1.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
2.
Namibia
–
Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south, although it does not border Zimbabwe, a part of less than 200 metres of the Zambezi River separates the two countries. Namibia gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek, and it is a state of the United Nations, the Southern African Development Community, the African Union. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by the San, Damara, since about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived as part of the Bantu expansion. Since then the Bantu groups in total, known as the Ovambo people, have dominated the population of the country, in the late 19th century during European colonization, the German Empire established rule over most of the territory as a protectorate in 1884. It began to develop infrastructure and farming, and maintained this German colony until 1915, after the end of World War I, in 1920 the League of Nations mandated the country to the United Kingdom, under administration by South Africa. It imposed its laws, including racial classifications and rules, from 1948, with the National Party elected to power, South Africa applied apartheid also to what was known as South West Africa. In 1878 the Cape of Good Hope had annexed the port of Walvis Bay and the offshore Penguin Islands, following continued guerrilla warfare, South Africa installed an interim administration in Namibia in 1985. Namibia obtained full independence from South Africa in 1990, but Walvis Bay and the Penguin Islands remained under South African control until 1994. Namibia has a population of 2.1 million people and a stable multi-party parliamentary democracy, Agriculture, herding, tourism and the mining industry – including mining for gem diamonds, uranium, gold, silver, and base metals – form the basis of its economy. The large, arid Namib Desert has resulted in Namibia being overall one of the least densely populated countries in the world, Namibia enjoys high political, economic and social stability. The name of the country is derived from the Namib Desert, before its independence in 1990, the area was known first as German South-West Africa, then as South-West Africa, reflecting the colonial occupation by the Germans and the South Africans. The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by San, Damara, from about the 14th century, immigrating Bantu peoples arrived during the Bantu expansion from central Africa. From the late 18th century onwards, Oorlam people from Cape Colony crossed the Orange River and their encounters with the nomadic Nama tribes were largely peaceful. The missionaries accompanying the Oorlam were well received by them, the right to use waterholes, on their way further northwards, however, the Oorlam encountered clans of the Herero at Windhoek, Gobabis, and Okahandja, who resisted their encroachment. The Nama-Herero War broke out in 1880, with hostilities ebbing only after the German Empire deployed troops to the places and cemented the status quo among the Nama, Oorlam. The first Europeans to disembark and explore the region were the Portuguese navigators Diogo Cão in 1485 and Bartolomeu Dias in 1486, like most of interior Sub-Saharan Africa, Namibia was not extensively explored by Europeans until the 19th century
Namibia
–
German church and monument to colonists in Windhoek
Namibia
–
Flag
Namibia
–
Map of
Bantustans, land set aside for black inhabitation, in South West Africa
Namibia
–
Sand dunes in the
Namib Desert, Namibia
3.
Regions of Namibia
–
The administrative divisions of Namibia are tabled by Delimitation Commissions and accepted or declined by the National Assembly. As of August 2013, the new division re-organization has 14 regions, constituencies of Namibia ISO 3166-2, NA Namibia 2001 Population and Housing Census
Regions of Namibia
–
1.
Zambezi 2.
Erongo 3.
Hardap 4.
!Karas 5.
Kavango East /
Kavango West 6.
Khomas 7.
Kunene 8.
Ohangwena
4.
Khomas Region
–
Khomas is one of the fourteen regions of Namibia. Its name refers to the Khomas Highland, a high plateau landscape that dominates this administrative unit, Khomas is centered on the capital city Windhoek and provides for this reason superior transportation infrastructure. It is located in the highlands of the country and is bordered by the Erongo region to the west. To the east is the Omaheke region, while in the south is the Hardap region, the region is characterized by its hilly countrysize and many valleys. It has well-developed economical, financial, and trade sectors, Khomas Region occupies 4. 5% of the land area of Namibia but has the highest population of any of its regions. Khomas is one of only three Namibian regions to have neither shoreline nor a foreign border, the Governor of Khomas Region is Laura McLeod-Katjirua. SWAPO won Khomas Region by a majority, though with a lower percentage of the total vote than nationally. In the 2015 regional elections Swapo won in all ten constituencies, Khomas has 100 schools with a total of 73,302 pupils. According to the Namibia 2001 Population and Housing Census, Khomas had a population of 250,262 growing at a rate of 4%. The fertility rate was 4.9 children per woman, 93% lived in urban areas while 7% lived in rural areas, and with an area of 37,007 km2, the population density was 6.8 persons per km2. By age, 11% of the population was under 5 years old, the population was divided into 58,580 households, with an average size of 4.2 persons. 36% of households had a head of house, while 64% had a male. For those 15 years and older, 61% had never married, 24% married with certificate, 3% married traditionally, 7% married concensually, 2% were divorced or separated, white Namabians and Colourds form one third of the population of this region. The most commonly spoken languages at home were Oshiwambo, Afrikaans, Nama/Damara, other languages found in Khomas are English, German, and a smattering of other Namibian language groups. For those 15 years and older, the rate was 94%. Households in Khomas earn by far the highest average income at N$47,407. Windhoek accommodates most of Namibias light industry and manufacturing, some of the most important are meat processing, bottling and canning, beer brewing, plastics, and refrigeration. The city is also Namibias educational, commercial, and tourism capital, in 2001 the employment rate for the labor force was 71% employed and 29% unemployed
Khomas Region
–
Location of the Khomas Region in
Namibia
5.
South African Standard Time
–
South African Standard Time is the time zone used by all of South Africa, as well as Swaziland and Lesotho. The zone is two hours ahead of UTC and is the same as Central Africa Time, daylight saving time is not observed in either time zone. Thus, most of South Africas population experience true solar noon at approximately 12,00 daily, the western Northern Cape and Western Cape differ however. Everywhere on land west of 22°30′ E effectively experiences year-round daylight saving time because of its location in true UTC+1, sunrise and sunset are thus relatively late in Cape Town compared to the rest of the country. Before 8 February 1892, there was no uniformity of time in South Africa, in 1892, a railway conference was held in Bloemfontein and discussed difficulty of working a railway system, in the absence of a uniform time system. The governments of the Orange Free State, Transvaal and the Cape Colony officially adopted a standard time of Greenwich Mean Time +01,30 which was defined as mean time 22. 5° east of Greenwich. On 1 March 1903 GMT+02,00 was adopted, which became the current UTC+02,00 when UTC replaced GMT for most purposes, prior to 1 March 1903, the Colony of Natal was already using a uniform time supplied by the Natal Observatory. The observatorys local mean time was GMT+1,57, South Africa observed a daylight saving time of GMT+3,00 between 20 September 1942 to 21 March 1943 and 19 September 1943 to 21 March 1944. South African Standard Time is defined as Coordinated Universal Time plus two hours
South African Standard Time
–
UTC−01:00
6.
