1.
Barque
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A barque, barc, or bark is a type of sailing vessel with three or more masts having the fore- and mainmasts rigged square and only the mizzen rigged fore-and-aft. The word barque entered English via French, which in came from the Latin barca by way of Occitan. The Latin barca may stem from Celtic barc or Greek baris, the Oxford English Dictionary considers the latter improbable. The word barc appears to have come from Celtic languages, the form adopted by English, perhaps from Irish, was bark, while that adopted by Latin as barca very early, which gave rise to the French barge and barque. In Latin, Spanish and Italian the term refers to a small boat. French influence in England led to the use in English of both words, although their meanings now are not the same, well before the 19th century a barge had become interpreted as a small vessel of coastal or inland waters. Somewhat later, a became a sailing vessel of a distinctive rig as detailed below. In Britain, by the century, the spelling had taken on the French form of barque. Francis Bacon used this form of the word as early as 1592, throughout the period of sail, the word was used also as a shortening of the barca-longa of the Mediterranean Sea. The usual convention is that spelling barque refers to a ship and bark to tree hide, barcarole in music shares the same etymology, being originally a folk song sung by Venetian gondolier and derived from barca - boat in Italian. In the 18th century, the British Royal Navy used the bark for a nondescript vessel that did not fit any of its usual categories. She happened to be a sailing vessel with a plain bluff bow. Our Northern Mariners, who are trained in the coal-trade, apply this distinction to a broad-sterned ship, hon. the Earl of Sussex, Lord Deputy of Ireland. By the end of the 18th century, the term came to refer to any vessel with a particular type of sail-plan. This comprises three masts, fore-and-aft sails on the aftermost mast and square sails on all other masts, barques were the workhorse of the Golden Age of Sail in the mid-19th century as they attained passages that nearly matched full rigged ships but could operate with smaller crews. Conversely, the ship rig tended to be retained for training vessels where the larger the crew, another advantage is that a barque can outperform a schooner or barkentine, and is both easier to handle and better at going to windward than a full-rigged ship. Usually the main mast was the tallest, that of Moshulu extends to 58 m off the deck, the four-masted barque can be handled with a surprisingly small crew—at minimum, ten—and while the usual crew was around thirty, almost half of them could be apprentices. Today many sailing ships are barques
2.
Herzogin Cecilie
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Herzogin Cecilie was a German-built four-mast barque, named after German Crown Princess Duchess Cecilie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, spouse of Crown Prince Wilhelm of Prussia. She sailed under German, French and Finnish flags, Herzogin Cecilie was built in 1902 by Rickmers Schiffbau AG in Bremerhaven. She was yard number 122 and was launched on 22 April 1902, completion was on 7 June that year. She was 334 feet 8 inches long, with a breadth of 46 feet 3 inches, Herzogin Cecilie was built for Norddeutscher Lloyd Bremen. Unlike other contemporary German merchant sailing ships, the black Flying-P-Liners or the ships of Rickmers. She was one of the fastest windjammers ever built, she logged 21 knots at Skagen, both routes required rounding Cape Horn routinely, and were not well suited for steamers, as coal was in short supply there. Herzogin Cecilie was one of the fastest merchant sailing ships of her time, the trip around Cape Horn from Portland to The Lizard was done in 1903 in only 106 days. At the outbreak of World War I, she was interned by Chile, returning to Germany in 1920, only to be given to France as reparation, as the freight rates for salpeter had dropped after the war, Gustaf Erikson sent her to bring grain from Australia. In so-called grain races, several ships tried to arrive first in Europe, to sell their cargo for a higher price, as told, for example. The ship also passed by Queensland where she was photographed, after winning four times prior to 1921, she again won the grain race four times in eleven trips from 1926 to 1936. In 1927, when Herzogin Cecilie covered Port Lincoln –Falmouth, London and won a race against the Swedish ship Beatrice. After parts of the cargo were unloaded, she was floating again, only to be towed in June 1936 to Starhole Bay at the mouth of the nearby Kingsbridge Estuary near Salcombe, on 18 January 1939, the ship capsized and sank. The remains of the ship sit at a depth of 7 metres at 50°12. 82′N 3°47. 02′W. The timber and brass portholes from the room were salvaged and used to construct a small room in the Cottage Hotel at Hope Cove. The room contains photographs and press cuttings of the wreck. There is also a collection of items from the ship in a museum at Sven Erikssons family home at Pellas, in Lemland. The ship and her last voyage was memorialized in a folksong by Ken Stephens, Official Numbers were a forerunner to IMO Numbers. Herzogin Cecilie had the Finnish Official Number 703 and used the Code Letters TPMK, the Tall Ships Races Peter Pedersen and Joseph Conrad
3.
Sailing ship
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A modern sailing ship or sailship is any large wind-powered vessel. Traditionally a sailing ship is a vessel that carries three or more masts with square sails on each. Large sailing vessels that are not ship-rigged may be more referred to by their sail rig, such as schooner, barque, brig. There are many different types of sailing ships, but they all have certain basic things in common, every sailing ship has a hull, rigging and at least one mast to hold up the sails that use the wind to power the ship. The crew who sail a ship are called sailors or hands and they take turns to take the watch, the active managers of the ship and her performance for a period. Watches are traditionally four hours long, some sailing ships use traditional ships bells to tell the time and regulate the watch system, with the bell being rung once for every half hour into the watch and rung eight times at watch end. A severe storm could lead to shipwreck, and the loss of all hands, Sailing ships are limited in their maximum size compared to ships with heat engines, so economies of scale are also limited. The heaviest sailing ships never exceeded 14,000 tons displacement, there are many types of sailing ships, mostly distinguished by their rigging, hull, keel, or number and configuration of masts. There are also types of smaller sailboats not listed here. The steam power was used to drive the winches, hoists, a similar ship Kruzenshtern, a very large sailing vessel without mechanical assists, had a crew of 257 men, compared to the Preussen, which required only 48 men. In 2006, automated control had been taken to the point where sails could be operated by one using a central control unit. The DynaRig technology was first developed in the 1960s in Germany by W. Prolls as an alternative for commercial ships to prepare for a possible future energy crisis. The technology is a version of the same type of sail used by the Preussen. The main difference is that the yards do not swing around a fixed mast but are attached to a rotating mast. DynaRig along with extensive computerization was used in the proof-of-concept Maltese Falcon to enable it to be sailed with no crew aloft, as of 2013, with increasing restrictions on use of bunker fuel, attempts were underway to develop hybrid sailing ships using automated sail and alternative fuels. Tall ship Rigging Sail-plan List of large sailing vessels Cruising Shipbuilding, the History of a Ship from Her Cradle to Her Grave, With a Short Account of Modern Steamships and Torpedoes. The sailing-ship, six years of history. Media related to Sailing ships at Wikimedia Commons
4.
Mast (sailing)
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The mast of a sailing vessel is a tall spar, or arrangement of spars, erected more or less vertically on the centre-line of a ship or boat. Its purposes include carrying sail, spars, and derricks, and giving necessary height to a light, look-out position, signal yard, control position. Large ships have several masts, with the size and configuration depending on the style of ship, nearly all sailing masts are guyed. Until the mid-19th century all vessels masts were made of wood formed from a single or several pieces of timber which typically consisted of the trunk of a conifer tree. From the 16th century, vessels were built of a size requiring masts taller and thicker than could be made from single tree trunks. On these larger vessels, to achieve the height, the masts were built from up to four sections, known in order of rising height above the decks as the lower, top, topgallant. Giving the lower sections sufficient thickness necessitated building them up separate pieces of wood. Such a section was known as a made mast, as opposed to sections formed from pieces of timber. Jigger-mast, typically, where it is the shortest, the aftmost mast on vessels with more than three masts. On a two-masted vessel with the main-mast forward and a smaller second mast, such as a ketch, or particularly a yawl. Although two-masted schooners may be provided with masts of identical size, the aftmost is still referred to as the main-mast, schooners have been built with up to seven masts in all, with several six-masted examples. On square-rigged vessels, each mast carries several horizontal yards from which the sails are rigged. A two-masted merchant vessel with a sizable foresail rigged on a slightly inclined foremast is depicted in an Etruscan tomb painting from 475–450 BC. While most of the ancient evidence is iconographic, the existence of foremasts can also be deduced archaeologically from slots in foremast-feets located too close to the prow for a mainsail. Artemon, along with mainsail and topsail, developed into the rig of seagoing vessels in imperial times. The imperial grain freighters travelling the routes between Alexandria and Rome also included three-masted vessels, a mosaic in Ostia depicts a freighter with a three-masted rig entering Romes harbour. Special craft could carry many more masts, Theophrastus records how the Romans imported Corsican timber by way of a raft propelled by as many as fifty masts. Throughout antiquity, both foresail and mizzen remained secondary in terms of size, although large enough to require full running rigging
5.
Square rig
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These spars are called yards and their tips, beyond the last stay, are called the yardarms. A ship mainly so rigged is called a square-rigger, the square rig is aerodynamically the most efficient running rig, and stayed popular on ocean-going sailing ships until the end of the Age of Sail. The last commercial sailing ships, windjammers, were usually square-rigged four-masted barques, square-rigged masts may also have triangular staysails that are deployed fore-and-aft between masts. Square-rigged is also used for the uniform of a rating in the Royal Navy since 1857 and it is slang and refers to anyone wearing the famous blue square collar on the shoulders and bell-bottomed trousers. The name perhaps reflects the fact that it was men who managed the square-rigged sails. The peaked cap worn by Senior Ratings and Officers is known colloquially as fore-and-aft rig. A mast is considered square-rigged if its lowest sail or course is square-rigged, if the course is fore-and-aft, square topsails can still be carried in front of the mast. In their heyday, square-rigged vessels ranged in size from small boats to full rigged ships, but this rig fell from favour to fore-and-aft gaff rigs and bermuda rigs after the development of steam power and new materials. Ocean-going sailing ships stayed mostly square-rigged, Square rigs allowed the fitting of many small sails to create a large total sail area to drive large ships. 18th century warships would often achieve speeds of 12–13 knots. Some clipper ships that had square rigs and for speed was critical could be much faster. The late windjammers were as fast as the clippers, being much bigger, not only could a smaller sail be managed by a smaller crew but also these smaller sails constrained the impact of weapons on them. A hole from a cannonball affected only one area, whilst a hole in a large sail would eventually tear the whole larger area. This reduced running costs and also enlarged the space available in the ship for profitable cargoes, new materials also changed sail designs, particularly on hybrid vessels carrying some square-rigged sails. The low aspect ratio of square-rigged sails produces much drag for the lift produced, so they have poor performance to windward compared to modern yachts, the Bermuda rig is the undisputed champion of windward performance in soft sails, due to its very low drag and high lift-to-drag ratio. One advantage of square rigs is that they are efficient when running, where the high lift to drag is irrelevant. Square-rigged sails are also prone to broaching when running than Bermuda rigs. Ocean-going vessels take advantage of e. g. the trade winds, on a square-rigged mast the sails had names which indicated their vertical position on the mast
6.
