1.
Windmill
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A windmill is a mill that converts the energy of wind into rotational energy by means of vanes called sails or blades. Centuries ago, windmills usually were used to mill grain, pump water, thus they often were gristmills, windpumps, or both. The majority of modern windmills take the form of wind turbines used to generate electricity, the windwheel of the Greek engineer Heron of Alexandria in the first century is the earliest known instance of using a wind-driven wheel to power a machine. Another early example of a wheel was the prayer wheel. It has been claimed that the Babylonian emperor Hammurabi planned to use wind power for his ambitious project in the seventeenth century BCE. The first practical windmills had sails that rotated in a horizontal plane, according to Ahmad Y. al-Hassan, these panemone windmills were invented in eastern Persia as recorded by the Persian geographer Estakhri in the ninth century. The authenticity of an anecdote of a windmill involving the second caliph Umar is questioned on the grounds that it appears in a tenth-century document. Made of six to 12 sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grain or draw up water, Windmills were in widespread use across the Middle East and Central Asia, and later spread to China and India from there. A similar type of windmill with rectangular blades, used for irrigation, can also be found in thirteenth-century China. Horizontal windmills were built, in numbers, in Europe during the 18th and nineteenth centuries, for example Fowlers Mill at Battersea in London. Due to a lack of evidence, debate occurs among historians as to whether or not Middle Eastern horizontal windmills triggered the development of European windmills. In northwestern Europe, the horizontal-axis or vertical windmill is believed to date from the last quarter of the century in the triangle of northern France, eastern England. The earliest certain reference to a windmill in Europe dates from 1185, a number of earlier, but less certainly dated, twelfth-century European sources referring to windmills have also been found. These earliest mills were used to grind cereals, the evidence at present is that the earliest type of European windmill was the post mill, so named because of the large upright post on which the mills main structure is balanced. The body contains all the milling machinery, the first post mills were of the sunken type, where the post was buried in an earth mound to support it. Later, a wooden support was developed called the trestle and this was often covered over or surrounded by a roundhouse to protect the trestle from the weather and to provide storage space. This type of windmill was the most common in Europe until the nineteenth century, in a hollow-post mill, the post on which the body is mounted is hollowed out, to accommodate the drive shaft. This makes it possible to drive machinery below or outside the body still being able to rotate the body into the wind
2.
Windpump
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A windpump is a type of windmill which is used for pumping water. Windpumps were used to pump water since at least the 9th century in what is now Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan, the use of wind pumps became widespread across the Muslim world and later spread to China and India. Simon Stevins work in the waterstaet involved improvements to the sluices and these improvements increased the efficiency of the windmills used to pump water out of the polders by three times. He received a patent on his innovation in 1586, eight- to ten-bladed windmills were used in the Region of Murcia, Spain, to raise water for irrigation purposes. The drive from the rotor was led down through the tower. The noria supported a chain which dangled down into the well. The buckets were made of wood or clay. These windmills remained in use until the 1950s, and many of the towers are still standing, early immigrants to the New World brought with them the technology of windmills from Europe. On US farms, particularly on the Great Plains, wind pumps were used to water from farm wells for cattle. The self-regulating farm wind pump was invented by Daniel Halladay in 1854, eventually, steel blades and steel towers replaced wooden construction, and at their peak in 1930, an estimated 600,000 units were in use, with capacity equivalent to 150 megawatts. Very large lighter wind pumps in Australia directly crank the pump with the rotor of the windmill, extra back gearing between small rotors for high wind areas and the pump crank prevents trying to push the pump rods down on the downstroke faster than they can fall by gravity. Otherwise pumping too fast leads to the pump rods buckling, making the seal of the stuffing box leak, the multi-bladed wind pump or wind turbine atop a lattice tower made of wood or steel hence became, for many years, a fixture of the landscape throughout rural America. These mills, made by a variety of manufacturers, featured a number of blades so that they would turn slowly with considerable torque in moderate winds. A tower-top gearbox and crankshaft converted the motion into reciprocating strokes carried downward through a rod to the pump cylinder below. Today, rising costs and improved pumping technology are increasing interest in the use of this once declining technology. The Netherlands is well known for its windmills, most of these iconic structures situated along the edge of polders are actually windpumps, designed to drain the land. These are particularly important as much of the country lies below sea level, in the UK, the term windpump is rarely used, and they are better known as drainage windmills. Many of these were built in The Broads and The Fens of East Anglia for the draining of land, many of the original windmills still stand in a derelict state although some have been restored
3.
Thorntonbank Wind Farm
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The Thorntonbank Wind Farm is an offshore wind farm,30 km off the Belgian coast, in water ranging from 12 to 27 metres deep. Electricity production started in early 2009, with a capacity of 30 MW, the capacity is expected to be increased gradually to 300 MW in 2015. The project is made of three phases, the first phase was built by C-Power and consists of six REpower offshore wind turbines of 5 MW capacity on the Thornton sandbank, at a cost of €153 million. It was commissioned in June 2009, a 37 km 150 kV undersea cable connects the Thorntonbank Wind Farm to the shore. The first phase of what will ultimately be a 325 MW wind farm was completed in September 2008. The six REpower 5 MW turbines, which were installed on concrete gravity foundations, were linked to the Belgian power grid, giving a total rated capacity of 30 MW for the first stage. The full story of the design, engineering, construction and installation of the Thorntonbank Wind Farm is told in a book that was published in November 2010. In these phases, a total of 48 additional wind turbines of 6. 15MWp were installed, phase 2 comprises the installation of 30 of the 48 wind turbines. These wind turbines have been installed on steel jacket foundations designed by OWEC Tower AS and assembled at Smulders, in the third and last phase, the remaining 18 wind turbines were installed, bringing the total capacity to around 325 MW. A summary of the developing of Thornton Bank can be Found at WindEnergyUpdate on http, offshore wind farms may affect sea fishing. Certain areas may be closed to fishing, as a result of which the total area that can be fished is reduced. The basis for study is a thorough investigation of the importance of the Thornton Bank for sea fishing. Offshore wind farms create new structures at sea and by definition they therefore pose a risk to the safety of shipping. C-Power has, however, chosen a location which is a way from the most important shipping routes so that this risk can be reduced to a minimum. C-Power will be calling upon the knowledge of German consultants Germanischer Lloyd. Thorntonbank was only the second wind farm to be Project Financed
4.
Senvion
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Senvion S. A. is a wind turbine manufacturer founded in 2001 in Germany, now majority owned by the private equity firm, Centerbridge Partners. Registered business address is in Luxembourg and its product range comprises several types of turbines with rated outputs of between 1.8 and 6.15 megawatts. Senvion was formed in 2001 from the merger of the company Jacobs energy with HSW, BWU, the roots of this company go back to 1994, when the first self-developed 500-kilowatt system was presented. Previously, the configuration and operating company Denker & Wulf was founded in Sehestedt in 1995 and this was, however, sold to the interim consolidated financial affiliation with REpower, in 2004. Senvion started to produce the ProTec MD, a 1500 kW turbine and this turbine designed by pro + pro energy systems was licensed also to Jacobs Energie, Nordex SE, Südwind and Fuhrländer. Later own designs like 2MW, 3MW and 5MW turbines are follow.3 billion, the deal was structured in such a manner to allow Suzlon to purchase Martifers stake within two years for a fixed price of €265 million. Suzlon subsequently strengthened its position by buying the remaining 30% Areva stake in June 2008 for more than €350 million, suzlons total investment of approximately US$1.6 billion gives it a holding of 66%, with the next largest shareholder being Martifer of Portugal. Areva went on to purchase the majority holding in 5MW rival, in 2009 Suzlon raised its share to 92% of REpower. As of February 2015, Suzlon Energy owns 100% of Senvion, the Company was then listed on Frankfurt Stock Exchange Prime Standard on 23rd March 2016 at a valuation of €1bn. The Senvion 5M 5-megawatt turbine was the largest commercial turbine until the subsequent upgrade of this unit to provide significant more power and this has a rated output of 6.15 megawatts from the same rotor diameter of 126.5 meters. The target market is the wind farm sector. The prototype was assembled in the autumn of 2004 in Brunsbüttel, in August 2006 the first 5M model was erected for the Beatrice project. The Senvion 6MW turbine with the rotor diameter has been operational in Elhöft, Germany since 2009. Senvion maintain their global operating headquarters and administrative centre at Hamburg, research and Design facilities are located at Rendsburg, Schleswig Holstein, close to the original manufacturing plant and test centre in Husum. A new assembly hall was opened in Bremerhaven in 2008 specifically aimed at the offshore market. This facility was adjacent to a new 460m long joint venture blade assembly plant. A further manufacturing and service centre exists at Trampe near Berlin, Senvion is a major supplier to the offshore wind industry and one of the leaders in the 5MW+ turbine category. Thornton Bank phases II and III were installed in 2013 and this wind farm has been running exceptionally well, with capacity factors of well above 50% in the first three months of 2014 - well above the predicted yields
5.
North Sea
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The North Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean located between Great Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. An epeiric sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the ocean through the English Channel in the south and it is more than 970 kilometres long and 580 kilometres wide, with an area of around 570,000 square kilometres. The North Sea has long been the site of important European shipping lanes as well as a major fishery, the North Sea was the centre of the Vikings rise. Subsequently, the Hanseatic League, the Netherlands, and the British each sought to dominate the North Sea and thus the access to the markets, as Germanys only outlet to the ocean, the North Sea continued to be strategically important through both World Wars. The coast of the North Sea presents a diversity of geological and geographical features, in the north, deep fjords and sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and Scottish coastlines, whereas in the south it consists primarily of sandy beaches and wide mudflats. Due to the population, heavy industrialization, and intense use of the sea and area surrounding it. In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean, in the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively. In the north it is bordered by the Shetland Islands, and connects with the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea is more than 970 kilometres long and 580 kilometres wide, with an area of 570,000 square kilometres and a volume of 54,000 cubic kilometres. Around the edges of the North Sea are sizeable islands and archipelagos, including Shetland, Orkney, the North Sea receives freshwater from a number of European continental watersheds, as well as the British Isles. A large part of the European drainage basin empties into the North Sea including water from the Baltic Sea, the largest and most important rivers flowing into the North Sea are the Elbe and the Rhine – Meuse watershed. Around 185 million people live in the catchment area of the rivers discharging into the North Sea encompassing some highly industrialized areas, for the most part, the sea lies on the European continental shelf with a mean depth of 90 metres. The only exception is the Norwegian trench, which extends parallel to the Norwegian shoreline from Oslo to a north of Bergen. It is between 20 and 30 kilometres wide and has a depth of 725 metres. The Dogger Bank, a vast moraine, or accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris and this feature has produced the finest fishing location of the North Sea. The Long Forties and the Broad Fourteens are large areas with uniform depth in fathoms. These great banks and others make the North Sea particularly hazardous to navigate, the Devils Hole lies 200 miles east of Dundee, Scotland. The feature is a series of trenches between 20 and 30 kilometres long,1 and 2 kilometres wide and up to 230 metres deep. Other areas which are less deep are Cleaver Bank, Fisher Bank, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the North Sea as follows, On the Southwest
6.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
7.
Renewable energy
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Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas, electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, based on REN21s 2016 report, renewables contributed 19. 2% to humans global energy consumption and 23. 7% to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 8. 9% coming from biomass,4. 2% as heat energy,3. 9% hydro electricity and 2. 2% is electricity from wind, solar, geothermal. Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US$286 billion in 2015, with countries like China, globally, there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer. As of 2015 worldwide, more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable, Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation. In international public opinion there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade, for example, in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply to 100% renewable energy by 2050. While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. Renewable energy systems are becoming more efficient and cheaper. Their share of energy consumption is increasing. Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables, in its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits. New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the financial crisis better than many other sectors. As of 2011, small solar PV systems provide electricity to a few million households, United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. Some countries have much higher long-term policy targets of up to 100% renewables, outside Europe, a diverse group of 20 or more other countries target renewable energy shares in the 2020–2030 time frame that range from 10% to 50%
8.
