1.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
United Kingdom
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Stonehenge, in
Wiltshire, was erected around 2500 BC.
United Kingdom
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Flag
United Kingdom
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The
Bayeux Tapestry depicts the
Battle of Hastings, 1066, and the events leading to it.
United Kingdom
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The
Treaty of Union led to a single united kingdom encompassing all Great Britain.
2.
Wind power
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Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electric power. The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of power sources. Wind farms consist of individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network. Onshore wind is a source of electric power, competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or gas plants. Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land, and offshore farms have less visual impact, small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide electric power to isolated off-grid locations. Wind power gives variable power which is consistent from year to year. It is therefore used in conjunction with other power sources to give a reliable supply. As the proportion of power in a region increases, a need to upgrade the grid. In addition, weather forecasting permits the power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur. As of 2015, Denmark generates 40% of its power from wind. In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16% to 369,553 MW, yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4% of worldwide electric power usage,11. 4% in the EU. Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind, for more than two millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water. Wind power was available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams, or later. Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands, and in regions such as the American mid-west or the Australian outback, wind pumps provided water for live stock. The first windmill used for the production of power was built in Scotland in July 1887 by Prof James Blyth of Andersons College. Blyth offered the surplus power to the people of Marykirk for lighting the main street, however. The Brush wind turbine had a rotor 17 metres in diameter and was mounted on an 18 metres tower, although large by todays standards, the machine was only rated at 12 kW. The connected dynamo was used either to charge a bank of batteries or to operate up to 100 incandescent light bulbs, with the development of electric power, wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power
Wind power
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Wind power stations in Xinjiang, China
Wind power
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Charles Brush's windmill of 1888, used for generating electricity.
Wind power
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The world's second full-scale
floating wind turbine (and first to be installed without the use of heavy-lift vessels), WindFloat, operating at rated capacity (2 MW) approximately 5 km offshore of
Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal
3.
Energy in the United Kingdom
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Energy use in the United Kingdom stood at 2,249 TWh in 2014. This equates to energy consumption per capita of 34.82 MWh compared to a 2010 world average of 21.54 MWh, demand for electricity in 2014 was 34. 42GW on average coming from a total electricity generation of 335. 0TWh. Successive UK governments have outlined numerous commitments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, notably, the UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply, in 2014 it generated 9. 3% of the UKs total electricity. Government commitments to reduce emissions are occurring against a backdrop of economic crisis across Europe, during the European financial crisis, Europe’s consumption of electricity shrank by 5%, with primary production also facing a noticeable decline. Britains trade deficit was reduced by 8% due to cuts in energy imports. Between 2007 and 2015, the UKs peak electrical demand fell from 61.5 GW to 52.7. GW, UK government energy policy aims to play a key role in limiting greenhouse gas emissions, whilst meeting energy demand. Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the energy mix through changes in costs. In 2016, the United Kingdom was ranked 12th in the World on the Environmental Performance Index, as recently as 2004, the UK was a net exporter of energy, however by 2010, more than 25% of UK energy was imported. Scotland cut climate emissions by around 46% between 1990 and 2014, Scotland aims to have a carbon-free electricity sector based on renewable energy sources by 2032. Scotland also aims to repair 250,000 hectares of degraded peatlands, during 2008, the total energy consumed in the United Kingdom was 234.4 million tonnes of oil equivalent. Concerns over peak oil have been raised by high-profile voices in the United Kingdom such as Sir David King, the latters 2010 report states that The next five years will see us face another crunch - the oil crunch. This time, we do have the chance to prepare, the challenge is to use that time well. United Kingdom produced 60% of its natural gas in 2010. In five years the United Kingdom moved from almost gas self-sufficient to 40% gas import in 2010, Gas was almost 40% of total primary energy supply and electricity more than 45% in 2010. Underground storage was about 5% of annual demand and more than 10% of net imports, there is an alternative fuel obligation in the United Kingdom. Gasfields include Amethyst gasfield, Armada gasfield, Easington Catchment Area, East Knapton, Everest gasfield, a gas leak occurred in March 2012 at the Elgin-Franklin fields, where about 200,000 cubic metres of gas was escaping every day. Total missed out on about £83m of potential income, during the 1960s growth slowed as the market became saturated. The United Kingdom is planning to reform its electricity market and it plans to introduce a capacity mechanism and contracts for difference to encourage the building of new generation
Energy in the United Kingdom
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London by night seen from the
International Space Station.
Energy in the United Kingdom
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A graph showing UK electricity demand mapped over electricity supplied to the grid by wind power since 2011.
Energy in the United Kingdom
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The former
Battersea Power Station
Energy in the United Kingdom
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A typical offshore oil/gas platform
4.
Gigawatts
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The watt is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units defined as 1 joule per second and can be used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. Power has dimensions of M L2 T −3, when an objects velocity is held constant at one meter per second against constant opposing force of one newton the rate at which work is done is 1 watt. 1 W =1 V ⋅ A Two additional unit conversions for watt can be using the above equation. 1 W =1 V2 Ω =1 A2 ⋅ Ω Where ohm is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance, a person having a mass of 100 kilograms who climbs a 3-meter-high ladder in 5 seconds is doing work at a rate of about 600 watts. Mass times acceleration due to gravity times height divided by the time it takes to lift the object to the given height gives the rate of doing work or power. A laborer over the course of an 8-hour day can sustain an output of about 75 watts, higher power levels can be achieved for short intervals. The watt is named after the Scottish scientist James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, in 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted it for the measurement of power into the International System of Units. For additional examples of magnitude for multiples and submultiples of the watt, technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in reference to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and these input levels are often stated in dBf. This is 0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load, the picowatt is equal to one trillionth of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers, acoustics, the nanowatt is equal to one billionth of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nanowatts are also used in reference to radio. The microwatt is equal to one millionth of a watt, compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts. The milliwatt is equal to one thousandth of a watt, a typical laser pointer outputs about five milliwatts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milliwatt. Audio signals and other electronic signal levels are measured in dBm. The kilowatt is equal to one thousand watts and this unit is typically used to express the output power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters. It is also a unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio. One kilowatt is equal to 1.34 horsepower
Gigawatts
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Base units
5.
Megawatts
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The watt is a derived unit of power in the International System of Units defined as 1 joule per second and can be used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. Power has dimensions of M L2 T −3, when an objects velocity is held constant at one meter per second against constant opposing force of one newton the rate at which work is done is 1 watt. 1 W =1 V ⋅ A Two additional unit conversions for watt can be using the above equation. 1 W =1 V2 Ω =1 A2 ⋅ Ω Where ohm is the SI derived unit of electrical resistance, a person having a mass of 100 kilograms who climbs a 3-meter-high ladder in 5 seconds is doing work at a rate of about 600 watts. Mass times acceleration due to gravity times height divided by the time it takes to lift the object to the given height gives the rate of doing work or power. A laborer over the course of an 8-hour day can sustain an output of about 75 watts, higher power levels can be achieved for short intervals. The watt is named after the Scottish scientist James Watt for his contributions to the development of the steam engine, in 1960 the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measures adopted it for the measurement of power into the International System of Units. For additional examples of magnitude for multiples and submultiples of the watt, technologically important powers that are measured in femtowatts are typically found in reference to radio and radar receivers. For example, meaningful FM tuner performance figures for sensitivity, quieting and these input levels are often stated in dBf. This is 0.2739 microvolt across a 75-ohm load or 0.5477 microvolt across a 300-ohm load, the picowatt is equal to one trillionth of a watt. Technologically important powers that are measured in picowatts are typically used in reference to radio and radar receivers, acoustics, the nanowatt is equal to one billionth of a watt. Important powers that are measured in nanowatts are also used in reference to radio. The microwatt is equal to one millionth of a watt, compact solar cells for devices such as calculators and watches are typically measured in microwatts. The milliwatt is equal to one thousandth of a watt, a typical laser pointer outputs about five milliwatts of light power, whereas a typical hearing aid for people uses less than one milliwatt. Audio signals and other electronic signal levels are measured in dBm. The kilowatt is equal to one thousand watts and this unit is typically used to express the output power of engines and the power of electric motors, tools, machines, and heaters. It is also a unit used to express the electromagnetic power output of broadcast radio. One kilowatt is equal to 1.34 horsepower
Megawatts
–
Base units
6.
Wind power in China
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China is a world leader in wind power generation, with the largest installed capacity of any nation and continued rapid growth in new wind facilities. With its large mass and long coastline, China has exceptional wind power resources. In 2016, China added 19.3 GW of wind generation capacity to reach a total capacity of 149 GW. Due to a higher capacity factor, the United States remains, by a slight margin. China is forecast to have 250 GW of wind capacity by 2020 as part of the pledge to produce 15 percent of all electricity from renewable resources in this year. As of end 2015 the countries ranked by total installations were,1. However, in practice, the use of energy in China has not always kept up with the remarkable construction of wind power capacity in the country. The largest domestic wind turbine manufacturer in China is Goldwind from Xinjiang province, established in 1998, Goldwind aggressively developed new technology and expanded its market share, though this then decreased from 35% in 2006 to 19% in 2012. As of 2014, Goldwind remains the largest competitor in the Chinese wind energy market and it is followed by Guodian United Power Technology Company at 11%, and Mingyang Wind Power at 9%. The China Longyuan Electric Power Group Corp. another subsidiary of China Guodian Corporation, was a pioneer in wind farm operation. Chinese developers unveiled the world’s first permanent Maglev wind turbine at the Wind Power Asia Exhibition 2006 held June 28 in Beijing, the Zhongke Hengyuan Energy Technology company invested CN¥400 million in building the base for the maglev wind turbine generators, in which construction began in November 2007. Zhongke Hengyuan expects a yearly revenue of CN¥1.6 billion from the generators, in 2005, the standing committee of the National Peoples Congress passed a law that requires Chinese power grid enterprises to purchase all the electricity produced by the renewable energy sector. Shanghai’s city government did not purchase any renewable energy, of the top ten power customers in Shanghai, only Bao Steel purchased renewable energy, in 2006 Bao Steel entered into an agreement to purchase 1.2 GWh over three years. Over the past several years new wind farms have been built in Shanghai, including the Nanhui Wind Farm, the Qinjian Bay Wind Farm, together these three wind farms have 18 wind turbines with a total of 24.4 MW. By the end of 2008, at least 15 Chinese companies were commercially producing wind turbines, turbine sizes of 1.5 MW to 3 MW became common. Leading wind power companies in China were Goldwind, Dongfang Electric, China also increased production of small-scale wind turbines to about 80,000 turbines in 2008. Through all these developments, the Chinese wind industry appeared unaffected by the financial crisis. In 2010, China became the largest wind energy provider worldwide, with the wind power capacity reaching 41.8 GW at the end of 2010
Wind power in China
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Wind farm in
Xinjiang, China
Wind power in China
Wind power in China
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A wind power turbine in
Liu'ao Peninsula,
Fujian
Wind power in China
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A
Goldwind wind farm outside of
Urumqi,
Xinjiang
7.
Wind power in the United States
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Wind power in the United States is a branch of the energy industry, that has expanded quickly over the latest several years. For calendar year 2016, wind power in the United States amounted to 226.5 terawatt-hours, as of January 2017, the U. S. nameplate generating capacity for wind power was 82,183 megawatts. This capacity is exceeded only by China and the European Union, thus far, wind powers largest growth in capacity was in 2012, when 11,895 MW of wind power was installed, representing 26. 5% of new power capacity. In 2016, Nebraska became the state to have installed over 1,000 MW of wind power capacity. Texas, with over 20,000 MW of capacity, had the most installed wind capacity of any U. S. state at the end of 2016. Texas also had more under construction than any state currently has installed. The state generating the highest percentage of energy from power is Iowa. North Dakota has the most per capita wind generation, the Alta Wind Energy Center in California is the largest wind farm in the United States with a capacity of 1548 MW. GE Energy is the largest domestic wind turbine manufacturer, the first municipal use of multiple wind-electric turbines in the USA may have been a five turbine system in Pettibone, North Dakota in 1940. These were commercial Wincharger units on guyed towers, in 1980 the worlds first wind farm, consisting of twenty 30 kW wind turbines was installed at Crotched Mountain, in New Hampshire. From 1974 through the mid-1980s the United States government worked with industry to advance the technology, a total of 13 experimental wind turbines were put into operation, in four major wind turbine designs. Later, in the 1980s, California provided tax rebates for wind power and these rebates funded the first major use of wind power for utility electric power. These machines, gathered in large wind parks such as at Altamont Pass would be considered small, in 1985 half of the worlds wind energy was generated at Altamont Pass. By the end of 1986 about 6,700 wind turbines, mostly less than 100 kW, had installed at Altamont, at a cost of about $1 billion. The U. S. as of 2017, has over 82 GW of installed power capacity. Only China has more installed capacity, most of these are in the central plains. These states include North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Texas, Maine, Vermont, Oregon, and Idaho. In 2015, a Koch-funded institute of Utah State University stated that the cost of energy is higher than most cost estimates calculate
Wind power in the United States
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Brazos Wind Ranch in Texas.