Guano
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Guano is the accumulated excrement of seabirds, seals, or cave-dwelling bats. As a manure, guano is an effective fertilizer due to its exceptionally high content of nitrogen, phosphate and potassium. During the twentieth century, guano-producing birds became an important target of conservation programs, today, guano is increasingly sought after by organic farmers. Seabird guano consists of nitrogen-rich ammonium oxalate and urate, phosphates, as well as some earth salts, the word guano originates from the Andean indigenous language Quechua, which refers to any form of dung used as an agricultural fertilizer. Archaeological evidence suggests that Andean people have collected guano from small islands, spanish colonial documents suggest that the rulers of the Inca Empire assigned great value to guano, restricted access to it, and punished any disturbance of the birds with death. The Guanay cormorant has historically been the most abundant and important producer of guano, other important guano producing species off the coast of Peru are the Peruvian pelican and the Peruvian booby. At that time, massive deposits of guano existed on some islands, in this context the United States passed the Guano Islands Act in 1856, which gave U. S. citizens discovering a source of guano on an unclaimed island exclusive rights to the deposits. Nine of these islands are still officially U. S. territories, control over guano played a central role in the Chincha Islands War between Spain and a Peruvian-Chilean alliance. Indentured workers from China played an important role in guano harvest, the first group of 79 Chinese workers arrived in Peru in 1849, by the time that trade ended a quarter of a century later, over 100,000 of their fellow countrymen had been imported. There is no evidence that enslaved Pacific Islanders participated in guano mining. Between 1847 and 1873, there was a significant increase in Peruvian guano exports, after 1870, the use of Peruvian guano as a fertilizer was eclipsed by saltpeter in the form of caliche extraction from the interior of the Atacama Desert, not far from the guano areas. Since 1909, when the Peruvian government took over guano extraction for use by Peru farmers, South Africa independently developed its own guano industry based on sustained-yield production from marine birds during this period, as well. Both industries eventually collapsed due to pressure from overfishing, DNA testing has suggested that new potato varieties imported alongside Peruvian seabird guano in 1842 brought a virulent strain of potato blight that began the Irish Potato Famine. The ideal type of guano is found in dry climates. Post-depositional decomposition and ammonia volatilization of penguin guano also plays an important role in the evolution of ornithogenic sediments in the cold, Bat guano is usually mined in caves and this mining is associated with a corresponding loss of troglobytic biota and diminishing of biodiversity. Guano deposits support a variety of cave-adapted invertebrates that rely on bat feces as their sole source of nutrition. The greatest damage caused by mining to caves with extant guano deposits is to the bat colonies themselves, bats are highly vulnerable to regular disturbance to their roosts. Some species, such as Phyllonycteris aphylla, have low fat reserves, many species will drop pups when in panic, with subsequent death, leading to a steady reduction in population
7.
Training ship
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A training ship is a ship used to train students as sailors. The term is used for ships employed by navies to train future officers. Essentially there are two types, those used for training at sea and old hulks used to house classrooms, in the Sea Cadet Corps all Units use a ship prefix T. S. followed by the ships proper name. For example, the Fishguard Sea Cadets ships name is T. S. Skirmisher
8.
Museum ship
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A museum ship, also called a memorial ship, is a ship that has been preserved and converted into a museum open to the public for educational or memorial purposes. Some are also used for training and recruitment purposes, mostly for the number of museum ships that are still operational. Many, if not most, museum ships are also associated with a maritime museum, only a few survive, sometimes because of historical significance, but more often due to luck and circumstance. The restoration and maintenance of museum ships presents problems for historians who are asked for advice, for instance, the rigging of sailing ships has almost never survived, and so the rigging plan must be reconstructed from various sources. Studying the ships also allows historians to analyze how life on and operation of the ships took place, numerous scientific papers have been written on ship restoration and maintenance, and international conferences are held discussing the latest developments. Another consideration is the distinction between a museum ship, and a ship replica. As repairs accumulate over time, less and less of the ship is of the materials. Visitors without historical background are often unable to distinguish between a historical museum ship and a ship replica, which may serve solely as a tourist attraction. Typically the visitor enters via gangplank, wanders around on the deck, then goes below, usually using the original stairways, giving a sense of how the crew got around. The interior features restored but inactivated equipment, enhanced with mementos including old photographs, explanatory displays, pages from the logs, menus. Some add recorded sound effects, audio tours or video displays to enhance the experience, in some cases, the ships radio room has been brought back into use, with volunteers operating amateur radio equipment. Often, the callsign assigned is a variation on the identification of the ship. For example, the submarine USS Cobia, which had the call NBQV, is now on the air as NB9QV. The World War II submarine USS Pampanito, berthed at the San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park, had the wartime call NJVT and is now on the air as NJ6VT, in other cases, such as the USS Missouri, a distinctive call is used. This radio work not only helps restore part of the vessel, a number of the larger museum ships have begun to offer hosting for weddings, meetings, other events, and sleepovers, and on a few ships still seaworthy, cruises. In the United States, this includes the USS Constitutions annual turnaround, a place on the deck is by invitation or lottery only, and highly prized. Many consider the appeal of an interesting old vessel on the city waterfront strong enough that any port city should showcase one or more museum ships. This may even include building a ship at great expense
9.
Restaurant ship
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A floating restaurant is a vessel, usually a large steel barge, used as a restaurant on water. The Jumbo Kingdom at Aberdeen in Hong Kong is an example, sometimes retired ships are given a second lease on life as floating restaurants. The former car ferry New York, built in 1941, serves as DiMillos in Portland, another example is the train ferry Lansdowne, which served as a restaurant in Detroit. Plans for the Lansdowne to continue in this capacity on the Buffalo, New York waterfront came to naught, the Normac, the first Captain Johns restaurant, was moved to Port Dahousie as the floating cocktail lounge Big Kahuna and is now the Riverboat Mexican Grill. Binghamton Captain Johns Harbour Boat Restaurant - defunct M. V
10.
Cruise ship
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Transportation is not the only purpose of cruising, particularly on cruises that return passengers to their originating port, with the ports of call usually in a specified region of a continent. There are even cruises to nowhere or nowhere voyages where the ship makes 2–3 night round trips without any ports of call, by contrast, dedicated transport oriented ocean liners do line voyages and typically transport passengers from one point to another, rather than on round trips. The gradual evolution of passenger ship design from ocean liners to cruise ships has seen passenger cabins shifted from inside the hull to the superstructure with private verandas, the distinction between ocean liners and cruise ships has blurred, particularly with respect to deployment. Larger cruise ships have also engaged in longer trips such as transoceanic voyages which may not return to the port for months. Some former ocean liners operate as cruise ships, such as Marco Polo, the only dedicated transatlantic ocean liner in operation as a liner of December 2013 is Queen Mary 2 of the Cunard fleet. The industrys rapid growth has seen nine or more newly built ships catering to a North American clientele added every year since 2001, smaller markets, such as the Asia-Pacific region, are generally serviced by older ships. These are displaced by new ships in the growth areas. The worlds largest cruise ship is currently Royal Caribbean Internationals Harmony of the Seas beating her sister ships by about 2.15 meters, the birth of leisure cruising began with the formation of the Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation Company in 1822. The company started out as a line with routes between England and the Iberian Peninsula, adopting the name Peninsular Steam Navigation Company. It won its first contract to deliver mail in 1837, in 1840, it began mail delivery to Alexandria, Egypt, via Gibraltar and Malta. The company was incorporated by Royal Charter the same year, becoming the Peninsular, P&O first introduced passenger cruising services in 1844, advertising sea tours to destinations such as Gibraltar, Malta and Athens, sailing from Southampton. The forerunner of modern cruise holidays, these voyages were the first of their kind, the company later introduced round trips to destinations such as Alexandria and Constantinople. It underwent a period of expansion in the latter half of the 19th century, commissioning larger. Some sources mention Francesco I, flying the flag of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies and she was built in 1831 and sailed from Naples in early June 1833, preceded by an advertising campaign. The cruise ship was boarded by nobles, authorities, and royal princes from all over Europe, however, it was restricted to the aristocracy of Europe and was not a commercial endeavour. Christian Wilhelm Allers published an account of it as Backschisch. The first vessel built exclusively for cruising, was Prinzessin Victoria Luise of Germany, designed by Albert Ballin. The ship was completed in 1900, the practice of luxury cruising made steady inroads on the more established market for transatlantic crossings
11.
Moshulu
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Moshulu is a four-masted steel barque built by William Hamilton and Company on the River Clyde in Scotland in 1904. The largest remaining original windjammer, she is currently a floating restaurant docked in Penns Landing, Philadelphia, adjacent to the museum ships USS Olympia and USS Becuna. Constructed for G. H. J. Siemers & Co. to be used in the trade, at a cost of £36,000. Her first master was Captain Christian Schütt, followed by Captain Wolfgang H. G. Tönissen in 1908 who made a fast voyage from Newcastle, Australia, to Valparaíso with a cargo of coal in 31 days. On the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Kurt was sailed to Oregon under the command of Captain Tönissen, then laid up in Astoria until being seized when the United States entered the war in 1917. Between 1917 and 1920, Moshulu was owned by the U. S, shipping Board and carried wool and chrome between North America, Manila and Australia. From 1920 to 1935, Moshulu was in private hands based in San Francisco. From 1920 to 1922, it was owned by the Moshulu Navigation Co, San Francisco, in 1922, it was sold to James Tyson of San Francisco, and, in 1922, it was repurchased by Charles Nelson. The big four-masted barque ran in the trade along the U. S. west coast to Australia. In 1935, the Moshulu was bought for $12,000 by Gustaf Erikson, on 14 March 1935, when the contract was signed, Captain Gunnar Boman took over the ship and sailed it to Port Victoria. Gustaf Erikson had her operate in the trade from Australia to Europe. In 1937, John Albright sailed on her as a young seaman, during the period of Erikson ownership the working language of the ship was Swedish, even though it sailed under the Finnish flag. The ships home port at the time, Mariehamn, is in the Swedish-speaking Åland Islands of Finland, Moshulu arrived in Queenstown on June 10,1938, after 91 days at sea, winning the very last race of square-rigged sailing ships between Australia and Europe. The ship was seized by the Germans in 1940 when she returned to Kristiansand, Norway, again under the command of Captain Mikael Sjögren, the ships hull was sold to Trygve Sommerfeldt of Oslo. A few months later, the ship was transferred to Sweden to be used as a store in Stockholm from 1948 to 1952. Then she was sold to the German shipowner Heinz Schliewen, who wanted to put her back to use under the name Oplag as a merchant marine training ship carrying cargo. Schliewen already used the four-masted steel barques Pamir and Passat for that purpose, in 1953 Moshulu was sold to the Swedish Farmers State Union of Stockholm, and again it was used as a floating warehouse beginning on 16 November 1953. In 1961, the Finnish government bought the ship for 3,200 tons of Russian rye, she was towed to Naantali, a town near Turku, other sources have it that The Walt Disney Company bought the ship but soon transferred it to the American Specialty Restaurants Corporation
12.