Semi-arid climate
–
A semi-arid climate or steppe climate is the climate of a region that receives precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not extremely. There are different kinds of climates, depending on such variables as temperature. Semi-arid climates tend to short or scrubby vegetation, with semi-arid areas usually dominated by either grasses or shrubs. To determine if a location has a climate, the precipitation threshold must first be determined. If the areas precipitation is less than the threshold but more than half the threshold. Hot semi-arid climates tend to be located in the tropics and subtropics and these climates tend to have hot, sometimes extremely hot, summers and warm to cool winters, with some to minimal precipitation. Hot semi-arid climates are most commonly found around the fringes of subtropical deserts, hot semi-arid climates are most commonly found in Africa, Australia and South Asia. In Australia, a portion of the Outback surrounding the central desert regions lies within the hot semi-arid climate regime. Hot semi-arid climates can also be found in North America, primarily in Mexico, areas of Texas near Mexico, cold semi-arid climates tend to be located in temperate zones or elevated portions in subtropical zones. They are typically found in continental interiors some distance from bodies of water. Cold semi-arid climates usually feature warm and dry summers, though their summers are not quite as hot as those of hot semi-arid climates. Unlike hot semi-arid climates, areas with cold semi-arid climates tend to have cold winters and these areas usually see some snowfall during the winter, though snowfall is much lower than at locations at similar latitudes with more humid climates. These large diurnal temperature variations are seen in hot semi-arid climates. Cold semi-arid climates are most commonly found in Asia and North America, however, they can also be found in Northern Africa, South Africa, Europe, sections of South America and sections of interior southern Australia and New Zealand. As a result of this, some areas can have climates that are classified as hot or cold depending on the isotherm used. One such location is San Diego, California, which has cool summers for the due to prevailing winds off the ocean. Arid Forest Research Institute Continental climate Dust Bowl Goyders Line Pallisers Triangle Köppen climate classification Wave height Ustic
Semi-arid climate
–
The semi-arid terrain of
Machakos
Semi-arid climate
–
BSh
Semi-arid climate
–
Northeast Caatinga - semiárido brasileño
Semi-arid climate
–
Extreme weather at
Atacama Large Millimeter Array.
7.
Khoekhoe language
–
It belongs to the Khoe language family, and is spoken in Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa by three ethnic groups, the Nama, Damara, and Haiǁom. The Haiǁom, who had spoken a Juu language, later shifted to Khoekhoe, the name for Khoekhoegowab speakers, Khoekhoen, in English khoe is a person, with reduplication and the suffix -n to indicate the plural. Georg Friedrich Wreede was the first European to study the language, Khoekhoe is a national language in Namibia, where it is used for teaching up to the university level as well as in the public administration. In Namibia and South Africa, state-owned broadcasting corporations produce and broadcast radio programmes in Khoekhoegowab, ǂĀkhoe, itself a dialect cluster, and intermediate between Haiǁom and the Kalahari Khoe languages They are distinct enough that they might be considered two or three distinct languages. Eini is also close but is now counted as a distinct language. There are 5 vowel qualities, found as oral /i e a o u/, /u/ is strongly rounded, /o/ only slightly so. /a/ is the vowel with notable allophony, it is pronounced before /i/ or /u/. Nama has been described as having three or four tones, /á, ā, à/ or /a̋, á, à, ȁ/, the high tone is higher when it occurs on one of the high vowels or on a nasal than on mid or low vowels. The tones combine into a number of tone melodies, which have sandhi forms in certain syntactic environments. The most important melodies, in their citation and main forms, are as follows, Within a phrase. Within a word, the first syllable receives the most stress, subsequent syllables receive less and less stress and are spoken more and more quickly. Nama has 31 consonants,20 clicks and only 11 non-clicks, between vowels, /p/ is pronounced and /t/ is pronounced. The affricate series is strongly aspirated, and may be analysed phonemically as aspirated stops, Beach reported that the Khoehkoe of the time had a velar lateral ejective affricate, a common realisation or allophone of /kxʼ/ in languages with clicks. This sound no longer occurs in Khoekhoe but remains in its cousin Korana, the clicks are doubly articulated consonants. Each click consists of one of four primary articulations or influxes, the combination results in 20 phonemes. The aspiration on the aspirated clicks is often light but is raspier than the nasal clicks. The glottalised clicks are clearly voiceless due to the hold before the release, tindall notes that European learners almost invariably pronounce the lateral clicks by placing the tongue against the side teeth and that this articulation is harsh and foreign to the native ear. The Namaqua instead cover the whole of the palate with the tongue, lexical root words consist of two or rarely three moras, in the form CVCV, CVV, or CVN
Khoekhoe language
–
Nama man giving lessons on the Khoekhoe language
Khoekhoe language
–
The distribution of the Nama language in
Namibia.
8.
Otjiherero language
–
The Herero language is a language of the Bantu subfamily of the Niger–Congo group. It is spoken by the Herero and Mbanderu peoples in Namibia and Botswana, there are a quarter million speakers. Its linguistic distribution covers a zone called Hereroland, a zone constituted of the region of Omaheke along with the Otjozondjupa, the Himba people, who are related to the Herero and Mbanderu, speak a dialect very close to Otjiherero. Many Herero-speakers live in Windhoek, the capital of Namibia, because of the translation of missionary Gottlieb Viehe of the Bible into Herero, at the end of the 19th century, the spoken language was transcribed to an alphabet based on the Latin script. Father Peter Heinrich Brincker translated several works and songs. Otjiherero is taught in Namibian schools both as a tongue and as a secondary language. It is included as a material at the University of Namibia. Otjiherero is also one of the six minority languages that are used by the Namibian State Radio, gamsberg Macmillan, as of 2008, has published the only dictionary in Otjiherero. The Hakaona variety is now considered a separate Bantu language, as sometimes is Zemba. Maho also removes Kuvale to Bantu Zone R.10, while differentiating North-West Herero, R.311, within Herero proper, he recognizes two dialects, Central Herero and Mbandero. Northwest/Zemba is found on side of the Namibian–Angolan border. Central Herero covers an area in central Namibia, with East Herero a few islands to the east. Botswana Herero consists of a few scattered islands in Botswana, with about 15% the population of Herero proper, ethnologue separates Zimba as a distinct language but retains Himba, East Herero and Botswana Herero within the Herero language. However, it no longer recognizes Kuvale as a dialect, Kuvale has not yet been designated as a separate language or as a dialect affiliated with another language. Wörterbuch und kurzgefasste Grammatik des Otji-Herero, locative inversion in Otjiherero, more on morpho-syntactic variation in Bantu. In, Laura Downing, Lutz Marten & Sabine Zerbian, Papers in Bantu Grammar, ZAS Papers in Linguistics 43, morphosyntactic co-variation in Bantu, two case studies. SOAS Working Papers in Linguistics 15. 227-238, möhlig, Wilhelm, Lutz Marten & Jekura U
Otjiherero language
–
The disparate distribution of the Herero language in
Namibia, showing the concentration of Herero speakers on the Kalahari boundary in the east, as well as the outlying Herero-speaking
Himba people of the
Kaokoveld in the far north-west.
9.
Pastoral
–
A pastoral lifestyle is that of shepherds herding livestock around open areas of land according to seasons and the changing availability of water and pasture. It lends its name to a genre of literature, art, a pastoral is a work of this genre, also known as bucolic, from the Greek βουκολικόν, from βουκόλος, meaning a cowherd. Pastoral is a mode of literature in which the author employs various techniques to place the life into a simple one. Thus, pastoral as a mode occurs in many types of literature as well as genres, terry Gifford, a prominent literary theorist, defines pastoral in three ways in his critical book Pastoral. The first way emphasizes the historical perspective of the pastoral in which authors recognize and discuss life in the country. This is summed up by Leo Marx with the phrase No shepherd, the second type of the pastoral is literature that describes the country with an implicit or explicit contrast to the urban. The third type of pastoral depicts the life with derogative classifications. Hesiods Works and Days presents a golden age when people lived together in harmony with nature and this Golden Age shows that even before Alexandria, ancient Greeks had sentiments of an ideal pastoral life that they had already lost. This is the first example of literature that has pastoral sentiments, ovids Metamorphoses is much like the Works and Days with the description of ages but with more ages to discuss and less emphasis on the gods and their punishments. In this artificially constructed world, nature acts as the main punisher, another example of this perfect relationship between man and nature is evident in the encounter of a shepherd and a goatherd who meet in the pastures in Theocritus poem Idylls 1. Traditionally, pastoral refers to the lives of herdsmen in a romanticized, exaggerated, the pastoral life is usually characterized as being closer to the Golden age than the rest of human life. The setting is a Locus Amoenus, or a place in nature. An example of the use of the genre is the poem by the 15th-century Scottish makar Robert Henryson Robene and Makyne which also contains the conflicted emotions often present in the genre. There will we sit upon the rocks And see the shepherds feed their flocks, By shallow rivers, the Passionate Shepherd to His Love exhibits the concept of Giffords second definition of pastoral. The speaker of the poem, who is the titled shepherd and this can be seen in the listed items, lined slippers, purest gold, silver dishes, and ivory table. The speaker takes on a point of view with his love. Pastoral shepherds and maidens usually have Greek names like Corydon or Philomela and this makes them available for embodying perpetual erotic fantasies. The shepherds spend their time chasing pretty girls — or, at least in the Greek and Roman versions, Pastoral literature continued after Hesiod with the poetry of the Hellenistic Greek Theocritus, several of whose Idylls are set in the countryside and involve dialogues between herdsmen
Pastoral
–
Alvan Fisher, Pastoral Landscape, 1854
Pastoral
–
Georgics Book III, Shepherd with Flocks,
Vergil (
Vatican Library)
Pastoral
–
Romantic artist, illustrator and poet William Blake's hand painted print illustrating his pastoral poem "
The Shepherd " depicts the pastoral scene of a shepherd watching his flock with a shepherd's crook. This image represents copy B, printed and painted in 1789 and currently held by the
Library of Congress.