Wind power in the United States
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Mendota Hills Wind Farm in northern Illinois
Wind power in the United States
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Wind farm in Southeastern
Washington
Wind power in the United States
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Wind energy has grown rapidly in the last decade, with an average increase of 29.7%/year.
8.
Wind power in Germany
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Wind power in Germany describes wind power in Germany as part of energy in Germany and renewable energy in Germany. In 2015, the capacity of wind power in Germany was 44,470 megawatts. According to EWEA in a typical year, installed wind capacity in Germany was estimated to have met 10. 6% at end 2011 and 9. 3% at end 2010 of the German electricity needs. More than 26,772 wind turbines were located in the German federal area by year end 2015, and the country has plans for further expansion. As of the end of 2015 Germany was the third largest producer of power in the world by installations, behind China and the USA, and ahead of India, Spain. Since 2011, Germanys federal government has been working on a new plan for increasing renewable energy commercialization, Wind power has gained very high social acceptance in Germany. As of 2010, Wind power in Germany provided over 96,100 people with jobs, the Fuhrländer Wind Turbine Laasow, built in 2006 near the village of Laasow, Brandenburg, was the tallest wind turbine in the world for six years. In 2016, Germany decided to replace feed-in tariffs with auctions from 2017, repowering, the replacement of first-generation wind turbines with modern multi-megawatt machines, is occurring in Germany. Modern turbines make better use of wind energy and so more wind power can come from the same area of land. Modern turbines also offer much better grid integration since they use a method similar to conventional power plants. Offshore wind energy also has potential in Germany. Wind speed at sea is 70 to 100% higher than onshore, a new generation of 5 MW or larger wind turbines which are capable of making full use of the potential of wind power at sea has already been developed and prototypes are available. This makes it possible to operate offshore wind farms in a cost-effective way once the initial difficulties of new technologies have been overcome. On 15 July 2009, the first offshore German windturbine completed construction and this turbine is the first of a total of 12 wind turbines for the alpha ventus offshore wind farm in the North Sea. Following the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, Germanys federal government is working on a new plan for increasing renewable energy commercialization, the plan aims to decrease Germanys dependence on energy derived from coal and nuclear power plants. The German government wants to see 7.6 GW installed by 2020, a major challenge will be the lack of sufficient network capacities for transmitting the power generated in the North Sea to the large industrial consumers in southern Germany. In 2014, all in all 410 turbines with 1747 megawatts were added to Germanys offshore windparks, due to not yet finished grid-connections, only turbines with combined 528.9 megawatts were added to the grid feed at the end of 2014. The 2010 Energiewende policy has been embraced by the German federal government and has resulted in an expansion of renewables
Wind power in Germany
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Wind farm in
Neuenkirchen
Wind power in Germany
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Erection of an
Enercon E70-4 in
Germany
9.
Wind power in India
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By year end 2015 India had the fourth largest installed wind power capacity in the world. The levelised tariff of wind power reached a low of ₹3.46 per kWh during auctions for wind projects in February 2017. The development of power in India began in 1986 with the first wind farms being set up in coastal areas of Maharashtra, Gujarat. These demonstration projects were supported by the Minstry of New and Renewable Energy, the potential for wind farms in the country was first assessed by Dr. Jami Hossain using a GIS platform to be more than 2,000 GW in 2011. This was subsequently re-validated by Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory, US in an independent study in 2012, the wind resource at higher hub heights that are prevailing is possibly even more. In 2015, the MNRE set the target for Wind Power generation capacity by the year 2022 at 60,000 MW, east and North east regions have no grid connected wind power plant as of March 2015. No offshore wind farm utilizing traditional fixed-bottom wind turbine technologies in shallow sea areas or floating wind turbine technologies in deep sea areas are under implementation. However, an Offshore Wind Policy was announced in 2015 and presently weather stations, Wind power accounts nearly 8. 6% of Indias total installed power generation capacity and generated 28,604 million kWh in the fiscal year 2015-16 which is nearly 2. 5% of total electricity generation. The capacity utilisation factor is nearly 14% in the fiscal year 2015-16, 70% of wind generation is during the five months duration from May to September coinciding with Southwest monsoon duration. The table below shows the Indias year on year installed wind power since 1991, there is a growing number of wind energy installations in states across India. Tamil Nadus wind power capacity is around 29% of Indias total, now, Tamil Nadu has become a leader in Wind Power in India. In Muppandal windfarm the total capacity is 1500 MW, the largest wind power plant in India, the total wind installed capacity in Tamil Nadu is 7633 MW. During the fiscal year 2014-15, the electricity generation is 9.521 GWh, Maharashtra is one of the prominent states that installed wind power projects second to Tamil Nadu in India. As of end of March 2016, installed wind capacity is 4655.25 MW. As of now there are 50 developers registered with state nodal agency Maharashtra energy Development Agency for development of power projects. All the major manufacturers of wind turbines including Suzlon, Vestas, Gamesa, Regen, Gujarat governments focus on tapping renewable energy has led to sharp rise in the wind power capacity in the last few years. According to official data, wind power capacity in the state has increased a staggering ten times in just six years. ONGC Ltd. has installed a 51MW wind energy farm at Bhuj in Gujarat, Renewable energy projects worth a massive Rs 1 lakh crore of memorandums of understanding in the Vibrant Gujarat Summit in 2017
Wind power in India
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A
wind farm in Kayathar,
Tamil Nadu.
Wind power in India
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Muppandal Wind farm near NH7
Wind power in India
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A wind farm in
Rajasthan.
Wind power in India
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Muppandal wind farm in
Tamil Nadu.
10.
Wind power in Spain
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In earlier periods wind energy covered 16% of the demand in 2010,13. 8% in 2009 and 11. 5% in 2008. As of end 2015 the countries ranked by total installations were,1. On 6 February 2013, wind power achieved a record in electricity production, reaching an instantaneous peak of 17,056 MW. In November 2011 a capacity peak of 59% of power demand being generated by wind power was reached. Power peaks of 14.960 GW were reached in November 2010, and in November 2009, a wind storm caused wind farms to produce a peak of 53% of total electricity demand. In 2009, the largest producer of power in Spain was Iberdrola, with 25. 5% of capacity, followed by Acciona with 20. 9%. A2006 article stated that the wind energy capacity to be installed in the autonomous regions by 2010-2011 at 20,000 MW. Navarre was entirely reliant on imported energy until wind-power development and utilization began progress in 1996, largely concerned with advancing energy efficiency use in Spain, the Institute for Energy Saving and Diversification also seeks to expand renewable energy sources and energies. The lab replicated the power generation environment of a wind farm, concentrated research is occurring concerning wind measurement in the Albacete region at Higueruela. Gamesa, based in the Basque Country is a global wind turbine manufacturer with 13% share by installed power in 2005. The company values the distinctive geographical setting of Spain as a benefit to Spanish companies competing in the global arena, gamesa Eólica currently operates plants in Spain, The US and China. It has projects in other parts of the world including Egypt, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Korea. The company seeks expansion into Greece, Taiwan, and the United Kingdom, ecotècnia, established 1981, and by 2005 had 2. 1% world market share by installed capacity, with wind turbines in production of up to 1. 6MW. In 2009 the company was acquired by Alstom for €350million, the company continued to develop wind turbines, a 3MW machine was installed in a commercial windfarm in 2009. In 2010 the company was renamed Alstom Wind, in 2011/2 the company developed a prototype 6MW permanent magnet gearless generator for offshore applications, in association with LM Wind Power and Converteam. Acciona Energy, the biggest global wind-park developer at the time, operated in Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Morocco, Spain, the company credited its success to its initial stages in Navarre during 1994. Its line of work involved wind-farm operation, turbine manufacture, and the development of plants, and the company intended to expand into China, Ireland. They also had contracts at a developed stage with Portugal, Turkey, Tunisia, Egypt, Brazil
Wind power in Spain
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Aerial view of a
wind farm in Spain
Wind power in Spain
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A wind farm in a mountainous area in
Galicia,
Spain
11.
Wind power in France
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According to the IEA the yearly wind production was 20.2 TWh in 2015, representing almost 23% of the 88.4 TWh from renewable sources in France during that year. Furthermore wind provided for 4. 3% of the electricity demand out of the 18. 7% provided by renewables in 2015. France has the second largest wind potential in Europe, whilst France has been a relative late developer in wind power compared to other European countries it now has the target of more than doubling onshore wind power capacity from 2015 levels by 2023. Offshore wind power is schedule to come on line from 2018 for the first time, realisation of these plans would more than likely see France overtake highly ranked Spain in terms of installed capacity by 2023. The French government initially planned to produce 21% of its electricity consumption with renewable energy in 2010 to comply with European directive 2001/77/CE of 27 September 2001 and this mean tthat France had to produce 106 TWh of renewable energy in 2010 when it only produced 71 TWh in 2006. Wind power represents 75% of the 35 TWh additional production in 2010, as of year end 2015 all windpower in France is currently onshore, the first 500 MW of offshore windpower is not due to come online in 2018. The leading regions in France in 2015 were Champagne-Ardenne with an capacity of 1,682 MW, Picardie with 1,502 MW, Centre with 872 MW. Onshore wind power is projected to rise to 15,000 MW by 2018, the first tranche of offshore wind power is expected to come on line in 2018 with 500 MW capacity. By 2023 another traditional 3,000 MW of capacity will come online with an additional 500 to 6,000 MW of performance dependent installation planned. Marine energy including floating wind turbines will add an additional 100 MW as well as an additional 200 to 2000 MW of capacity by 2023, overall including marine energy offshore installed capacity will rise to between 3,100 and 11,100 MW by 2023. See also, List of offshore windfarms in the North Sea The following offshore windfarm projects listed have submitting their applications for consent, France is operating a number of offshore test sites for prototype floating wind turbines which would allow turbines to be located in deeper waters. These include the Nenaphur test site, the Nenuphar twin float, the Floatgen Project, Renewable energy in France Solar power in France Renewable energy by country
Wind power in France
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Wind turbines in
Champagne-Ardenne.
Wind power in France
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Wind turbines in
Aude
Wind power in France
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Wind turbines in the
Aveyron department of the
Midi-Pyrenees region of France
12.
Wind power in Italy
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Wind power in Italy, at the end of 2015, consisted of more than 1,847 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of 8,958 megawatts. Wind power contributed 5. 4% of Italy electricity generation in 2015, Italy is ranked as the worlds ninth producer of wind power. Prospects for Italian wind energy beyond 2016 are very uncertain, in 2010, the energy from the 487 active plants accounted for 19% of the renewable energy produced in Italy. The total energy produced in 2010 was 8,787 GWh, in 2001, the European Commission issued its Directive on Electricity Production from Renewable Energy Sources. The Directive set a goal for Italy to obtain at least 25% of its electricity from renewables by 2010, the 1999 Italian ‘White Book’ targeted to install 2,500 MW of wind power capacity by 2010, Italy exceeded this in 2007. The Italian government targeted 12,000 MW by 2020, given that Italys recent growth in wind power capacity has been about 30% annually, the target appears reachable by 2015. Italy introduced a renewable energy system in 2002, and uses green certificates to ensure that power producers and importers produce specified percentages of electricity from renewables. Renewable energy under the system must come from new or repowered plants which began operating after April 1,1999. The table shows the increase in installed wind power capacity in recent years
Wind power in Italy
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Wind turbines near
Frigento,
province of Avellino,
Campania
Wind power in Italy
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Wind farm in the background of
Buccheri,
Sicily
Wind power in Italy
–
Wind farm near
Scansano in the
Tuscan province of Grosseto
Wind power in Italy
–
Wind farm in
Varese Ligure,
Province of La Spezia
13.
Humber Gateway Wind Farm
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The wind farm became operational in June 2015. It was developed by Humber Wind Limited, an owned subsidiary of E. ON UK plc. In 2003 EON submitted a bid to the Crown Estate to develop a farm in the Greater Wash Strategic Area. Additional planning applications for onshore substation, and onshore underground cable were submitted in 2009/2008, and approved in 2010. The site was located over 8 km east of Easington, in an area roughly 35 km2 with a depth of around 15 m. Cable connections were to make land fall at Easington and connect via about a 30 km underground cable connection with the National Grid near Salt End, initial plans were for a 300 MW wind farm, with 42-83 turbines. The wind farm had an operational life of 40 years based on the length of the Crown Estate lease. Governmental planning approval for a 230 MW wind farm was given in early 2011, in December 2011 E ON published plans for a 73 turbine,219 MW wind farm, using Vestas V1123.0 MW turbines, with an initial completion date scheduled for spring 2015. In 2012 CG was awarded the contract for the design to installation of both onshore and offshore substations for the project. In early 2013 contract for the supply of turbine foundations were split between TAG Energy Solutions, with the remainder supplied by Sif. Harland and Wolff was contracted to design and supply the about 1300t substation foundation structure, the first turbine foundation was installed in September 2013. In December 2013 two 600t offshore substations were delivered to the Port of Sunderland for installation at the wind farm, by January 2014 the submarine export cables to the offshore transformer had been laid. The first turbine was installed mid 2014, offshore substation installation was completed in late 2014. The wind farm first generated power in early 2015, with 58 of the turbines installed, the wind farm was formally opened by Andrea Leadsom 30 September 2015. In September 2015 Balfour Beatty Equitix Consortium became preferred bidder to own, the European Investment Bank provides £82 million for the transmission. Construction firm ISG was awarded a £3 million contract to construct the centre in March 2013, including 5,920 sq ft and 4,047 sq ft warehouse, construction was completed by September 2013. The centre was opened by Eric Pickles on 1 August 2014
Humber Gateway Wind Farm
–
Humber Gateway visible on the horizon, under construction in March 2015
14.