Eric Newby
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George Eric Newby CBE MC was an English travel author. Newbys best known works include A Short Walk in the Hindu Kush, The Last Grain Race, Newby was born and grew up near Hammersmith Bridge, London, and was educated at St Pauls School. This voyage was described in The Last Grain Race and pictorially documented in Learning the Ropes. He served in the Black Watch and the Special Boat Section during World War Two and he was later awarded the Military Cross for his part in the raid. Newby was sent to a camp at Chieti a few miles inland from Pescara on the Adriatic coast and these experiences were described in his memoir Love and War in the Apennines, which focuses on how he was helped by ordinary Italians. A film, In Love and War, was made in 2001 based on the book, starring Callum Blue as Newby and he was free until January 1944, when he was recaptured. From 1964 to 1973, Newby was Travel Editor for The Observer newspaper and he was awarded a CBE in 1994 and the Lifetime Achievement Award of the British Guild of Travel Writers in 2001. His life and work was profiled in ITVs The South Bank Show in 1994 and he made travel films for the BBC, returning to Parma with his wife Wanda in The Travel Show and visiting one of his favourite cities, Istanbul. He died at age 86 in Guildford. and Harender Vasudeva, Eric Newby in British Travel Writers,19401997, Dictionary of Literary Biography, volume 204, edited by Barbara Brothers and Julia M
13.
Philadelphia
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In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland
14.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
15.
Industrial Revolution
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The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
16.
Displacement (ship)
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The displacement or displacement tonnage of a ship is the ships weight. The name reflects the fact that it is measured indirectly, by first calculating the volume of water displaced by the ship, by Archimedes principle, this is also the weight of the ship. Displacement should not be confused with other measurements of volume or capacity typically used for vessels such as net tonnage, gross tonnage. The process of determining a vessels displacement begins with measuring its draft This is accomplished by means of its draft marks, a merchant vessel has three matching sets, one mark each on the port and starboard sides forward, midships, and astern. These marks allow a ships displacement to be determined to an accuracy of 0. 5%, the draft observed at each set of marks is averaged to find a mean draft. The ships hydrostatic tables show the corresponding volume displaced, to calculate the weight of the displaced water, it is necessary to know its density. Seawater is more dense than water, so a ship will ride higher in salt water than in fresh. The density of water varies with temperature. Devices akin to slide rules have been available since the 1950s to aid in these calculations and it is done today with computers. Displacement is usually measured in units of tonnes or long tons and these bring the ship down to its load draft, colloquially known as the waterline. Full load displacement and loaded displacement have almost identical definitions, full load is defined as the displacement of a vessel when floating at its greatest allowable draft as established by classification societies. Warships have arbitrary full load condition established, deep load condition means full ammunition and stores, with most available fuel capacity used. Light displacement is defined as the weight of the ship excluding cargo, fuel, water, ballast, stores, passengers, crew, normal displacement is the ships displacement with all outfit, and two-thirds supply of stores, ammunition, etc. on board. Standard displacement, also known as Washington displacement, is a term defined by the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922. Naval architecture Hull Hydrodynamics Tonnage Dear, I. C. B, oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea. George, William E. Stability & Trim for the Ships Officer, turpin, Edward A. McEwen, William A. Trim and Stability Information for Drydocking Calculations, conference on the Limitation of Armament,1922. Papers Relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States,1922, proceedings of the United States Naval Institute
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Economies of scale
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Often operational efficiency is also greater with increasing scale, leading to lower variable cost as well. Economies of scale apply to a variety of organizational and business situations and at levels, such as a business or manufacturing unit. Some economies of scale, such as capital cost of manufacturing facilities and friction loss of transportation, the economic concept dates back to Adam Smith and the idea of obtaining larger production returns through the use of division of labor. Diseconomies of scale are the opposite, Economies of scale often have limits, such as passing the optimum design point where costs per additional unit begin to increase. Common limits include exceeding the nearby raw material supply, such as wood in the lumber, pulp, a common limit for low cost per unit weight commodities is saturating the regional market, thus having to ship product uneconomical distances. Other limits include using energy less efficiently or having a defect rate. Large producers are usually efficient at long runs of a product grade and they will therefore avoid specialty grades even though they have higher margins. Often smaller manufacturing facilities remain viable by changing from commodity grade production to specialty products, the simple meaning of economies of scale is doing things more efficiently with increasing size or speed of operation. Economies of scale often originate with fixed capital, which is lowered per unit of production as design capacity increases, in wholesale and retail distribution, increasing the speed of operations, such as order fulfillment, lowers the cost of both fixed and working capital. Other common sources of economies of scale are purchasing, managerial, financial, marketing, each of these factors reduces the long run average costs of production by shifting the short-run average total cost curve down and to the right. Economies of the scale is a concept that may explain real world phenomena such as patterns of international trade or the number of firms in a market. The exploitation of economies of scale helps explain why companies grow large in some industries, a lone car maker may be profitable, but even more so if they exported cars to global markets in addition to selling to the local market. Economies of scale play a role in a natural monopoly. There is a distinction between two types of economies of scale, internal and external, conversely, an industry exhibits an external economy of scale when costs drop due to the introduction of more firms, thus allowing for more efficient use of specialized services and machinery. Instead, he believes that economies will come from improving the flow of a service, in trying to manage and reduce unit costs, firms often raise total costs by creating failure demand. This law has an effect on the capital cost of such things as buildings, factories, pipelines, ships. In structural engineering, the strength of beams increases with the cube of the thickness, drag loss of vehicles like aircraft or ships generally increases less than proportional with increasing cargo volume, although the physical details can be quite complicated. Therefore, making them larger usually results in fuel consumption per ton of cargo at a given speed
18.
County of Peebles (ship)
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County of Peebles was the worlds first four-masted, iron-hulled full-rigged ship, built in 1875 by Barclay Curle Shipbuilders in Glasgow, Scotland for the shipping firm R & J Craig of Glasgow. Her rig was in the Scottish style i. e. Royal sails above double top-sails, R & J Craig ordered a further eleven similar four-masted full-rigged ships for the thriving Indian jute trade, forming what was referred to as the Scottish East India Line. In 1898, County of Peebles was sold to the Chilean Navy, renamed Muñoz Gamero, she was used as a coal hulk at Punta Arenas on the Strait of Magellan. In the mid-1960s she was beached as a breakwater in Punta Arenas, where she lies today with cut-down masts
19.
Schooner
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A schooner /ˈskuːnər/ is a type of sailing vessel with fore-and-aft sails on two or more masts, the foremast being shorter than the main and no taller than the mizzen if there is one. While the schooner was originally gaff-rigged, modern schooners typically carry a Bermuda rig, such vessels were first used by the Dutch in the 16th or 17th century. They were further developed in North America from the early 18th century, the most common type, with two masts, were popular in trades requiring speed and windward ability, such as slaving, privateering, blockade running, and offshore fishing. In the Chesapeake Bay area several distinctive schooner types evolved, including the Baltimore clipper, bugeye, schooners were also popular among pirates in the West Indies during the Golden Age of Piracy, for their speed and agility. They could also sail in shallow waters, and while being smaller than other ships of the time period. Schooners first evolved in the late 17th century from a variety of small two-masted gaff-rigged vessels used in the coast, most were working craft but some pleasure yachts with schooner rigs were built for wealthy merchants and Dutch nobility. Following the arrival of the Dutch monarch William of Orange on the British throne and this vessel, captured in a detailed Admiralty model, is the earliest fully documented schooner. Royal Transport was quickly noted for its speed and ease of handling, North American shipbuilders quickly developed a variety of schooner forms for trading, fishing and privateering. According to the language scholar Walter William Skeat, the term comes from scoon. The Dutch word schoone means nice, good looking, robinson replied, A schooner let her be. The launch is variously described as being in 1713 or 1745, naval architects such as Howard Chapelle have dismissed this invention story as a childish fable, but some language scholars feel that the legend may support a Gloucester origin of the word. Other sources state the etymology as unknown and uncertain, the first detailed definition of a schooner, describing the vessel as two-masted vessel with fore and aft gaff-rigged sails appeared in 1769 in William Falconers, Universal Dictionary of the Marine. Although a schooner may have up to four masts, the schooner has only two, with the foremast shorter than the mainmast. There may be a bowsprit to help balance the rig, the principal issue with a schooner sail plan is how to fill the space between the two masts most effectively. Traditional schooners were rigged, and the trapezoid shape of the foresail occupied the inter-mast space to good effect, with a useful sail area. A Bermuda rigged schooner typically has four sails, a mainsail, a main staysail abaft the foremast, plus a forestaysail. An advantage of the schooner is that it is easily handled and reefed by a small crew. The main staysail will not overlap the mainsail, and so little to prepare the wind for the mainsail
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Full-rigged ship
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A full-rigged ship or fully rigged ship is term of art denoting a sailing vessels sail plan with three or more masts, all of them square-rigged. A full-rigged ship is said to have a ship rig or be ship-rigged, the ship-rig sail plan, also differs drastically from the large panoply of one and two masted vessels found as working and recreational sailboats. Alternatively, a ship may be referred to by its function instead, as in collier or frigate. In many languages the word frigate or frigate rig refers to a full-rigged ship, only one five-masted full-rigged ship had ever been built until recent years, when a few modern five-masted cruise sailing ships have been launched. Even a fourth mast is relatively rare for full-rigged ships, ships with five and more masts are not normally fully rigged and their masts may be numbered rather than named in extreme cases. If the masts are of wood, each mast is in three or more pieces and they are, The lowest piece is called the mast or the lower. Topmast Topgallant mast Royal mast, if fitted On steel-masted vessels, note that even a full-rigged ship did not usually have a lateral course on the mizzen mast below the mizzen topmast. Instead, the lowest sail on the mizzen was usually a fore/aft sail—originally a lateen sail, the key distinction between a ship and barque is that a ship carries a square-rigged mizzen topsail whereas the mizzen mast of a barque has only fore-and-aft rigged sails. The cross-jack yard was the lowest yard on a ships mizzen mast, unlike the corresponding yards on the fore and main mast it did not usually have fittings to hang a sail from, its purpose was to control the lower edge of the topsail. In the rare case that the yard did carry a square sail. Above the course sail, in order, are, Topsail, or Lower topsail, Topgallant sail, or Lower topgallant sail, if fitted. The division of a sail into upper and lower sails was a matter of practicality, since undivided sails were larger and, consequently, larger sails necessitated hiring, and paying, a larger crew. Additionally, the size of some late-19th and 20th century vessels meant that their correspondingly large sails would have been impossible to handle had they not been divided. Jibs are carried forward of the foremast, are tacked down on the bowsprit or jib-boom and have varying naming conventions, staysails may be carried between any other mast and the one in front of it or from the foremast to the bowsprit. In light winds studding sails may be carried on either side of any or all of the square rigged sails except royals and skysails and they are named after the adjacent sail and the side of the vessel on which they are set, for example main topgallant starboard stunsail. One or more spritsails may also be set on booms set athwart, one or two spankers are carried aft of the aftmost mast, if two they are called the upper spanker and lower spanker. A fore-and-aft topsail may be carried above the upper or only spanker, to stop a full-rigged ship except when running directly down wind, the sails of the foremast are oriented in the direction perpendicular to those of the mainmast. Thus, the masts cancel out of their push on the ship and this allows the crew to stop and quickly restart the ship without retracting and lowering the sails, and to dynamically compensate for the push of the wind on the masts themselves and the yards
21.