Biofuel
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Biofuels can be derived directly from plants, or indirectly from agricultural, commercial, domestic, and/or industrial wastes. Renewable biofuels generally involve contemporary carbon fixation, such as those that occur in plants or microalgae through the process of photosynthesis, other renewable biofuels are made through the use or conversion of biomass. This biomass can be converted to convenient energy-containing substances in three different ways, thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion and this biomass conversion can result in fuel in solid, liquid, or gas form. This new biomass can also be used directly for biofuels, bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived from sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil. Current plant design does not provide for converting the portion of plant raw materials to fuel components by fermentation. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe, in 2010, worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters, up 17% from 2009, and biofuels provided 2. 7% of the worlds fuels for road transport. Global ethanol fuel production reached 86 billion liters in 2010, with the United States and Brazil as the top producers. The worlds largest biodiesel producer is the European Union, accounting for 53% of all production in 2010. As of 2011, mandates for blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the national level, the International Energy Agency has a goal for biofuels to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050 to reduce dependence on petroleum and coal. The production of biofuels also led into an automotive industry. There are various social, economic, environmental and technical issues relating to production and use. Most transportation fuels are liquids, because vehicles usually require high energy density and this occurs naturally in liquids and solids. High energy density can also be provided by a combustion engine. The fuels that are easiest to burn cleanly are typically liquids, thus, liquids meet the requirements of being both energy-dense and clean-burning. In addition, liquids can be pumped, which means handling is easily mechanized, first-generation or conventional biofuels are made from sugar, starch, or vegetable oil. Biobutanol is often claimed to provide a replacement for gasoline
9.
Biomass
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Biomass is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and other organic matter. It has become popular among power stations, which switch from coal to biomass to comply with the law. Biomass most often refers to plants or plant-based materials that are not used for food or feed, as an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are classified into, thermal, chemical. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time people began burning wood to make fire. Even today, biomass is the source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. Biomass is all biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the estimated biomass production in the world is 104.9 petagrams of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today, examples include forest residues, yard clippings, wood chips, wood energy is derived by using lignocellulosic biomass as fuel. Harvested wood may be used directly as a fuel or collected from waste streams to be processed into pellet fuel or other forms of fuels. The largest source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or black liquor, in the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories, first-generation biofuels are derived from sources such as sugarcane and corn starch. Sugars present in this biomass are fermented to produce bioethanol, a fuel which can be used directly in a fuel cell to produce electricity or serve as an additive to gasoline. However, utilizing food-based resources for production only aggravates the food shortage problem. Second-generation biofuels, on the hand, utilize non-food-based biomass sources such as agriculture. These biofuels mostly consist of lignocellulosic biomass, which is not edible and is a waste for many industries. Despite being the alternative, economical production of second-generation biofuel is not yet achieved due to technological issues. These issues arise due to chemical inertness and structural rigidity of lignocellulosic biomass. Plant energy is produced by crops grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy
10.
Geothermal energy
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Geothermal energy is heat energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy determines the temperature of matter. The geothermal energy of the Earths crust originates from the formation of the planet. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots γη, meaning earth, Earths internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earths formation. Temperatures at the boundary may reach over 4000 °C. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C, from hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity generation. Worldwide,11,700 megawatts of power is online in 2013. An additional 28 gigawatts of geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination. Geothermal power is cost-effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for applications such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, as a result, geothermal power has the potential to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels. The Earths geothermal resources are more than adequate to supply humanitys energy needs. Drilling and exploration for resources is very expensive. Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about technology, energy prices, subsidies, plate boundary movement, pilot programs like EWEBs customer opt in Green Power Program show that customers would be willing to pay a little more for a renewable energy source like geothermal. But as a result of government assisted research and industry experience, in 2001, geothermal energy costs between two and ten US cents per kWh. Hot springs have been used for bathing at least since Paleolithic times, the oldest known spa is a stone pool on Chinas Lisan mountain built in the Qin Dynasty in the 3rd century BC, at the same site where the Huaqing Chi palace was later built. In the first century AD, Romans conquered Aquae Sulis, now Bath, Somerset, England, the admission fees for these baths probably represent the first commercial use of geothermal power. The worlds oldest geothermal district heating system in Chaudes-Aigues, France, has been operating since the 14th century, the earliest industrial exploitation began in 1827 with the use of geyser steam to extract boric acid from volcanic mud in Larderello, Italy. In 1892, Americas first district heating system in Boise, Idaho was powered directly by geothermal energy, and was copied in Klamath Falls, Oregon in 1900
11.
Hydropower
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Hydropower or water power is power derived from the energy of falling water or fast running water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. A trompe, which compressed air from falling water, is sometimes used to power other machinery at a distance. In the late 19th century, hydropower became a source for generating electricity, cragside in Northumberland was the first house powered by hydroelectricity in 1878 and the first commercial hydroelectric power plant was built at Niagara Falls in 1879. In 1881, street lamps in the city of Niagara Falls were powered by hydropower, since the early 20th century, the term has been used almost exclusively in conjunction with the modern development of hydroelectric power. In China and the rest of the Far East, hydraulically operated pot wheel pumps raised water into crop or irrigation canals, the power of a wave of water released from a tank was used for extraction of metal ores in a method known as hushing. The method was first used at the Dolaucothi Gold Mines in Wales from 75 AD onwards, hushing was also widely used in Britain in the Medieval and later periods to extract lead and tin ores. It later evolved into hydraulic mining when used during the California Gold Rush and these include an endless belt with jugs attached, a cow-powered shadoof, and a reciprocating device with hinged valves. In 1753, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique which described vertical-, the growing demand for the Industrial Revolution would drive development as well. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, water was the source of power for new inventions such as Richard Arkwrights water frame. In the 1830s, at the peak in US canal-building, hydropower provided the energy to transport barge traffic up. Technological advances had moved the water wheel into an enclosed turbine or water motor. Francis, while working as engineer of Lowells Locks and Canals company. He applied scientific principles and testing methods to the problem of turbine design and his mathematical and graphical calculation methods allowed confident design of high efficiency turbines to exactly match a sites specific flow conditions. The Francis reaction turbine is still in use today. Hydraulic power networks used pipes to carrying pressurized water and transmit power from the source to end users. The power source was normally a head of water, which could also be assisted by a pump and these were extensive in Victorian cities in the United Kingdom. A hydraulic power network was developed in Geneva, Switzerland. The world-famous Jet dEau was originally designed as the relief valve for the network
12.
Solar energy
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Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, the large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity. The United Nations Development Programme in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the potential of solar energy was 1. This is several times larger than the world energy consumption. In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that the development of affordable, inexhaustible, hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments, they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared. The Earth receives 174,000 terawatts of incoming solar radiation at the upper atmosphere, approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of light at the Earths surface is mostly spread across the visible. Most of the population live in areas with insolation levels of 150-300 watts/m². Solar radiation is absorbed by the Earths land surface, oceans – which cover about 71% of the globe –, warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches an altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °C. By photosynthesis, green plants convert solar energy into stored energy, which produces food, wood. The total solar energy absorbed by Earths atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules per year, in 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass, geography affects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation. However, the use of photovoltaics that can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator. Time variation effects the potential of energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to absorb. This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day, cloud cover can affect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells. In addition, land availability has an effect on the available solar energy because solar panels can only be set up on land that is otherwise unused
13.
Tidal power
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Tidal power or tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts the energy obtained from tides into useful forms of power, mainly electricity. Although not yet used, tidal power has potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than wind energy and solar power, historically, tide mills have been used both in Europe and on the Atlantic coast of North America. The incoming water was contained in large ponds, and as the tide went out. The earliest occurrences date from the Middle Ages, or even from Roman times, the process of using falling water and spinning turbines to create electricity was introduced in the U. S. and Europe in the 19th century. The worlds first large-scale tidal power plant was the Rance Tidal Power Station in France and it was the largest tidal power station in terms of output until Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station opened in South Korea in August,2011. The Sihwa station uses sea wall defense barriers complete with 10 turbines generating 254 MW, Tidal power is taken from the Earths oceanic tides. Tidal forces are periodic variations in gravitational attraction exerted by celestial bodies and these forces create corresponding motions or currents in the worlds oceans. Due to the attraction to the oceans, a bulge in the water level is created. When the sea level is raised, water from the middle of the ocean is forced to move toward the shorelines and this occurrence takes place in an unfailing manner, due to the consistent pattern of the moon’s orbit around the earth. Tidal power is the technology that draws on energy inherent in the orbital characteristics of the Earth–Moon system. Other natural energies exploited by human technology originate directly or indirectly with the Sun, including fuel, conventional hydroelectric, wind, biofuel, wave. A tidal generator converts the energy of tidal flows into electricity, greater tidal variation and higher tidal current velocities can dramatically increase the potential of a site for tidal electricity generation. This loss of energy has caused the rotation of the Earth to slow in the 4.5 billion years since its formation. During the last 620 million years the period of rotation of the earth has increased from 21.9 hours to 24 hours, while tidal power will take additional energy from the system, the effect is negligible and would only be noticed over millions of years. Some tidal generators can be built into the structures of existing bridges or are entirely submersed, land constrictions such as straits or inlets can create high velocities at specific sites, which can be captured with the use of turbines. These turbines can be horizontal, vertical, open, or ducted, Tidal barrages make use of the potential energy in the difference in height between high and low tides. When using tidal barrages to generate power, the energy from a tide is seized through strategic placement of specialized dams
14.