Westermost Rough Wind Farm
–
Westermost Rough Wind Farm is an offshore wind farm 8 kilometres north east off Withernsea off the Holderness coast, in the North Sea, England. The farm covers an area of approximately 35 km2 with a capacity of approximately 210 MW. It became operational in May 2015, in 2007 Dong Energy was awarded a lease from The Crown Estate to develop a wind farm at Westermost Rough. The company Westermost Rough Ltd was established 2007, a subsidiary of Dong Energy, the wind farm is located 8 km off the Holderness coast, roughly northwest of Withernsea. The proposed design is for 35 to 80 turbines of between 3 and 7 MW power output, in an area of 35 km2, with an installed capacity of up to 245 MW. The offshore substation design was subcontracted to Ramboll, with medium voltage turbine to offshore transformer submarine cables supplied by Nexans, high voltage 150 kV submarine export cables and 150/275 kV underground cables were contracted to be supplied from LS Cable & System of Korea. The cable landing point is to be near Tunstall, East Riding of Yorkshire, the project was the first commercial use of gearless 6 MW Siemens Wind turbines,35 turbines were to be installed, giving a capacity of 210 MW. Varde, Denmark based Titan Wind Energy was contracted to supply towers, with tower foundations supplied by Bladt Industries of Aalborg, the driven monopile foundations are 6.25 metres diameter with mass up to 800 t, with 425 t transition pieces. A dual Doppler radar system, was used to measure high-density wind details over the wind farm area. GeoSea was awarded the contract to install foundation piles in April 2013, the first foundation pile was installed in February 2014. Foundation installation was completed by May 2014, and the offshore substation installed by June 2014, turbine installation was completed March 2015. The wind farm was commissioned and became operational in May 2015, in early 2016 CW Wind was given a 20-year contract to maintain the TC Westernmost Rough OFTOs electrical transmission assets. Westernmost Rough Wind Farm, Dong Energy Westernmost Rough Offshore Wind Farm, Dong Energy UK Westermost Rough Offshore Wind Farm, www. 4coffshore. com
Westermost Rough Wind Farm
–
Westermost Rough visible on the horizon, under construction in March 2015
15.
Biomass
–
Biomass is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and other organic matter. It has become popular among power stations, which switch from coal to biomass to comply with the law. Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, as an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are classified into, thermal, chemical. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time people began burning wood to make fire. Even today, biomass is the source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today, examples include forest residues, yard clippings, wood chips, wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass as fuel. Harvested wood may be used directly as a fuel or collected from waste streams to be processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or black liquor, in the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories, first-generation biofuels are derived from sources such as sugarcane and corn starch. Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, a fuel which can be used directly in a fuel cell to produce electricity or serve as an additive to gasoline. However, utilizing food-based resources for production only aggravates the food shortage problem. Second-generation biofuels, on the hand, utilize non-food-based biomass sources such as agriculture. These biofuels mostly consist of lignocellulosic biomass, which is not edible and is a waste for many industries. Despite being the alternative, economical production of second-generation biofuel is not yet achieved due to technological issues. These issues arise due to chemical inertness and structural rigidity of lignocellulosic biomass. Plant energy is produced by crops grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy
Biomass
–
Sugarcane plantation in
Brazil.
Sugarcane bagasse is a type of biomass.
Biomass
–
A
cogeneration plant in
Metz,
France. The station uses waste wood biomass as an energy source, and provides electricity and heat for 30,000 dwellings.
Biomass
–
Stump harvesting increases the recovery of biomass from a forest.
Biomass
–
Eucalyptus in Brazil. Remains of the tree are reused for power generation.
16.
Financial Times
–
The Financial Times is an English-language international daily newspaper with a special emphasis on business and economic news. The paper, published and owned by Nikkei Inc. in Tokyo, was founded in 1888 by James Sheridan and Horatio Bottomley, and merged in 1945 with its closest rival, the Financial Times has an average daily readership of 2.2 million people worldwide. FT. com has 4.5 million registered users and over 285,000 digital subscribers, FT Chinese has more than 1.7 million registered users. The world editions of the Financial Times newspaper had an average daily circulation of 234,193 copies in January 2014. In February 2014 the combined sale of the editions of the Financial Times was 224,000 copies. In October 2013 the combined print and digital circulation of the Financial Times reached nearly 629,000 copies. In December 2016 print sales for the paper stood at 193,211, on 23 July 2015 Nikkei Inc. agreed to buy the Financial Times from Pearson for £844m. On 30 November 2015 Nikkei completed the acquisition, the FT was launched as the London Financial Guide on 10 January 1888, renaming itself the Financial Times on 13 February the same year. Describing itself as the friend of The Honest Financier, the Bona Fide Investor, the Respectable Broker, the Genuine Director, the readership was the financial community of the City of London, its only rival being the slightly older and more daring Financial News. After 57 years of rivalry the Financial Times and the Financial News were merged in 1945 by Brendan Bracken to form a single six-page newspaper, the Financial Times brought a higher circulation while the Financial News provided much of the editorial talent. The Lex column was introduced from Financial News. Pearson bought the paper in 1957, over the years the paper grew in size, readership and breadth of coverage. It established correspondents in cities around the world, reflecting early moves in the economy towards globalisation. On 1 January 1979 the first FT was printed outside the UK, since then, with increased international coverage, the FT has become a global newspaper, printed in 22 locations with five international editions to serve the UK, continental Europe, the U. S. The European edition is distributed in continental Europe and Africa and it is printed Monday to Saturday at five centres across Europe reporting on matters concerning the European Union, the Euro and European corporate affairs. In 1994 FT launched a lifestyle magazine, How To Spend It. In 2009 it launched a website for the magazine. On 13 May 1995 the Financial Times group made its first foray into the world with the launch of FT. com
Financial Times
–
The front page of the Financial Times on 13 February 1888.
Financial Times
–
The front page of the Financial Times on 29 December 2010
Financial Times
–
The London offices of the Financial Times at One Southwark Bridge (2013).
Financial Times
–
Editor Lionel Barber speaking at the newspaper's 125th anniversary party in
London, 2013
17.
James Blyth (engineer)
–
Professor James Blyth MA, LLD, FRSE FRSSA, was a Scottish electrical engineer and academic at Andersons College, now the University of Strathclyde, in Glasgow. Blyth patented his design and later developed a model which served as an emergency power source at Montrose Lunatic Asylum. James Blyth was born in Marykirk, Kincardineshire, on 4 April 1839 to John Blyth, an innkeeper and small farmer and he attended the Marykirk parish school and later, the Montrose Academy before winning a scholarship to the General Assembly Normal School, Edinburgh in 1886. Blyth completed his Master of Arts in 1871 and in the year married Jesse Wilhelmena Taylor at the United Presbyterian Church in Athol Place. They had two sons and five daughters, two of whom died in infancy, in 1880 Blyth was appointed Freeland Professor of Natural Philosophy at Andersons College, Glasgow, which became the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College in 1886. Whilst teaching at the college he pursued an active research programme with a particular interest in the generation. Blyth was liked by his students and colleagues who admired his hard working nature, down-to-earth attitude and he was also well known in the local community through a series of popular lectures and demonstrations. The turbine produced enough power to light ten 25-volt bulbs in a moderate breeze, over the next few years Blyth experimented with a number of different designs. The final design operated for the next 25 years and produced surplus electricity which Blyth offered to the people of Marykirk to light the street of the town. But his offer was rejected, as the people thought electricity was the work of The Devil, Blyth was awarded a UK patent for his wind engine in November 1891. Blyths original wind generator was the first known structure by which electricity was generated from wind power, in the winter of 1887, some months after Blyths first wind generator was built, American, Charles F. Brush built the first automatically operated wind turbine, the design of Brushs machine allowed it to be shut down manually to protect it from wind damage. The improved design of the built for the Montrose Lunatic Asylum went some way towards solving this problem. In 1891 Blyth presented a paper to the Royal Society of Edinburgh espousing his belief in the benefits of energy sources, particularly wind. Blyths son, Vincent James, and his son-in-law, George Edwin Allan, Blyth himself was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Glasgow in 1900. He died from apoplexy at his home in Glasgow on 15 May 1906, the Professor James Blyth Memorial Committee, composed of Blyths former students and associates, was established in March 1907 to raise funds for a memorial to him. The memorial eventually took the form of endowing the Blyth Memorial Prizes, the turbine at Montrose Asylum was dismantled in 1914. Britains first public utility wind turbine did not come into operation until 1951, paper read before the Society on 25 January 1892 History of wind power Wind power in Scotland Wind turbine Works written by or about James Blyth at Wikisource
James Blyth (engineer)
–
Blyth's "windmill" at his cottage in Marykirk in 1891
James Blyth (engineer)
–
The 1895 turbine built for the Montrose Lunatic Asylum
18.
Marykirk
–
Marykirk is a small village in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, next to the border with the county of Angus at the River North Esk. The village is approximately 6 miles ENE of Montrose at the end of the Howe of the Mearns. The road bridge carrying the A937 over the River North Esk is a structure with four arches. It was designed by Robert Stevenson and completed in 1815 at the cost of £1,000 replacing the route to the village. There is a bridge across the same river some 600 m north of the road bridge. The present parish church was rebuilt in 1806 replacing the previous church, the older church was dedicated to St Mary and consecrated in 1242 by the Bishop de Bernham. The centre of the village has an ancient market cross, the grand gates to the now demolished mansion Kirktonhill House, built in 1799 for the Taylor family, once the home of oil merchant R W Adamson, can be found still in position. Once boasting many small businesses supporting the agricultural lands, including a part time post office and newsagents the village now has no shops. The nearest shop is a drive to Montrose or Laurencekirk in the other direction. The village also has a primary school of three teachers with between 30 and 40 pupils. As well as a hotel, the 19th-century coaching house, the Marykirk Hotel, since 1996 the village has held an annual raft race in the River North Esk which normally takes place on the last Sunday in May. After six years of holding the race it came to a halt, then in 2009 a committee formed and the raft race started once again. It still continues, and Marykirk holds its raft race on the third Sunday of May each year, Marykirk was also the site of the worlds first electricity-generating wind turbine, built by James Blyth to light his summer residence in the village. Up until the end of July 2010, the also had its own amateur weather station. Marykirk in the Gazetteer for Scotland Marykirk in The History of the Howe
Marykirk
–
Marykirk High Street after floods Nov 2009
Marykirk
–
Marykirk Church
Marykirk
–
Marykirk Ancient Kirk and Kirkyard
19.
Orkney Islands
–
Orkney /ˈɔːrkni/, also known as the Orkney Islands, is an archipelago in the Northern Isles of Scotland, situated off the north coast of Great Britain. Orkney is 16 kilometres north of the coast of Caithness and comprises approximately 70 islands, the largest island Mainland is often referred to as the Mainland. It has an area of 523 square kilometres, making it the sixth-largest Scottish island, the largest settlement and administrative centre is Kirkwall. A form of the dates to the pre-Roman era and the islands have been inhabited for at least 8500 years, originally occupied by Mesolithic and Neolithic tribes. Orkney was invaded and forcibly annexed by Norway in 875 and settled by the Norse, the Scottish Parliament then re-annexed the earldom to the Scottish Crown in 1472, following the failed payment of a dowry for James IIIs bride Margaret of Denmark. Orkney contains some of the oldest and best-preserved Neolithic sites in Europe, Orkney is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland, a constituency of the Scottish Parliament, a lieutenancy area, and a historic county. The local council is Orkney Islands Council, one of only three Councils in Scotland with a majority of elected members who are independents. In addition to the Mainland, most of the islands are in two groups, the North and South Isles, all of which have a geological base of Old Red Sandstone. The climate is mild and the soils are fertile, most of the land being farmed. Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy, the significant wind and marine energy resources are of growing importance, and the island generates more than its total yearly electricity demand using renewables. The local people are known as Orcadians and have a distinctive Orcadian dialect of Scots, there is an abundance of marine and avian wildlife. Pytheas of Massilia visited Britain – probably sometime between 322 and 285 BC – and described it as triangular in shape, with a northern tip called Orcas and this may have referred to Dunnet Head, from which Orkney is visible. Speakers of Old Irish referred to the islands as Insi Orc island of the pigs, the archipelago is known as Ynysoedd Erch in modern Welsh and Arcaibh in modern Scottish Gaelic, the -aibh representing a fossilized prepositional case ending. The Anglo-Saxon monk Bede refers to the islands as Orcades insulae in his seminal work Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Norwegian settlers arriving from the ninth century reinterpreted orc as the Old Norse orkn seal. The plural suffix -jar was later removed in English leaving the modern name Orkney, according to the Historia Norwegiæ, Orkney was named after an earl called Orkan. The Norse knew Mainland Orkney as Megenland Mainland or as Hrossey Horse Island, the island is sometimes referred to as Pomona, a name that stems from a sixteenth-century mistranslation by George Buchanan, which has rarely been used locally. A charred hazelnut shell, recovered in 2007 during excavations in Tankerness on the Mainland has been dated to 6820–6660 BC indicating the presence of Mesolithic nomadic tribes
Orkney Islands
–
Coat of arms
Orkney Islands
–
Flag
Orkney Islands
–
Blaeu's 1654 map of Orkney and Shetland. Map makers at this time continued to use the original Latin name "Orcades".