France II
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The France II was a French sailing ship and the second one of that name. She was the second largest commercial merchant sailing ship ever built and she was an extremely large tall ship of 5,633 GRT and square rigged as a five-masted steel-hulled barque. Her five masts, all yards and the boom were made of steel tubing. She featured a so-called jubilee rig, also called bald-headed rig, meaning she was rigged with no sails above double top sails. She had a sail area of 6,350 m². Her long yards and the tall masts gave her a rather wide. She was 146.5 meters long, her displacement was 10,710 metric tonnes and she could take passengers in luxury accommodation in addition to carrying cargo, making her one of the most elegant sailing cargo carriers. The huge barque was equipped with two Schneider 950 hp diesel engines which were removed in 1919, at that time she became the largest sailing ship ever built. Her crew consisted of 5 officers, captain, 2nd captain, 1st, 2nd, and 3rd mates and 40 able seamen including cook, steward, sailmaker, ships carpenter, which was increased to 45 in 1919. In 1915 she was sold to Leroux-Henzey of Rouen and sold again in 1916 to the Compagnie Française de Marine et de Commerce also of Rouen, her port of registry remained the same. Because of fallen cargo rates her owner refused to pay to tow her free from the Ouano reef by a tug boat which was absolutely possible, in 1944, American bombers bombed the wreckage for target practice. In 1995 planning started to raise funds to design and build a replica of the France II but by 2010 very little progress had been made. However, tall ship cruise line Star Clippers has since announced they are in the process of building a new ship based on the France II for launch in the half of 2017. List of tall ships List of large sailing vessels Roger et Christian Bernadat, France, le plus grand voilier du monde, les Editions de lEntre-deux-Mers, Saint-Quentin-de-Baron 2008, ISBN 978-2-913568-59-4 Jochen Brennecke, Windjammer. Der große Bericht über die Entwicklung, Reisen und Schicksale der Königinnen der Sieben Meere, XXII - Die Größten unter den Segelschiffen der Welt, pp 299, ISBN 3-7822-0009-8 Hans-Jörg Furrer, Die Vier- und Fünfmast-Rahsegler der Welt. Koehlers Verlagsgesellschaft, Herford 1984, pp 93, ISBN 3-7822-0341-0 Jean Randier, construction, gréement, manoeuvre, vie à bord. Editions des Quatre Seigneurs, Grenoble 1974, ISBN 2-85231-012-0 French Ship Academy Association dedicated to the building a replica of France II, contains details of plans for a replica and also the history of France II. The site is written in both English and French, tall ship cruise line Star Clippers press release regarding the build and launch of new ship based on the France II
22.
Sail plan
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A sail plan is a set of drawings, usually prepared by a naval architect which shows the various combinations of sail proposed for a sailing ship. Alternatively, as a term of art, it refers to the way such vessels are rigged as discussed below, the combinations shown in a sail plan almost always include three configurations, A light air sail plan. Over most of the Earth, most of the time, the force is Force 1 or less. Thus a sail plan should include a set of huge, lightweight sails that will keep the ship underway in light breezes and this is the set of sails that are changed rapidly in variable conditions. They are much stronger than the light air sails, but still lightweight, an economical sail in this set will include several sets of reefing ties, so the area of the sail can be reduced in a stronger wind. This is the set of small, very rugged sails flown in a gale, to keep the vessel under way. In all sail plans, the attempts to balance the force of the sails against the drag of the underwater keel in such a way that the vessel naturally points into the wind. In this way, if control is lost, the vessel will avoid broaching, broaching always causes uncomfortable motion, and in a storm, the breaking waves can destroy a lightly built boat. The architect also tries to balance the force on each sail plan against a range of loads. The calculation assures that the sail will not knock the vessel sideways with its mast in the water, capsizing, fore-and-aft rig features flat sails that run fore and aft. These types of sails are the easiest to manage, because they often do not need to be relaid when the ship changes course, Bermuda rig is a type of fore-and-aft rig with a triangular mainsail. Gaff rig features fore-and-aft sails shaped like a triangle minus its point, the top of the sail tends to twist away from the wind reducing its efficiency when close-hauled. However, due to the gaff on the top edge of the sail the centre of effort is typically lower, square rig features sails set square to the mast from a yard, a spar running transversely in relation to the hull. In ships built using designs of the square rig, sailors would have to climb the rigging. In a modern square rigged design the crew can furl and unfurl sails by remote control from the deck, lateen rig features a triangular sail set on a long yard, mounted at an angle on the mast and running in a fore-and-aft direction. This is one of the lowest drag sails, each form of rig requires its own type of sails. Among them are, A staysail is a piece of cloth that has one or two attached to a stay, that is, one of the ropes or wires that helps hold the mast in place. A staysail was classically attached to the stay with wooden or steel hoops, sailors would test the hoops by climbing on them
23.
Clipper
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A clipper was a very fast sailing ship of the middle third of the 19th century. They were fast, yacht-like vessels, with three masts and a square rig and they were generally narrow for their length, could carry limited bulk freight, small by later 19th century standards, and had a large total sail area. Clipper ships were constructed in British and American shipyards, though France, Brazil. Dutch clippers were built beginning in the 1850s for the tea trade, the boom years of the clipper ship era began in 1843 as a result of a growing demand for a more rapid delivery of tea from China. It continued under the influence of the discovery of gold in California and Australia in 1848 and 1851. The term clipper most likely derives from the clip, which in former times meant, among other things. The ships appeared to clip along the ocean water, the term clip became synonymous with speed and was also applied to fast horses and sailing ships. To clip it, and going at a clip, are familiar expressions to this day. While the first application of the clipper in a nautical sense is by no means certain. When these vessels of a new model were built, which were intended to clip over the rather than plough through them. In England the nautical term clipper appeared a little later, the Oxford English Dictionary says its earliest quotation for clipper is from 1830. This does not mean, however, that little British opium clippers from prior to 1830 were not called opium clippers just as they are today, cutler reports the first newspaper appearance was in 1835, and by then the term was apparently familiar. An undated painting of the British Water Witch built in 1831 is labeled OPIUM CLIPPER WATER WITCH so the term had at least passed into common usage during the time that this ship sailed. There is no definition of the characteristics of a clipper ship. She must be sharp-lined, built for speed and she must be tall-sparred and carry the utmost spread of canvas. And she must use that sail, day and night, fair weather, optimized for speed, they were too fine-lined to carry much cargo. Clippers typically carried extra sails such as skysails and moonrakers on the masts, and studdingsails on booms extending out from the hull or yards, and in conditions where other ships would shorten sail, clippers drove on, heeling so much that their lee rails were in the water. A clipper is often confused with a windjammer, but they are two different types of ship
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Steamship
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A steamship, often referred to as a steamer, is a vessel, typically ocean-faring and seaworthy, that is propelled by one or more steam engines that typically drive propellers or paddlewheels. The first steamships came into usage during the early 1800s, however. Steamships usually use the designations of PS for paddle steamer or SS for screw steamer. As paddle steamers became less common, SS is assumed by many to stand for steam ship, Ships powered by internal combustion engines use a prefix such as MV for motor vessel, so it is not correct to use SS for most modern vessels. The steamship was preceded by smaller vessels designed for insular transportation, once the technology of steam was mastered at this level, steam engines were mounted on larger, and eventually, ocean-going vessels. Becoming reliable, and propelled by screw rather than paddlewheels, the changed the design of ships for faster. Paddlewheels as the main motive source became standard on these early vessels and it was an effective means of propulsion under ideal conditions but otherwise had serious drawbacks. Within a few decades of the development of the river and canal steamboat, the first sea-going steamboat was Richard Wrights first steamboat Experiment, an ex-French lugger, she steamed from Leeds to Yarmouth in July 1813. She carried passengers and freight to Paris in 1822 at an speed of 8 knots. The American ship SS Savannah first crossed the Atlantic Ocean, another claimant is the Canadian ship SS Royal William in 1833. The SS Archimedes, built in Britain in 1839 by Francis Pettit Smith, was the worlds first steamship to be driven by a screw propeller. It had considerable influence on development, encouraging the adoption of screw propulsion by the Royal Navy. The key innovation that made ocean-going steamers viable was the change from the paddle-wheel to the screw-propeller as the mechanism of propulsion and these steamships quickly became more popular, because the propellers efficiency was consistent regardless of the depth at which it operated. Being smaller in size and mass and being submerged, it was also far less prone to damage. The development of screw propulsion relied on the technological innovations. Steam engines had to be designed with the power delivered at the bottom of the machinery, a paddle steamers engines drive a shaft that is positioned above the waterline, with the cylinders positioned below the shaft. SS Great Britain used chain drive to power from a paddlers engine to the propeller shaft - the result of a late design change to propeller propulsion. An effective stern tube and associated bearings were required, the stern tube contains the propeller shaft where it passes through the hull structure
25.
