind. This article covers the design of horizontal axis wind turbines since the majority of commercial turbines use this design and this Betz law limit can be approached by modern turbine designs which may reach 70 to 80% of this theoretical limit. In addition to design of the blades, design of a complete wind power system must also address design of the hub, controls, generator, supporting structure. Further design questions arise when integrating wind turbines into electrical power grids, the aerodynamics of a horizontal-axis wind turbine are not straightforward. The air flow at the blades is not the same as the far away from the turbine. The very nature of the way in energy is extracted from the air also causes air to be deflected by the turbine. In addition the aerodynamics of a turbine at the rotor surface exhibit phenomena that are rarely seen in other aerodynamic fields. This Betz law limit can be approached by modern turbine designs which may reach 70 to 80% of this theoretical limit, the speed at which a wind turbine rotates must be controlled for efficient power generation and to keep the turbine components within designed speed and torque limits. The centrifugal force on the spinning blades increases as the square of the rotation speed, because the power of the wind increases as the cube of the wind speed, turbines have to be built to survive much higher wind loads than those from which they can practically generate power. Wind turbines have ways of reducing torque in high winds, a wind turbine is designed to produce power over a range of wind speeds. The cut-in speed is around 3-4 m/s for most turbines, if the rated wind speed is exceeded the power has to be limited. There are various ways to achieve this, all wind turbines are designed for a maximum wind speed, called the survival speed, above which they will be damaged. The survival speed of wind turbines is in the range of 40 m/s to 72 m/s. The most common speed is 60 m/s. Stalling works by increasing the angle at which the relative wind strikes the blades, stalling is simple because it can be made to happen passively, but it increases the cross-section of the blade face-on to the wind, and thus the ordinary drag. A fully stalled turbine blade, when stopped, has the side of the blade facing directly into the wind. A fixed-speed HAWT inherently increases its angle of attack at higher speed as the blades speed up. A natural strategy, then, is to allow the blade to stall when the speed increases
32.
Floating wind turbine
–
A floating wind turbine is an offshore wind turbine mounted on a floating structure that allows the turbine to generate electricity in water depths where bottom-mounted towers are not feasible. Locating wind farms out at sea can reduce visual pollution while providing better accommodation for fishing and shipping lanes, in addition, the wind is typically more consistent and stronger over the sea, due to the absence of topographic features that disrupt wind flow. Floating wind parks are wind farms that site several floating wind turbines closely together to take advantage of common infrastructure such as power transmission facilities, the concept for large-scale offshore floating wind turbines was introduced by Professor William E. Heronemus at the University of Massachusetts Amherst in 1972. It was not until the mid 1990s, after the wind industry was well established. As of 2003, existing offshore fixed-bottom wind turbine technology deployments had been limited to depths of 30 metres. Two-thirds of the North Sea is between 50 and 220 meters deep, in June 2013, the University of Maine made history with its VolturnUS1,8, a 65-foot-tall floating turbine prototype that is 1, 8th the scale of a 6-megawatt, 450-foot rotor diameter design. VolturnUS1,8 was the first grid-connected offshore wind turbine deployed in the Americas, the VolturnUS technology is the culmination of collaborative research and development conducted by the University of Maine-led DeepCwind Consortium. Department of Energy to participate in the Offshore Wind Advanced Technology Demonstration program, in 2011 three floating wind turbine support structures were installed. Blue H Technologies deployed the first 80-kW floating wind turbine 21.3 kilometres off the coast of Italy in December 2007 and it was then decommissioned at the end of 2008 after completing a planned test year of gathering operational data. The first large-capacity,2. 3-megawatt floating wind turbine is Hywind, which became operational in the North Sea near Norway in September 2009, in October 2011, Principle Powers WindFloat Prototype was installed 4 km offshore of Aguçadoura, Portugal in approximately 45 m of water. The WindFloat was fitted with a Vestas V802. 0-MW offshore wind turbine and this is the first offshore wind turbine installed in open Atlantic waters, and the first to employ a semi-submersible type floating foundation. SeaTwirl deployed its first floating grid connected wind turbine off the coast of Sweden in August 2011 and this design intends to store energy in a flywheel. Thus, energy could be produced even after the wind has stopped blowing, Blue H Technologies of the Netherlands operated the first floating wind turbine, a prototype deep-water platform with an 80-kilowatt turbine off the coast of Apulia, southeast Italy, in 2008. Installed 21 km off the coast in waters 113 metres deep in order to gather test data on wind and sea conditions, Blue H Technologies utilized a tension-leg platform design and a two-bladed turbine. The two-bladed design can have a much larger chord, which allows a higher tip speed than those of three-bladers. As of 2009, Blue H Technologies was building a full-scale commercial 2. 4-MWe unit in Brindisi and this is the first unit in the planned 90-MW Tricase offshore wind farm, located more than 20 km off the Puglia coast line. The worlds first operational deep-water floating large-capacity wind turbine is the Hywind, the Hywind was towed out to sea in early June 2009. The 2. 3-megawatt turbine was constructed by Siemens Wind Power, the float tower was constructed by Technip
33.