20.
European Union
–
The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
European Union
–
In 1989, the
Iron Curtain fell, enabling the union to
expand further (
Berlin Wall pictured).
European Union
–
Flag
European Union
–
2009, the
Lisbon Treaty entered into force.
European Union
–
The 65,993 km (41,006 mi) coastline dominates the European climate (
Cyprus).
21.
Renewable heat
–
Renewable heat is an application of renewable energy and it refers to the renewable generation of heat, rather than electrical power. Renewable heat technologies include biofuels, solar heating, geothermal heating, heat pumps. Significant attention is also applied to insulation, many colder countries consume more energy for heating than electrical power. For example, in 2005 the United Kingdom consumed 354 TWh of electric power, but had a requirement of 907 TWh. The residential sector alone consumed a massive 550 TWh of energy for heating, almost half of the final energy consumed in the UK was in the form of heat, of which 70% was used by households and in commercial and public buildings. Households used heat mainly for heating and heating water. The relative competitiveness of renewable electricity and renewable heat depends on an approach to energy. Few renewable technologies are competitive with fossil fuels without some form of carbon valuation or subsidy, solar heating is a style of building construction which uses the energy of summer or winter sunshine to provide an economic supply of primary or supplementary heat to a structure. The heat can be used for space heating and water heating. Solar heating design is divided two groups, Passive solar heating relies on the design and structure of the house to collect heat. One such design was measured lifting the temperature of a house to 24 °C on a sunny winter day. The 4, 000-square-foot home cost $125 per square foot, similar to the cost of a new home. Active solar heating uses pumps to move air or a liquid from the collector into the building or storage area. In contrast to photovoltaic panels, which are used to generate electricity, solar heating panels are less expensive, solar heating systems usually require a small supplementary backup heating system, either conventional or renewable. Geothermal energy is accessed by drilling water or steam wells in a similar to drilling for oil. Geothermal energy is an enormous, underused heat and power resource that is clean, reliable, the earth absorbs the suns energy and stores it as heat in the oceans and underground. The ground temperature remains constant at a point of 42 to 100 °F all year round depending on where you live on earth, a geothermal heating system takes advantage of the consistent temperature found below the Earths surface and uses it to heat and cool buildings. The system is made up of a series of pipes installed underground, a pump circulates liquid through the circuit
Renewable heat
–
Hot Springs located in Nevada.
Renewable heat
–
Wood Stove.
Renewable heat
–
Wood Pellets.
Renewable heat
–
Recycling heat.
22.
Renewable fuels
–
Renewable fuels are fuels produced from renewable resources. Examples include, biofuels and Hydrogen fuel and this is in contrast to non-renewable fuels such as natural gas, LPG, petroleum and other fossil fuels and nuclear energy. Renewable fuels can include fuels that are synthesized from renewable sources, such as wind. Renewable fuels have gained in popularity due to their sustainability, low contributions to the carbon cycle, the geo-political ramifications of these fuels are also of interest, particularly to industrialized economies which desire independence from Middle Eastern oil. Renewable biofuels for transport represent a key source of diversification from petroleum products, biofuels from grain and beet in temperate regions have a part to play, but they are relatively expensive and their energy efficiency and CO2 savings benefits, are variable. Biofuels from sugar cane and other highly productive tropical crops are more competitive. But all first generation biofuels ultimately compete with food production for land, water, hubberts peak oil theory suggests that petroleum is a finite resource that is rapidly depleting. Petroleum is imperative for the industries, fuel transportation, agriculture, pharmaceutical, plastics/resins, man-made fibers, synthetic rubber. If the modern world remains reliant on petroleum as a source of energy, furthermore, the global debate on climate change, along with regional geopolitical instabilities have challenged nations to act to develop both alternative and carbon-neutral sources of energy. Renewable fuels are becoming attractive to many governments, who are beginning to see sustainable energy independence as a valuable asset. According to the International Energy Agency, cellulosic ethanol commercialization could allow ethanol fuels to play a larger role in the future than previously thought. Cellulosic ethanol can be made from plant matter composed primarily of cellulose fibers that form the stems. Dedicated energy crops, such as switchgrass, are promising cellulose sources that can be produced in many regions of the United States. Biofuel is a type of fuel energy is derived from biological carbon fixation. Biofuels include fuels derived from biomass conversion, as well as biomass, liquid fuels. Bioethanol is a made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn or sugar cane. Cellulosic biomass, derived from sources such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil
Renewable fuels
–
Information on pump regarding
ethanol fuel blend up to 10%,
California
Renewable fuels
–
A bus fueled by
biodiesel
Renewable fuels
–
Hydrogen fuel requires the development of a specific infrastructure for processing, transport and storage.
23.
Walney Wind Farm
–
Walney Wind Farm is an offshore wind farm 14 km west of Walney Island off the coast of Cumbria, in the Irish Sea, England. It has a capacity of 367 MW, which makes it one of the worlds largest offshore wind farms, the wind farm was developed by Walney Offshore Windfarms Limited, a partnership between DONG Energy and Scottish and Southern Energy. The farm is north west of the West of Duddon Sands Wind Farm. The farm is in water ranging from 19m to 23m. Both phases have 51 turbines giving a capacity of 367 MW. Until September 2012 it was the worlds largest operational wind farm. It is expected to generate about 1,300 GW·h/year of electricity, in 2004 DONG Energy was awarded a 50-year lease from The Crown Estate to develop a wind farm off Walney Island, as part of the second UK offshore wind farm tendering process known as Round 2. The farm was constructed sequentially in two phases with overlapping installation activities to reduce the construction timeframe. A cable was laid by Stemat Spirit, Phase 1 connects to a substation at Heysham and Phase 2 connects to substation at Stanah, south of Fleetwood. Both undersea cables pass close by Barrow Wind Farm, all the construction work was expected to take less than 2 years, with both phases operational by the end of 2011. On 11 July 2011 Phase 1 became operational, comprising 51 turbines with an capacity of 183. 6MW. Walney 2 began sending power to the grid on 1 November 2011, in February 2012, DONG Energy claimed to have installed the 51 turbines in Walney 2 in 5 months and 14 days, including monopiles and complete turbines, about 3.25 days per turbine. The improvement is due to commonality of projects and resources, the wind farm was officially opened on 9 February 2012 by the new energy secretary, Ed Davey, MP, although the last of the 51 turbines in Walney 2 were only activated in April 2012. In November 2014 DONG Energy was given development consent for an extension to the Walney offshore wind farm, the development consent allowed a maximum of 207 turbines to be added to the existing 102 turbines. The maximum generating capacity of the extension was said to be 750MW although DONG was reported to be proceeding with a project based around 660MW, construction is expected to begin in 2017. In 2015 DONG chose the 8MW Vestas V164 for Phase 1, the UK’s Maritime and Coastguard Agency surveyed the crash site and reported that a surface sheen stretching 33 feet wide and 0.7 nautical miles long was trailing the vessel. The agency said that, unlike heavier crude oil, the engine oil should evaporate or disperse naturally. LORC Knowledge - Datasheet for Walney 1 Offshore Wind farm LORC Knowledge - Datasheet for Walney 2 Offshore Wind farm
Walney Wind Farm
–
Walney Wind Farm under construction in 2011
24.
Arecleoch Wind Farm
–
Arecleoch Wind Farm is a 60 turbine wind farm in South Ayrshire, Scotland with a total capacity of 120 megawatts, enough to power over 67,000 homes. Construction started in 2009 and it was commissioned in June 2011, in January and February 2016 there were two separate incidents of a turbine catching fire overnight while the site was unmanned due to faults in the mechanism housing. The turbines were destroyed and were disassembled and removed from site, scottish Power reported to the Sunday Mail on 10 April 2016 they were investigating these incidents along with the manufacturer Gamesa. In December 2016 a third turbine caught fire during high winds while it was switched off for maintenance, the turbine was left to burn itself out and was destroyed. Wind power in Scotland List of onshore wind farms
Arecleoch Wind Farm
–
Arecleoch Wind Farm
25.
Offshore wind
–
As such sea breezes are more localised than prevailing winds. Because land absorbs solar radiation far more quickly than water, a sea breeze is an occurrence along coasts after sunrise. Sea breezes and land breezes are important factors in coastal regions prevailing winds. The term offshore wind may refer to any wind over open water, wind farms are often situated near a coast to take advantage of the normal daily fluctuations of wind speed resulting from sea or land breezes. The sea has a heat capacity than land, so the surface of the sea warms up more slowly than the lands surface. As the temperature of the surface of the land rises, the heats the air above it by conduction. The warm air is less dense and so it expands, decreasing the pressure over the land near the coast, the air above the sea has a relatively higher pressure, causing air near the coast to flow towards the lower pressure over land. The strength of the sea breeze is directly proportional to the difference between the land and the sea. If a strong wind is present, that is, a wind greater than 8 knots and opposing the direction of a possible sea breeze. A sea-breeze front is a front created by a sea breeze. The cold air from the sea meets the air from the land. When powerful this front creates cumulus clouds, and if the air is humid and unstable, the front can sometimes trigger thunderstorms. If the flow aloft is aligned with the direction of the sea breeze, places experiencing the sea breeze frontal passage will have benign, or fair, weather for the remainder of the day. At the front warm air continues to flow upward and cold air moves in to replace it. Its speed depends on whether it is assisted or hampered by the wind. At night, the sea breeze usually changes to a land breeze, thunderstorms caused by powerful sea breeze fronts frequently occur in Florida, a peninsula surrounded on both the east and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, respectively. These storms also can produce significant hail due to the tremendous updraft it causes in the atmosphere especially during times when the atmosphere is cooler such as during the spring or fall. On calm summer afternoons with little prevailing wind, sea breezes from both coasts may collide in the middle, creating severe storms down the center of the state
Offshore wind
–
Sea breeze moving across the water (towards the viewer)
26.
Offshore wind industry
–
Offshore wind power or offshore wind energy is the use of wind farms constructed offshore, usually on the continental shelf, to harvest wind energy to generate electricity. The cost of wind power has historically been higher than that of onshore wind generation. Similarly, €49. 90/MWh was achieved at the 600 MW Kriegers Flak, as of 2013 the 630 megawatt London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, with the 504 Greater Gabbard wind farm the second largest, followed by the 367 MW Walney Wind Farm. All are off the coast of the UK and these projects will be dwarfed by subsequent wind farms that are in the pipeline, including Dogger Bank at 4,800 MW, Norfolk Bank, and Irish Sea. At the end of June 2013 total European combined offshore wind capacity was 6,040 MW. UK installed 513.5 MW offshore windpower in the first half year of 2013, Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind farms in bodies of water to generate electricity from wind. Europe is the leader in offshore wind power, with the first offshore wind farm being installed in Denmark in 1991. In 2013, offshore wind power contributed to 1,567 MW of the total 11,159 MW of wind power capacity constructed that year, Denmark is second with 1,271 MW installed and Belgium is third with 571 MW. Germany comes fourth with 520 MW, followed by the Netherlands, Sweden, Finland, Ireland, Spain, Norway, by January 2014, the total installed capacity of offshore wind farms in European waters had reached 6,562 MW. By 2015, Siemens Wind Power had installed 63% of the worlds 11 GW offshore wind capacity, Vestas had 19%, Senvion comes third with 8%. Projections for 2020 calculate a wind capacity of 40 GW in European waters. The Chinese government has set targets of 5 GW of installed offshore wind capacity by 2015 and 30 GW by 2020 that would eclipse capacity in other countries. In May 2014 the capacity of wind power in China was 565 MW. Offshore capacity increased by 832 MW in 2016, of which 636 MW were made in China, as of 2010 Siemens and Vestas were turbine suppliers for 90% of offshore wind power, while Dong Energy, Vattenfall and E. on were the leading offshore operators. As of 1 January 2016, about 12 gigawatts of wind power capacity was operational, mainly in Northern Europe. According to BTM Consult, more than 16 GW of additional capacity will be installed before the end of 2014, Offshore wind power capacity is expected to reach a total of 75 GW worldwide by 2020, with significant contributions from China and the United States. More than 100 GW of offshore projects are proposed or under development in Europe, the European Wind Energy Association has set a target of 40 GW installed by 2020 and 150 GW by 2030. There are many large wind farms under construction including Gwynt y Môr, Borkum West II
Offshore wind industry
–
Wind turbines and
electrical substation of
Alpha Ventus supplied by Adwen in the
North Sea
Offshore wind industry
–
The world's second full-scale floating wind turbine (and first to be installed without the use of heavy-lift vessels), WindFloat, operating at rated capacity (2 MW) approximately 5 km offshore of
Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal
Offshore wind industry
–
Offshore wind turbines near
Copenhagen, Denmark
Offshore wind industry
–
Offshore wind turbines in
Fehmarn Belt, the western part of the Baltic Sea between Germany and Denmark (2010)
27.