Gustaf Erikson
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Gustaf Adolf Mauritz Erikson was a ship-owner from Mariehamn, in the Åland islands. He was famous for the fleet of windjammers he operated to the end of his life, Erikson was involved in sailing for virtually his entire life. He went to sea at age 9, was commanding a sailing vessel in the North Sea trade by age 19 and his ships were bought cheaply as most shipping companies switched to steam ships about the turn of the century, Erikson would often acquire ships at shipbreakers prices. In March 1935, he purchased Moshulu, one of the finest steel barques afloat, by the late 1930s, the South Australian grain trade was virtually the only profitable use for windjammers, and then only if the ship owner minimized costs as much as possible. Erikson supplied his ships adequately with crew and supplies as these were necessary for his ships to quickly and efficiently. Eriksons large four-masted barques would routinely sail on voyages of 30,000 nautical miles less than 30 crew. A young Eric Newby sailed to Australia on Moshulu in 1938–1939, at the time she was owned by Erikson and part of the last great fleet of sailing ships. Newby chronicled his trip in The Last Grain Race and Learning the Ropes, of the 13 ships which took part in the 1939 grain race,10 were Erikson ships. Torpedoed in the Baltic Sea 16.6.1942,9 men drowned, among them the son of Gustaf Erikson, Gustaf Adolf Alca, composite motor ship,650 t, built 1919 in Sweden. Three-masted schooner Vineta Gustaf Thekla Jenolin Mozart Åland Johannes Ship list mainly from the page Gustaf Erikson 1872-1947 at Wakkanet by Kari Jalava Kåhre, the Last Tall Ships, Gustav Erikson and the Åland Sailing Fleets 1872–1947
26.
Mariehamn
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Mariehamn is the capital of Åland, an autonomous territory under Finnish sovereignty. Mariehamn is the seat of the Government and Parliament of Åland, like all of Åland, Mariehamn is unilingually Swedish-speaking and around 88% of the inhabitants speak it as their native language. The town was named after the Russian empress Maria Alexandrovna, Mariehamn was founded in 1861, around the village of Övernäs, in what was at the time part of the municipality of Jomala. The city has expanded and incorporated more of Jomala territory. Mariehamn was built according to a very regular scheme which is well-preserved, one of the oldest streets is Södragatan where many wooden houses dating from the 19th century can be seen. The city is located on a peninsula and it has two important harbours, one located on the western shore and one on the eastern shore, which are ice-free for nearly the whole year, and have no tides. The Western Harbour is an important international harbour with daily traffic to Sweden, Estonia and mainland Finland. A powerful incentive for Baltic ferries to stop at Mariehamn is that, with respect to taxation, Åland is not part of the EU customs zone. Mariehamn Airport is located in the municipality of Jomala, some 3 kilometres north-west of Mariehamn city centre. Åland and Mariehamn have a heritage in shipping. The Flying P-Liner Pommern museum ship is anchored in the Western Harbour, the Eastern Harbour features one of the largest marinas in Scandinavia. The famous Dutch steamer Jan Nieveen can also be found here, the city is an important centre for Åland media, both of the local newspapers, several radio stations and the local TV channels operate out of the city. The islanders are traditionally fond of reading, and had public libraries before 1920, a printing works was established in the town in 1891. The municipal library, which was built in 1989, is one of the most interesting modern buildings, Mariehamn features several buildings drawn by Finnish architect Lars Sonck, who moved to Åland as a child. Buildings drawn by him include the church of Mariehamn, the building of the Åland Maritime College. Hilda Hongell also designed buildings, although only a few are still standing. Mariehamn has a climate between humid continental climate with certain maritime influence as a result of the strong maritime moderation from being an island in the Baltic Sea. This renders summers to be cooler than both the Swedish and Finnish mainlands, with winters being similar in cold to the adjacent coastal part of Sweden but milder than Finlands mainland
27.
Finland
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Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a sovereign state in Northern Europe. A peninsula with the Gulf of Finland to the south and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west, the country has borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north. Estonia is south of the country across the Gulf of Finland, Finland is a Nordic country situated in the geographical region of Fennoscandia, which also includes Scandinavia. Finlands population is 5.5 million, and the majority of the population is concentrated in the southern region,88. 7% of the population is Finnish people who speak Finnish, a Uralic language unrelated to the Scandinavian languages, the second major group are the Finland-Swedes. In terms of area, it is the eighth largest country in Europe, Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in the capital Helsinki, local governments in 311 municipalities, and an autonomous region, the Åland Islands. Over 1.4 million people live in the Greater Helsinki metropolitan area, from the late 12th century, Finland was an integral part of Sweden, a legacy reflected in the prevalence of the Swedish language and its official status. In the spirit of the notion of Adolf Ivar Arwidsson, we are not Swedes, we do not want to become Russians, let us therefore be Finns, nevertheless, in 1809, Finland was incorporated into the Russian Empire as the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. In 1906, Finland became the nation in the world to give the right to vote to all adult citizens. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, Finland declared itself independent, in 1918, the fledgling state was divided by civil war, with the Bolshevik-leaning Reds supported by the equally new Soviet Russia, fighting the Whites, supported by the German Empire. After a brief attempt to establish a kingdom, the became a republic. During World War II, the Soviet Union sought repeatedly to occupy Finland, with Finland losing parts of Karelia, Salla and Kuusamo, Petsamo and some islands, Finland joined the United Nations in 1955 and established an official policy of neutrality. The Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics during the Cold War era, Finland was a relative latecomer to industrialization, remaining a largely agrarian country until the 1950s. It rapidly developed an advanced economy while building an extensive Nordic-style welfare state, resulting in widespread prosperity, however, Finnish GDP growth has been negative in 2012–2014, with a preceding nadir of −8% in 2009. Finland is a top performer in numerous metrics of national performance, including education, economic competitiveness, civil liberties, quality of life, a large majority of Finns are members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, though freedom of religion is guaranteed under the Finnish Constitution. The first known appearance of the name Finland is thought to be on three rune-stones. Two were found in the Swedish province of Uppland and have the inscription finlonti, the third was found in Gotland, in the Baltic Sea. It has the inscription finlandi and dates from the 13th century, the name can be assumed to be related to the tribe name Finns, which is mentioned first known time AD98. The name Suomi has uncertain origins, but a candidate for a source is the Proto-Baltic word *źemē, in addition to the close relatives of Finnish, this name is also used in the Baltic languages Latvian and Lithuanian
28.
F. Laeisz
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F. Laeisz, is an old established and today still active shipping company The firm was established by Ferdinand Laeisz on 24 March 1824 as a production company for tall hats. Expansion to overseas markets enabled him to purchase in 1839 the brig “Carl”, named after his son,1857 the first new building was commissioned, a wooden barque named “Pudel” after Carl’s wife Sophie Laeisz. All following own new buildings after 1861 were christened with names starting with a “P” and this is the reason why British seamen called the company “P-Line”. Carl Laeisz credo was “My ships can and must perform fast voyages. ”,1892 F. Laeisz purchased its first iron steamship from the Hamburg-Südamerikanischen Dampfschifffahrts-Gesellschaft which was employed by Deutsche Levante Linie. 1897/98 the Laeiszhof was built at Trostbrücke 1 in Hamburg, a landmark building,1914 the first banana reefer ships “Pioneer” and “Pungo” were ordered for the Afrikanische Frucht-Companie established 1912 by F. Laeisz. The outbreak of World War Ⅰ made it impossible for the company to commission these two ships for employment in its own banana trade. With “Poseidon” Laeisz commissioned 1923 its first Steamer for its own service to the SAWC and 1926 the last four-masted barque Padua was built for FL. This newbuilding signaled the end of the Flying P-Liner area which terminated with the end of World War II when “Padua” was given to the USSR, the company owns since 1904 shares of the Brazilian BRAHMA, forerunner of today’s brewery AMBEV. The shares were confiscated by the Brazilian government 1942 as security for war damages, the release from the blockage the government still delays. Owners of the new company are Schües and – for a few years - F. Laeisz,2004 Schües purchased the 1824 founded partnership F. Laeisz with all legal rights of its history. Reederei F. Laeisz, Rostock, is today the company, F. Laeisz GmbH, Hamburg. Today the company operates container ships, bulk carriers, gas-, almost all ships are named with the P-names. MV “Peene Ore” the company’s flagship, is the largest vessel flying the German flag, january 2005 the Musikhalle Hamburg is again called “Laeiszhalle”. Carl Laeisz had instructed the company in his will to pay 1.2 Million Mark for the construction of a music hall, when in 1908 the building was opened it was the largest and most modern concert hall in Germany and was known as Laeiszhalle until 1933. Die Segelschiffe der Reederei F. Laeisz, verlag „Die Hanse“, Hamburg 1998 u.2000, ISBN 3-434-52562-9. Hans Georg Prager, „F. Laeisz“ vom Frachtsegler bis zum Bulk Carrier, koehlers Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Herford 1974, ISBN 3-7822-0096-9. Reederei F. Laeisz GmbH LAEISZ-Flotte Ferdinand Laeisz
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Hamburg
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Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast
30.