Wave power
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Wave power is the transport of energy by wind waves, and the capture of that energy to do useful work – for example, electricity generation, water desalination, or the pumping of water. A machine able to exploit wave power is known as a wave energy converter. Wave power is distinct from the flux of tidal power. Wave-power generation is not currently a widely employed commercial technology, although there have been attempts to use it since at least 1890, in 2008, the first experimental wave farm was opened in Portugal, at the Aguçadoura Wave Park. Waves are generated by passing over the surface of the sea. As long as the waves propagate slower than the speed just above the waves. Wave height is determined by speed, the duration of time the wind has been blowing, fetch and by the depth. A given wind speed has a practical limit over which time or distance will not produce larger waves. When this limit has been reached the sea is said to be fully developed, in general, larger waves are more powerful but wave power is also determined by wave speed, wavelength, and water density. Oscillatory motion is highest at the surface and diminishes exponentially with depth, however, for standing waves near a reflecting coast, wave energy is also present as pressure oscillations at great depth, producing microseisms. These pressure fluctuations at greater depth are too small to be interesting from the point of view of wave power, the waves propagate on the ocean surface, and the wave energy is also transported horizontally with the group velocity. The mean transport rate of the energy through a vertical plane of unit width. The above formula states that power is proportional to the wave energy period. When the significant wave height is given in metres, and the period in seconds. Example, Consider moderate ocean swells, in water, a few km off a coastline, with a wave height of 3 m. Using the formula to solve for power, we get P ≈0.5 kW m 3 ⋅ s 2 ≈36 kW m, in major storms, the largest waves offshore are about 15 meters high and have a period of about 15 seconds. According to the formula, such waves carry about 1.7 MW of power across each metre of wavefront. An effective wave power device captures as much as possible of the energy flux
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Wind power
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Wind power is the use of air flow through wind turbines to mechanically power generators for electric power. The net effects on the environment are far less problematic than those of power sources. Wind farms consist of individual wind turbines which are connected to the electric power transmission network. Onshore wind is a source of electric power, competitive with or in many places cheaper than coal or gas plants. Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land, and offshore farms have less visual impact, small onshore wind farms can feed some energy into the grid or provide electric power to isolated off-grid locations. Wind power gives variable power which is consistent from year to year. It is therefore used in conjunction with other power sources to give a reliable supply. As the proportion of power in a region increases, a need to upgrade the grid. In addition, weather forecasting permits the power network to be readied for the predictable variations in production that occur. As of 2015, Denmark generates 40% of its power from wind. In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16% to 369,553 MW, yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4% of worldwide electric power usage,11. 4% in the EU. Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind, for more than two millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water. Wind power was available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams, or later. Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands, and in regions such as the American mid-west or the Australian outback, wind pumps provided water for live stock. The first windmill used for the production of power was built in Scotland in July 1887 by Prof James Blyth of Andersons College. Blyth offered the surplus power to the people of Marykirk for lighting the main street, however. The Brush wind turbine had a rotor 17 metres in diameter and was mounted on an 18 metres tower, although large by todays standards, the machine was only rated at 12 kW. The connected dynamo was used either to charge a bank of batteries or to operate up to 100 incandescent light bulbs, with the development of electric power, wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power
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100% renewable energy
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Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system. Renewable energy use has grown faster than even advocates anticipated. The most important sector is electricity with a share of 22. 8%, most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16. 6%. There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy, at the national level, at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of the energy supply. Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Mark Z, barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be primarily social and political, not technological or economic. Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind, solar, the main obstacle against this scenario is the lack of political will. The main barriers to the implementation of large-scale renewable energy. Using 100% renewable energy was first suggested in a Science paper published in 1975 by Danish physicist Bent Sørensen, in 1998 the first detailed analysis of scenarios with very high shares of renewables were published. These were followed by the first detailed 100% scenarios, in 2006 a PhD thesis was published by Czisch in which it was shown that in a 100% renewable scenario energy supply could match demand in every hour of the year in Europa and North Africa. Since then Lund has been publishing several papers on 100% renewable energy, after 2009 publications began to rise steeply, covering 100% scenarios for countries in Europa, America, Australia and other parts of the world. Even in the early 21st century it was extraordinary for scientists, however, renewable energy progress has been so rapid that things have totally changed since then, Solar photovoltaic modules have dropped about 75 per cent in price. On-shore wind power is spreading over all continents and is competitive with fossil. Renewable energy use has grown faster than even advocates had anticipated. Wind turbines generate 39 percent of Danish electricity, and Denmark has many biogas digesters, together, wind and biomass provide 44% of the electricity consumed by the countrys six million inhabitants. In 2010, Portugal’s 10 million people produced more than half their electricity from renewable energy resources. Spain’s 40 million inhabitants meet one-third of their needs from renewables. Renewable energy has a history of public support. In America, for example, a 2013 Gallup survey showed that two in three Americans want the U. S. to increase energy production using solar power, wind power
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Renewable energy commercialization
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Renewable energy commercialization involves the deployment of three generations of renewable energy technologies dating back more than 100 years. First-generation technologies, which are mature and economically competitive, include biomass, hydroelectricity, geothermal power. As of 2012, renewable energy accounts for half of new nameplate electrical capacity installed. Public policy and political leadership helps to level the playing field, countries such as Germany, Denmark, and Spain have led the way in implementing innovative policies which has driven most of the growth over the past decade. As of 2014, Germany has a commitment to the Energiewende transition to an energy economy. There are now 144 countries with renewable energy policy targets, Renewable energy continued its rapid growth in 2015, providing multiple benefits. There was a new set for installed wind and photovoltaic capacity. A key benefit that this investment growth brings is a growth in jobs, the top countries for investment in recent years were China, Germany, Spain, the United States, Italy, and Brazil. Renewable energy companies include BrightSource Energy, First Solar, Gamesa, GE Energy, Goldwind, Sinovel, Trina Solar, Vestas, Climate change concerns are also driving increasing growth in the renewable energy industries. According to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency, solar power generators may produce most of the worlds electricity within 50 years, Renewable power has been more effective in creating jobs than coal or oil in the United States. Climate change, pollution, and energy insecurity are significant problems, in the old economy, energy was produced by burning something — oil, coal, or natural gas — leading to the carbon emissions that have come to define our economy. The new energy economy harnesses the energy in wind, the coming from the sun. In international public opinion there is strong support for a variety of methods for addressing the problem of energy supply. It is expected that renewable energy investments will pay off economically in the long term, EU member countries have shown support for ambitious renewable energy goals. In 2010, Eurobarometer polled the twenty-seven EU member states about the target to increase the share of energy in the EU by 20 percent by 2020. Most people in all twenty-seven countries either approved of the target or called for it to go further, across the EU,57 percent thought the proposed goal was about right and 16 percent thought it was too modest. In comparison,19 percent said it was too ambitious, New EPA initiatives targeting air toxics, coal ash, and effluent releases highlight the environmental impacts of coal and the cost of addressing them with control technologies. The use of fracking in natural gas exploration is coming under scrutiny, with evidence of groundwater contamination, concerns are increasing about the vast amounts of water used at coal-fired and nuclear power plants, particularly in regions of the country facing water shortages
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Kinetic energy
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In physics, the kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses due to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a mass from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this energy during its acceleration, the body maintains this kinetic energy unless its speed changes, the same amount of work is done by the body in decelerating from its current speed to a state of rest. In classical mechanics, the energy of a non-rotating object of mass m traveling at a speed v is 12 m v 2. In relativistic mechanics, this is an approximation only when v is much less than the speed of light. The standard unit of energy is the joule. The adjective kinetic has its roots in the Greek word κίνησις kinesis, the dichotomy between kinetic energy and potential energy can be traced back to Aristotles concepts of actuality and potentiality. The principle in classical mechanics that E ∝ mv2 was first developed by Gottfried Leibniz and Johann Bernoulli, Willem s Gravesande of the Netherlands provided experimental evidence of this relationship. By dropping weights from different heights into a block of clay, Émilie du Châtelet recognized the implications of the experiment and published an explanation. The terms kinetic energy and work in their present scientific meanings date back to the mid-19th century, early understandings of these ideas can be attributed to Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis, who in 1829 published the paper titled Du Calcul de lEffet des Machines outlining the mathematics of kinetic energy. William Thomson, later Lord Kelvin, is given the credit for coining the term kinetic energy c, energy occurs in many forms, including chemical energy, thermal energy, electromagnetic radiation, gravitational energy, electric energy, elastic energy, nuclear energy, and rest energy. These can be categorized in two classes, potential energy and kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the movement energy of an object, Kinetic energy can be transferred between objects and transformed into other kinds of energy. Kinetic energy may be best understood by examples that demonstrate how it is transformed to, for example, a cyclist uses chemical energy provided by food to accelerate a bicycle to a chosen speed. On a level surface, this speed can be maintained without further work, except to overcome air resistance, the chemical energy has been converted into kinetic energy, the energy of motion, but the process is not completely efficient and produces heat within the cyclist. The kinetic energy in the moving cyclist and the bicycle can be converted to other forms, for example, the cyclist could encounter a hill just high enough to coast up, so that the bicycle comes to a complete halt at the top. The kinetic energy has now largely converted to gravitational potential energy that can be released by freewheeling down the other side of the hill. Since the bicycle lost some of its energy to friction, it never regains all of its speed without additional pedaling, the energy is not destroyed, it has only been converted to another form by friction
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Electrical energy
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Electrical energy is the energy newly derived from electric potential energy or kinetic energy. When loosely used to describe energy absorbed or delivered by an electrical circuit electrical energy talks about energy which has converted from electric potential energy. This energy is supplied by the combination of current and electric potential that is delivered by the circuit. At the point that this potential energy has been converted to another type of energy. Thus, all energy is potential energy before it is delivered to the end-use. Once converted from potential energy, electrical energy can always be called another type of energy, electric generation is The fundamental principle of electricity generation were discovered during the 1820s and early 1830s by the British scientist Michael Faraday. His basic method is used today, electricity is generated by the movement of a loop of wire. For electric utilities, it is the first step in the delivery of electricity to consumers, the other processes, electricity transmission, distribution, and electrical power storage and recovery using pumped-storage methods are normally carried out by the electric power industry. There are many technologies that can be and are used to generate electricity such as solar photovoltaics
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Battery charger
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A battery charger, or recharger, is a device used to put energy into a secondary cell or rechargeable battery by forcing an electric current through it. The charging protocol depends on the size and type of the battery being charged, some battery types have high tolerance for overcharging and can be recharged by connection to a constant voltage source or a constant current source, depending on battery type. Other battery types cannot withstand over-charging, being damaged or overheating or even exploding, a trickle charger provides a relatively small amount of current, only enough to counteract self-discharge of a battery that is idle for a long time. Slow battery chargers may take hours to complete a charge, high-rate chargers may restore most capacity much faster. Such batteries require active monitoring of the battery to protect it from overcharge, Electric vehicles ideally need high-rate chargers, for public access, installation of such chargers and the distribution support for them is an issue in the proposed adoption of electric cars. Charge and discharge rates are often denoted as C or C-rate, any battery has an energy capacity which is given in amp-hours or milliamp-hours. The C-rate is amp or milliamp figure when charging a battery, for example, for a battery with a capacity of 500mAh, the current corresponding to a C-rate of 10 is a charge rate of 5000mA, while the current corresponding to a C-rate of 1/2 is 250mA. Such high charging rates are only with some battery types. Others will be damaged or possibly overheat or catch fire, for example, an automobile SLI lead-acid battery carries several risks of explosion. A simple charger works by supplying a constant DC or pulsed DC power source to a battery being charged, a simple charger typically does not alter its output based on charging time or the charge on the battery. This simplicity means that a simple charger is inexpensive, but there are tradeoffs, typically, a carefully designed simple charger takes longer to charge a battery than otherwise because it is set to use a lower charging rate to prevent damage. Even so, many batteries left on a charger for too long will be weakened or destroyed due to over-charging. These chargers also vary in that they can supply either a constant voltage, or a constant current, simple AC-powered battery chargers usually have much higher ripple current and ripple voltage than other kinds of battery chargers because they are inexpensively designed and built. Generally, when the current is within a batterys manufacturer recommended level. The maximum ripple current for a typical 12 V100 Ah VRLA lead acid battery is 5 amps, as long as the ripple current is not excessive, the expected life of a ripple-charged VRLA battery will be within 3% of the life of a constant DC-charged battery. Fast chargers make use of control circuitry to charge the batteries without damaging any of the cells in the battery. The control circuitry can be built into the battery or in the charging unit. Most such chargers have a fan to help keep the temperature of the cells at safe levels
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Caravan (towed trailer)