London Array
–
The London Array is a 175 turbine 630 MW Round 2 offshore wind farm located 20 km off the Kent coast in the outer Thames Estuary in the United Kingdom. It is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, construction of phase 1 of the wind farm began in March 2011 and was completed by mid 2013, being formally inaugurated by the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, David Cameron on 4 July 2013. The second phase of the project was refused planning consent in 2014 due to concerns on the impact to sea birds. The wind farm site is more than 20 kilometres off the North Foreland on the Kent coast in the area between Long Sand and Kentish Knock, between Margate in Kent and Clacton in Essex. The site has water depths of no more than 25 m and is away from shipping lanes. The first phase consisted of 175 Siemens Wind Power SWT-3.6 turbines, each turbine and offshore substation is erected on a monopile foundation, and connected together by 210 km of 33 kV array cables. The two offshore substations are connected to a substation at Cleve Hill on the north Kent coast, by four 150 kV subsea export cables. It is named after London because the power goes to the London grid, the smaller Thanet Wind Farm is to the south of it. The array is intended to reduce annual CO2 emissions by about 900,000 tons, the Crown Estate awarded a 50-year lease to London Array Ltd. in December 2003. A planning application was submitted in 2005, which was approved in December 2006, planning permission for the onshore electricity substation was received in November 2007. In May 2008, Shell announced that it was pulling out of the project and it was announced in July 2008 that E. ON UK and DONG Energy would buy Shells stake. Subsequently on 16 October 2008, London Array announced the Abu Dhabi based Masdar would join E. ON as a joint venture party in the scheme. Under the agreement, Masdar purchased 40% of E. ONs half share of the scheme, the resultant ownership was 50% DONG Energy, 30% E. ON UK Renewables and 20% Masdar. In March 2009, the agreed on an initial investment of €2.2 billion. Financing of phase 1 was achieved through the European Investment Bank, in January 2014 Dong sold half its stake to Quebec public pension plan manager Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec. At the time of its construction it was the largest offshore wind farm in the world, offshore work began in March 2011, the first foundation was installed in March 2011 Turbines were supplied by Siemens Wind Power. Their foundations were built by the joint-venture between Per Aarsleff and Bilfinger Berger Ingenieurbau GmbH, the same company supplied and installed the monopiles. Generators were installed by MPI and A2SEA by using an installation vessel TIV MPI Adventure, the subsea export cable was supplied by Nexans and array cables by JDR Cable Systems
London Array
–
The London Array under construction in 2009.
London Array
–
Satellite image of the
Thames Estuary with London Array top right, and neighbouring wind farm areas.
28.
West of Duddon Sands Wind Farm
–
It was developed by Scottish Power and Dong Energy. The wind farm gets its name from a sand bank uncovered at low water in the mouth of the estuary of the River Duddon to the north of the Furness Peninsula. The farm actually lies to the south west of the Duddon Sands and it is situated in the vicinity of three other wind farms. It is to the south of the Walney Wind Farm and Ormonde Wind Farm, the project to develop the West of Duddon Sands Wind Farm was awarded in December 2003 as part of the Round 2 development programme. The project was awarded to Morecambe Wind Ltd, a partnership between Scottish Power, Elsam, and Eurus Energy, Elsam, a Danish company, was later acquired by DONG Energy. By 2014 the windfarm was stated to be a joint venture project between ScottishPower Renewables and Dong Energy, cables were supplied by NKT, and are 82 km of 155 kV sea cables and 22 km land cables, at a price of DKK600 million. The wind farm planning application was filed in April 2006 and consent was granted in September 2008, the application was for between 83 and 139 turbines with a nameplate capacity of 500 MW. However permission was granted for only 108 turbines due to geological siting issues and this will provide up to 389 MW of power. The 108 Siemens Wind Power 3.6 MW geared turbines cost €700 million installed, bringing the cost per turbine to €6. 5m, adding maintenance, transformator platform and cabling to shore brings the cost to £1.6 billion. A cable was laid by Stemat Spirit, shown in TV documentary Mighty Ships, the project has a 5-year warranty. Electrical work started in 2012, turbines installed in 2013, the wind farm began generating power on 28 January 2014 when four turbines were connected to the grid. The final turbine was installed in June 2014, the wind farm was officially inaugurated by the Secretary of State for Energy and Climate Change, Ed Davey on 30 October 2014
West of Duddon Sands Wind Farm
–
West of Duddon Sands Wind Farm viewed from
Blackpool
29.
Green Port Hull
–
The Port of Hull is a port at the confluence of the River Hull and the Humber Estuary in Kingston upon Hull, England. Seaborne trade at the port can be traced to at least the 13th century, originally conducted mainly at the outfall of the River Hull, known as The Haven, the first dock east of the river, Victoria Dock, opened in 1850. In 1885, a new dock was built, Alexandra Dock, connected to a new railway line constructed by the same company. As of 2016 Alexandra is being modernised for use in wind farm construction, with a factory, and estuary side quay under construction, numerous industrial works were served by the River Hull, which also hosted a number of dry docks. To the east of Hull, Salt End near Hedon became a distribution point in the 20th century, with piers into the estuary for shipment. As of 2010, the port is operated by Associated British Ports and is estimated to handle one million passengers per year. An important event in the history of Hull as a port was its acquisition by king, in 1297, it then became the only port from which goods could be exported overseas from the county of Yorkshire. Thus in the 13th and 14th centuries Hull was a major English port for the export of wool, much of it to Flanders, the 16th century brought a considerable reduction in the amount of cloth traded through the port, but the export of lead increased. By the late 17th century Hull was the port in the realm after London and Bristol, with export of lead and cloth. By the 18th century it was becoming clear that the Haven was unfit for the increasing amount of trade, it was not only narrow. An additional stimulus to change was the demand for a quay on which customs officials could easily examine. In 1773, the Hull Corporation, Hull Trinity House and Hull merchants formed a Dock Company, an extension of the Town Docks was built in 1846 just north of the terminus of the then recently opened Hull and Selby Railway. The site for the dock was on the Humber foreshore to the west of the River Hull. A third dock on the Humber foreshore west of the William Wright Dock was opened in 1883, all three docks where ideally suited for trans-shipment by rail as they were directly south of and parallel with the Selby to Hull railway line that terminated in the centre of Hull. In 1885, Alexandra Dock opened, which was owned and operated by the Hull Barnsley & West Riding Junction Railway, clauses in the 1893 amalgamation bill protecting the Hull and Barnsley company prevented the NER from creating a new deep water dock without consulting the H&BR. This led to a joint proposal for a dock east of Alexandra Dock being submitted, the new dock was opened in 1914 as the King George Dock. The Hull and Barnsley Railway became part of the North Eastern Railway in 1922, the Railways Act 1921 led to the merger of the NER into the London and North Eastern Railway in 1923. In 1948, much of Britains transport operations were nationalised by the Transport Act 1947 into the British Transport Commission, including the port, in 1962 the British Transport Docks Board was formed by the Transport Act 1962
Green Port Hull
–
The
P&O Ferries terminal at the Port of Hull
Green Port Hull
–
17th century map by
Wenceslaus Hollar showing position of various
staithes in the Haven and the fortifications of the City Wall
Green Port Hull
–
The second Hull Dock Company offices (built 1820), close to the entrance to the former Queen's Dock
Green Port Hull
–
The third Hull Dock Company offices (built 1871), at the former junction between Queen's and Prince's Dock
30.
DONG Energy
–
DONG Energy is an integrated energy company based in Fredericia, Denmark. Since its inception, DONG has expanded and now DONG is the largest energy company in Denmark, the Danish state-owned company Dansk Naturgas A/S was founded in 1972 to manage gas and oil resources in the Danish sector of the North Sea. After some years, the company was renamed to Dansk Olie og Naturgas A/S, meaning Danish Oil, at the beginning of the decade of the 2000s, DONG started to expand itself into the electricity market by taking long positions in electricity companies. In 2005, DONG acquired and merged Danish electrical power producers Elsam and Energi E2 and public utility companies NESA, Københavns Energi, the result of the merger was the creation of DONG Energy. The merger was approved by the European Commission on 14 March 2006, DONG sold a power cable accessing the world’s largest wind farm to its partners, E. ON and Masdar for around $728 million in September 2013. The sale was unpopular in Denmarks governing coalition and caused protest resignations of six cabinet ministers, in 2015, DONG had a deficit of 12 billion DKK, the largest of any Danish company ever. It was due to development problems of the Hejre field, for all of 2016, DONG has fixed its oil income at $80/bbl, despite market prices of $35/bbl in January 2016. Oil and gas supplies about half of DONGs income, while wind turbines supplies most of the other half. Danish Government holds the majority of DONG Energy shares, the rest of the shares are owned by New Energy Investment S. à r. l. Capital Group Companies, SEAS-NVE, and smaller shareholders, according to a political agreement, the Danish Government shall maintain a majority in the company until 2025. Reduction of the ownership below 50% requires political agreement of Danish parties, an IPO and listing at the Copenhagen Stock Exchange was expected in the spring of 2008, but was suspended due to the situation of the international financial markets. In January 2014 the sale of 18% share to New Energy Investment S. a. r. l, a subsidiary of Goldman Sachs, while Danish pension funds, ATP and PFA Pension will acquire 4. 9% and 1. 8% accordingly. The deal was heavily criticised and caused a split of the coalition of Helle Thorning-Schmidt. On 9 June 2016, some of these shares were sold in an IPO at Copenhagen Stock Exchange, DONG Energys primary focus is deep drilling. The reserve base is expected to be 446 million boe, in 2005, DONG Energy acquired 10. 34% in the Ormen Lange gas field. The share of gas reserves allocated to DONG Energy are approximately 40 billion cubic metres, DONG Energy owns long pipelines which extend from the Danish part of the North Sea to Nybro and the Swedish gas transmission network. DONG Energy owns a share of the Norwegian gas pipeline system and it is also party to the Baltic Gas Interconnector. DONG Energy is the largest power producer in Denmark with market shares of 49% for electricity production and it also owns power production facilities and projects in Germany, Sweden, The Netherlands, Norway and the United Kingdom
DONG Energy
–
DONG Energy
31.
Wind power in Denmark
–
Wind power produced the equivalent of 42. 1% of Denmarks total electricity consumption in 2015, increased from 33% in 2013, and 39% in 2014. In 2012 the Danish government adopted a plan to increase the share of electricity production from wind to 50% by 2020, Denmark had the 6th best energy security in the world in 2014. Danish inventor Poul la Cour experimented, taught and constructed wind power subjects around the year 1900, Renewable energy became the natural choice for Denmark, decreasing both dependence on other countries for energy and global warming pollution. Many countries tried to subsidize green technology such as wind power, the Danish system was an exception, providing 30% of initial capital cost in the early years which was gradually reduced to zero, but still maintaining a feed-in tariff. The capital cost subsidy was reduced to 20% in June 1985, other renewable energy forms received 37 million. The research institution Teknologisk Institut identified many specific improvement needs, pushing development from ad hoc to systemized solutions, on 29 March 1985, one year before the Chernobyl disaster, the Danes passed a law forbidding the construction of nuclear power plants. In the process the Danish grassroots movement had a substantial role, the Danish Anti-nuclear Movements smiling-sun logo Atomkraft, Nej Tak spread worldwide, and the renewable alternatives were promoted by the Danish Organisation for Renewable Energy. Denmark adopted a target of cutting carbon emissions by 22% from 1988 levels by 2005, Planning of wind power was deliberately streamlined by authorities in order to minimize hurdles. Denmark has relatively modest average wind speeds in the range of 4. 9–5.6 m/s measured at 10 m height, onshore wind resources are highest in the western part of the country, and on the eastern islands with coastlines facing south or west. The country has very large wind resources, and large areas of sea territory with a shallow water depth of 5–15 m. These sites offer higher speeds, in the range of roughly 8. 5–9.0 m/s at 50 m height. The wind resource over Denmark was mapped in 1999 by EMD International A/S, the mapping was made using a 200 m grid resolution using the models in WindPRO and WAsP. The results were validated on more than 1200 wind turbines nationwide, Denmark is connected by transmission line to other European countries at an electricity interconnection level of 44%. Denmark has also retained its power plants, therefore it does not need to install additional peak-load plants to balance its wind power. Instead, it purchases additional power from its neighbours when necessary, with some strengthening of the grid, Denmark plans to increase winds share even further to 50% of consumption in 2020, and up to 84% in 2035. Analysts expect the cost of power to be 30 øre/kWh and its handling cost to be 15 øre/kWh. Due to their inability to follow load wind power gets a lower price, Danish district heating plants use 100 Petajoule/year, but little of this consumption is from 180MW of electrode boilers installed in powerplants or 37MW of large heat pumps. The boilers are used to soak up the powerplants own electricity when prices are negative
Wind power in Denmark
–
Middelgrunden offshore
wind park
Wind power in Denmark
–
Wind power in Denmark
Wind power in Denmark
–
Breaking waves at the north sea coast of Denmark in the evening of July 9, 2015 as the new record in peak capacity was reached.