Dunkirk
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Dunkirk is a commune in the Nord department in northern France. It lies 10 kilometres from the Belgian border, the population of the city at the 2012 census was 90,995 inhabitants. The name of Dunkirk derives from West Flemish dun and kerke, nowadays, Dunkirk is the worlds northernmost Francophone city. About 960AD Count Baldwin III had a wall erected, in order to protect the settlement against Viking raids. The surrounding wetlands were drained and cultivated by the monks of nearby Bergues Abbey, the name Dunkirk was first mentioned in a tithe privilege of 27 May 1067, issued by Count Baldwin V of Flanders. Count Philip I brought further large tracts of marshland under cultivation, laid out first plans to build a Canal from Dunkirk to Bergues and vested the Dunkirkers with market rights. However, in the course of the Western Schism from 1378, English supporters of Pope Urban VI disembarked at Dunkirk, captured the city and they were ejected by King Charles VI of France, but left great devastations in and around the town. Upon the extinction of the Counts of Flanders with the death of Louis II in 1384, Flanders was acquired by the Burgundian, the fortifications were again enlarged, including the construction of a belfry daymark. As Maximilian was the son of Emperor Frederick III, all Flanders was immediately seized by King Louis XI of France. However, the defeated the French troops at the 1479 Battle of Guinegate. The area remained disputed between Spain, the United Netherlands, England and France. At the beginning of the Eighty Years War, Dunkirk was briefly in the hands of the Dutch rebels, Spanish forces under Duke Alexander Farnese of Parma re-established Spanish rule in 1583 and it became a base for the notorious Dunkirkers. The Dunkirkers briefly lost their home port when the city was conquered by the French in 1646, in 1658, as a result of the long war between France and Spain, it was captured after a siege by Franco-English forces following the battle of the Dunes. The city along with Fort-Mardyck was awarded to England in the peace the following year as agreed in the Franco-English alliance against Spain and it came under French rule when Charles II of England sold it to France for £320,000 on 17 October 1662. The French government developed the town as a fortified port, the towns existing defences were adapted to create ten bastions. The port was expanded in the 1670s by the construction of a basin that could hold up to thirty warships with a lock system to maintain water levels at low tide. The basin was linked to the sea by a channel dug through coastal sandbanks secured by two jetties and this work was completed by 1678. The jetties were defended a few years later by the construction of five forts, Château dEspérance, Château Vert, Grand Risban, Château Gaillard, an additional fort was built in 1701 called Fort Blanc
31.
Steam donkey
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Steam donkey, or donkey engine, is the common nickname for a steam-powered winch, or logging engine, widely used in past logging operations, though not limited to logging. They were also found in the mining, maritime, and nearly any other industry that needed a powered winch, a good deal of the cable-logging terminology derived from 19th-century merchant sailing, as much of the early technology originated from that industry. A logging engine comprised at least one powered winch around which was wound hemp rope or steel cable and they were usually fitted with a boiler and usually equipped with skids, or sleds made from logs, to aid them during transit from one setting to the next. The larger steam donkeys often had a house built either on the skids or as a separate structure. Usually, a tank, and sometimes a fuel oil tank, was mounted on the back of the sled. In rare cases, steam donkeys were also mounted on wheels, later steam donkeys were built with multiple horizontally mounted drums/spools, on which were wound heavy steel cable instead of the original rope. This describes the use of a donkey for logging operations. In the simplest setup, a horse would carry the cable out to a log in the woods. The cable would be attached, and, on signal, the steam donkeys operator would open the regulator, allowing the steam donkey to drag, or skid, the log towards it. The log was taken either to a mill or to a landing where the log would be transferred for onward shipment by rail, road or river. Later, a drum was added, where a smaller cable could be routed around the setting. If a donkey was to be moved, one of its cables was attached to a tree, stump or other anchor. In Canada, and in particular Ontario, the engine was often mounted on a barge that could float. Log booms would be winched across water with the engine and it would often be reconfigured with a saw to mill the timber. John Dolbeer, a partner of the Dolbeer and Carson Lumber Company in Eureka, California. The patent was issued April 18,1882, on Dolbeers first model, a 150-foot, 4½ inch manila rope was wrapped several times around a gypsy head and attached at the other end to a log. The invention of the engine led to the development of the diesel-powered tractor crawler. Though some have preserved in museums, very few are in operating order
32.
Boatswain
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The boatswain supervises the other members of the ships deck department, and typically is not a watchstander, except on vessels with small crews. Additional duties vary depending upon ship, crew, and circumstance, the word boatswain has been in the English language since approximately 1450. It is derived from late Old English batswegen, from bat concatenated with Old Norse sveinn, meaning a man, apprentice. Directly translated to modern Norwegian it would be båtsvenn, while the actual title in Norwegian is båtsmann. The phonetic spelling bosun has been observed since 1868 and this latter spelling was used in Shakespeares The Tempest written in 1611, and as Bosn in later editions. The rank of boatswain was until recently the oldest rank in the Royal Navy, later these officers were warranted by the British Admiralty. They maintained and sailed the ships and were the officers of the navy. The Royal Navys last official boatswain, Commander E W Andrew OBE and it is equivalent to the rank of colour sergeant in the army and the royal marines cadets, it is sometimes an appointment for a senior petty officer to assist a coxswain. The boatswain works in a ships deck department as the foreman of the deck crew. Sometimes, the boatswain is also a third or fourth mate, a bosun must be highly skilled in all matters of marlinespike seamanship required for working on deck of a seagoing vessel. The bosun is distinguished from other able seamen by the roles, planning, scheduling. As deck crew foreman, the plans the days work. As work is completed, the checks on completed work for compliance with approved operating procedures. These duties can include cleaning, painting, and maintaining the hull, superstructure. A boatswains skills may include cargo rigging, winch operations, deck maintenance, working aloft, and other duties required during deck operations. The boatswain is well versed in the care and handling of lines, and has knowledge of knots, hitches, bends, whipping, the boatswain typically operates the ships windlasses when letting go and heaving up anchors. Moreover, a boatswain may be called upon to lead firefighting efforts or other emergency procedures encountered on board, effective boatswains are able to integrate their seafarer skills into supervising and communicating with members of deck crew with often diverse backgrounds. Originally, on sailing ships the boatswain was in charge of a ships anchors, cordage, colours, deck crew
33.
Cape Horn
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Cabo de Hornos is a Chilean commune located in the south of Tierra del Fuego archipelago, in Antártica Province, Magallanes Region. The municipality of Cabo de Hornos, located in the town of Puerto Williams and it is named for Cape Horn. According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute, Cabo de Hornos spans an area of 15,853.7 km2 and has 2,262 inhabitants, of these,1,952 lived in urban areas and 310 in rural areas. The population grew by 24. 7% between the 1992 and 2002 censuses, as a commune, Cabo de Hornos is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council, headed by an alcalde who is directly elected every four years. The 2016-2020 alcalde is Patricio Fernández, the commune is represented in the Senate by Carlos Bianchi Chelech and Carolina Goic as part of the 19th senatorial constituency. Murray Channel Cabo de Hornos commune,2006 Official website of the Municipality of Cabo de Hornos Official website of Puerto Williams Gobierno Regional Magallanes y Antártica Chilena Official website Cape Horn Biosphere Reserve
34.
Pamir (ship)
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Pamir, a four-masted barque, was one of the famous Flying P-Liner sailing ships of the German shipping company F. Laeisz. She was the last commercial sailing ship to round Cape Horn, by 1957 she had been outmoded by modern bulk carriers and could not operate at a profit. Her shipping consortiums inability to finance much-needed repairs or to recruit sufficient sail-trained officers caused severe technical difficulties, on 21 September 1957 she was caught in Hurricane Carrie and sank off the Azores, with only six survivors rescued after an extensive search. She was built at the Blohm & Voss shipyards in Hamburg and she had a steel hull & tonnage of 3,020 GRT. She had a length of 114.5 m, a beam of about 14 m. Three masts stood 51.2 m above deck and the yard was 28 m wide. She carried 3,800 m² of sails and could reach a top speed of 16 knots and her regular cruise speed was around 8-9 knots. She was the fifth of ten near-sister ships and she was commissioned on 18 October 1905 and used by the Laeisz company in the South American nitrate trade. By 1914 she had made eight voyages to Chile, taking between 64 and about 70 days for a trip from Hamburg to Valparaíso or Iquique. During World War I she stayed in Santa Cruz de la Palma port in La Palma Island, due to post war conditions she did not return to Hamburg until 17 March 1920 from Santa Cruz de la Palma. In the same year she was handed over to Italy as war reparation, on 15 July 1920, she left Hamburg via Rotterdam to Naples towed by tugs. The Italian government was unable to find a deep-water sailing ship crew, in 1924 the F. Laeisz Company bought her back for £7,000 and put her into service in the nitrate trade again. Laeisz sold her in 1931 to the Finnish shipping company of Gustaf Erikson, during World War II Pamir was seized as a prize of war by the New Zealand government on 3 August 1941 while in port at Wellington. Weathering a storm during the last Tasman voyage is described in detail by one of the mates, Andrew Keyworth and she escaped the war unscathed despite a close call in 1943 when a Japanese submarine was spotted. Evidently as a fast-moving barque under a strong and fair wind, after the war she made one voyage from Wellington via Cape Horn to London, then Antwerp to Auckland and Wellington in 1948. She was returned to the Erikson Line on 12 November 1948 at Wellington, on her 128-day journey to Falmouth she was the last windjammer carrying a commercial load around Cape Horn, on 11 July 1949. Gustaf Erikson had died in 1947, in March 1951, Belgian shipbreakers paid £40,000 for her and Passat. As she was being towed to Antwerp, German shipowner Heinz Schliewen and her first trip was to Brazil in 1952 with cement, to return to Germany with iron ore
35.
Able seaman
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An able seaman is a Naval rating of the deck department of a merchant ship with more than two years experience at sea and considered well acquainted with his duty. An AB may work as a watchstander, a day worker, once a sufficient amount of sea time is acquired, then the AB can apply to take a series of courses/examinations to become certified as an officer. At sea an AB watchstanders duties include standing watch as helmsman, a helmsman is required to maintain a steady course, properly execute all rudder orders and communicate utilizing navigational terms relating to heading and steering. A watchstander may be called upon to stand security-related watches, such as a watch or anchor watch while the ship is not underway. An AB day worker performs general maintenance, repair, sanitation and upkeep of material, equipment and this can include maintenance of the ships metal structures such as chipping, scraping, cleaning, priming, and painting. Areas frequently in need of such include the hull, decks, superstructure, cargo gear. Day workers also perform maintenance on lifeboats, rescue boats and liferafts. For many vessels, being a dayworker is a position granted to senior ABs, since it allows more time for rest. An AB may be called on to use emergency, lifesaving, damage control, Able seamen perform all operations connected with the launching of lifesaving equipment. An AB is expected to be able to operate machinery, such as the windlass or winches while mooring or unmooring. Able seamen require advanced training, including lifeboatman certification, the ships boatswain, if carried, is typically a senior AB. The boatswain is in charge of the seamen and ordinary seaman that comprise the unlicensed deck crew. The Code of Federal Regulations establishes in 46 CFR12.05 five categories of able seaman for the United States Merchant Marine, Able Seaman—Any Waters, requires three years service on deck on vessels operating on the oceans or the Great Lakes. Requires 18 months service on deck in vessels of 100 gross tons or more which operate in a service not exclusively confined to the rivers, requires 12 months service on deck on vessels operating on the oceans, or the navigable waters of the United States including the Great Lakes. Requires six months service on deck on vessels operating on the oceans, requires six months service on deck on sail or auxiliary sail vessels operating on the oceans or the navigable waters of the United States including the Great Lakes. Time served in training programs and school ships may be substituted for the time of service listed above. For the United States Merchant Marine, the Code of Federal Regulations establishes in 46 CFR12, the AB shall demonstrate ability to row by pulling an oar in the boat. The applicant shall also demonstrate knowledge of the knots, bends, splices
36.