Pastoral
–
A Pastoral (watercolour, 1905) by
John Reinhard Weguelin
10.
Tribal chief
–
A tribal chief is the leader of a tribal society or chiefdom. In the case of tribal societies existing within larger colonial and post-colonial states. The most common types are the chairman of a council and/or a broader popular assembly in parliamentary cultures, the war chief, the hereditary chief and this term has largely fallen out of use, however, and such personages are now often called kings. Historically, tribal societies represent a stage between the band society of the Paleolithic stage and civilization with centralized, super-regional government based in cities. Stratified tribal societies led by tribal kings thus flourished from the Neolithic stage into the Iron Age, albeit in competition with civilisations, after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, tribal kingdoms were again established over much of Europe in the wake of the Migration period. By the High Middle Ages, these had coalesced into super-regional monarchies. Tribal societies also remained prevalent in much of the New World, excepting Paleolithic or Mesolithic band societies in Oceania, europeans forced centralized governments onto these societies during colonialism, but in some instances they have retained or regained partial self-government. Tribal chiefs are known as Sheikhs, though this term is sometimes applied as an honorific title to spiritual leaders of Sufism. In Botswana, the chiefs of the various tribes are constitutionally empowered to serve as advisers to the government as members of the Ntlo ya Dikgosi. In addition to this, they serve as the ex officio chairs of the tribal kgotlas, meetings of all of the members of the tribes. The band is the unit of governance among the First Nations in Canada. As well, there may be hereditary or charismatic chiefs. There were 614 bands in Canada in 2012, there is also a national organization, the Assembly of First Nations, which elects a national chief to act as spokesperson of all First Nations bands in Canada. The offices and traditional realms of the chiefs of Ghana are constitutionally protected by the constitution of the country. The chiefs serve as custodian of all lands and the culture of the traditional area. The Solomon Islands have a Local Court Act which empowers chiefs to deal with crimes in their communities, apo Rodolfo Aguilar serves as the chieftain of the Tagbanwa tribes people living in Banuang Daan and Cabugao settlements in Coron Island, Palawan, Philippines. His position is recognized by the Filipino government, the pre-colonial states that existed in what is today Uganda were summarily abolished following independence from Great Britain. However, following constitutional reforms in 1993, a number of them were restored as politically neutral constituencies of the state by the government of Yoweri Museveni, generally, a tribe or nation is considered to be part of an ethnic group, usually sharing cultural values
Tribal chief
–
Arminius, a chieftain of the
Germanic Cherusci tribe who defeated three
Roman legions in the
Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.
Tribal chief
–
Badge of office of Chief Gambo,
Rhodesia c. 1979.
Tribal chief
–
Goyathlay, or
Geronimo,
Apache chieftain for the
Chiricahua.
11.
Orlam
–
The Oorlam or Orlam people are a subtribe of the Nama people, largely assimilated after their migration from the Cape Colony to Namaqualand and Damaraland. Oorlam clans were formed from mixed-race descendants of indigenous Khoikhoi, Europeans and slaves from Madagascar, India. Also like the Boers, they migrated inland from the Cape, the Oorlam migration in South Africa also produced the related Griqua people. The origin of the name is disputed, with at least a half-dozen interpretations found in the literature, however, none of them enjoys any credibility, all relying mostly on folk etymologies. Beginning in the late 18th century, Oorlam communities migrated from the Cape Colony north to Namaqualand and they settled places earlier occupied by the Nama. They came partly to escape Dutch colonial conscription, partly to raid and trade, some of these emigrant Oorlams retained links to Oorlam communities in or close to the borders of the Cape Colony. However, after two centuries of assimilation into the Nama culture, many Oorlams today regard Khoikhoigowab as their mother tongue, the distinction between Namas and Oorlams has gradually disappeared, so that today they are regarded as a single ethnic group, despite their different origins. The Orlam people comprise various subtribes, clans, and families, in South Africa the Griqua are an influential Oorlam group. The clans that migrated across the Oranje into South West Africa are, in order of their time of arrival, The ǀAixaǀaen and their leader Klaas Afrikaner left the Cape Colony around 1770. The clan first built the fortress of ǁKhauxaǃnas, then moved to Blydeverwacht, the ǃAman subtribe settled at Bethanie at the turn of the eighteenth century. The Kaiǀkhauan subtribe formed in the 1830s, when the Vlermuis clan merged with the Amraal family and their home settlement became Naosanabis, which they occupied from 1840 onward. This clan ceased to exist after military defeat by Imperial German Schutztruppe in 1894 and 1896, the ǀHaiǀkhauan subtribe formed in 1850, when the Tibot and Goliath families split from the ǃAman to found Berseba. The ǀKhowesin subtribe was the last to take up settlement in Namibia and they originated at Pella, south of the Orange River. Oorlams creole Coloured Griqua people Basters Nama people Khoikhoi Goffal Kienetz, the Key Role of the Orlam Migrations in the Early Europeanization of South West Africa. The International Journal of African Historical Studies
Orlam
–
Jan Jonker Afrikaner
Orlam
–
Mixed-race "Afrikander"
Trekboer nomads in the Cape Colony, ancestral people to the Oorlam and Griqua migrations.
12.
German Empire
–
The German Empire was the historical German nation state that existed from the unification of Germany in 1871 to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1918, when Germany became a federal republic. The German Empire consisted of 26 constituent territories, with most being ruled by royal families and this included four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities, three free Hanseatic cities, and one imperial territory. Although Prussia became one of kingdoms in the new realm, it contained most of its population and territory. Its influence also helped define modern German culture, after 1850, the states of Germany had rapidly become industrialized, with particular strengths in coal, iron, chemicals, and railways. In 1871, it had a population of 41 million people, and by 1913, a heavily rural collection of states in 1815, now united Germany became predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological, Germany became a great power, boasting a rapidly growing rail network, the worlds strongest army, and a fast-growing industrial base. In less than a decade, its navy became second only to Britains Royal Navy, after the removal of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck by Wilhelm II, the Empire embarked on a bellicose new course that ultimately led to World War I. When the great crisis of 1914 arrived, the German Empire had two allies, Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Italy, however, left the once the First World War started in August 1914. In the First World War, German plans to capture Paris quickly in autumn 1914 failed, the Allied naval blockade caused severe shortages of food. Germany was repeatedly forced to send troops to bolster Austria and Turkey on other fronts, however, Germany had great success on the Eastern Front, it occupied large Eastern territories following the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1917 was designed to strangle the British, it failed, but the declaration—along with the Zimmermann Telegram—did bring the United States into the war. Meanwhile, German civilians and soldiers had become war-weary and radicalised by the Russian Revolution and this failed, and by October the armies were in retreat, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire had collapsed, Bulgaria had surrendered and the German people had lost faith in their political system. After at first attempting to control, causing massive uprisings. This left a republic to manage a devastated and unsatisfied populace, the German Confederation had been created by an act of the Congress of Vienna on 8 June 1815 as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, after being alluded to in Article 6 of the 1814 Treaty of Paris. German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848, called Pan-Germanism and he envisioned a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. The war resulted in the Confederation being partially replaced by a North German Confederation in 1867, the new constitution and the title Emperor came into effect on 1 January 1871. During the Siege of Paris on 18 January 1871, William accepted to be proclaimed Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. The second German Constitution was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April 1871 and proclaimed by the Emperor on 16 April, the political system remained the same
German Empire
German Empire
–
Flag
German Empire
–
Otto von Bismarck
German Empire
–
A postage stamp from the
Carolines
13.