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A travel trailer, camper trailer or caravan is towed behind a road vehicle to provide a place to sleep which is more comfortable and protected than a tent. It provides the means for people to have their own home on a journey or a vacation, without relying on a motel or hotel, however, in some countries campers are restricted to designated sites for which fees are payable. Travel trailers and caravans vary from basic models which may be more than a tent on wheels to those containing several rooms with all the furniture and furnishings. They are used principally in North America, Europe, Australia, in Europe, the origins of travel trailers and caravanning can be traced back to travelling Gypsies, and showmen who spent most of their lives in horse-drawn caravans. Samuel White Baker purchased an actual Gypsy caravan in Britain and shipped it to Cyprus for his tour in 1879 and it was an 18-foot design, based upon their Bible Wagons, used by traveling preachers in Americas Wild West. He travelled around the British countryside in it and later wrote a book documenting his travels in 1885 called The Gentleman Gypsy, by the turn of the century, caravanning for leisure had become an increasingly popular activity. In 1901, the first dedicated caravanning club was established, the Camping and Caravanning Club was founded by Thomas Hiram Holding, the father of modern camping. The Caravan Club was founded in 1907 with Stables as its vice president, bring together those interested in van life as a pastime. to improve and supply suitable vans and other appliances. and to arrange camping grounds. Caravanning gained popularity in North America in the 1920s, one of the first home-built house trailers in America was built in 1933 by grocer-barber-restaurateur-miner John Jack Anthony Porcella, who traveled extensively throughout the western states. Modern travel trailers come in a range of sizes, from tiny two-berth trailers with no toilet and only basic facilities, to large, triple-axle. Caravans, particularly the Vardo, have served both as a significant cultural icon and symbol of the nomadic Gypsies, until the early 19th century, Gypsy caravans served primarily as a means of transport and not as a domicile. At the beginning of the 19th century, more Gypsies began to live in their caravans instead of sleeping in tents, the caravan offered greater protection from weather conditions and could be outfitted with modern amenities such as wood-burning stoves. Often, caravans were commissioned to be built at the request of newlywed couples, the small-scale, pre-industrial methods of the builders and the labour-intensive nature of the building process meant that a familys caravan could take up to a year to build. Trailer caravan is defined in ISO Standard 3833,1977, Road vehicles - Types - Terms and definitions, term No 3.2.1.3. In the United States and Canada, the history of travel trailers can be traced back to the early 1920s, as time progressed, trailers became more liveable and earned a new name in the 1930s and 1940s, which was the house trailer. In the 1950s and 1960s, the industry seemed to split, today travel trailers are classified as a type of RV along with motorhomes, fifth-wheel trailers, pop-up trailers, and truck campers. Smaller travel trailers and pop-ups are still made with touring in mind and these generally are less than 18 feet long and contain simple amenities. By design, they are lightweight and quick to set up or prepare for travel, most weigh less than 3,000 pounds and can be towed with a large car or small truck depending upon its towing capacity
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Electrical grid
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An electrical grid is an interconnected network for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers. Power stations may be located near a source, at a dam site, or to take advantage of renewable energy sources. They are usually large to take advantage of the economies of scale. The electric power which is generated is stepped up to a voltage at which it connects to the electric power transmission network. The bulk power transmission network will move the power long distances, sometimes across international boundaries, on arrival at a substation, the power will be stepped down from a transmission level voltage to a distribution level voltage. As it exits the substation, it enters the distribution wiring, finally, upon arrival at the service location, the power is stepped down again from the distribution voltage to the required service voltage. Electrical grids vary in size covering an single building through national grids which cover whole countries. Early electric energy was produced near the device or service requiring that energy, in the 1880s, electricity competed with steam, hydraulics, and especially coal gas. Coal gas was first produced on premises but later evolved into gasification plants that enjoyed economies of scale. In the industrialized world, cities had networks of piped gas, but gas lamps produced poor light, wasted heat, made rooms hot and smoky, and gave off hydrogen and carbon monoxide. In the 1880s electric lighting soon became advantageous compared to gas lighting, Electric utility companies took advantage of economies of scale and moved to centralized power generation, distribution, and system management. With long distance power transmission it became possible to interconnect stations to balance load, merz was appointed head of a Parliamentary Committee and his findings led to the Williamson Report of 1918, which in turn created the Electricity Supply Bill of 1919. The bill was the first step towards an integrated electricity system, the Electricity Act of 1926 led to the setting up of the National Grid. The Central Electricity Board standardized the nations electricity supply and established the first synchronized AC grid and this started operating as a national system, the National Grid, in 1938. In the United States in the 1920s, utilities formed joint-operations to share peak load coverage, no longer were electric utilities built as vertical monopolies, where generation, transmission and distribution were handled by a single company. Now, the three stages could be split among various companies, in an effort to provide accessibility to high voltage transmission. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 allowed incentives and loan guarantees for energy production. In France, electrification began in the 1900s, with 700 communes in 1919, and 36,528 in 1938
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Wind farm
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A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electricity. A wind farm can also be located offshore, many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in Germany, China and the United States. For example, the largest wind farm in the world, Gansu Wind Farm in China has a capacity of over 6,000 MW of power in 2012 with a goal of 20,000 MW by 2020. The Muppandal Wind farm in Tamil Nadu, India is the largest onshore wind farm outside of China, with a capacity of 1,500 MW. As of April 2013, the 630 MW London Array in the UK is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, followed by the 504 MW Greater Gabbard wind farm in the UK. There are many wind farms under construction, including Fosen Vind, Sinus Holding Wind Farm, Lincs Wind Farm, Lower Snake River Wind Project. As a general rule, economic wind generators require windspeed of 4.5 m/s or greater, an ideal location would have a near constant flow of non-turbulent wind throughout the year, with a minimum likelihood of sudden powerful bursts of wind. An important factor of turbine siting is also access to local demand or transmission capacity, usually sites are screened on the basis of a wind atlas, and validated with wind measurements. Meteorological wind data alone is not sufficient for accurate siting of a large wind power project. Collection of site specific data for wind speed and direction is crucial to determining site potential in order to finance the project, local winds are often monitored for a year or more, and detailed wind maps constructed before wind generators are installed. The wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the influence of drag. The increase in velocity with altitude is most dramatic near the surface and is affected by topography, surface roughness, typically, the increase of wind speeds with increasing height follows a wind profile power law, which predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude. Doubling the altitude of a turbine, then, increases the wind speeds by 10%. In general, a distance of 7D is set between each turbine in a fully developed wind farm, but micrositing optimizes placement, particularly in hilly areas, individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage power collection system and communications network. At a substation, this electric current is increased in voltage with a transformer for connection to the high voltage transmission system. Construction of a wind farm requires installation of the collector system and substation. The worlds first wind farm was 0.6 MW, consisting of 20 wind turbines rated at 30 kilowatts each, onshore turbine installations in hilly or mountainous regions tend to be on ridgelines generally three kilometres or more inland from the nearest shoreline. This is done to exploit the topographic acceleration as the wind accelerates over a ridge, the additional wind speeds gained in this way can increase energy produced because more wind goes through the turbines
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Fossil fuel
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Fossil fuels are fuels formed by natural processes such as anaerobic decomposition of buried dead organisms, containing energy originating in ancient photosynthesis. The age of the organisms and their resulting fossil fuels is typically millions of years, Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum, coal, and natural gas. Other commonly used derivatives include kerosene and propane, Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon, hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquids like petroleum, to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields either alone, associated with oil, non-fossil sources in 2006 included nuclear 8. 5%, hydroelectric 6. 3%, and others amounting to 0. 9%. World energy consumption was growing about 2. 3% per year, the use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide per year and it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year. Carbon dioxide is a gas that increases radiative forcing and contributes to global warming. A global movement towards the generation of energy is underway to help reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. Over geological time, this matter, mixed with mud. Despite these heat driven transformations, the energy is still photosynthetic in origin. There is a range of organic, or hydrocarbon, compounds in any given fuel mixture. The specific mixture of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristic properties, such as boiling point, melting point, density, viscosity, some fuels like natural gas, for instance, contain only very low boiling, gaseous components. Others such as gasoline or diesel contain much higher boiling components, terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tend to form coal and methane. Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earths history, terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas. Fossil fuels are of importance because they can be burned. The use of coal as a fuel predates recorded history, coal was used to run furnaces for the melting of metal ore. Semi-solid hydrocarbons from seeps were also burned in ancient times, commercial exploitation of petroleum, largely as a replacement for oils from animal sources, for use in oil lamps began in the 19th century. Natural gas, once flared-off as an byproduct of petroleum production, is now considered a very valuable resource
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History of wind power
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Wind power has been used as long as humans have put sails into the wind. For more than two millennia wind-powered machines have ground grain and pumped water, Wind power was widely available and not confined to the banks of fast-flowing streams, or later, requiring sources of fuel. Wind-powered pumps drained the polders of the Netherlands, and in regions such as the American mid-west or the Australian outback, wind pumps provided water for livestock. With the development of power, wind power found new applications in lighting buildings remote from centrally-generated power. By 2014, over 240,000 commercial-sized wind turbines were operating in the world, sailboats and sailing ships have been using wind power for at least 5,500 years, and architects have used wind-driven natural ventilation in buildings since similarly ancient times. The use of wind to provide mechanical power came somewhat later in antiquity, the Babylonian emperor Hammurabi planned to use wind power for his ambitious irrigation project in the 17th century BC. The windwheel of the Greek engineer Heron of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is the earliest known instance of using a wheel to power a machine. Another early example of a wheel was the prayer wheel, which has been used in ancient India, Tibet. The first practical windmills were in use in Sistan, a region in Iran and bordering Afghanistan, at least by the 9th century and these Panemone windmills were horizontal windmills, which had long vertical driveshafts with six to twelve rectangular sails covered in reed matting or cloth. These windmills were used to water, and in the gristmilling. The use of windmills became widespread use across the Middle East and Central Asia, vertical windmills were later used extensively in Northwestern Europe to grind flour beginning in the 1180s, and many examples still exist. By 1000 AD, windmills were used to pump seawater for salt-making in China, wind-powered automata are known from the mid-8th century, wind-powered statues that turned with the wind over the domes of the four gates and the palace complex of the Round City of Baghdad. The Green Dome of the palace was surmounted by the statue of a carrying a lance that was believed to point toward the enemy. This public spectacle of wind-powered statues had its counterpart in the Abbasid palaces where automata of various types were predominantly displayed. The first windmills in Europe appear in sources dating to the twelfth century and these early European windmills were sunk post mills. In medieval England rights to waterpower sites were often confined to nobility and clergy, in addition, windmills, unlike water mills, were not rendered inoperable by the freezing of water in the winter. By the 14th century Dutch windmills were in use to areas of the Rhine River delta. Windmills were used to water for salt making on the island of Bermuda
26.
Hero of Alexandria
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Hero of Alexandria was a Greek mathematician and engineer who was active in his native city of Alexandria, Roman Egypt. He is considered the greatest experimenter of antiquity and his work is representative of the Hellenistic scientific tradition, Hero published a well recognized description of a steam-powered device called an aeolipile. Among his most famous inventions was a windwheel, constituting the earliest instance of wind harnessing on land and he is said to have been a follower of the atomists. Some of his ideas were derived from the works of Ctesibius, much of Heros original writings and designs have been lost, but some of his works were preserved in Arabic manuscripts. Hero described the construction of the aeolipile which was a reaction engine. It was created almost two millennia before the industrial revolution, another engine used air from a closed chamber heated by an altar fire to displace water from a sealed vessel, the water was collected and its weight, pulling on a rope, opened temple doors. Some historians have conflated the two inventions to assert that the aeolipile was capable of useful work. The first vending machine was one of his constructions, when a coin was introduced via a slot on the top of the machine. This was included in his list of inventions in his book Mechanics and Optics, when the coin was deposited, it fell upon a pan attached to a lever. The lever opened up a valve which let some water flow out, the pan continued to tilt with the weight of the coin until it fell off, at which point a counter-weight would snap the lever back up and turn off the valve. A windwheel operating an organ, marking the first instance of wind powering a machine in history, the sound of thunder was produced by the mechanically-timed dropping of metal balls onto a hidden drum. The force pump was used in the Roman world. A syringe-like device was described by Hero to control the delivery of air or liquids. In optics, Hero formulated the principle of the shortest path of light, If a ray of light propagates from point A to point B within the same medium, a standalone fountain that operates under self-contained hydrostatic energy A programmable cart that was powered by a falling weight. The program consisted of strings wrapped around the drive axle, Hero described a method for iteratively computing the square root of a number. Today, however, his name is most closely associated with Heros formula for finding the area of a triangle from its side lengths, the most comprehensive edition of Heros works was published in five volumes in Leipzig by the publishing house Teubner in 1903. The Mechanical Technology of Greek and Roman Antiquity, A Study of the Literary Sources, madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press. Greek and Roman Artillery, Technical Treatises, Schellenberg, H. M. Anmerkungen zu Hero von Alexandria und seinem Werk über den Geschützbau, in, Schellenberg, H. M. / Hirschmann, V. E. / Krieckhaus, A
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Sistan
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Sīstān, known in ancient times as Sakastan, is a historical and geographical region in present-day eastern Iran, southern Afghanistan, and the Nok Kundi region of Balochistan. Sistan derives its name from Sakastan, the Sakas were a Scythian tribe which from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century migrated to the Iranian Plateau and India, where they carved a kingdom known as the Indo-Scythian Kingdom. In the Bundahishn, a Zoroastrian scripture written in Pahlavi, the province is called Seyansih, after the Arab conquest of Iran, the province became known as Sijistan/Sistan. The more ancient Old Persian name of the region - prior to Saka dominance - was zaranka and this older form is also the root of the name Zaranj, capital of the Afghan Nimruz Province. Encyclopædia Iranica says The name of the country and its inhabitants is first attested as Old Persian z-r-k in the great Bīsotūn inscription of Darius I, in the Shahnameh, Sistan is also referred to as Zabulistan, after the region in the eastern part of Iran. In Ferdowsis epic, Zabulistan is in turn described to be the homeland of the mythological hero Rostam, in prehistoric times, the Jiroft Civilization covered parts of Sistan and Kerman Province. Later the area was occupied by Aryan tribes related to the Indo-Aryans, eventually a kingdom known as Arachosia was formed, parts of which were ruled by the Medean Empire by 600 BC. The Medes were overthrown by the Achaemenid Persian Empire in 550 BC, in the 4rd century BC, Macedonian king Alexander the Great annexed the region during his conquest of the Persian Empire and founded the colony of Alexandria in Arachosia. Alexanders Empire fragmented after his death, and Arachosia came under control of the Seleucid Empire, after the fall of the Mauryans, the region fell to their Greco-Bactrian allies in 180 BC, before breaking away and becoming part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Indo-Parthian king Gondophares was leader of Sistan around c, 20–10 BCE as it was part of the Indo-Parthian Kingdom which was also called Gedrosia, its Hellenistic name. After the mid 2nd century BC, much of the Indo-Greek Kingdom was overrun by tribes known as the Indo-Scythians or Saka, from which Sistan eventually derived its name. The Kushans were defeated by the Sassanid Persian Empire in the mid 3rd century, first becoming part of a vassal Kushansha state, Sassanid armies reconquered Sistan in by 565 AD, but lost the area to the Arab Rashidun Caliphate after the mid 640s. The province was formed in ca, shapurs son Narseh was the first to appointed as the governor of province, which he would govern until 271, when the Sasanian prince Hormizd was appointed as the new governor. 281, Hormizd revolted against his cousin Bahram II, during the revolt, the people of Sakastan was one of his supporters. Nevertheless, Bahram II managed to suppress the revolt in 283, during his early reign, Shapur II appointed his brother Shapur Sakanshah as the governor of Sakastan. Peroz I, during his reign, put an end to dynastic rule in province by appointing a Karenid as its governor. The reason behind the appointment was to further family conflict in the province. During the Muslim conquest of Persia, the last Sasanian king Yazdegerd III fled to Sakastan in the mid-640s, however, Yazdegerd III quickly ended this support when he demanded tax money that he had failed to pay
28.