Wind power in Denmark
–
A Vestas wind turbine
32.
Kent
–
Kent /ˈkɛnt/ is a county in South East England and one of the home counties. It borders Greater London to the north west, Surrey to the west and East Sussex to the south west, the county also shares borders with Essex via the Dartford Crossing and the French department of Pas-de-Calais through the Channel Tunnel. France can be clearly in fine weather from Folkestone and the White Cliffs of Dover. Hills in the form of the North Downs and the Greensand Ridge span the length of the county, because of its relative abundance of fruit-growing and hop gardens, Kent is known as The Garden of England. The title was defended in 2006 when a survey of counties by the UKTV Style Gardens channel put Kent in fifth place, behind North Yorkshire, Devon. Haulage, logistics, and tourism are industries, major industries in north-west Kent include aggregate building materials, printing. Coal mining has played its part in Kents industrial heritage. Large parts of Kent are within the London commuter belt and its transport connections to the capital. Twenty-eight per cent of the county forms part of two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty, the North Downs and The High Weald, the area has been occupied since the Palaeolithic era, as attested by finds from the quarries at Swanscombe. The Medway megaliths were built during the Neolithic era, There is a rich sequence of Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Roman era occupation, as indicated by finds and features such as the Ringlemere gold cup and the Roman villas of the Darent valley. The modern name of Kent is derived from the Brythonic word Cantus meaning rim or border and this describes the eastern part of the current county area as a border land or coastal district. Julius Caesar had described the area as Cantium, or home of the Cantiaci in 51 BC, the extreme west of the modern county was by the time of Roman Britain occupied by Iron Age tribes, known as the Regnenses. East Kent became a kingdom of the Jutes during the 5th century and was known as Cantia from about 730, the early medieval inhabitants of the county were known as the Cantwara, or Kent people. These people regarded the city of Canterbury as their capital, in 597, Pope Gregory I appointed the religious missionary as the first Archbishop of Canterbury. In the previous year, Augustine successfully converted the pagan King Æthelberht of Kent to Christianity, the Diocese of Canterbury became Britains first Episcopal See with first cathedral and has since remained Englands centre of Christianity. The second designated English cathedral was in Kent at Rochester Cathedral, in the 11th century, the people of Kent adopted the motto Invicta, meaning undefeated. This naming followed the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy, the Kent peoples continued resistance against the Normans led to Kents designation as a semi-autonomous county palatine in 1067. Under the nominal rule of Williams half-brother Odo of Bayeux, the county was granted powers to those granted in the areas bordering Wales
Kent
Kent
–
Kent shown within England
Kent
–
Title page of
William Lambarde 's Perambulation of Kent (completed in 1570, and published in 1576), a historical description of Kent and the first published
county history
Kent
–
The
White Cliffs of Dover
33.
Exclusive Economic Zone
–
It stretches from the baseline out to 200 nautical miles from its coast. In colloquial usage, the term may include the continental shelf, the term does not include either the territorial sea or the continental shelf beyond the 200 nmi limit. The surface waters, as can be seen in the map, are international waters, generally, a states exclusive economic zone is an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea, extending seaward to a distance of no more than 200 nautical miles out from its coastal baseline. The exception to this occurs when exclusive economic zones would overlap. When an overlap occurs, it is up to the states to delineate the actual maritime boundary, generally, any point within an overlapping area defaults to the nearest state. A states exclusive economic zone starts at the edge of its territorial sea. The exclusive economic zone stretches much further into sea than the territorial waters, thus, the exclusive economic zones includes the contiguous zone. The idea of allotting nations EEZs to give more control of maritime affairs outside territorial limits gained acceptance in the late 20th century. Initially, a countrys sovereign territorial waters extended 3 nautical miles or 6 km beyond the shore, in modern times, a countrys sovereign territorial waters extend to 12 nautical miles beyond the shore. One of the first assertions of exclusive jurisdiction beyond the territorial seas was made by the United States in the Truman Proclamation of September 28,1945. The exact extent of economic zones is a common source of conflicts between states over marine waters. One well-known example of such dispute was the Cod Wars between the United Kingdom and Iceland, Norway and Russia dispute both territorial sea and EEZ with regard to the Svalbard archipelago as it affects Russias EEZ due to its unique treaty status. A treaty was agreed in principle in April 2010 between the two states and subsequently ratified, resolving this demarcation dispute, the agreement was signed in Murmansk on September 15,2010. The South China Sea is the site of a dispute between several neighboring nations. Croatias ZERP in the Adriatic Sea caused friction with Italy and Slovenia, a wedge-shaped section of the Beaufort Sea is disputed between Canada and the United States, as the area reportedly contains substantial oil reserves. France claims a portion of Canadas EEZ for Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon based on a new definition of the continental shelf, Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon is entirely surrounded by Canadas EEZ. Mauritius claims EEZ for Tromelin from France and EEZ for British Indian Ocean Territory from the UK, Northern Cyprus claims a portion of Cyprus EEZ overlaps with that of Northern Cyprus in the south/southeastern part of the Cyprus island. Turkey claims a portion of Cypruss EEZ overlaps with its own EEZ, Lebanon claims that the agreement between Cyprus and Israel overlapped its own EEZ
Exclusive Economic Zone
–
The
EEZ border between
Northern Cyprus and
Turkey
Exclusive Economic Zone
–
Sea areas in international rights
Exclusive Economic Zone
–
Fisheries science
Exclusive Economic Zone
–
Management
34.
Wind farms
–
A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electricity. A wind farm can also be located offshore, many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in Germany, China and the United States. For example, the largest wind farm in the world, Gansu Wind Farm in China has a capacity of over 6,000 MW of power in 2012 with a goal of 20,000 MW by 2020. The Muppandal Wind farm in Tamil Nadu, India is the largest onshore wind farm outside of China, with a capacity of 1,500 MW. As of April 2013, the 630 MW London Array in the UK is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, followed by the 504 MW Greater Gabbard wind farm in the UK. There are many wind farms under construction, including Fosen Vind, Sinus Holding Wind Farm, Lincs Wind Farm, Lower Snake River Wind Project. As a general rule, economic wind generators require windspeed of 4.5 m/s or greater, an ideal location would have a near constant flow of non-turbulent wind throughout the year, with a minimum likelihood of sudden powerful bursts of wind. An important factor of turbine siting is also access to local demand or transmission capacity, usually sites are screened on the basis of a wind atlas, and validated with wind measurements. Meteorological wind data alone is not sufficient for accurate siting of a large wind power project. Collection of site specific data for wind speed and direction is crucial to determining site potential in order to finance the project, local winds are often monitored for a year or more, and detailed wind maps constructed before wind generators are installed. The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the influence of drag. The increase in velocity with altitude is most dramatic near the surface and is affected by topography, surface roughness, typically, the increase of wind speeds with increasing height follows a wind profile power law, which predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude. Doubling the altitude of a turbine, then, increases the wind speeds by 10%. In general, a distance of 7D is set between each turbine in a fully developed wind farm, but micrositing optimizes placement, particularly in hilly areas, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage transmission system. Construction of a wind farm requires installation of the collector system and substation. The worlds first wind farm was 0.6 MW, consisting of 20 wind turbines rated at 30 kilowatts each, onshore turbine installations in hilly or mountainous regions tend to be on ridgelines generally three kilometres or more inland from the nearest shoreline. This is done to exploit the topographic acceleration as the wind accelerates over a ridge, the additional wind speeds gained in this way can increase energy produced because more wind goes through the turbines
Wind farms
–
The
Gansu Wind Farm in China is the largest wind farm in the world, with a target capacity of 20,000 MW by 2020.
Wind farms
–
The
Shepherds Flat Wind Farm is an 845 MW wind farm in the U.S. state of
Oregon.
Wind farms
–
Map of available wind power over the United States. Color codes indicate wind power density class
Wind farms
–
First wind farm consisting of 7.5
megawatt (MW) Enercon E-126 turbines,
Estinnes, Belgium, 20 July 2010, two months before completion; note the 2-part blades.
35.
Blyth Offshore Wind Farm
–
Blyth Offshore Wind Farm is a small coastal wind farm located 0.5 miles off the coast of Blyth, Northumberland, England. Commissioned in December 2000 as a project, the project was developed by a consortium that included E. ON, Shell Renewables, NUON. E. ON are in charge of operating the farm, the project was the UKs first offshore wind farm, as well as being the largest offshore turbines erected in the world at the time. There are plans to add a 100 MW test facility of 15 turbines at Blyth and nearby Newbiggin-by-the-Sea, the site would be administered by The National Renewable Energy Centre, based in Blyth. The test facility received planning consent in November 2013 and it is planned with the Vestas V164-8MW and 66 kV cables. The farm consists of two Vestas 2 MW turbines, LORC Knowledge - Datasheet for Blyth Offshore Wind Farm
Blyth Offshore Wind Farm
–
Blyth Offshore Wind Turbines in January 2004
36.
Gunfleet Sands Offshore Wind Farm
–
Gunfleet Sands Offshore Wind Farm is a 172 MW wind farm about 7 kilometres off the Clacton-on-Sea coast in the Northern Thames Estuary. Construction of both wind farms using Siemens Wind Power SWT-3. 6-107 took place between 2008 and 2010, in 2010 planning began on a demonstration project Gunfleet Sands 3, used to test Siemens 6MW wind turbine model, two 6MW turbines were installed in 2013. The average wind speed is 8.8 m/s at 60m elevation, Development of an offshore wind farm site near Clacton-on-Sea began in 1996 under Windmaster Developments, Windmaster was acquired by Enron in 2000, and passed to General Electric in 2002. A Round 1 concession for the development was awarded in 2001, in December 2006 Dong Energy acquired the 100MW Gunfleet 1 project from GE. A contract for 30 Siemens Wind Power 3. 6MW turbines was signed in April 2007, planning application for Gunfleet Sands 2 was submitted to the Department for Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reform in June 2007, and permission was received in 2008. Construction began in 2008, with work including onshore infrastructure. A formal groundbreaking ceremony was held in April 2008, the first turbine was installed in April 2009. Construction of the farm was delayed, in part due to cable laying company Oceanteam going into administration in May 2009. Electrical generation from the complete wind farm began in August 2009. The wind farm was operational by March 2010, the wind farm was formally opened on 15 June 2010 by Anders Eldrup. Cost of the development was 4 billion Danish Kroner, an operations and service center was built in Brightlingsea on the site of a former boatyard. The wind farm produced between 450 and 520 GWh between 2010 and 2012, with a capacity factor of 31-35%, the electrical transmission assets of the wind farm were divested in July 2011 to TC Gunfleet Sands OFTO Limited in response to changes in governmental legislation. In September 2011 Marubeni Corporation acquired a 49. 9% shareholding of the project for £200 million, in 2013 Marubeni divested part of its stake to the Development Bank of Japan. During the St Jude storm of October 2013, wind speeds of 65 metres per second were measured at the wind farm, a planning application for the Gunfleet Sands 3 - Demonstration Project was submitted in 2010. The project consisted of a farm about 1 km28.5 km southeast of Clacton-on-Sea. The site was intended to be provide the facility to test new wind farm equipment in preparation of the Round 3 wind farm letting process,2 wind turbine installations were proposed. Inter array and export cables were supplied by JDR Cables, the monopile foundations and transition pieces were supplied by Bladt Industries and installed by Ballast Nedam in 2012. Two Siemens 6MW turbines were installed in January 2013 by A2SEA, the site began generating power in April 2013
Gunfleet Sands Offshore Wind Farm
–
The farm from a passing ship, 30 September 2010
Gunfleet Sands Offshore Wind Farm
–
Turbines visible from Clacton-on-Sea beyond
Clacton Pier
Gunfleet Sands Offshore Wind Farm
–
Satellite image of the
Thames Estuary with Gunfleet Sands top left.
37.
Renewable energy
–
Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas, electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, based on REN21s 2016 report, renewables contributed 19. 2% to humans global energy consumption and 23. 7% to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 8. 9% coming from biomass,4. 2% as heat energy,3. 9% hydro electricity and 2. 2% is electricity from wind, solar, geothermal. Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$286 billion in 2015, with countries like China, globally, there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer. As of 2015 worldwide, more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable, Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation. In international public opinion there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade, for example, in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply to 100% renewable energy by 2050. While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. Renewable energy systems are becoming more efficient and cheaper. Their share of energy consumption is increasing. Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables, in its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits. New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the financial crisis better than many other sectors. As of 2011, small solar PV systems provide electricity to a few million households, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. Some countries have much higher long-term policy targets of up to 100% renewables, outside Europe, a diverse group of 20 or more other countries target renewable energy shares in the 2020–2030 time frame that range from 10% to 50%
Renewable energy
–
Wind,
solar, and
biomass are three emerging renewable sources of energy.