Imperial German Army
–
The Imperial German Army was the name given to the combined land and air forces of the German Empire. The term Deutsches Heer is also used for the modern German Army, the German Army was formed after the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership in 1871 and dissolved in 1919, after the defeat of the German Empire in World War I. When operating together, the units were known as the Federal Army, Prussia formed the North German Confederation and the treaty provided for the maintenance of a Federal Army and a Federal Navy. Further laws on military duty also used these terms, through these conventions and the 1871 Constitution of the German Empire, an Army of the Realm was created. The contingents of the Bavarian, Saxon and Württemberg kingdoms remained semi-autonomous, the Constitution of the German Empire, dated April 16,1871, changed references in the North German Constitution from Federal Army to either Army of the Realm or German Army. After 1871, the armies of the four kingdoms remained relatively distinct. German Army was used in legal documents, such as the Military Penal Code. Württemberg and Saxon units were numbered according to the Prussian system, the commander of the Imperial German Army, less the Bavarian contingent, was the Kaiser. He was assisted by a Military Cabinet and exercised control through the Prussian Ministry of War, the Chief of the General Staff became the Kaisers main military advisor and the most powerful military figure in the Empire. Bavaria kept its own Ministry of War and General Staff, saxony also maintained its own Ministry of War and the Ministry of War of Württemberg also continued to exist. Command of the Prussian Army had been reformed in the wake of the defeats suffered by Prussia in the Napoleonic Wars, the General Staff system, that sought to institutionalize military excellence, was the main result. It provided planning and organizational work during peacetime and wartime, the Prussian General Staff, proven in battle in the Wars of Unification, became the German General Staff upon formation of the German Empire, given Prussias leading role in the German Army. During wartime, the staff of the Army inspectorates formed field army commands, during World War I, a higher command level, the army group, was created. Each army group controlled several field armies, Germany was divided into army inspectorates, each of which oversaw three or four corps. There were five in 1871, with three more added between 1907 and 1913, the corps consisted of two or more divisions and various support troops, covering a geographical area. The corps was responsible for maintaining the reserves and Landwehr in the corps area. By 1914, there were 21 corps areas under Prussian jurisdiction, besides the regional corps, there was also a Guard Corps, which controlled the elite Prussian Guard units. A corps usually included an infantry battalion, a heavy artillery battalion, an engineer battalion, a telegraph battalion
Imperial German Army
–
German Army cavalry re-enactment
Imperial German Army
–
Kaiserstandarte
Imperial German Army
–
German Army
hussars on the attack during maneuvers, 1912.
Imperial German Army
–
Draftees of the German Army, 1898.
14.
Otjomuise
–
Otjomuise is a township in north-western Windhoek, Namibia. Otjomuise is also one of the two names of the town Windhoek. It references the hot springs near todays city centre, 8ste Laan is an unincorporated informal settlement adjacent to the Otjomuise residential area. The City of Windhoek claims that the land is meant for recreational purposes and it served the shack owners with evictions because the occupation of erf 4421 on which the 8ste Laans shacks have been erected was not authorized by them. Despite all this controversy the 8ste Laan community has gardening project that supplies Khomasdal soup kitchens with vegetables and this gardening project was launched by the founding father of Namibia, Dr Sam Nujoma, to stop people from depending on the government
Otjomuise
–
Otjomuise
15.
Otjiherero
–
The Herero language is a language of the Bantu subfamily of the Niger–Congo group. It is spoken by the Herero and Mbanderu peoples in Namibia and Botswana, there are a quarter million speakers. Its linguistic distribution covers a zone called Hereroland, a zone constituted of the region of Omaheke along with the Otjozondjupa, the Himba people, who are related to the Herero and Mbanderu, speak a dialect very close to Otjiherero. Many Herero-speakers live in Windhoek, the capital of Namibia, because of the translation of missionary Gottlieb Viehe of the Bible into Herero, at the end of the 19th century, the spoken language was transcribed to an alphabet based on the Latin script. Father Peter Heinrich Brincker translated several works and songs. Otjiherero is taught in Namibian schools both as a tongue and as a secondary language. It is included as a material at the University of Namibia. Otjiherero is also one of the six minority languages that are used by the Namibian State Radio, gamsberg Macmillan, as of 2008, has published the only dictionary in Otjiherero. The Hakaona variety is now considered a separate Bantu language, as sometimes is Zemba. Maho also removes Kuvale to Bantu Zone R.10, while differentiating North-West Herero, R.311, within Herero proper, he recognizes two dialects, Central Herero and Mbandero. Northwest/Zemba is found on side of the Namibian–Angolan border. Central Herero covers an area in central Namibia, with East Herero a few islands to the east. Botswana Herero consists of a few scattered islands in Botswana, with about 15% the population of Herero proper, ethnologue separates Zimba as a distinct language but retains Himba, East Herero and Botswana Herero within the Herero language. However, it no longer recognizes Kuvale as a dialect, Kuvale has not yet been designated as a separate language or as a dialect affiliated with another language. Wörterbuch und kurzgefasste Grammatik des Otji-Herero, locative inversion in Otjiherero, more on morpho-syntactic variation in Bantu. In, Laura Downing, Lutz Marten & Sabine Zerbian, Papers in Bantu Grammar, ZAS Papers in Linguistics 43, morphosyntactic co-variation in Bantu, two case studies. SOAS Working Papers in Linguistics 15. 227-238, möhlig, Wilhelm, Lutz Marten & Jekura U
Otjiherero
–
The disparate distribution of the Herero language in
Namibia, showing the concentration of Herero speakers on the Kalahari boundary in the east, as well as the outlying Herero-speaking
Himba people of the
Kaokoveld in the far north-west.
16.