Savonius wind turbine
–
Savonius wind turbines are a type of vertical-axis wind turbine, used for converting the force of the wind into torque on a rotating shaft. The turbine consists of a number of aerofoils, usually—but not always—vertically mounted on a shaft or framework. The Savonius wind turbine was invented by the Finnish engineer Sigurd Johannes Savonius in 1922, however, Europeans had been experimenting with curved blades on vertical wind turbines for many decades before this. The earliest mention is by the Italian Bishop of Czanad, Fausto Veranzio and he wrote in his 1616 book Machinae novae about several vertical axis wind turbines with curved or V-shaped blades. None of his or any other earlier examples reached the state of development made by Savonius, in his Finnish biography there is mention of his intention to develop a turbine-type similar to the Flettner-type, but autorotationary. He experimented with his rotor on small rowing vessels on lakes in his country, no results of his particular investigations are known, but the Magnus-Effect is confirmed by König. The two Savonius patents, US1697574, filed in 1925 by Sigurd Johannes Savonius, and US1766765, the Savonius turbine is one of the simplest turbines. Aerodynamically, it is a device, consisting of two or three scoops. Looking down on the rotor from above, a machine would look like an S shape in cross section. Because of the curvature, the experience less drag when moving against the wind than when moving with the wind. The differential drag causes the Savonius turbine to spin, because they are drag-type devices, Savonius turbines extract much less of the winds power than other similarly-sized lift-type turbines. The angular frequency of a rotor is given by ω = λ ⋅ v r, the range λ varies within is characteristic of a specific windmill, and for a Savonius rotor λ is typically around ≈1. Savonius turbines are used whenever cost or reliability is more important than efficiency. Most anemometers are Savonius turbines for this reason, as efficiency is irrelevant to the application of measuring wind speed, much larger Savonius turbines have been used to generate electric power on deep-water buoys, which need small amounts of power and get very little maintenance. Design is simplified because, unlike with horizontal axis turbines, no pointing mechanism is required to allow for shifting wind direction. Savonius and other machines are good at pumping water and other high torque. The most ubiquitous application of the Savonius wind turbine is the Flettner Ventilator, the ventilator was developed by the German aircraft engineer Anton Flettner in the 1920s. It uses the Savonius wind turbine to drive an extractor fan, the vents are still manufactured in the UK by Flettner Ventilator Limited
34.
Small wind turbine
–
A small wind turbine is a wind turbine used for microgeneration, as opposed to large commercial wind turbines, such as those found in wind farms, with greater individual power output. The Canadian Wind Energy Association defines small wind as ranging from less than 1000 Watt turbines up to 300 kW turbines, the smaller turbines may be as small as a 50 Watt auxiliary power generator for a boat, caravan, or miniature refrigeration unit. Smaller scale turbines for residential use are available. Their blades are usually 1.5 to 3.5 metres in diameter and it is claimed, and a few are certified, as being inaudible even a few feet under the turbine. The majority of wind turbines are traditional horizontal axis wind turbines. Makers of vertical wind turbines such as WePower, Urban Green Energy, Helix Wind. The generators for wind turbines usually are three-phase alternating current generators. They are options for direct current output for battery charging and power inverters to convert the back to AC. Some small wind turbines can be designed to work at low wind speeds, dynamic braking regulates the speed by dumping excess energy, so that the turbine continues to produce electricity even in high winds. The dynamic braking resistor may be installed inside the building to provide heat, the location makes low voltage distribution practical. Small units often have direct drive generators, direct current output, lifetime bearings, larger, more costly turbines generally have geared power trains, alternating current output and are actively pointed into the wind. Direct drive generators are used on some large wind turbines. Turbines are often mounted on a tower to raise them above any nearby obstacles, one rule of thumb is that turbines should be at least 30 ft higher than anything within 500 ft. Better locations for wind turbines are far away from large upwind obstacles, measurements made in a boundary layer wind tunnel have indicated that significant detrimental effects associated with nearby obstacles can extend up to 80 times the obstacles height downwind. However, this is an extreme case, another approach to siting a small turbine is to use a shelter model to predict how nearby obstacles will affect local wind conditions. Models of this type are general and can be applied to any site, a small wind turbine can be installed on a roof. Installation issues then include the strength of the roof, vibration, small-scale rooftop turbines suffer from turbulence and rarely generate significant amounts of power, especially in towns and cities. In July 2012, a new feed-in tariff approved by Japanese Industry Minister Yukio Edano went into effect, promising to boost the production of wind