Ordinary seaman
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An ordinary seaman is a Naval rating of the deck department of a merchant ship. The position is an apprenticeship to become an Able seaman, and has been for centuries, in modern times, an OS is required to work on a ship for a specific amount of time, gaining what is referred to as sea time. For centuries, the ordinary seaman was used to refer to a seaman with between one and two years experience at sea, who showed enough seamanship to be so rated by their captain. An OS is generally not required to watch, but must pass examinations on watchstanding skills such as performing lookout duty. Thus an OS will often be found on a bridge after working hours taking a turn at the ships wheel or being familiarized with bridge equipment. During the apprenticeship, an OS performs a variety of duties concerned with the operation and upkeep of deck department areas and equipment. These duties vary with the type of ship, the type of voyage, the number of crewmembers, the weather, the supervisor, as an ordinary seaman, ones duties may include the following, On specialized vessels, an OS may have unique duties. For example, on research vessels, an OS may rig and operate hydrographic and other specialty winches, handle and stow oceanographic explosives, the next step on the career ladder for the ordinary seaman is to become an able seaman. This advancement is based on a number of laid out in the Code of Federal Regulations. The Code of Federal Regulations establishes in 46 CFR12.05 four categories of able seaman for the United States Merchant Marine, Able Seaman—Any Waters, requires three years service on deck on vessels operating on the oceans or the Great Lakes. Requires 18 months service on deck in vessels of 100 gross tons or more which operate in a service not exclusively confined to the rivers, requires 12 months service on deck on vessels operating on the oceans, or the navigable waters of the United States including the Great Lakes. Requires six months service on deck on vessels operating on the oceans, time served in certain training programs and school ships may be substituted for the time of service listed above. For the United States Merchant Marine, the Code of Federal Regulations establishes in 46 CFR12, the AB shall demonstrate ability to row by pulling an oar in the boat. The applicant shall also demonstrate knowledge of the knots, bends, splices. Seafarers professions and ranks Able Seaman STCW Merchant Mariners Document International Labour Organization
37.
Grain race
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A good, fast passage Australia-to-England via Cape Horn was considered anything under 100 days. The cargo was grain, usually wheat, the masters of the square-rigged grain carriers engaged in unofficial competition who would sail fastest across the southern ocean, around Cape Horn and up the Atlantic. While the race was informal, it was a source of betting, the competition gathered so much attention that in 1928 the International Paint Company donated a silver cup for the fastest passage. The ship with most victories was the four-masted barque Herzogin Cecilie at six times, the fastest ship was Parma in 1933 in 83 days. The grain trade flourished through the 1930s and reached its peak in 1939 and that year thirteen windjammers rode at anchor off Port Victoria. With the exception of two German ships, all, flew the flag of the Gustaf Erikson Line and the pale blue Finnish cross. The last of the Grain Races was in 1949, however, it bestowed on Pamir the honor of being the last windjammer with a commercial load to round Cape Horn. Unlike the hell-bent racing captains of the celebrated tea-clippers of the 1860s, the captain of a grain ship who lost gear more likely would lose his job. The Last Tall Ships, Gustav Erikson and the Åland Sailing Fleets 1872–1947
38.
Spencer Gulf
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The Spencer Gulf is the westernmost of two large inlets on the southern coast of Australia, in the state of South Australia, facing the Great Australian Bight. The Gulf is 322 km long and 129 km wide at its mouth, the western shore of the Gulf is the Eyre Peninsula, while the eastern side is the Yorke Peninsula, which separates it from the smaller Gulf St Vincent. Its entrance was defined by Matthew Flinders as a line from Cape Catastrophe on Eyre Peninsula to Cape Spencer on Yorke Peninsula, the largest towns on the gulf are Port Lincoln, Whyalla, Port Pirie, and Port Augusta. Smaller towns on the gulf include Tumby Bay, Port Neill, Arno Bay, Cowell, Port Germein, Port Broughton, Wallaroo, Port Hughes, the gulf was named Spencers Gulph by Flinders on 20 March 1802, after George John Spencer, the 2nd Earl Spencer. Visiting at roughly the time as Flinders, Nicholas Baudin named the area Golfe Bonaparte. While other names bestowed by Baudin persisted, Spencer Gulf became the official name, prior to the selection of Adelaide, some consideration was given to Port Lincoln as the potential site of a capital city. The interior was not officially explored or settled by Europeans until after Edward John Eyres 1839 expeditions, the land surrounding the gulf, consisting of the Eyre and Yorke Peninsulas, is the Eyre Yorke Block bioregion. This was originally wooded shrubland but has now mainly been cleared for agriculture, many of South Australias iconic marine species can be found on the shores and in the waters of Spencer Gulf. The rocky inshore reef along the coast near Port Bonython and Point Lowly is a ground for the Northern Spencer Gulf population of giant Australian cuttlefish. They are a food of local bottlenose dolphins, who have developed sophisticated techniques for safely eating these creatures. The Upper Spencer Gulf is also known for its snapper and Yellowtail kingfish fishing, Great white sharks are sometimes seen in Spencer Gulf by fishermen, and shark cage diving and surface tours operate out of Port Lincoln. A relic population of tiger pipefish, a species is range limited to Northern Spencer Gulf. Visiting southern right whales and humpback whales enter Spencer Gulf from June through to October, new Zealand fur seals and Australian sea lions can be found in Southern Spencer Gulf, with occasional sightings occurring in Northern Spencer Gulf. Bottlenose dolphins can be seen in the gulfs waters year-round, breeding colonies of little penguins exist on islands in Spencer Gulf. The northernmost colonies are located at Lipson Island and Wardang Island, in 2004, the Wardang Island colonys population was approximately 8,000 penguins. Cape Barren geese and several species of cormorants also breed on islands in Spencer Gulf, Spencer Gulf contains a number of inshore and offshore islands. All currently or will produce water primarily or exclusively for industrial use and they are, The Spencer Gulf region, its wildlife and its development are the subjects of a forthcoming documentary film entitled Cuttlefish Country. Spencer Gulf contains four aquatic reserves. ’ Spencer Gulf contains five parks, each with its own outer boundary
39.
The Lizard
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The Lizard is a peninsula in southern Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. The most southerly point of the British mainland is near Lizard Point at grid reference SW701,115, the Lizard village, is the most southerly on the British mainland, and is in the civil parish of Landewednack, the most southerly parish. The valleys of the River Helford and Loe Pool form the northern boundary, the area measures about 14 by 14 miles. The Lizard is one of Englands natural regions and has designated as national character area 157 by Natural England. The peninsula is known for its geology and for its rare plants, almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation, with the same status and protection as a National Park. The name Lizard is most probably a corruption of the Cornish name Lys Ardh, meaning high court, the Lizard peninsulas original name may have been the Celtic name Predannack, during the Iron Age and Roman period, Britain was known as Pretannike and as Albion. The Lizards coast is hazardous to shipping and the seaways round the peninsula were historically known as the Graveyard of Ships. The Lizard Lighthouse was built at Lizard Point in 1752 and the RNLI operates The Lizard lifeboat station, there is evidence of early habitation with several burial mounds and stones. Part of the peninsula is known as the Meneage, Helston, the nearest town to the Lizard peninsula, is said to have once headed the estuary of the River Cober, before it was cut off from the sea by Loe Bar in the 13th century. It is a matter of debate as to whether Helston was once a port, geomorphologists believe the bar was most likely formed by rising sea levels, after the last ice age, blocking the river and creating a barrier beach. The beach is formed mostly of flint and the nearest source is found offshore under the drowned terraces of the river that flowed between England and France, and now under the English Channel. The medieval port of Helston was at Gweek, possibly from around 1260 onwards, on the Helford river which exported tin, Helston was believed to be in existence in the sixth century, around the Dowr Kohar. The name comes from the Cornish hen lis or old court and ton added later to denote a Saxon manor and it was granted its charter by King John in 1201. It was here that tin ingots were weighed to determine the duty due to the Duke of Cornwall when a number of towns were authorised by royal decree. The royal manor of Winnianton, which was held by King William I at the time of the Domesday Book, was also the manor of the hundred of Kerrier. It was assessed as having fifteen hides before 1066, at the time of Domesday there was land for sixty ploughs, but in the lords land there were two ploughs and in the lands held by villeins twenty-four ploughs. There were twenty-four villeins, forty-one freedmen, thirty-three smallholders and fourteen slaves, there was 6 acres, eight square leagues of pasture and half a square league of woodland. The livestock was fourteen unbroken mares, three cattle and one hundred and twenty-eight sheep, its value was £12 annually, Mullion has the 15th century church of St Mellanus, and the Old Inn from the 16th century
40.
Cornwall
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Cornwall is a ceremonial county and unitary authority area of England within the United Kingdom. It is bordered to the north and west by the Celtic Sea, to the south by the English Channel, Cornwall has a population of 551,700 and covers an area of 3,563 km2. Cornwall forms the westernmost part of the south-west peninsula of the island of Great Britain, and this area was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. It continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age peoples, there is little evidence that Roman rule was effective west of Exeter and few Roman remains have been found. In the mid-19th century, however, the tin and copper mines entered a period of decline, subsequently, china clay extraction became more important and metal mining had virtually ended by the 1990s. Traditionally, fishing and agriculture were the important sectors of the economy. Railways led to a growth of tourism in the 20th century, however, the area is noted for its wild moorland landscapes, its long and varied coastline, its attractive villages, its many place-names derived from the Cornish language, and its very mild climate. Extensive stretches of Cornwalls coastline, and Bodmin Moor, are protected as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, Cornwall is the homeland of the Cornish people and is recognised as one of the Celtic nations, retaining a distinct cultural identity that reflects its history. Some people question the present constitutional status of Cornwall, and a nationalist movement seeks greater autonomy within the United Kingdom in the form of a devolved legislative Cornish Assembly. On 24 April 2014 it was announced that Cornish people will be granted minority status under the European Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The modern English name Cornwall derives from the concatenation of two ancient demonyms from different linguistic traditions, Corn- records the native Brythonic tribe, the Cornovii. The Celtic word kernou is cognate with the English word horn. -wall derives from the Old English exonym walh, the Ravenna Cosmography first mentions a city named Purocoronavis in the locality. This is thought to be a rendering of Duro-cornov-ium, meaning fort of the Cornovii. The exact location of Durocornovium is disputed, with Tintagel and Carn Brea suggested as possible sites, in later times, Cornwall was known to the Anglo-Saxons as West Wales to distinguish it from North Wales. The name appears in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 891 as On Corn walum, in the Domesday Book it was referred to as Cornualia and in c.1198 as Cornwal. Other names for the county include a latinisation of the name as Cornubia, the present human history of Cornwall begins with the reoccupation of Britain after the last Ice Age. The area now known as Cornwall was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods and it continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age people. The Common Brittonic spoken at the time developed into several distinct tongues
41.