Hot springs
–
A hot spring is a spring produced by the emergence of geothermally heated groundwater that rises from the Earths crust. There are geothermal hot springs in many locations all over the crust of the earth, while some of these springs contain water that is a safe temperature for bathing, others are so hot that immersion can result in injury or death. The water temperature of a hot spring is usually 6.5 °C or more above mean air temperature, note that by this definition, thermal spring is not synonymous with the term hot spring a spring whose hot water is brought to the surface. The water temperature of the spring is usually 8.3 °C or more above the air temperature. A spring with water above the human body temperature –36.7 °C. suggest that the phrase warm spring is not useful. In general, the temperature of rocks within the earth increases with depth, the rate of temperature increase with depth is known as the geothermal gradient. If water percolates deeply enough into the crust, it will be heated as it comes into contact with hot rocks, the water from hot springs in non-volcanic areas is heated in this manner. In active volcanic zones such as Yellowstone National Park, water may be heated by coming into contact with magma, the high temperature gradient near magma may cause water to be heated enough that it boils or becomes superheated. If the water becomes so hot that it builds steam pressure and erupts in a jet above the surface of the Earth, if the water only reaches the surface in the form of steam, it is called a fumarole. If the water is mixed with mud and clay, it is called a mud pot, note that hot springs in volcanic areas are often at or near the boiling point. People have been seriously scalded and even killed by accidentally or intentionally entering these springs, Warm springs are sometimes the result of hot and cold springs mixing. They may occur within an area or outside of one. One example of a warm spring is Warm Springs, Georgia. Hot springs range in flow rate from the tiniest seeps to veritable rivers of hot water, sometimes there is enough pressure that the water shoots upward in a geyser, or fountain. There are many claims in the literature about the rates of hot springs. It should be noted there are many more high flow non-thermal springs than geothermal springs. For example, there are 33 recognized magnitude one springs (having a flow in excess of 2,800 L/s in Florida alone, silver Springs, Florida has a flow of more than 21,000 L/s. Springs with high flow rates include, The Excelsior Geyser Crater in Yellowstone National Park yields about 4,000 U. S. gal/min
Hot springs
–
Grand Prismatic Spring and Midway Geyser Basin in
Yellowstone National Park
Hot springs
–
"Blood Pond" hot spring in
Beppu,
Japan
Hot springs
–
Guelma in
Algeria
Hot springs
–
Hot spring in
Lassen Volcanic National Park
17.
Afrikaans
–
Afrikaans is a West Germanic language spoken in South Africa, Namibia and, to a lesser extent, Botswana and Zimbabwe. Hence, it is a language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as Cape Dutch or kitchen Dutch. Although, it is described as a creole, a partially creolised language the least. The term is derived from Dutch Afrikaans-Hollands meaning African Dutch. It is the first language of most of the Afrikaner and Coloured people of Southern Africa, therefore, differences with Dutch often lie in the more analytic morphology and grammar of Afrikaans, and a spelling that expresses Afrikaans pronunciation rather than standard Dutch. There is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages—especially in written form. With about 7 million native speakers in South Africa, or 13. 5% of the population and it has the widest geographical and racial distribution of all the eleven official languages of South Africa, and is widely spoken and understood as a second or third language. About 1. 5% of black South Africans speak it as their first language, large numbers of speakers of Bantu languages and English-speaking South Africans also speak it as their second language. It is taught in schools, with about 10.3 million second-language students and it, along with German, was among the official languages of Namibia until the country became independent in 1990, 25% of the population of Windhoek spoke Afrikaans at home. Both Afrikaans and German survive as recognised regional languages in the country, estimates of the total number of Afrikaans speakers range between 15 and 23 million. The Afrikaans language arose in the Dutch Cape Colony, through a gradual divergence from European Dutch dialects, there is a degree of mutual intelligibility between the two languages, particularly in written form. Nevertheless, Dutch speakers are confronted with fewer non-cognates when listening to Afrikaans than the way round. Mutual intelligibility thus tends to be asymmetrical, as it is easier for Dutch speakers to understand Afrikaans than for Afrikaans speakers to understand Dutch, in general, mutual intelligibility between Dutch and Afrikaans is better than between Dutch and Frisian or between Danish and Swedish. The workers and slaves who contributed to the development of Afrikaans were Asians and Malagasys, as well as the Khoi, San, and Bantu peoples who also lived in the area. African creole people in the early 18th century — documented on the cases of Hendrik Bibault, Only much later in the second half of the 19th century did the Boers adopt this attribution, too. The Khoi and mixed-race groups became collectively referred to as Coloureds, beginning in about 1815, Afrikaans started to replace Malay as the language of instruction in Muslim schools in South Africa, written with the Arabic alphabet, see Arabic Afrikaans. Later, Afrikaans, now written with the Latin alphabet, started to appear in newspapers and political, in 1925, Afrikaans was recognised by the South African government as a real language, rather than simply a slang version of Dutch proper. Before the Boer Wars, and indeed for some time afterwards, rather, Afrikaans was described derogatorily as ‘a kitchen language’ or as ‘a bastard jargon, suitable for communication mainly between the Boers and their servants
Afrikaans
–
Slogan in front of the Afrikaans Language Monument, near Paarl, South Africa. Loosely translated, it reads "This we care about/This is important to us", or, literally, "This is our seriousness".
Afrikaans
–
Regions shaded dark blue represent areas of concentrated Afrikaans-speaking communities
Afrikaans
–
Side view of the Pretoria Art Museum in Arcadia, Pretoria, with Afrikaans language sign.
Afrikaans
–
Sign in Afrikaans: "Gevaar Slagysters" or "Warning (danger), Traps"
18.
Tulbagh
–
Tulbagh, named after Dutch Cape Colony Governor Ryk Tulbagh, is a town located in the Land van Waveren mountain basin, in the Winelands of the Western Cape, South Africa. The basin is fringed on three sides by mountains, and is drained by the Klein Berg river and its tributaries, the basin has been inhabited for thousands of years by indigenous Bushmen and Khoi peoples. The region was named Land van Waveren in 1699 by Willem Adriaan van der Stel in honour of the Oetgens van Waveren family, before this date, but also subsequent to it, the region had also been known as Roodezand. The region corresponds to the present Tulbagh district, named after Governor Ryk Tulbagh, in September 1969 the Boland area was hit by an earthquake that caused considerable damage to the town of Tulbagh. Many of the Church Street buildings were destroyed, everything appeared to be in total and irreparable ruin. After the disaster in Church Street extensive projects of restoration began with the National Committee for the Restoration of Historic Buildings in Tulbagh and its Environment. The bowl is surrounded by the Obiqua Mountains to the west, Winterhoek Mountain to the north, the basin experiences a type of Mediterranean climate. The southern side is open to cooling south-east winds during the hot summer months, the Groot Winterhoek Mountains are part of the Cape Fold Belt. They rise to a height of 2,077 metres just north of the town of Tulbagh as Groot Winterhoek peak. The Groot Winterhoek Wilderness Area, operated by CapeNature, comprises an area of 30,608 ha. Many animals, such as baboons, bat-eared foxes, lynxes, and smaller species of antelope, live in parts of the valley, baboons are a common sight on the pass. The Witzenberg Valley is home to a variety of birds, including the Cape sugarbird. The most conspicuous components of the flora are evergreen plants, many with ericoid leaves and gracile habit. Several plant families are conspicuous in fynbos, the Proteaceae are prominent, with such as Protea, Leucospermum. Proteas are represented by species and are prominent in the landscape, generally with large striking flowers, many of which are pollinated by birds. Tulbagh hosts various events every year, Tulbagh has also previously hosted the Absa Cape Epic mountain bike stage race. Wine has been produced for years in the basin on a commercial scale. There are now numerous wine estates in and around the town, many new vineyards have been planted and more private cellars are either being planned or built to cope with the expected production volumes of quality wines
Tulbagh
–
Tulbagh, Western Cape
Tulbagh
Tulbagh
–
The historic vineyard Montpellier near Tulbagh
Tulbagh
–
Red
wine maturing in
oak barrels
19.