Panemone windmill
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A panemone windmill is a type of vertical axis wind turbine. It has a rotating axis positioned vertically, while the blades move parallel to the wind. By contrast, the shaft of a horizontal axis wind turbine points into the wind while its blades move at right-angles to the winds thrust and that is, a panemone primarily uses drag whereas the blades of a HAWT use lift. As the wind blew, the sails would turn the axle, no one knows when people first built windmills to do work. The first instance may have been in China more than 2,000 years ago, the earliest recorded windmill design found was Persian in origin, and was invented around 500–900 AD. This design was the panemone, with vertical lightweight wooden sails attached by struts to a central vertical shaft. It was first built to water, and subsequently modified to grind grain as well. Before becoming a slave to Calif Umar, Pīrūz Nahāvandi used to design, Pīrūz brought a complaint to Umar about the high tax charged to him by his master Mughirah. Umar wrote to Mughirah and inquired about the tax, Mughirahs reply was satisfactory, Umar then is reported to have asked Abu Lulu to design a windmill for him, in which Pīrūz replies, By God, I will build this mill of which the World will talk. The vanes of a panemone are moved by the wind in a circle to turn the drive shaft, to accomplish this they must move with the wind only while on one side of the circle, and move against the wind on the other side. Wind-harnessing devices which rely on drag reach their maximum efficiency if the collector is pushed away from the wind. Because the wind panels do no work while returning to the side of the device. The panemone is one of the least efficient types of wind turbine, despite this it is also one of the most commonly re-invented and patented forms. Small wind turbine Wind turbine Panémonas Linguistic information about the word
29.
Drive shaft
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As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the difference between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be enough to bear the stress, whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase their inertia. The term drive shaft first appeared during the mid 19th century, in Stovers 1861 patent reissue for a planing and matching machine, the term is used to refer to the belt-driven shaft by which the machine is driven. The term is not used in his original patent, another early use of the term occurs in the 1861 patent reissue for the Watkins and Bryson horse-drawn mowing machine. Here, the term refers to the transmitting power from the machines wheels to the gear train that works the cutting mechanism. In the 1890s, the term began to be used in a closer to the modern sense. In 1899, Bukey used the term to describe the shaft transmitting power from the wheel to the machinery by a universal joint in his Horse-Power. In the same year, Clark described his Marine Velocipede using the term to refer to the shaft transmitting power through a universal joint to the propeller shaft. Crompton used the term to refer to the shaft between the transmission of his steam-powered Motor Vehicle of 1903 and the driven axle, an automobile may use a longitudinal shaft to deliver power from an engine/transmission to the other end of the vehicle before it goes to the wheels. A pair of short drive shafts is commonly used to power from a central differential, transmission. In front-engined, rear-drive vehicles, a drive shaft is also required to send power the length of the vehicle. Two forms dominate, The torque tube with a universal joint. This system became known as Système Panhard after the automobile company Panhard et Levassor patented it, most of these vehicles have a clutch and gearbox mounted directly on the engine, with a drive shaft leading to a final drive in the rear axle. When the vehicle is stationary, the drive shaft does not rotate, some vehicles, seeking improved weight balance between front and rear, use a rear-mounted transaxle. This places the clutch and transmission at the rear of the car, in this case the drive shaft rotates continuously with the engine, even when the car is stationary and out of gear. A drive shaft connecting a rear differential to a wheel may be called a half-shaft. The name derives from the fact that two such shafts are required to one rear axle. Early automobiles often used chain drive or belt drive mechanisms rather than a drive shaft, some used electrical generators and motors to transmit power to the wheels
30.
Windmill sail
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Windmills are powered by their sails. Sails are found in different designs, from primitive common sails to the patent sails. The jib sail is found in Mediterranean countries and consists of a triangle of cloth wound round a spar. The mill must be stopped in order to adjust the reefing of the sail, though rare in the UK, at least two windmills are known to have had jib sails. The common sail is the simplest form of sail, in medieval mills, the sailcloth was wound in and out of a ladder-type arrangement of sails. Medieval sails could be constructed with or without outer sailbars, post-medieval mill sails have a lattice framework over which the sailcloth is spread. There are various reefs for the different spread of sails, these are full sail, dagger point, sword point, the mill must be stopped in order to adjust the reefing of the sail. Spring sails were invented by Scottish millwright Andrew Meikle in 1772, the sail is divided into a number of bays, each having a number of shutters. All the shutters are joined together by a bar. Although automatic in operation, the mill must be stopped in order to adjust the reefing of the sail, roller reefing sails were invented by Stephen Hooper in 1789. As with spring sails, the sail is divided into a number of bays, the cloth is extended or retracted by a rod and lever system, and connected with a shutter bar on each sail. Adjustment of the roller reefing sail can be made without stopping the mill and this type of sail was popular in Yorkshire, although the only remaining mill with roller reefing sails intact is Ballycopeland Windmill in Northern Ireland. Patent sails were invented by William Cubitt in 1807 and they combine the shutters of the spring sail with automatic adjustment of the roller reefing sail. Their construction is similar to that of the spring sail, adjustment of patent sails can be made without stopping the mill. Air brakes In 1860, the English millwright Catchpole fitted an automatic air brake to the ends of patent sails and these were longitudinal shutters at the tip of each sail, which opened up if the wind got too strong, thus slowing the sail. Spring patent sails have a spring to enable each sail to be adjusted individually, the system was not a common one. In the Netherlands, the common sail predominates, Dekker / Van Bussel system The Dutch millwright A. J. Dekker improved on the efficiency of the common sail. The stock is given an airfoil shape by completely covering it with galvanised steel plates, dekkerised sails provide enough surface area to be able to work the mill with no sailcloth spread if the wind is strong enough
31.
Gristmill
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A gristmill grinds grain into flour. The term can refer to both the mechanism and the building that holds it. The Greek geographer Strabo reports in his Geography a water-powered grain-mill to have existed near the palace of king Mithradates VI Eupator at Cabira, Asia Minor, before 71 BC. The early mills had horizontal paddle wheels, an arrangement which became known as the Norse wheel. The paddle wheel was attached to a shaft which was, in turn, the turning force produced by the water on the paddles was transferred directly to the runner stone, causing it to grind against a stationary bed, a stone of a similar size and shape. This dependence on the volume and speed of flow of the water meant that the speed of rotation of the stone was highly variable. Vertical wheels were in use in the Roman Empire by the end of the first century BC, and these were described by Vitruvius. The peak of Roman technology is probably the Barbegal aqueduct and mill where water with a 19-metre fall drove sixteen water wheels, giving a grinding capacity estimated at 2.4 to 3.2 tonnes per hour. Water mills seem to have remained in use during the post-Roman period, from this time onward, water wheels began to be used for purposes other than grist milling. In England, the number of mills in operation followed population growth, limited extant examples of gristmills can be found in Europe from the High Middle Ages. An extant well-preserved waterwheel and gristmill on the Ebro River in Spain is associated with the Real Monasterio de Nuestra Senora de Rueda, the Cistercians were known for their use of this technology in Western Europe in the period 1100 to 1350. Geared gristmills were built in the medieval Near East and North Africa. Gristmills in the Islamic world were powered by water and wind. The first wind-powered gristmills were built in the 9th and 10th centuries in what are now Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran, early mills were almost always built and supported by farming communities and the miller received the millers toll in lieu of wages. Most towns and villages had their own mill so that farmers could easily transport their grain there to be milled. These communities were dependent on their local mill as bread was a part of the diet. Classical mill designs are usually water powered, though some are powered by the wind or by livestock, in a watermill a sluice gate is opened to allow water to flow onto, or under, a water wheel to make it turn. In most watermills the water wheel was mounted vertically, i. e. edge-on, in the water, later designs incorporated horizontal steel or cast iron turbines and these were sometimes refitted into the old wheel mills
32.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
33.
Crusades
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The First Crusade arose after a call to arms in a 1095 sermon by Pope Urban II. Urban urged military support for the Byzantine Empire and its Emperor, Alexios I, the response to Urbans preaching by people of many different classes across Western Europe established the precedent for later Crusades. Volunteers became Crusaders by taking a vow and receiving plenary indulgences from the church. Some were hoping for apotheosis at Jerusalem, or forgiveness from God for all their sins, others participated to satisfy feudal obligations, gain glory and honour, or find opportunities for economic and political gain. Many modern Historians have polarised opinions of the Crusaders behaviour under Papal sanction, to some it was incongruous with the stated aims and implied moral authority of the papacy and the Crusades, to the extent that on occasions that the Pope excommunicated Crusaders. Crusaders often pillaged as they travelled, while their leaders retained control of captured territory rather than returning it to the Byzantines. During the Peoples Crusade thousands of Jews were murdered in what is now called the Rhineland massacres, Constantinople was sacked during the Fourth Crusade rendering the reunification of Christendom impossible. These tales consequently galvanised medieval romance, philosophy and literature, but the Crusades also reinforced the connection between Western Christendom, feudalism, and militarism. Crusade is not a term, instead the terms iter for journey or peregrinatio for pilgrimage were used. Not until the word crucesignatus for one who was signed with the cross was adopted at the close of the century was specific terminology developed. The Middle English equivalents were derived from old French, croiserie in the 13th–15th centuries, croisade appeared in English c1575, and continued to be the leading form till c1760. By convention historians adopt the term for the Christian holy wars from 1095, the Crusades in the Holy Land are traditionally counted as nine distinct campaigns, numbered from the First Crusade of 1095–99 to the Ninth Crusade of 1271/2. Usage of the term Crusade may differ depending on the author, pluralists use the term Crusade of any campaign explicitly sanctioned by the reigning Pope. This reflects the view of the Roman Catholic Church that every military campaign given Papal sanction is equally valid as a Crusade, regardless of its cause, justification, generalists see Crusades as any and all holy wars connected with the Latin Church and fought in defence of their faith. Popularists limit the Crusades to only those that were characterised by popular groundswells of religious fervour – that is, only the First Crusade, Medieval Muslim historiographers such as Ali ibn al-Athir refer to the Crusades as the Frankish Wars. The term used in modern Arabic, ḥamalāt ṣalībiyya حملات صليبية, campaigns of the cross, is a loan translation of the term Crusade as used in Western historiography. The Islamic prophet Muhammad founded Islam in the Arabian Peninsula, the resulting unified polity in the seventh and eighth centuries led to a rapid expansion of Arab power. This influence stretched from the northwest Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, tolerance, trade, and political relationships between the Arabs and the Christian states of Europe waxed and waned
34.
Rhine
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The largest city on the river Rhine is Cologne, Germany, with a population of more than 1,050,000 people. It is the second-longest river in Central and Western Europe, at about 1,230 km, with an average discharge of about 2,900 m3/s. The Rhine and the Danube formed most of the inland frontier of the Roman Empire and, since those days. The many castles and fortifications along the Rhine testify to its importance as a waterway in the Holy Roman Empire, in the modern era, it has become a symbol of German nationalism. The variant of the name of the Rhine in modern languages are all derived from the Gaulish name Rēnos, spanish is with French in adopting the Germanic vocalism Rin-, while Italian, Occitan and Portuguese retain the Latin Ren-. The Gaulish name Rēnos belongs to a class of river names built from the PIE root *rei- to move, flow, run, the grammatical gender of the Celtic name is masculine, and the name remains masculine in German, Dutch and French. The Old English river name was variously inflected as masculine or feminine, the length of the Rhine is conventionally measured in Rhine-kilometers, a scale introduced in 1939 which runs from the Old Rhine Bridge at Constance to Hoek van Holland. The river length is shortened from the rivers natural course due to a number of canalisation projects completed in the 19th and 20th century. The total length of the Rhine, to the inclusion of Lake Constance and its course is conventionally divided as follows, The Rhine carries its name without distinctive accessories only from the confluence of the Vorderrhein and Hinterrhein near Tamins-Reichenau. Above this point is the catchment of the headwaters of the Rhine. It belongs almost exclusively to the Swiss Canton of Graubünden, ranging from Gotthard Massif in the west via one valley lying in Ticino, traditionally, Lake Toma near the Oberalp Pass in the Gotthard region is seen as the source of the Vorderrhein and the Rhine as a whole. The Hinterrhein rises in the Rheinwald valley below Mount Rheinwaldhorn, the Vorderrhein, or Anterior Rhine, springs from Lai da Tuma, near the Oberalp Pass and passes the impressive Ruinaulta formed by the largest visible rock slide in the alps, the Flims Rockslide. A multiday trekking route is signposted along the young Rhine called Senda Sursilvana, the Hinterrhein/Rein Posteriur, or Posterior Rhine, starts from the Paradies Glacier, near the Rheinwaldhorn. One of its tributaries, the Reno di Lei, drains the Valle di Lei on politically Italian territory, after three main valleys separated by the two gorges, Roflaschlucht and Viamala, it reaches Reichenau. The Vorderrhein arises from numerous source streams in the upper Surselva, one source is Lai da Tuma with the Rein da Tuma, which is usually indicated as source of the Rhine, flowing through it. Into it flow tributaries from the south, some longer, some equal in length, such as the Reno di Medel, the Rein da Maighels, and the Rein da Curnera. The Cadlimo Valley in the Canton of Ticino is drained by the Reno di Medel, all streams in the source area are partially, sometimes completely, captured and sent to storage reservoirs for the local hydro-electric power plants. In its lower course the Vorderrhein flows through a gorge named Ruinaulta through the Flims Rockslide, the whole stretch of the Vorderrhein to the Rhine confluence near Reichenau-Tamins is accompanied by a long-distance hiking trail called Senda Sursilvana
35.