Renewable energy
–
The 845 MW
Shepherds Flat Wind Farm near
Arlington, Oregon, USA
Renewable energy
–
The
Three Gorges Dam on the
Yangtze River in China
Renewable energy
–
Satellite image of the 550-megawatt
Topaz Solar Farm in California, USA
38.
Crown Estate
–
As a result of this arrangement, the sovereign is not involved with the management or administration of the estate, exercising only very limited control of its affairs. Naturally occurring gold and silver in the UK, collectively known as Mines Royal, are managed by The Crown Estate, historically, Crown Estate properties were administered by the reigning monarch to help fund the business of governing the country. In return, he received a grant known as the Civil list. By tradition, each subsequent monarch agreed to this arrangement upon his or her accession and this was intended to provide a long-term solution and remove the politically sensitive issue of Parliament having to debate the Civil List allowance every ten years. Subsequently, the Sovereign Grant Act allows for all future monarchs to simply extend these provisions for their reigns by Order in Council. The act does not imply any change on the nature of the estates ownership. The history of the Crown lands in England and Wales begins with the Norman conquest, when William I died, the land he had acquired by right of conquest was still largely intact. His successors, however, granted estates to the nobles and barons who supplied them with men. The monarchs remaining land was divided into manors, each managed separately by a seneschal. The period between the reigns of William I and Queen Anne was one of alienation of lands. However, the disposals outweighed the acquisitions, at the time of the Restoration in 1660, by the end of the reign of William III, however, it was reduced to some £6,000. Before the reign of William III all the revenues of the kingdom were bestowed on the monarch for the expenses of government. As the state expanded, the cost of the civil government exceeded the income from the Crown lands and feudal rights. As a result, and to avoid embarrassment, he was granted a fixed civil list payment. Although the King had retained large hereditary revenues, his income proved insufficient for his charged expenses because he used the privilege to supporters with bribes. Debts amounting to over £3 million over the course of Georges reign were paid by Parliament, and the civil list annuity was then increased from time to time. It is intended that future funding will be set as a fraction of The Crown Estate revenue and paid through the annual Treasury Estimates process, the Grant is to enable The Queen to discharge her duties as Head of State. I. e it meets the central staff costs and running expenses of Her Majestys official Household – such things as official receptions, investitures, garden parties and so on
Crown Estate
–
The Crown Estate
39.
North Hoyle Offshore Wind Farm
–
North Hoyle Offshore Wind Farm is Wales first offshore wind farm, and the UKs first major offshore renewable power project. Situated in Liverpool Bay, it commenced operation in 2003, all of the Round 1 offshore wind farms were limited to a maximum area of 10 square kilometres, and no more than 30 wind turbines. The wind farms 30 Vestas V80 Offshore wind turbines are rated at 2 MW capacity. At the time of installation this was the most powerful wind farm in the UK, between 2004 and 2010, the capacity factor was between 33 and 36%. Independent surveys carried out for the operators of North Hoyle have shown that the farm is very popular among holidaymakers. An opinion poll carried out in 2003, after one year of operation, showed that 73% of people expressed support for the project and only 5% opposed it. North Hoyle was developed, built and is operated by RWE npower renewables, npower renewables also own the neighbouring Rhyl Flats and Gwynt y Môr offshore wind farms. List of offshore wind farms in the United Kingdom List of offshore wind farms in the Irish Sea Wind power in the United Kingdom North Hoyle, RWE Innogy
North Hoyle Offshore Wind Farm
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Viewed from the air
North Hoyle Offshore Wind Farm
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Divisions and subsidiaries
40.
Teesside Wind Farm
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Construction of the windfarm began in February 2011 and was complete by June 2013. The wind farm was developed by EDF Energy Ltd. and is operated by Teesside Windfarm Ltd. the owner is EDF Energy Renewables. In 2004 EDF was awarded a 20-year lease from The Crown Estate to develop a farm at Teesside during the first phase of UK offshore wind farm development. The offshore substation received planning consent in November 2008. and an agreement on connection to the NEDL grid was reached in November 2009, construction of a 27 turbine wind farm using 2.3 MW turbines began in February 2011, with commissioning initially expected for 2012. Turbine foundations were to be up to 5. 5m diameter monopiles either drilled and/or piled up to a depth of 35m, inter turbine electrical connections and the connection to shore were to be energised at 33kV. Installation of the 27 turbines was complete by June 2013, the wind farm was officially opened in April 2014. At the end of the 22 year Crown Estate lease the wind farm is expected to be decommissioned by the developer, south Gare & Coatham Sands SSSI Teesside Offshore Wind Farm Environmental Statement, EDF, archived from the original on 10 July 2011
Teesside Wind Farm
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Teesside Wind Farm
41.
Lancashire
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Lancashire is a non-metropolitan ceremonial county in north west England. The county town is Lancaster although the administrative centre is Preston. The county has a population of 1,449,300, people from Lancashire are known as Lancastrians. The history of Lancashire begins with its founding in the 12th century, in the Domesday Book of 1086, some of its lands were treated as part of Yorkshire. The land that lay between the Ribble and Mersey, Inter Ripam et Mersam, was included in the returns for Cheshire, when its boundaries were established, it bordered Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and Cheshire. Lancashire emerged as a commercial and industrial region during the Industrial Revolution. Liverpool and Manchester grew into its largest cities, dominating global trade, the county contained several mill towns and the collieries of the Lancashire Coalfield. By the 1830s, approximately 85% of all cotton manufactured worldwide was processed in Lancashire, Accrington, Blackburn, Bolton, Burnley, Bury, Chorley, Colne, Darwen, Manchester, Nelson, Oldham, Preston, Rochdale and Wigan were major cotton mill towns during this time. Blackpool was a centre for tourism for the inhabitants of Lancashires mill towns, the detached northern part of Lancashire in the Lake District, including the Furness Peninsula and Cartmel, was merged with Cumberland and Westmorland to form Cumbria. Lancashire lost 709 square miles of land to other counties, about two fifths of its area, although it did gain some land from the West Riding of Yorkshire. Today the county borders Cumbria to the north, Greater Manchester and Merseyside to the south and North and West Yorkshire to the east, with a coastline on the Irish Sea to the west. The county palatine boundaries remain the same with the Duke of Lancaster exercising sovereignty rights, including the appointment of lords lieutenant in Greater Manchester, the county was established in 1182, later than many other counties. During Roman times the area was part of the Brigantes tribal area in the zone of Roman Britain. The towns of Manchester, Lancaster, Ribchester, Burrow, Elslack, in the centuries after the Roman withdrawal in 410AD the northern parts of the county probably formed part of the Brythonic kingdom of Rheged, a successor entity to the Brigantes tribe. During the mid-8th century, the area was incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria, in the Domesday Book, land between the Ribble and Mersey were known as Inter Ripam et Mersam and included in the returns for Cheshire. Although some historians consider this to mean south Lancashire was then part of Cheshire and it is also claimed that the territory to the north formed part of the West Riding of Yorkshire. It bordered on Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and Cheshire, the county was divided into hundreds, Amounderness, Blackburn, Leyland, Lonsdale, Salford and West Derby. Lonsdale was further partitioned into Lonsdale North, the part north of the sands of Morecambe Bay including Furness and Cartmel
Lancashire
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John Speed 's map of the County Palatine of Lancaster, 1610
Lancashire
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The
Red Rose of Lancaster is the
county flower of Lancashire, and a common symbol for the county.
Lancashire
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Logo
Lancashire
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Lancashire County Hall, Preston
42.
Thames Estuary
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The Thames Estuary is the estuary in which the River Thames meets the waters of the North Sea, in the south-east of Great Britain. It is not easy to define the limits of the estuary, the eastern boundary of the estuary suggested in a Hydrological Survey of 1882-9 is a line drawn from North Foreland, Margate, Kent via the Kentish Knock lighthouse to Harwich in Essex. It is to this line that the typical estuarine sandbanks extend, the estuary downstream of the Tideway has a tidal movement of 4 metres, moving at a speed of 8 miles per hour. The estuary is one of the largest of 170 such inlets on the coast of Great Britain, the traditional Thames sailing barge worked in this area, designed to be suitable for the shallow waters in the smaller ports. More recently one of the largest wind farms in the UK has been developed in the estuary, located 8.5 km north of Herne Bay, the farm contains 30 wind turbines generating a total of 82. 4MW of electricity. The much larger London Array of up to 1GW capacity is also planned and this area has had several proposed sites for the building of a new airport to supplement, or even to replace Heathrow/Gatwick. In the 1960s Maplin Sands was a contender, in 2002 it was to be at Cliffe, the Thames Estuary is the focal part of the 21st-century toponym, the Thames Gateway, designated as one of the principal development areas in Southern England. The appellation Greater Thames Estuary applies to the coast and the lands bordering the estuary itself. These are characterised by the presence of mudflats, low-lying open beaches and salt marshes, namely the North Kent Marshes and the Essex Marshes. There are many smaller estuaries in Essex, including the Rivers Colne, Blackwater and Crouch Small coastal villages depend on an economy of fishing, boat-building, a similar pattern of replacement can be observed with the aquatic plants and invertebrates living in the river. Joseph Conrad lived in Stanford-le-Hope close to the Essex marshes and his The Mirror of the Sea contains a memorable description of the area as seen from the Thames. Accent The form of speech of many of the people of the area, principally the accents of those from Kent, the term is a term for a milder variety of the London Accent. The term London Accent is generally avoided as it can have many meanings
Thames Estuary
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Satellite image of the Thames Estuary taken by the
Operational Land Imager.
Thames Estuary
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Aerial view of the
Blackwater Estuary, on the Essex coast, in the northern part of the Greater Thames Estuary.
Mersea Island is on the right.
Thames Estuary
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View of the upper Thames estuary from
Tilbury to Mucking Creek looking north from
Shorne, which is 4 kilometres south of the river.
43.
Kentish Flats Wind Farm
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The Kentish Flats Offshore Wind Farm is a wind farm located off the coast of Kent, England on a large, flat and shallow plateau just outside the main Thames shipping lanes. The wind farm is operated by Vattenfall, the distance from the nearest wind turbine to Whitstable is 6.2 miles. The nearest turbine is 5.5 miles away from Herne Bay, construction was completed in August 2005, with commissioning and testing of all turbines completed by September 2005. The wind farm consists of 30 Vestas V90-3MW wind turbines with a nameplate capacity of 90 MW. Turbines were installed by the Danish offshore wind farms services provider A2SEA, between 2007 and 2010, the capacity factor was around 30%. In February 2013 Vattenfall was granted consent to extend the existing Kentish Flats Offshore Wind Farm,15 turbines each with a capacity of 3.3 MW were installed adding an extra 49.5 MW to the wind farm. Offshore construction began in October 2014 and was operational by December 2015
Kentish Flats Wind Farm
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Vestas
V90 Wind Turbine Kentish Flats
Kentish Flats Wind Farm
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Turbines at Kentish Flats, Kent, England, with the WWII gun platforms visible towards the right.
Kentish Flats Wind Farm
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Satellite image of the
Thames Estuary with Kentish Flats (pre-extension) bottom left.
44.
Thanet Wind Farm
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The Thanet Wind Farm is an offshore wind farm 7 miles off the coast of Thanet district in Kent, England. It is the third largest offshore wind farm, as of June 2013. It has a capacity of 300 MW and it cost £780–900 million. Thanet is one of fifteen Round 2 wind projects announced by the Crown Estate in January 2004 and it was officially opened on 23 September 2010, when it overtook Horns Rev 2 as the biggest offshore wind farm in the world. It has since overtaken by Walney. The project covers an area of 13.5 square miles, average water depth is 14–23 metres. Planning permission for the project was granted on 18 December 2006, according to Thanet Offshore Wind Ltd, it was expected to be the largest operational offshore wind farm in the World. The Thanet project has a capacity of 300 MW which. It has a generation of 960 GW·h per year of electricity, i. e. a projected capacity factor of 36. 5%. In 2012, the yearly production achieved was 821.68 GW·h, two submarine power cables run from an offshore substation within the wind farm connecting to an existing onshore substation in Richborough, Kent, connecting to a world-first two transformers. The offshore substation steps up the voltage of 33 kV to 132 kV for the grid. Maintenance of the turbines is carried out by Vestas, while a maintenance agreement with SLP Energy covers the turbines foundations. Turbines are installed by the Danish offshore wind farm services provider A2SEA, the TIV MPI Resolution carried and installed the turbines. The Thanet scheme is project financed, Thanet Offshore Wind Ltd, the project company was owned by hedge fund Christofferson, Robb & Co. It was purchased from a group of sponsors led by Warwick Energy Ltd, in August 2008 Christofferson, Robb & Co placed the project back on the market. On 10 November 2008, Vattenfall, a Swedish energy company, the development was due to be in place by 2008. Vestas were chosen as the turbine supplier in July 2006. The project was delayed by a number of issues including problems with Vestas who temporarily withdrew their V90 offshore model from the market in 2007 following gearbox problems, the V90-3MW was re-released for sales starting from May 2008
Thanet Wind Farm
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Thanet Offshore Wind Farm
Thanet Wind Farm
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Satellite image of the
Thames Estuary with Thanet Wind Farm bottom right.
45.