Missionaries
–
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to proselytize and/or perform ministries of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The word mission originates from 1598 when the Jesuits sent members abroad, derived from the Latin missionem, meaning act of sending or mittere, meaning to send. The word was used in light of its usage, in the Latin translation of the Bible. The term is most commonly used for Christian missions, but can be used for any creed or ideology, a Christian missionary can be defined as one who is to witness across cultures. The Lausanne Congress of 1974, defined the term, related to Christian mission as, Missionaries can be found in many countries around the world. Jesus instructed the apostles to make disciples of all nations and this verse is referred to by Christian missionaries as the Great Commission and inspires missionary work. The New Testament-era missionary outreach of the Christian church from the time of St Paul expanded throughout the Roman Empire and beyond to Persia, in 596, Pope Gregory the Great sent the Gregorian Mission into England. In their turn, Christians from Ireland and from Britain became prominent in converting the inhabitants of central Europe, about the same time, missionaries such as Francis Xavier as well as other Jesuits, Augustinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans started moving into Asia and the Far East. The Portuguese sent missions into Africa and these are some of the most well-known missions in history. While some missions accompanied imperialism and oppression, others were relatively peaceful, contemporary Christian missionaries argue that working for justice forms a constitutive part of preaching the Gospel, and observe the principles of inculturation in their missionary work. Over time, the Vatican gradually established a church structure in the mission areas, often starting with special jurisdictions known as apostolic prefectures. The two 9th-century saints Cyril and Methodius had extensive success in central Europe. The Byzantines expanded their work in Ukraine after a mass baptism in Kiev in 988. The Serbian Orthodox Church had its origins in the conversion by Byzantine missionaries of the Serb tribes when they arrived in the Balkans in the 7th century, Orthodox missionaries also worked successfully among the Estonians from the 10th to the 12th centuries, founding the Estonian Orthodox Church. The Russian St. Nicholas of Japan took Eastern Orthodoxy to Japan in the 19th century, the Russian Orthodox Church also sent missionaries to Alaska beginning in the 18th century, including Saint Herman of Alaska, to minister to the Native Americans. Quaker publishers of truth visited Boston and other mid-17th century colonies, the Danish government began the first organized Protestant mission work through its College of Missions, established in 1714. This funded and directed Lutheran missionaries such as Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg in Tranquebar, India and he also got to know a slave from the Danish colony in the West Indies. Within thirty years, Moravian missionaries had become active on every continent, and they are famous for their selfless work, living as slaves among the slaves and together with the Native Americans, the Delaware and Cherokee Indian tribes
Missionaries
–
Village of Christianized Tapuyos Indians,
Brazil c. 1820
Missionaries
–
English missionary
John Williams, active in the
South Pacific
Missionaries
–
Jesuits who were martyred by the
Araucanian Indians in Elicura in 1612
Missionaries
–
The first recorded baptism in
Alta California.
20.
Carl Hugo Hahn
–
Carl Hugo Hahn was a German missionary and linguist who worked in South Africa and South-West Africa for most of his life. Together with Franz Heinrich Kleinschmidt he set up the first Rhenish mission station to the Herero people in Gross Barmen, Hahn is known for his scientific work on the Herero language. Hahn was born into a family on 18 October 1818 in Aahof near Riga. He studied Engineering at the Engineering School of the Russian Army from 1834 onwards but was not satisfied with that choice and, more generally, in 1837 he left Ādaži for Barmen to apply at the missionary school of the Rhenish Missionary Society. He was admitted to the Missionary School in Elberfeld in 1838, Hahn arrived in Cape Town on 13 October 1841. His orders were to bring Christianity to the Nama and the Herero in South-West Africa—not an easy task considering that both tribes were enemies at that time and he travelled to Windhoek in 1842 and was well received by Jonker Afrikaner, Captain of the Orlam Afrikaner tribe residing there. Hahn and Kleinschmidt arrived at Otjikango on 31 October 1844 and they named the place Barmen after the headquarters of the Rhenish Missionary Society in Germany and established the first Rhenish mission station to the Herero there. At that time Jonker Afrikaner oversaw the development of the network in South-West Africa. Hahn and Kleinschmidt initiated the creation of a path from Windhoek to Barmen via Okahandja and this route served as an important trade connection between the coast and Windhoek until the end of the century. He returned with the order to evangelize the people in Ovamboland but his expedition to the Ovambo in 1857 ended in a disaster, moreover, Gross Barmen was almost destroyed by then due to the skirmishes between Namas and Hereros. After the Herero defeated the Nama on many occasions, missionary work was continued, Hahn moved westwards to Otjimbingwe in 1863 and established a missionary station and a theological seminary there to educate indigenous missionaries. Five years later, an attack by the Nama ended his successful project. The Herero fled the settlement and gave up their Christian affiliations, in 1870 Hahn brokered a ten-year peace deal between Nama and Herero and convinced the Finnish Missionary Society to take over missionary work in Ovamboland. When the Rhenish Missionary Society began trading for profit and colonising, Hahn severed his ties with them in 1872, for the next twelve years, Hahn served as pastor of the German Lutheran congregation in Cape Town. From 1882 until his retirement in 1884 he was the Cape Governments Special Commissioner for the Walwich Bay Territory, while in Gross Barmen, Hahn learned to speak Otjiherero and translated the New Testament and other religious texts into the language of the natives. He also drafted a grammar of Otjiherero and published its first dictionary, Carl Hugo Hahn married his wife Emma on 3 October 1843. They had one daughter and three sons, after his retirement in 1884, Hahn visited his daughter Margaritha in the United States, and later lived with his son Carl Hugo Hahn in Paarl, South Africa. He died in Cape Town on 24 November 1895 and is buried at St. Petri in Paarl, grundzüge der Grammatik des Herero nebst einem Wörterbuch
Carl Hugo Hahn
–
Carl Hugo Hahn
21.
Franz Heinrich Kleinschmidt
–
Franz Heinrich Kleinschmidt was a German missionary and linguist who worked in southern Africa, now in the region of Namibia. He founded the station and town of Rehoboth and together with Carl Hugo Hahn set up the first Rhenish mission station to the Herero people in Gross Barmen. Kleinschmidt is known for his work on the Nama language. Kleinschmidt was born on 25 October 1812 in the village of Blasheim, today a suburb of Lübbecke and he was a trained carpenter and blacksmith. Kleinschmidt became a missionary with the Rhenish Missionary Society, which sent him to Southwestern Africa in response to the request of Jonker Afrikaner and he arrived in Windhoek in October 1842. Hahn and Kleinschmidt arrived at Otjikango on 31 October 1844 and they named the place Barmen after the headquarters of the Rhenish Missionary Society which was located in Barmen, Germany, and established the first Rhenish mission station to the Herero there. At that time Jonker Afrikaner oversaw the development of the network in South-West Africa. Hahn and Kleinschmidt initiated the creation of a path from Windhoek to Barmen via Okahandja and this route served as an important trade connection between the coast and Windhoek until the end of the century. Together with the missionary Vollmer he translated the Bible into this language in 1853, in August 1864 Oorlams attacked Rehoboth. Kleinschmidt fled to Otjimbingwe but died there of exhaustion on 2 September 1864 and he was married to Hanna née Schmelen, daughter of his colleague Heinrich Schmelen. Südwestafrikas Geschichte bis zum Tode Mahareros 1890
Franz Heinrich Kleinschmidt
–
Grave Franz Heinrich Kleinschmidt in Otjimbingwe
22.
Wesleyans
–
Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their inspiration from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and Johns brother Charles Wesley were also significant leaders in the movement and it originated as a revival within the 18th century Church of England and became a separate Church after Wesleys death. Because of vigorous missionary work, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, Wesleys theology focused on sanctification and the effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing Methodist doctrines include an assurance of salvation, imparted righteousness, the possibility of perfection in love, the works of piety and the primacy of Scripture. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all, in theology and this teaching rejects the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several others were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the latter position, Methodism emphasises charity and support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens and schools to follow Christs command to spread the gospel, the movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church. In Britain, the Methodist Church had an effect in the early decades of the making of the working class. In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition. The Methodist revival began with a group of men, including John Wesley and his younger brother Charles, the Wesley brothers founded the Holy Club at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick, the fellowship were branded as Methodist by their fellow students because of the way they used rule and method to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery, unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church, at a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his heart strangely warmed. Charles had reported an experience an few days previously. Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield, Howell Harris, and Selina Hastings, George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade
Wesleyans
–
Wesley's Chapel in
London, with a statue of
John Wesley in the foreground.