Fausto Veranzio
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Fausto Veranzio was a polymath and bishop from Šibenik, then part of the Venetian Republic and today part of Croatia. Fausto was born in Šibenik, Venetian Dalmatia into the family of counts Vrančić who came from Bosnia, faustos mother was from the Berislavić family. His brother, Giovanni, died young in battle. While the familys residence was in city of Šibenik, they owned a big summer house on island Prvić, in place Šepurine. The baroque castle that was used by Vrančić family as summer residence is now in possession of the Draganić family, as a youth, Veranzio was interested in science. Still a child, he moved to Venice, where he attended schools, and then to Padua to join the University, where he focused on law, physics, engineering and mechanics. At the court of King Rudolf II, at the Hradčany castle in Prague, Veranzio was chancellor for Hungary and Transylvania often in contact with Johannes Kepler, after his wifes death, Veranzio left for Hungary. In 1598, he got the title of bishop of Csanád in partibus, in 1609, back in Venice, he joined the brotherhood of Paul of Tarsus and committed himself to the study of science. Veranzio died in 1617 in Venice and was buried in Dalmatia, Veranzios masterwork, Machinae Novae, contained 49 large pictures depicting 56 different machines, devices, and technical concepts. Two variants of this work exist, one with the Declaratio in Latin and Italian, only a few copies survived and they often do not present a complete text in all the five languages. This book was written in Italian, Spanish, French and German, the tables represent a varied set of the projects, inventions and creations of the author. His work included a boat, that is to say a boat that. It was his idea to use the printing rotary principle in order to alleviate the great difficulty of printers, despite the extraordinary rarity of this book, the Machinae Novae was the work which mainly contributed to Veranzios popularity around the world. His design pictures were even reprinted a few years later and published in China, one of the illustrations in Machinae Novae is a sketch of a parachute dubbed Homo Volans. Having examined Leonardo da Vincis rough sketches of a parachute, Veranzio designed a parachute of his own, however, in his Mathematical Magick, John Wilkins wrote about flying and about his persuasion that flying would become possible. Persons jumping from high towers and methods for slowing down their fall were not his concern and his treatise does not even mention the name of Fausto Veranzio, nor does it document any jump by parachute or any event at all in 1617. No evidence has ever found that anybody ever tested Veranzios parachute. His areas of interest in engineering and mechanics were broad, mills were one of his main point of research, where he created 18 different designs
36.
Vertical axis wind turbine
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Vertical-axis wind turbines are a type of wind turbine where the main rotor shaft is set transverse to the wind while the main components are located at the base of the turbine. This arrangement allows the generator and gearbox to be located close to the ground, facilitating service, VAWTs do not need to be pointed into the wind, which removes the need for wind-sensing and orientation mechanisms. Major drawbacks for the designs included the significant torque variation or ripple during each revolution. Later designs addressed the torque ripple issue by sweeping the blades helically, a VAWT tipped sideways, with the axis perpendicular to the wind streamlines, functions similarly. A more general term that includes this option is transverse axis wind turbine or cross-flow wind turbine, for example, the original Darrieus patent, US Patent 1835018, includes both options. Drag-type VAWTs such as the Savonius rotor typically operate at lower tipspeed ratios than lift-based VAWTs such as Darrieus rotors, the forces and the velocities acting in a Darrieus turbine are depicted in figure 1. The resultant velocity vector, W →, is the sum of the undisturbed upstream air velocity, U →. W → = U → + Thus the oncoming fluid velocity varies during each cycle, maximum velocity is found for θ =0 ∘ and the minimum is found for θ =180 ∘, where θ is the azimuthal or orbital blade position. The angle of attack, α, is the angle between the air speed, W, and the blades chord. The resultant airflow creates a varying, positive angle of attack to the blade in the zone of the machine. The forces are considered acting at the point, and the pitching moment is determined to resolve the aerodynamic forces. The aeronautical terms lift and drag refer to the forces across, the tangential force acts along the blades velocity, pulling the blade around, and the normal force acts radially, pushing against the shaft bearings. VAWTs offer a number of advantages over traditional horizontal-axis wind turbines, they are omni-directional and this means they dont require a complex mechanism and motors to yaw the rotor and pitch the blades. Ability to take advantage of turbulent and gusty winds, such winds are not harvested by HAWTs, and in fact cause accelerated fatigue for HAWTs. The gearbox of a VAWT takes much less fatigue than that of a HAWT, should it be required, replacement is less costly and simpler, as the gearbox is easily accessible at ground level. This means that a crane or other equipment is not needed at the site, reducing cost. Motor and gearbox failures generally increase the operational and maintenance costs of HAWT wind farms both on and offshore. Some VAWTs can use a pile foundation, allowing a huge reduction in the carbon cost of an installation as well as a reduction in road transport of concrete during installation
37.
James Blyth (engineer)
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Professor James Blyth MA, LLD, FRSE FRSSA, was a Scottish electrical engineer and academic at Andersons College, now the University of Strathclyde, in Glasgow. Blyth patented his design and later developed a model which served as an emergency power source at Montrose Lunatic Asylum. James Blyth was born in Marykirk, Kincardineshire, on 4 April 1839 to John Blyth, an innkeeper and small farmer and he attended the Marykirk parish school and later, the Montrose Academy before winning a scholarship to the General Assembly Normal School, Edinburgh in 1886. Blyth completed his Master of Arts in 1871 and in the year married Jesse Wilhelmena Taylor at the United Presbyterian Church in Athol Place. They had two sons and five daughters, two of whom died in infancy, in 1880 Blyth was appointed Freeland Professor of Natural Philosophy at Andersons College, Glasgow, which became the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College in 1886. Whilst teaching at the college he pursued an active research programme with a particular interest in the generation. Blyth was liked by his students and colleagues who admired his hard working nature, down-to-earth attitude and he was also well known in the local community through a series of popular lectures and demonstrations. The turbine produced enough power to light ten 25-volt bulbs in a moderate breeze, over the next few years Blyth experimented with a number of different designs. The final design operated for the next 25 years and produced surplus electricity which Blyth offered to the people of Marykirk to light the street of the town. But his offer was rejected, as the people thought electricity was the work of The Devil, Blyth was awarded a UK patent for his wind engine in November 1891. Blyths original wind generator was the first known structure by which electricity was generated from wind power, in the winter of 1887, some months after Blyths first wind generator was built, American, Charles F. Brush built the first automatically operated wind turbine, the design of Brushs machine allowed it to be shut down manually to protect it from wind damage. The improved design of the built for the Montrose Lunatic Asylum went some way towards solving this problem. In 1891 Blyth presented a paper to the Royal Society of Edinburgh espousing his belief in the benefits of energy sources, particularly wind. Blyths son, Vincent James, and his son-in-law, George Edwin Allan, Blyth himself was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Glasgow in 1900. He died from apoplexy at his home in Glasgow on 15 May 1906, the Professor James Blyth Memorial Committee, composed of Blyths former students and associates, was established in March 1907 to raise funds for a memorial to him. The memorial eventually took the form of endowing the Blyth Memorial Prizes, the turbine at Montrose Asylum was dismantled in 1914. Britains first public utility wind turbine did not come into operation until 1951, paper read before the Society on 25 January 1892 History of wind power Wind power in Scotland Wind turbine Works written by or about James Blyth at Wikisource
38.
Marykirk
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Marykirk is a small village in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, next to the border with the county of Angus at the River North Esk. The village is approximately 6 miles ENE of Montrose at the end of the Howe of the Mearns. The road bridge carrying the A937 over the River North Esk is a structure with four arches. It was designed by Robert Stevenson and completed in 1815 at the cost of £1,000 replacing the route to the village. There is a bridge across the same river some 600 m north of the road bridge. The present parish church was rebuilt in 1806 replacing the previous church, the older church was dedicated to St Mary and consecrated in 1242 by the Bishop de Bernham. The centre of the village has an ancient market cross, the grand gates to the now demolished mansion Kirktonhill House, built in 1799 for the Taylor family, once the home of oil merchant R W Adamson, can be found still in position. Once boasting many small businesses supporting the agricultural lands, including a part time post office and newsagents the village now has no shops. The nearest shop is a drive to Montrose or Laurencekirk in the other direction. The village also has a primary school of three teachers with between 30 and 40 pupils. As well as a hotel, the 19th-century coaching house, the Marykirk Hotel, since 1996 the village has held an annual raft race in the River North Esk which normally takes place on the last Sunday in May. After six years of holding the race it came to a halt, then in 2009 a committee formed and the raft race started once again. It still continues, and Marykirk holds its raft race on the third Sunday of May each year, Marykirk was also the site of the worlds first electricity-generating wind turbine, built by James Blyth to light his summer residence in the village. Up until the end of July 2010, the also had its own amateur weather station. Marykirk in the Gazetteer for Scotland Marykirk in The History of the Howe
39.
Charles F. Brush
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Charles Francis Brush was an American engineer, inventor, entrepreneur and philanthropist. Born in Euclid Township, Ohio, Brush was raised on a farm about 10 miles from downtown Cleveland, Brush attended Central High School in Cleveland where he built his first arc light, and graduated there with honors in 1867. His high school commencement oration was on the Conservation of Force and he received his college education from the University of Michigan, where he studied mining engineering. At Michigan, Brush was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity, in 1876 he secured the backing of the Wetting Supply Company in Cleveland to design his dynamo for powering arc lights. Brush began with the design of Zénobe Gramme but his final design was a marked divergence. Brush remarked on his motivation for improving the generator in his U. S, patent 189,997, The best forms of magneto-electric apparatus at present before the public are unnecessarily bulky, heavy, and expensive, and are more or less wasteful of mechanical power. His lights were easier to maintain, had automatic functions and burned twice as long as Yablochkov candles and his generators were reliable and automatically increased voltage with greater load while keeping current constant. By 1881, New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Montreal, Buffalo, San Francisco, Cleveland and other cities had Brush arc light systems, producing public light well into the 20th century. The San Francisco system was the first case of a utility selling electricity from a plant to multiple customers via transmission lines. The California Electric Light Company purchased two generators from Charles Brushs company in 1879 and soon opened a plant with four additional generators. Service charges for light from sundown to midnight was $10 per lamp per six day week, Brushs system was lighting Broadway two years before Edisons Pearl Street Station began lighting New York. By 1893 there were 1500 arc lights illuminating New York streets, in 1879, the Anglo-American Brush Electric Light Corporation, using Brushs inventions, was formed in Lambeth, London, England. This company eventually moved to Loughborough England and became Brush Electrical Engineering Co. Ltd, in 1880, Brush established the Brush Electric Company in the U. S. Thomson-Houston bought out Brush in 1889 and eventually merged to become part of General Electric in 1891, after selling his interests in Brush Electric, Brush never returned to the electric industry. In 1884, Brush built a mansion on Euclid Avenue in Cleveland that showcased many of his inventions, there he raised his family and lived the remainder of his life. The basement housed Brushs private laboratory, in 1888, he powered the mansion with the worlds first automatically operated wind turbine generator which charged the homes 12 batteries. It was the first home in Cleveland to have electricity, over its 20-year life, the turbine never failed to keep the home continuously powered. In 1926, Brush pioneered the first piezo-electric featherweight stylus, in 1898, Brush claimed to have discovered a new gas, which he named etherion
40.