Department of Trade and Industry (United Kingdom)
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The Department of Trade and Industry was a United Kingdom government department formed on 19 October 1970. It was replaced with the creation of the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform and the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills on 28 June 2007. The department was first formed on 19 October 1970 with the merger of the Board of Trade, the new department also took over the Department of Employments former responsibilities for monopolies and mergers. In January 1974, the departments responsibilities for energy production were transferred to a newly created Department of Energy, in 1983 the departments of Trade and Industry were reunited. The Department of Energy was re-merged back into the DTI in 1992, until it was succeeded in June 2007 the DTI continued to set the energy policy of the United Kingdom. The DTI had a range of responsibilities. There were ultimately nine main areas covered by the DTI, Company Law Trade Business Growth Innovation Employment Law Regional Economic Development Energy Science Consumer Law. From 1999 to 2005 it led the national E-Commerce Awards with InterForum and this aimed to encourage Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises to develop their business through the use of E-Commerce technologies. It also had responsibility for investigating misconduct by company directors, in which role Private Eye repeatedly lampooned it as the Department of Timidity and Inaction
Department of Trade and Industry (United Kingdom)
Department of Trade and Industry (United Kingdom)
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Department of Trade and Industry
46.
Liverpool Bay
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Liverpool Bay is a bay of the Irish Sea between northeast Wales, Cheshire, Lancashire and Merseyside to the east of the Irish Sea. The bay is an example of a region of freshwater influence. Liverpool Bay has historically suffered from reduced oxygen content from prior massive discharges of sewage sludge, the rivers Alt, Clwyd, Dee, Ribble and Mersey drain into the bay. The bay is littered with wrecks and has many dive sites, the bay also contains several oil and gas fields including the Douglas Complex, with a combined daily capacity of 60,000 barrels. The UKs first major wind farm, North Hoyle, is located in the south of the bay. The land area around the bay is referred to as the Liverpool Bay Area. In this sense, it is promoted by local thinkers. It is not recognised by the British Government as a strategic economic sub-region, despite having its advocates, the term is still not particularly common in the area. The English portion of Liverpool Bay is one of the 120 natural areas into which England is divided by Natural England for conservation purposes. SS City of Brussels Ellan Vannin PS Lelia Ocean Monarch Resurgam HMS Thetis Douglas Complex Offshore Storage Installation Coward, T. A. Oldham, the vertebrate fauna of Cheshire and Liverpool Bay. The vertebrate fauna of Cheshire and Liverpool Bay, the first report upon the fauna of Liverpool Bay and the neighboring seas. The second report upon the fauna of Liverpool Bay and the neighboring seas, the third volume of reports upon the fauna of Liverpool Bay and the neighboring seas. The fourth volume of reports upon the fauna of Liverpool Bay, the fifth report upon the fauna of Liverpool Bay and the neighboring seas. School of Ocean Sciences Bangor Diving Liverpool Bay Real-time map of shipping in the bay
Liverpool Bay
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NASA
Landsat images of Liverpool Bay, showing (clockwise) the
Ribble,
Mersey,
Dee and
River Clwyd.
47.
The Wash
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The Wash is the square-mouthed bay and estuary at the north-west corner of East Anglia on the East coast of England, where Norfolk meets Lincolnshire. It is among the largest estuaries in the United Kingdom, the Wash is fed by the rivers Witham, Welland, Nene and Great Ouse. The Wash is the large indentation in the coastline of Eastern England that separates the curved coast of East Anglia from Lincolnshire and it is a large bay with three roughly straight sides meeting at right angles, each about 15 miles in length. The eastern coast of the Wash is entirely within Norfolk, the opposing coast, which is roughly parallel to the east coast, runs from Gibraltar Point to the mouth of the River Welland, all within Lincolnshire. The southern coast runs roughly north-west to south-east, connecting these two river mouths and is punctuated by the mouth of a river, the River Nene. Inland from the Wash the land is flat, low-lying and often marshy, owing to deposits of sediment and land reclamation, the coastline of the Wash has altered markedly within historical times, several towns once on the coast of the Wash are now some distance inland. For this reason, navigation in the Wash can be hazardous, a lightship marks the entrance to the Lynn Channel, the one safe channel from the North Sea to the south coast of the Wash. The Wash varies enormously in water throughout the year. Winter temperatures are brought near freezing from the cold North Sea flows, summer water temperatures can reach 20–23 °C after prolonged high ambient air temperature and sun. This effect, which happens in the shallow areas around beaches. At the end of the latest glaciation, and while the sea level remained lower than it is today and it was this process which gave the Silver Pit its depth and narrowness. When the tunnel valley was free of ice and seawater, it was occupied by the river and this kept it free of sediment, unlike most of the tunnel valleys. Since the sea flooded it, the valley seems to have kept open by tidal action. During the Ipswichian Stage, though the Wash River probably flowed by way of the site of the Silver Pit, the Wash is a Special Protection Area under European Union legislation. It is made up of extensive salt marshes, major intertidal banks of sand and mud, shallow waters. The seawall at Freiston has been breached in three places to increase the area, to provide an extra habitat for birds, particularly waders. The extensive creeks in the marsh, and the vegetation that grows there. This last aspect is an example of the recently developing exploration of the possibilities of sustainable coastal management by adopting soft engineering techniques, the same scheme includes new brackish lagoon habitat
The Wash
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The Wash, as seen looking west from
Heacham, in Norfolk, just south of
Hunstanton
The Wash
–
For other uses, see
Wash (disambiguation).
The Wash
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The jetty at
Snettisham RSPB reserve
48.
Environmental Impact Assessment
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Environmental assessment is the assessment of the environmental consequences of a plan, policy, program, or concrete projects prior to the decision to move forward with the proposed action. Environmental assessments may be governed by rules of administrative procedure regarding public participation and documentation of decision making, the purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers consider the environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project. Environmental impact assessments commenced in the 1960s, as part of increasing environmental awareness, EIAs involved a technical evaluation intended to contribute to more objective decision making. In the United States, environmental impact assessments obtained formal status in 1969, EIAs have been used increasingly around the world. The number of Environmental Assessments filed every year has vastly overtaken the number of more rigorous Environmental Impact Statements, an Environmental Assessment is a mini-EIS designed to provide sufficient information to allow the agency to decide whether the preparation of a full-blown Environmental Impact Statement is necessary. EIA is an activity that is done to find out the impact that would be done before development will occur and these EIAs consider activities related to extraction of raw materials, ancillary materials, equipment, production, use, disposal and ancillary equipment. Genetically modified plants - Specific methods available to perform EIAs of genetically modified organisms include GMP-RAM, fuzzy logic - EIA methods need measurement data to estimate values of impact indicators. However, many of the environment impacts cannot be quantified, e. g. landscape quality, lifestyle quality, instead information from similar EIAs, expert judgment and community sentiment are employed. Approximate reasoning methods known as fuzzy logic can be used, a fuzzy arithmetic approach has also been proposed and implemented using a software tool. At the end of the project, an audit evaluates the accuracy of the EIA by comparing actual to predicted impacts, the objective is to make future EIAs more valid and effective. The Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol is a specific method for checking the quality of Environmental and Social assessments. The history of EIA in Australia could be linked to the enactment of the U. S. National Environment Policy Act in 1970, which made the preparation of environmental impact statements a requirement. In Australia, one might say that the EIA procedures were introduced at a State Level prior to that of the Commonwealth, with a majority of the states having divergent views to the Commonwealth. One of the states was New South Wales, whose State Pollution Control Commission issued EIA guidelines in 1974. At a Commonwealth level, this was followed by passing of the Environment Protection Act in 1974, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 superseded the Environment Protection Act 1974 and is the current central piece for EIA in Australia on a Commonwealth level. Overlap between federal and state requirements is addressed via bilateral agreements or one off accreditation of state processes, in addition to this, the EPBC Act aims at providing a streamlined national assessment and approval process for activities. The Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts assess the process and this is primarily due to the division of powers between the States and the Federal government and due to which the Australian Government environment minister cannot overturn a state decision. There are strict civil and criminal penalties for the breach of EPBC Act, EIA provisions within Ministerial Authorities in the ACT are found in the Chapters 7 and 8 of the Planning and Development Act 2007
Environmental Impact Assessment
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Appropriate technology
Environmental Impact Assessment
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Ethics and principles
49.
Gunfleet Sands
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Gunfleet Sands Offshore Wind Farm is a 172 MW wind farm about 7 kilometres off the Clacton-on-Sea coast in the Northern Thames Estuary. Construction of both wind farms using Siemens Wind Power SWT-3. 6-107 took place between 2008 and 2010, in 2010 planning began on a demonstration project Gunfleet Sands 3, used to test Siemens 6MW wind turbine model, two 6MW turbines were installed in 2013. The average wind speed is 8.8 m/s at 60m elevation, Development of an offshore wind farm site near Clacton-on-Sea began in 1996 under Windmaster Developments, Windmaster was acquired by Enron in 2000, and passed to General Electric in 2002. A Round 1 concession for the development was awarded in 2001, in December 2006 Dong Energy acquired the 100MW Gunfleet 1 project from GE. A contract for 30 Siemens Wind Power 3. 6MW turbines was signed in April 2007, planning application for Gunfleet Sands 2 was submitted to the Department for Business Enterprise and Regulatory Reform in June 2007, and permission was received in 2008. Construction began in 2008, with work including onshore infrastructure. A formal groundbreaking ceremony was held in April 2008, the first turbine was installed in April 2009. Construction of the farm was delayed, in part due to cable laying company Oceanteam going into administration in May 2009. Electrical generation from the complete wind farm began in August 2009. The wind farm was operational by March 2010, the wind farm was formally opened on 15 June 2010 by Anders Eldrup. Cost of the development was 4 billion Danish Kroner, an operations and service center was built in Brightlingsea on the site of a former boatyard. The wind farm produced between 450 and 520 GWh between 2010 and 2012, with a capacity factor of 31-35%, the electrical transmission assets of the wind farm were divested in July 2011 to TC Gunfleet Sands OFTO Limited in response to changes in governmental legislation. In September 2011 Marubeni Corporation acquired a 49. 9% shareholding of the project for £200 million, in 2013 Marubeni divested part of its stake to the Development Bank of Japan. During the St Jude storm of October 2013, wind speeds of 65 metres per second were measured at the wind farm, a planning application for the Gunfleet Sands 3 - Demonstration Project was submitted in 2010. The project consisted of a farm about 1 km28.5 km southeast of Clacton-on-Sea. The site was intended to be provide the facility to test new wind farm equipment in preparation of the Round 3 wind farm letting process,2 wind turbine installations were proposed. Inter array and export cables were supplied by JDR Cables, the monopile foundations and transition pieces were supplied by Bladt Industries and installed by Ballast Nedam in 2012. Two Siemens 6MW turbines were installed in January 2013 by A2SEA, the site began generating power in April 2013
Gunfleet Sands
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The farm from a passing ship, 30 September 2010
Gunfleet Sands
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Turbines visible from Clacton-on-Sea beyond
Clacton Pier
Gunfleet Sands
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Satellite image of the
Thames Estuary with Gunfleet Sands top left.
50.
Westermost Rough wind farm
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Westermost Rough Wind Farm is an offshore wind farm 8 kilometres north east off Withernsea off the Holderness coast, in the North Sea, England. The farm covers an area of approximately 35 km2 with a capacity of approximately 210 MW. It became operational in May 2015, in 2007 Dong Energy was awarded a lease from The Crown Estate to develop a wind farm at Westermost Rough. The company Westermost Rough Ltd was established 2007, a subsidiary of Dong Energy, the wind farm is located 8 km off the Holderness coast, roughly northwest of Withernsea. The proposed design is for 35 to 80 turbines of between 3 and 7 MW power output, in an area of 35 km2, with an installed capacity of up to 245 MW. The offshore substation design was subcontracted to Ramboll, with medium voltage turbine to offshore transformer submarine cables supplied by Nexans, high voltage 150 kV submarine export cables and 150/275 kV underground cables were contracted to be supplied from LS Cable & System of Korea. The cable landing point is to be near Tunstall, East Riding of Yorkshire, the project was the first commercial use of gearless 6 MW Siemens Wind turbines,35 turbines were to be installed, giving a capacity of 210 MW. Varde, Denmark based Titan Wind Energy was contracted to supply towers, with tower foundations supplied by Bladt Industries of Aalborg, the driven monopile foundations are 6.25 metres diameter with mass up to 800 t, with 425 t transition pieces. A dual Doppler radar system, was used to measure high-density wind details over the wind farm area. GeoSea was awarded the contract to install foundation piles in April 2013, the first foundation pile was installed in February 2014. Foundation installation was completed by May 2014, and the offshore substation installed by June 2014, turbine installation was completed March 2015. The wind farm was commissioned and became operational in May 2015, in early 2016 CW Wind was given a 20-year contract to maintain the TC Westernmost Rough OFTOs electrical transmission assets. Westernmost Rough Wind Farm, Dong Energy Westernmost Rough Offshore Wind Farm, Dong Energy UK Westermost Rough Offshore Wind Farm, www. 4coffshore. com
Westermost Rough wind farm
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Westermost Rough visible on the horizon, under construction in March 2015