Wesleyans
–
John Wesley
Wesleyans
–
Charles Wesley
Wesleyans
–
George Whitefield
23.
Nama people
–
Nama are an African ethnic group of South Africa, Namibia and Botswana. They traditionally speak the Nama language of the Khoe-Kwadi language family, the Nama are the largest group of the Khoikhoi people, most of whom have largely disappeared as a group, except for the Namas. Many of the Nama clans live in Central Namibia and the smaller groups live in Namaqualand. For thousands of years, the Khoisan peoples of South Africa and southern Namibia maintained a nomadic life, the Khoikhoi as pastoralists, the Nama are a Khoikhoi group. This was motivated by the German desire to establish a colony which required displacing the indigenous people from their agricultural land. Large herds of cattle were confiscated and Nama and Herero people were driven into the desert and in some cases interned in camps on the coast. Additionally, the Nama and Herero were forced into slave labour to build railways, in the 1920s diamonds were discovered at the mouth of the Orange River, and prospectors began moving there, establishing towns at Alexander Bay and Port Nolloth. This accelerated the appropriation of traditional lands that had begun early in the colonial period, under apartheid, remaining pastoralists were encouraged to abandon their traditional lifestyle in favour of village life. The Nama originally lived around the Orange River in southern Namibia, the early colonialists referred to them as Hottentots. Today, the Richtersveld National Park is one of the few places where the original Nama traditions survive, there, the Nama move with the seasons and speak their language. The traditional Nama dwelling – the |haru oms, or portable rush-mat covered domed hut – protects against the blistering sun, at the dawn of the 19th century, Oorlam people encroached into Namaqualand and Damaraland. They likewise descended from indigenous Khoikhoi but are a group who mixed with Europeans and with slaves from Madagascar, India, after two centuries of assimilation into the Nama culture, many Oorlams today regard Khoikhoigowab as their mother tongue, though others speak Afrikaans. The distinction between Namas and Oorlams has gradually disappeared over time to an extent where they are regarded as one ethnic group. Apart from Oorlam clans there are ten known sub-tribes, or clans and their names and tribal centres are, Khaiǁkhaun at Hoachanas, the main group and the oldest Nama clan in Namibia ǃGamiǂnun at Warmbad ǂAonin at Rooibank ǃGomen at Sesfontein ǃKharakhoen at Gochas. After being defeated by Imperial Germanys Schutztruppe in the Battle of Swartfontein on 15 January 1905, part of the ǃKharakhoen fled to Lokgwabe, Botswana, and stayed there permanently, the part that remained on South West African soil relocated their tribal centre to Amper-Bo. In 2016 David Hanse was inaugurated as chief of the clan, in general the Nama practice a policy of communal land ownership. Music, poetry and story telling are very important in Nama culture, the Nama have a culture that is rich in the musical and literary abilities of its people. Traditional music, folk tales, proverbs, and praise poetry have been handed down for generations and they are known for crafts which include leatherwork, skin karosses and mats, musical instruments, jewellery, clay pots, and tortoiseshell powder containers
Nama people
–
A Nama man of
Namibia.
Nama people
–
Nama group in front of a hut.
Nama people
–
Chief Hendrik Witbooi (centre) and his companions
Nama people
–
Nama huts.
24.
Herero people
–
The Herero are an ethnic group inhabiting parts of Southern Africa. The majority reside in Namibia, with the found in Botswana. There were an estimated 250,000 Herero people in Namibia in 2013 and they speak the Herero language, a Bantu language. Unlike most Bantu, who are primarily farmers, the Herero are traditionally pastoralists. They make a living tending livestock, cattle terminology in use among many Bantu pastoralist groups testifies that Bantu herders originally acquired cattle from Cushitic pastoralists inhabiting Eastern Africa. After the Bantu settled in Eastern Africa, some Bantu tribes spread south, the Herero claim to comprise several sub-divisions, including the Himba, Tjimba, Mbanderu, and Kwandu. Groups in Angola include the Mucubal Kuvale, Zemba, Hakawona, Tjavikwa, Tjimba and Himba, however, the Tjimba, though they speak Herero, are physically distinct indigenous hunter-gatherers. It may be in the Hereros interest to portray indigenous peoples as impoverished Herero who do not own livestock, during the 17th and 18th centuries, the Herero migrated to what is today Namibia from the east and established themselves as herdsmen. In the beginning of the 19th century, the Nama from South Africa, at first, the Nama began displacing the Herero, leading to bitter warfare between the two groups, which lasted the greater part of the 19th century. Later the two entered into a period of cultural exchange. During the late 19th century, the first Europeans began entering to permanently settle the land, primarily in Damaraland, German settlers acquired land from the Herero in order to establish farms. In 1883, the merchant Franz Adolf Eduard Lüderitz entered into a contract with the native elders, the exchange later became the basis of German colonial rule. The territory became a German colony under the name of German South West Africa, soon after, conflicts between the German colonists and the Herero herdsmen began. Controversies frequently arose because of disputes about access to land and water, in the late 19th and early 20th century, imperialism and colonialism in Africa peaked, affecting especially the Hereros and the Namas. European powers were seeking trade routes and railways, as well as more colonies, Germany officially claimed their stake in a South African colony in 1884, calling it German South West Africa until it was taken over in 1915. The first German colonists arrived in 1892, and conflict with the indigenous Herero, as in many cases of colonization, the indigenous people were not treated fairly. Between 1893 and 1903, the Herero and Nama peoples land as well as their cattle were progressively making their way into the hands of the German colonists, the Herero and Nama resisted expropriation over the years, but they were unorganized and the Germans defeated them with ease. In 1903, the Herero people learned that they were to be placed in reservations, leaving room for colonists to own land
Herero people
–
Three Herero women.
Herero people
–
Herero woman
Herero people
–
Herero, at the end of the 19th century
Herero people
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Tree in Otjinene Koviunda where many Herero people are said to have been hanged.
25.
Botanist
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Botany, also called plant science, plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field, the term botany comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη meaning pasture, grass, or fodder, βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν, to feed or to graze. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance and they were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden and these gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, in the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science, dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties, many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10,000 years ago. This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee, the early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC, in archaic Avestan writings. His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to science until the Middle Ages. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years, important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyyas Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarīs the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassals The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner and these gardens continued the practical value of earlier physic gardens, often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject, lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe, the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621, throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine. German physician Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three German fathers of botany, along with theologian Otto Brunfels and physician Hieronymus Bock, Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification, physician Valerius Cordus authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner and herbalist John Gerard published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants, naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants
Botanist
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The fruit of
Myristica fragrans, a species native to
Indonesia, is the source of two valuable spices, the red aril (
mace) enclosing the dark brown
nutmeg.
Botanist
–
The
Linnaean Garden of Linnaeus' residence in Uppsala, Sweden, was planted according to his Systema sexuale.
Botanist
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Micropropagation of transgenic plants
Botanist
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Biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher
26.