Cleveland
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Cleveland is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County, the states second most populous county. The city proper has a population of 388,072, making Cleveland the 51st largest city in the United States, Greater Cleveland ranked as the 32nd largest metropolitan area in the United States, with 2,055,612 people in 2016. The city is the center of the Cleveland–Akron–Canton Combined Statistical Area, the city is located on the southern shore of Lake Erie, approximately 60 miles west of the Pennsylvania border. Clevelands economy has diversified sectors that include manufacturing, financial services, healthcare, Cleveland is also home to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Residents of Cleveland are called Clevelanders, Cleveland has many nicknames, the oldest of which in contemporary use being The Forest City. Cleaveland oversaw the plan for what would become the downtown area, centered on Public Square, before returning home. The first settler in Cleaveland was Lorenzo Carter, who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River, the Village of Cleaveland was incorporated on December 23,1814. In spite of the swampy lowlands and harsh winters, its waterfront location proved to be an advantage. The area began rapid growth after the 1832 completion of the Ohio, growth continued with added railroad links. Cleveland incorporated as a city in 1836, in 1836, the city, then located only on the eastern banks of the Cuyahoga River, nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring Ohio City over a bridge connecting the two. Ohio City remained an independent municipality until its annexation by Cleveland in 1854, the citys prime geographic location as a transportation hub on the Great Lakes has played an important role in its development as a commercial center. Cleveland serves as a point for iron ore shipped from Minnesota. In 1870, John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil in Cleveland, other manufacturers located in Cleveland produced steam-powered cars, which included White and Gaeth, as well as the electric car company Baker. Because of the significant growth, Cleveland was known as the Sixth City during this period, by 1920, due in large part to the citys economic prosperity, Cleveland became the nations fifth largest city. The city counted Progressive Era politicians such as the populist Mayor Tom L. Johnson among its leaders, many prominent Clevelanders from this era are buried in the historic Lake View Cemetery, including President James A. Garfield, and John D. Rockefeller. In commemoration of the centennial of Clevelands incorporation as a city, conceived as a way to energize a city after the Great Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937. The exposition was housed on grounds that are now used by the Great Lakes Science Center, following World War II, the city experienced a prosperous economy. In sports, the Indians won the 1948 World Series, the hockey Barons became champions of the American Hockey League, as a result, along with track and boxing champions produced, Cleveland was dubbed City of Champions in sports at this time
41.
Yalta
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Yalta is a resort city on the south coast of the Crimean Peninsula surrounded by the Black Sea. It serves as the center of Yalta Municipality, one of the regions within Crimea. The city is located on the site of an ancient Greek colony and it is situated on a deep bay facing south towards the Black Sea, surrounded by the mountain range Ai-Petri. It has a humid subtropical climate and surrounded by numerous vineyards and orchards. The existence of Yalta was first recorded in the 12th century by an Arab geographer and it became part of a network of Genoese trading colonies on the Crimean coast in the 14th century, when it was known as Etalita or Galita. Yalta was annexed by the Russian Empire in 1783, along with the rest of Crimea, sparking the Russo-Turkish War, prior to the annexation of the Crimea, the Crimean Greeks were moved to Mariupol in 1778, one of the villages they established nearby is also called Yalta. In the 19th century, the became a fashionable resort for the Russian aristocracy. The town was closely associated with royalty. In 1889 Tsar Alexander III finished construction of Massandra Palace a short distance to the north of Yalta, during the 20th century Yalta was the principal holiday resort of the Soviet Union. Numerous workers sanatoria were constructed in and around Yalta and the surrounding district, there were, in fact, few other places that Soviet citizens could come for a seaside holiday, as foreign travel was forbidden to all but a handful. The Soviet elite also came to Yalta, the Soviet premier Joseph Stalin used the Massandra Palace as his summer residence, Yalta was occupied by the German Army from 9 November 1941 to 16 April 1944. The town came to attention in 1945 when the Yalta Conference between the Big Three powers – the Soviet Union, the United States and the United Kingdom – was held at the Livadia Palace. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Yalta has struggled economically, the towns transport links have been significantly reduced with the end of almost all passenger traffic by sea. The longest trolleybus line in Europe goes from the station in Simferopol to Yalta. Yalta is crowded in the season and prices for accommodation are very high. Most of the tourists are from countries of the former Soviet Union, in 2013, Yalta has a beautiful embankment along the Black Sea. People can be seen strolling there all seasons of the year, there are several beaches to the east and west of the embankment. The town has several theaters, a drama theater, plenty of restaurants
42.
Capacity factor
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The net capacity factor is the unitless ratio of an actual electrical energy output over a given period of time to the maximum possible electrical energy output over the same amount of time. The capacity factor is defined for any electricity producing installation, i. e. a fuel consuming power plant or one using renewable energy, such as wind or the sun. The average capacity factor can also be defined for any class of such installations, the maximum possible energy output of a given installation assumes its continuous operation at full nameplate capacity over the relevant period of time. The actual energy output over the period of time and with it the capacity factor varies greatly depending on a range of factors. The capacity factor can never exceed the availability factor, or the fraction of downtime during the period, downtime can be due to, for example, reliability issues and maintenance, both scheduled and unscheduled. Other factors include the design of the installation, its location, the type of electricity production and with it either the fuel being used or, for renewable energy, the local weather conditions. Additionally, the capacity factor can be subject to constraints and market forces. The capacity factor is computed over a timescale of a year. However, the capacity factor can be computed on a monthly basis to gain insight into seasonal fluctuations. Alternatively, it be computed over the lifetime of the power source, Nuclear power plants are at the high end of the range of capacity factors, ideally reduced only by the availability factor, i. e. maintenance and refueling. The largest nuclear plant in the US, Palo Verde Nuclear Generating Station has between its three reactors a nameplate capacity of 3,942 MW. In 2014, a refueling was completed in a record 28 days, the Danish offshore wind farm Horns Rev 2, the worlds largest at its inauguration in 2009, has a nameplate capacity of 209.3 MW. As of January 2017 it has produced 6416 GWh since its commissioning 7.3 years ago, i. e. an average production of 875 GWh/year. Certain onshore wind farms can reach capacity factors of over 60%, for example the 44 MW Eolo plant in Nicaragua had a net generation of 232.132 MWh in 2015, equivalent to a capacity factor of 60. 2%. As of 2017 the Three Gorges Dam in China is, with its capacity of 22,500 MW. In 2015 it generated 87 TWh, for a capacity factor of,87,000,000 MW·h × × =0.45 =45 % Hoover Dam has a capacity of 2080 MW. An inherent limit to its capacity factor comes from its requirement of daylight, preferably with a sun unobstructed by clouds, smoke or smog, shade from trees and building structures. Since the amount of sunlight varies both with the time of the day and the seasons of the year, the capacity factor is computed on an annual basis
43.
Vermont
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Vermont is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. It borders the other U. S. states of Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York to the west, and the Canadian province of Quebec to the north. Lake Champlain forms half of Vermonts western border with the state of New York, Vermont is the 2nd-least populous of the U. S. states, with nearly 50,000 more residents than Wyoming. The capital is Montpelier, the least populous state capital in the U. S, the most populous municipality, Burlington, is the least populous city in the U. S. to be the most populous within a state. As of 2015, Vermont continued to be the producer of maple syrup in the U. S. It was ranked as the safest state in the country in January 2016, for thousands of years inhabited by indigenous peoples, including the Algonquian-speaking Abenaki and Mohawk, much of the territory that is now Vermont was claimed by Frances colony of New France. France ceded the territory to Great Britain after being defeated in 1763 in the Seven Years War, for many years, the nearby colonies, especially the provinces of New Hampshire and New York, disputed control of the area. Settlers who held land titles granted by New York were opposed by the Green Mountain Boys militia, ultimately, those settlers prevailed in creating an independent state, the Vermont Republic. Founded in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War, the republic lasted for 14 years, aside from the original 13 states that were formerly colonies, Vermont is one of only four U. S. states that were previously sovereign states. Vermont was also the first state to join the U. S. as its 14th member state after the original 13, while still an independent republic, Vermont was the first of any future U. S. state to partially abolish slavery. It played an important geographic role in the Underground Railroad, sights in Vermont Vermont is located in the New England region of the northeastern United States and comprises 9,614 square miles, making it the 45th-largest state. It is the state that does not have any buildings taller than 124 feet. Land comprises 9,250 square miles and water comprises 365 square miles, making it the 43rd-largest in land area, in total area, it is larger than El Salvador and smaller than Haiti. The west bank of the Connecticut River marks the eastern border with New Hampshire. 41% of Vermonts land area is part of the Connecticut Rivers watershed, Lake Champlain, the major lake in Vermont, is the sixth-largest body of fresh water in the United States and separates Vermont from New York in the northwest portion of the state. From north to south, Vermont is 159 miles long and its greatest width, from east to west, is 89 miles at the Canada–U. S. Border, the narrowest width is 37 miles at the Massachusetts line, the states geographic center is approximately three miles east of Roxbury, in Washington County. There are fifteen U. S. federal border crossings between Vermont and Canada, the origin of the name Vermont is uncertain, but likely comes from the French les Verts Monts, meaning the Green Mountains
44.
Smith-Putnam wind turbine
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In 1941 the Smith-Putnam wind turbine, the worlds first megawatt-size wind turbine, was connected to the local electrical distribution system on Grandpas Knob in Castleton, Vermont, US. It was designed by Palmer Cosslett Putnam and manufactured by the S. Morgan Smith Company, the 1.25 MW turbine operated for 1100 hours before a blade failed at a known weak point, which had not been reinforced due to wartime material shortages. It would be the largest wind turbine ever built until 1979, the turbine had two blades,175 feet in diameter, on the down-wind side of a 120-foot steel lattice tower. Each blade was approximately 8 feet wide and 66 feet long, the blades were built on steel spars and covered with a stainless steel skin. The blade spars were hinged at their attachment to the hub. The generator was a 1250 kW600 RPM synchronous generator made by General Electric, the generator and rotor hub were mounted on a pintle beam, which allowed the rotor to capture wind from varying directions. The pitch of the blades was controlled by hydraulic cylinders to maintain constant speed, Palmer Putnam became interested in production of electric power from wind after observing high winds at Cape Cod. Putnam was aware of the Balaklava 100 kW turbine and desired to improve on its performance, by 1937 he had enlisted General Electric, and the Central Vermont Public Service Corporation. General Electric provided a generator, and Central Vermont Public Services Corporation was interested in a supply that could displace purchased power for meeting peak loads. Only 23 months elapsed between first discussions and production of power, Palmer concluded that the most promising concept was a two-bladed propeller driving a synchronous AC generator. He developed a design and cost estimates. Dr. Vannevar Bush, Dean of Engineering at MIT, reacted favorably when shown these calculations in 1937, Bush introduced Putnam to a vice president of General Electric Company, Mr. T. Knight. In 1939, the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratories of the California Institute of Technology was approached by Palmer C, theodore von Kármán had William Rees Sears and W. Duncan Rannie carry out the aerodynamic design. Unfortunately, Rannies analytical findings regarding the stability of the giant windmill were not incorporated in the prototype that was built, Putnam obtained the financial and technical backing of the S. Morgan Smith Company of York, Pennsylvania. The Smith Company manufactured hydroelectric hydraulic turbines, since the number of feasible sites for hydroelectric development was felt to be declining, the Smith company sought diversification into a new but related product line. The S. Morgan Smith Co. agreed to take on the project as general contractor and financed construction of a pilot turbine. The site chosen for the turbine was a previously unnamed 2000 foot elevation, named Grandpas Knob, this mountain was not so high as to have excessive ice build up. Access to the required construction of a road with 12 to 15% grade
45.
John Brown & Company
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John Brown and Company of Clydebank was a Scottish marine engineering and shipbuilding firm. It built many notable and world-famous ships including RMS Lusitania, HMS Hood, HMS Repulse, RMS Queen Mary, RMS Queen Elizabeth and SS Queen Elizabeth 2. At its height, from 1900 to the 1950s, it was one of the most highly regarded, however thereafter, along with other UK shipbuilders, John Browns found it increasingly difficult to compete with the emerging shipyards in Eastern Europe and the far East. In 1968 John Browns merged with other Clydeside shipyards to form the Upper Clyde Shipbuilders consortium, the company then withdrew from shipbuilding but its engineering arm remained successful in the manufacture of industrial gas turbines. In 1986 it became a wholly owned subsidiary of Trafalgar House, the latter closed the Clydebank engineering works in 2000. Marathon Oil bought the Clydebank shipyard from UCS and used it to oil rig platforms for the North Sea oil industry. UiE Scotland bought the yard in 1980 and closed it in 2001, two brothers — James and George Thomson, who had worked for the engineer Robert Napier — founded the engineering and shipbuilding company J&G Thomson. The brothers founded the Clyde Bank Foundry in Anderston in 1847 and they opened the Clyde Bank Iron Shipyard at Cessnock, Govan, in 1851 and launched their first ship, SS Jackal, in 1852. They quickly established a reputation in building prestigious passenger ships, building SS Jura for Cunard in 1854, the brothers separated their business association in 1850 and, after an acrimonious split, George took over the shipbuilding end of the association. James Thomas started a new business, George Thomson died in 1866, followed in 1870 by his brother James. They were succeeded by the sons of the younger brother George, called James Rodger Thomson and this site at the confluence of the tributary River Cart with the River Clyde, at Newshot Island, allowed very large ships to be launched. The brothers soon moved their iron foundry and engineering works to the same site, the connection to the area was so complete that James Rodger Thomson became the first Provost of Clydebank. Despite intermittent financial difficulties the company developed a reputation based on engineering quality, in 1899 the steelmaker John Brown and Company of Sheffield bought J&G Thomsons Clydebank yard for £923,255 3s 3d. John Brown was born in Sheffield in 1816, the son of a slater, at the age of 14, unwilling to follow his fathers plans for him to become a draper, he obtained a position as an apprentice with Earle Horton & Co. He was so successful, he made enough money to set up his own business, in 1848 Brown developed and patented the conical spring buffer for railway carriages, which was very successful. With a growing reputation and fortune he moved to a site in 1856. He began to make his own iron from ore, rather than buying it. These moves all proved successful and lucrative, and in 1861 he started supplying steel rails to the expanding railway industry
46.
Orkney
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Orkney /ˈɔːrkni/, also known as the Orkney Islands, is an archipelago in the Northern Isles of Scotland, situated off the north coast of Great Britain. Orkney is 16 kilometres north of the coast of Caithness and comprises approximately 70 islands, the largest island Mainland is often referred to as the Mainland. It has an area of 523 square kilometres, making it the sixth-largest Scottish island, the largest settlement and administrative centre is Kirkwall. A form of the dates to the pre-Roman era and the islands have been inhabited for at least 8500 years, originally occupied by Mesolithic and Neolithic tribes. Orkney was invaded and forcibly annexed by Norway in 875 and settled by the Norse, the Scottish Parliament then re-annexed the earldom to the Scottish Crown in 1472, following the failed payment of a dowry for James IIIs bride Margaret of Denmark. Orkney contains some of the oldest and best-preserved Neolithic sites in Europe, Orkney is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland, a constituency of the Scottish Parliament, a lieutenancy area, and a historic county. The local council is Orkney Islands Council, one of only three Councils in Scotland with a majority of elected members who are independents. In addition to the Mainland, most of the islands are in two groups, the North and South Isles, all of which have a geological base of Old Red Sandstone. The climate is mild and the soils are fertile, most of the land being farmed. Agriculture is the most important sector of the economy, the significant wind and marine energy resources are of growing importance, and the island generates more than its total yearly electricity demand using renewables. The local people are known as Orcadians and have a distinctive Orcadian dialect of Scots, there is an abundance of marine and avian wildlife. Pytheas of Massilia visited Britain – probably sometime between 322 and 285 BC – and described it as triangular in shape, with a northern tip called Orcas and this may have referred to Dunnet Head, from which Orkney is visible. Speakers of Old Irish referred to the islands as Insi Orc island of the pigs, the archipelago is known as Ynysoedd Erch in modern Welsh and Arcaibh in modern Scottish Gaelic, the -aibh representing a fossilized prepositional case ending. The Anglo-Saxon monk Bede refers to the islands as Orcades insulae in his seminal work Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Norwegian settlers arriving from the ninth century reinterpreted orc as the Old Norse orkn seal. The plural suffix -jar was later removed in English leaving the modern name Orkney, according to the Historia Norwegiæ, Orkney was named after an earl called Orkan. The Norse knew Mainland Orkney as Megenland Mainland or as Hrossey Horse Island, the island is sometimes referred to as Pomona, a name that stems from a sixteenth-century mistranslation by George Buchanan, which has rarely been used locally. A charred hazelnut shell, recovered in 2007 during excavations in Tankerness on the Mainland has been dated to 6820–6660 BC indicating the presence of Mesolithic nomadic tribes
47.
Vestas
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Vestas Wind Systems A/S is a Danish manufacturer, seller, installer, and servicer of wind turbines. It was founded in 1945, and as of 2013, it is the largest wind company in the world. Vestas traces its roots to 1898 where Hand Smith Hansen bought a black smith shop which operated as a family business, after the second world war Vestas was founded in 1945 by his son Peder Hansen as Vestjysk Stålteknik A/S. The company initially manufactured household appliances, moving its focus to equipment in 1950, intercoolers in 1956. It entered the wind industry in 1979, and produced wind turbines exclusively from 1989. The companys North American headquarters was relocated in 2002 from Palm Springs, California to Portland, in 2003, the company merged with the Danish wind turbine manufacturer NEG Micon to create the largest wind turbine manufacturer in the world, under the banner of Vestas Wind Systems. At that time, Vestas employed about 400 in Portland and committed to add at least 100 more employees there within five years, the company moved its Portland offices to the new headquarters building, a renovated historic building, in May 2012. In February 2009, the announced the production of two new turbine types, the 3-megawatt V112 and 1. 8-megawatt V100. The new models were to be available in 2010, in July 2009, Vestas announced its manufacturing operations on the Isle of Wight in England would close due to a lack of UK demand, affecting 525 jobs there and 100 in Southampton. Approximately 25 workers at the turbine factory on the island occupied the administration offices in protest on 20 July 2009. In August 2009 Vestas hired more than 5,000 extra workers for its new factories in China, the United States, and Spain. The company said it was expanding heavily in China and the US because these markets were growing the fastest, in November 2010, Vestas shut down the 70-person staff advisory department Vestas Excellence, responsible for securing competitiveness, handling suppliers, Quality Assurance and globalization. In January 2012, the company suggested firing 1,600 out of its 3,000 U. S. workers if the U. S. did not renew the 2.2 cents-per-kilowatt-hour Production Tax Credit, which was extended in 2013. On 13 August 2012, an estimated 90 workers were laid off from the Pueblo facility, six long colored lines, leading to an exit, had been placed on the floor. Those laid off were given one of six different colored papers, in 2013, the tower factory in Pueblo began ramping up to full utilization as orders rebounded from the 2012 slump. Other facilities in Colorado include a further 750 persons employed at a manufacturing facility in Windsor. Vestas has nacelle and blade manufacturing facilities in Brighton, Colorado and also operates a facility in Pueblo. In May 2013, Marika Fredriksson became the companys new Executive Vice President and her strategy is to lead Vestas back to higher earnings after the important losses faced by the company, from €166 million losses in 2011 and increasing to €963 million in 2012
48.
Wind
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Wind is the flow of gases on a large scale. On the surface of the Earth, wind consists of the movement of air. Winds are commonly classified by their scale, their speed, the types of forces that cause them, the regions in which they occur. The strongest observed winds on a planet in the Solar System occur on Neptune, Winds have various aspects, an important one being its velocity, another the density of the gas involved, another its energy content or wind energy. In meteorology, winds are referred to according to their strength. Short bursts of high speed wind are termed gusts, strong winds of intermediate duration are termed squalls. Long-duration winds have various names associated with their strength, such as breeze, gale, storm. The two main causes of large-scale atmospheric circulation are the differential heating between the equator and the poles, and the rotation of the planet, within the tropics, thermal low circulations over terrain and high plateaus can drive monsoon circulations. In coastal areas the sea breeze/land breeze cycle can define local winds, in areas that have variable terrain, mountain, Wind powers the voyages of sailing ships across Earths oceans. Hot air balloons use the wind to take trips, and powered flight uses it to increase lift. Areas of wind caused by various weather phenomena can lead to dangerous situations for aircraft. When winds become strong, trees and man-made structures are damaged or destroyed, Winds can shape landforms, via a variety of aeolian processes such as the formation of fertile soils, such as loess, and by erosion. Wind also affects the spread of wildfires, Winds can disperse seeds from various plants, enabling the survival and dispersal of those plant species, as well as flying insect populations. When combined with temperatures, wind has a negative impact on livestock. Wind affects animals food stores, as well as their hunting, Wind is caused by differences in the atmospheric pressure. When a difference in atmospheric pressure exists, air moves from the higher to the pressure area. On a rotating planet, air will also be deflected by the Coriolis effect, globally, the two major driving factors of large-scale wind patterns are the differential heating between the equator and the poles and the rotation of the planet. Outside the tropics and aloft from frictional effects of the surface, near the Earths surface, friction causes the wind to be slower than it would be otherwise
49.
Wind profile power law
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The wind profile power law is a relationship between the wind speeds at one height, and those at another. Wind profiles are generated and used in a number of atmospheric dispersion models. The wind profile power law relationship is used as a substitute for the log wind profile when surface roughness or stability information is not available. The wind profile power law relationship is, u u r = α where u is the speed at height z. The exponent is an empirically derived coefficient that varies dependent upon the stability of the atmosphere, for neutral stability conditions, α is approximately 1/7, or 0.143. In places where trees or structures impede the near-surface wind, the use of a constant 1/7 exponent may yield quite erroneous estimates, and the log wind profile is preferred. Even under neutral stability conditions, an exponent of 0.11 is more appropriate over open water, than 0.143, estimates of wind power density are presented as wind class, ranging from 1 to 7. The speeds are average wind speeds over the course of a year, although the frequency distribution of wind speed can provide different power densities for the same average wind speed
50.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
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The National Renewable Energy Laboratory, located in Golden, Colorado, is the United States primary laboratory for renewable energy and energy efficiency research and development. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory is a government-owned, contractor-operated facility and this arrangement allows a private entity to operate the lab on behalf of the federal government under a prime contract. NREL receives funding from Congress to be applied toward research and development projects, NREL also performs research on photovoltaics under the National Center for Photovoltaics. NREL has a number of PV research capabilities including research and development, testing, NRELs campus houses several facilities dedicated to PV research. Established in 1974, NREL began operating in 1977 as the Solar Energy Research Institute, during the Ronald Reagan administration, the institutes budget was cut by some 90%, many employees reduced in force and the laboratorys activities were reduced to R&D. In later years, renewed interest in the energy problem improved the institutes position, since its inception in 1977 as the Solar Energy Research Institute, it has been operated under contract by MRIGlobal. In September 1991, the NREL was designated a national laboratory of the U. S. Department of Energy by President George H. W. Bush, currently, NREL is managed for the DOE by the Alliance for Sustainable Energy, LLC. The Alliance was formed in 2008 as a joint venture between MRIGlobal and Battelle, dr. Martin Keller became NRELs ninth director in October 2016, and currently serves as both the director of the lab and the president of the Alliance. NRELs areas of research and development expertise are renewable electricity, renewable fuels, integrated energy systems, in 2011, NREL became the co-secretariat of the Low Emission Development Strategies Global Partnership alongside the Climate & Development Knowledge Network. NRELs innovative technologies have been recognized with 57 R&D100 Awards, the engineering and science behind these technology transfer successes and awards demonstrates NRELs commitment to a sustainable energy future. As many of these technologies are young and often just emerging, NREL aims to reduce the risk of private sector investment and adoption of their developments. Ultimately, many of the deployed technologies help mitigate the oil dependence of the United States, reduce emissions from fossil fuel use. Deployment of technologies is accomplished by developing partnerships with private industry. NREL serves as a platform for research, and through partnerships those advances can effectively be translated into serving the interest of both the private sector and the public sector. The challenge to achieving these goals is investment security, NREL focuses on the core values of the partnering entity, the willingness to set and meet timely goals, dedication to transparency, and a reciprocating intent to further development. Under these partnership agreements, NREL does not fund projects conducted by their private partners, NREL does provide funding opportunities through their competitively placed contracts. Technology Partnership Agreements provide only the services of NREL. Moving further than Technology Partnership Agreements are Licensing Agreements and Nondisclosure Agreements, Licensing Agreements provide industry to market and commercialize technology developed by NREL
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