Jackals
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Jackals are medium-sized omnivorous mammals of the genus Canis, which also includes wolves and the domestic dog. Jackals and coyotes are opportunistic omnivores, predators of small- to medium-sized animals, Jackals are crepuscular, most active at dawn and dusk. The territory may be enough to hold some young adults. Jackals may occasionally assemble in small packs, for example, to scavenge a carcass, the English word jackal derives from Persian شغال shoghāl, cognate with Sanskrit सृगालः / sṛgālaḥ. The taxonomy of the jackals has evolved with scientific understanding about how they are related on the family tree. In practice, Cabrera chose the alternative and referred to the jackals as Canis instead of Thos. Okens Thos theory was revived in 1914 by Edmund Heller, who embraced the separate genus theory, hellers names and the designations he gave to various jackal species and subspecies live on in current taxonomy, although the genus has been changed from Thos to Canis. Modern research has clarified the relationships among the jackal species, despite their similarities, jackals do not all stem from the same branch on the canid family tree. Because of this deep divergence between the black-backed/side-striped jackal and the jackal, it has been proposed to change the two species generic name from Canis to Lupulella. Experiments in Germany with breeding poodles and golden jackals have produced hybrids, in Russia, golden jackals are one of the founder breeds of the Sulimov dog, a working dog owned exclusively by Aeroflot and used for bomb detection in airport security. Like foxes and coyotes, jackals are often depicted as clever sorcerers in the myths, anubis is the Greek name for a jackal-headed god associated with mummification and the afterlife in ancient Egyptian religion. The jackal is mentioned approximately 14 times in the Bible and it is called wild dog in several translations of the Bible. Serer religion and creation myth posits the jackal was among the first animals created by Roog, pablo Nerudas poem I Explain a Few Things describes Francisco Franco and his allies as. Jackals that the jackal would drive off. In Rudyard Kiplings collection of stories The Jungle Book, the mad cowardly jackal Tabaqui feasts on the scraps of Shere Khan, in the King James translation of the Bible, Isaiah 13,21 refers to doleful creatures, which some commentators suggest are either jackals or hyenas. Literature in India and Pakistan compares jackal with lion in terms of courage, a famous saying is One day life of a lion is better than a hundred years life of a jackal. Multiple jackals are featured throughout the Swiss Family Robinson. The New Encyclopedia of Mammals edited by David Macdonald, Oxford University Press,2001, ISBN 0-19-850823-9 Cry of the Kalahari, by Mark and Delia Owens, the Velvet Claw, A Natural History of the Carnivores, by David MacDonald, BBC Books,1992. Foxes, Wolves, and Wild Dogs of the World, by David Alderton, Jackal at the African Wildlife Foundation Jackals at A-Z Animals Jackals of the African Crater at PBS. org Jackal is a meaningless term
Jackals
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Jackal
Jackals
Jackals
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The golden jackal is more closely related to wolves and coyotes than to other jackal species
Jackals
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Golden jackal Canis aureus
27.
Guinea fowl
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Guineafowl are birds of the family Numididae in the order Galliformes. They are endemic to the continent of Africa and rank among the oldest of the gallinaceous birds and they are phylogenetically intermediate between peafowl and the Odontophoridae. One Eocene fossil lineage, Telecrex, is represented by the black guineafowl, while modern guineafowl species are endemic to Africa, the helmeted guineafowl has been introduced widely elsewhere. This is a list of species, presented in taxonomic order. Most species of guineafowl have a grey or blackish plumage with dense white spots. While several species are well known, the plumed guineafowl. These large birds measure from 40–71 cm in length, and weigh 700–1600 grams or 1. 5-3.5 pounds, all guineafowl are social, and typically live in small groups or large flocks. Guineafowl travel behind herd animals and beneath monkey troops where they forage within manure, Guineafowl play a pivotal role in the control of ticks, flies, locusts, scorpions and other invertebrates. They pluck maggots from carcasses and manure, wild guineafowl are, without exception, strong fliers. Their breast muscles are dark, enabling them to themselves in flight for considerable distances if hard-pressed. Grass and bush fires are a constant threat to these galliformes, some species of guineafowl, like the vulturine, may go without drinking water for extended periods, instead sourcing their moisture from their food. Young guineafowl are very sensitive to weather, in cold temperatures. They live in habitats such as savanna or semideserts, while some, such as the black guineafowl. The helmeted guinea fowl has been introduced in East Africa, the West Indies, the United States, Britain, and India, Guineafowl meat is drier and leaner than chicken meat and has a gamey flavour. It has marginally more protein than chicken or turkey, roughly half the fat of chicken, Guineafowl eggs are substantially richer than chicken eggs. Madge and McGowan, Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse, family Numididae, p. 554–570 in, del Hoyo, J. Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol.2, ISBN 84-87334-15-6 Guineafowl videos on the Internet Bird Collection SPPA article on Guinea Fowl Early Birds, Guinea Fowl by Dennis Headley
Guinea fowl
–
Guineafowl
Guinea fowl
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Feather of a guineafowl
Guinea fowl
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Crested guineafowl in
South Africa
Guinea fowl
–
Head of a
vulturine guineafowl
28.
Walvis Bay
–
Walvis Bay is a city in Namibia and the name of the bay on which it lies. The town has 100,000 inhabitants and covers a area of 29 square kilometres of land. The bay is a haven for sea vessels because of its natural deepwater harbour, protected by the Pelican Point sand spit. Being rich in plankton and marine life, these also drew large numbers of southern right whales, attracting whalers. The Dutch referred to it as Walvisch Baye and the English as Whale Bay, in its eventual formal incorporation, it was named Walfish Bay, which was changed to Walvish Bay, and ultimately to Walvis Bay. It has also referred to as Walwich Bay or Walwisch Bay. The Herero people of the area called it Ezorongondo, a succession of colonists developed the location and resources of this strategic harbour settlement. The harbours value in relation to the sea route around the Cape of Good Hope had caught the attention of world powers since it was discovered by the world in 1485. This explains the political status of Walvis Bay down the years. The town is situated just north of the Tropic of Capricorn in the Kuiseb River delta and lies at the end of the TransNamib Railway to Windhoek, Walvis Bay, with its large bay and sand dunes, is an important centre of tourism activity in Namibia. Attractions include the artificial Bird Island, centre of a guano collection industry, the Dune 7 sand dune, the works, the abundant birdlife. Kuisebmund Stadium, home to two clubs in the Namibia Premier League, is located in the city. The beach resort of Langstrand lies just a few kilometres north, the Walvis Bay Export Processing Zone is an important facet of the local economy. Portuguese navigator Diogo Cão reached Cape Cross, north of the bay, in 1485. There followed Bartolomeu Dias, who anchored his flagship São Cristóvão in what is now Walvis Bay on 8 December 1487 and he named the bay O Golfo de Santa Maria da Conceição. However, the Portuguese did not formally stake a claim to Walvis Bay, little commercial development occurred on the site until the late 19th century. During the scramble for Africa, the British Empire occupied Walvis Bay with an area surrounding the territory. They permitted the Cape Colony to complete the annexation of the territory in 1884, in 1910, Walvis Bay, as part of the Cape Colony, became part of the newly formed Union of South Africa
Walvis Bay
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Aerial photo of the harbour area
Walvis Bay
–
Seal
Walvis Bay
–
Map showing location of Walvis Bay and reference to South Africa before the handover to
Namibia
Walvis Bay
–
Walvis Bay church
Namibia
Windhuk (help·info); Khoekhoe: ǀAiǁgams; Otjiherero: Otjomuise) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Namibia. It is located in central Namibia in the Khomas Highland plateau area, at around 1,700 metres (5,600 ft) above sea level, almost exactly at the country's geographical centre. The population of Windhoek in 2011 was 325,858, growing continually due to an influx from all over Namibia.
![[icon]](/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}
Shanghai, since 1 June 1996
Richmond, since 20 March 1998
Wetzlar
Douala, since 31 August 2000
Harare, since 8. November 2000
Johannesburg[59]
Gaborone, since 23 August 2001
Havana, since 23 October 2001
Eenhana, since 17 April 2002
Vantaa, since 13 August 2002
European Union (Delegation)