Peking (ship)
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The Peking is a steel-hulled four-masted barque. A so-called Flying P-Liner of the German company F. Laeisz, it was one of the last generation of used in the nitrate trade. She was in Valparaiso at the outbreak of World War I and she was sold back to the original owners, the Laeisz brothers in 1923, and continued in the nitrate trade until traffic through the Panama Canal proved quicker and more economical. In 1932, she was sold for £6,250 to Shaftesbury Homes and she was first towed to Greenhithe, renamed Arethusa II and moored alongside the existing Arethusa I. In July 1933, she was moved to a new permanent mooring off Upnor on the River Medway and she was officially opened by HRH Prince George on 25 July 1933. During World War II she served in the Royal Navy as HMS Pekin, the Peking was retired in 1974 and sold to Jack Aron, for the South Street Seaport Museum in New York City, where she was still moored in 2016. However, the Seaport NYC did not see the Peking as part of its long-term operational plans, thanks for Mr. Henning Schwarzkopf for convincing the German parliament to save the beautiful Peking ship. Here is the story on New York Post just click the link, http. She was taken to Caddell Dry Dock, Staten Island, on September 7,2016, round the Horn in a Square Rigger (reprinted as The Peking Battles Cape Horn Johnson, Irving
42.
Kruzenshtern (ship)
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The Kruzenshtern or Krusenstern is a four-masted barque that was built in 1926 at Geestemünde in Bremerhaven, Germany as the Padua. She was surrendered to the USSR in 1946 as war reparation and renamed after the early 19th century Baltic German explorer in Russian service and she is now a Russian sail training ship. Of the four remaining Flying P-Liners, the former Padua is the one still in use, mainly for training purposes, with her home ports in Kaliningrad. After the Sedov, another former German ship, she is the largest traditional sailing vessel still in operation, later she transported wheat from Australia. Her maiden voyage from Hamburg to Talcahuano, Chile took 87 days, in 1933–1934 she took a record-breaking 67 days from Hamburg to Port Lincoln in South Australia. Prior to World War II she made 15 long trips to Chile, like all P-liners, Padua was painted according to the colours of the German national flag of the German Empire era, black, white and red. On January 12,1946 she was surrendered to the USSR and she was moored in Kronstadt harbour until 1961 where she underwent major repairs and a refit for her missions for the Hydrographic Department of the Soviet Navy. In 1965 she was transferred to the USSR Ministry of Fisheries in Riga to be used as a schoolship for future fishery officers, Kruzenshtern led the international procession of tall ships into New York Harbor for Operation Sail on Sunday, July 4,1976. In January 1981 she was transferred to the Estonian Fisheries Industry at Tallinn, the Kruzenshtern takes part in many international regattas. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union funding became a problem, in 1995–96 she circumnavigated the World in the trail of her namesake. She again sailed around the World in 2005–06 to commemorate the 200th anniversary of Krustensterns circumnavigation, the ship was used in three German films — Die Meuterei auf der Elsinore, Herz geht vor Anker and Große Freiheit Nr. 7, as well as a number of Russian and Soviet films, in 1997 she was the main subject of an Estonian/British documentary produced by Allfilm and First Freedom Productions called Tall Ship and transmitted on Discovery. The one-hour programme was directed by Rein Kotov and produced by Graham Addicott, on 23 June 2009 while she was en route to the Charleston, South Carolina Harborfest, her foremast was damaged in a storm off Bermuda when the sail backed and snapped the mast. On 3 May 2010 she stopped in Bremerhaven after a trip of five months with stops in Vancouver for the 2010 Winter Olympics and in Cuba, after which she returned to Kaliningrad. On 4 August 2014, Kruzenshtern sank the tug Diver Master at Esbjerg, on 11 June 2015, she rammed the two Icelandic Coastguard patrol ships Þór and Týr. List of large sailing vessels List of tall ships Burmester, Heinz, translation of Olof Granquists account of this journey published in De våra i främmande land, December 1944. Burmester, Heinz, Den stora kappseglingen Padua versus Passat, feddersen, Hans-Peter, Acht Tage auf der Krusenstern / Padua. Gerdau, Kurt, Viermastbark Padua … ein ruhmreiches Schiff, 8vo,99, pp,12 pl. Grönstrand, Lars, Seglande skepps farter
43.
Panama Canal
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The Panama Canal is an artificial 48-mile waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for maritime trade. The original locks are 33.5 metres wide, a third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded canal began operation on June 26,2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, Post-Panamax ships, capable of handling more cargo, France began work on the canal in 1881 but stopped due to engineering problems and a high worker mortality rate. The United States took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal on August 15,1914, Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The U. S. continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, in 1999 the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government and is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, by 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes six to eight hours to pass through the Panama Canal, the American Society of Civil Engineers has called the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world. Such a route would have given the Spanish a military advantage over the Portuguese, during an expedition from 1788 to 1793, Alessandro Malaspina outlined plans for its construction. Given the strategic location of Panama and the potential offered by its narrow isthmus separating two great oceans, other links in the area were attempted over the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up a trade route. Generally inhospitable conditions thwarted the effort, and it was abandoned in April 1700, another effort was made in 1843. They referred to it as the Atlantic and Pacific Canal and it was a wholly British endeavor and it was expected to be completed in five years, but the plan was never carried out. At nearly the same time, other ideas were floated, including a canal across Mexicos Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Nothing came of that plan either. )In 1846 the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty, negotiated between the U. S. and New Granada, granted the United States transit rights and the right to intervene militarily in the isthmus. In 1849, the discovery of gold in California created great interest in a crossing between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Panama Railway was built by the United States to cross the isthmus and opened in 1855
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Kiel Week
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The Kiel Week or Kiel Regatta is an annual sailing event in Kiel, the capital of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. It is the largest sailing event in the world, and also one of the largest Volksfeste in Germany, attracting millions of people every year all over Germany. Kiel Week is held annually in the last week in June, the Soundcheck is on the Friday before the official opening, it is a music festival across all the stages within the city. Kiel Week ends with a fireworks display at 11 p. m. on Sunday, fired from pontoons or the quays at the Howaldtswerke. Most ship races begin at the Olympic Harbor of Schilksee, also the center of most sporting activities during Kiel Week, Kiel Week usually gathers around 5,000 sailors,2,000 ships, and about three million visitors each year. The event is organized in joint effort by the Yacht Club of Kiel, the Norddeutscher Regattaverein, the Hamburger Sailing Club, while Kiel Week started out as a ship racing championship, it has long since become a large festival with many popular bands playing on public stages. They often play for free, although the corporate sponsors usually display their involvement prominently, most of the stages can be found at the Kiellinie, and as of late, across the Hoernbridge to the Germania harbor and the Hörn. Another area of cultural activity is the city center and the area connecting the city center with the ferry harbor. Between the public stages and especially on the International Market on the Rathausplatz, small street performances and street comedy are performed in many places. A special childrens program is available at the Spiellinie, Kiel Week is also one of the largest tall ship conventions in Germany, attracting many German and international traditional ships, mainly sailing ships. Many of them spend the week doing day tours out of Kiel, the Parade was first held in 1972, under the name of Operation Sail, and was organized in celebration of the Olympic Summer Games in Germany that year, whose sailing competitions took place in Kiel. It was the first large gathering of tall ships since the time of the windjammers, today, the Parade is often headed by the Gorch Fock, a sister ship to the German-built USCGC Eagle. Since 1948, advertises an annual Kiel Week poster for the festival week and their design is another example of the cultural positioning and visual-design tradition of the Kieler Woche. In this context represents a jury put together a selection of graphic, an invitation is already an honor, because the design contest enjoys a high reputation and many designs have been awarded national and international prizes. The series of Kieler Woche placards considered as a reflection of the recent graphic story, the motifs are applied to many objects and almost all of these - mostly developed by the competition winner himself - applications reach after a short time collector status. June 23,188220 sailing yachts participate in a race from Düsternbrook. Because of the success the event is held annually in the following years. 1889 The German Emperor Wilhelm II visits the ship races for the first time,1892 More than 100 ships announce themselves for the ship races
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Regatta
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A regatta is a series of boat races. The term typically describes racing events of rowed or sailed water craft, although regattas are typically amateur competitions, they are usually formally structured events, with comprehensive rules describing the schedule and procedures of the event. Regattas may be organized as championships for an area or type of boat, but are often held just for the joy of competition, camaraderie. Sailing race events are held for a single class and usually last more than one day. Currently, The Three Bridge Fiasco, conducted by the Singlehanded Sailing Society of San Francisco Bay with more than 350 competitors is the largest sailboat race in the United States. One of the largest and most popular rowing regattas is the Henley Royal Regatta held on the River Thames, England. One of the largest and oldest yachting regattas in the world is Cowes Week, which is held annually by the Royal Yacht Squadron in Cowes, England, Cowes Week is predated by the Cumberland Cup, Port of Dartmouth Royal Regatta and Port of Plymouth Regatta. North Americas oldest regatta is the Royal St. Johns Regatta held on Quidi Vidi Lake in St. Johns, etymology, From Venetian regata, from regatare, possibly from recatare. 1775 - Cumberland Cup - organized by the Royal Thames Yacht Club, UK1777 - Lough Ree Regatta - organised by Athlone Yacht Club, Ireland. The Field magazine of 11 August 1883 refers to a print of Chester Regatta dated 1733, making it 100 years older than the Boat Race, Durham Regatta. It is a City regatta, run by volunteers drawn from all the Chester rowing clubs, held annually in June on the River Dee in Chester. The Athlone Yacht Club Regatta on Lough Ree, Ireland, in the notice of race of 1835 included,4 August, also, A prize will be pulled for in four oared cots. 5 August, A prize will be pulled for in 2 oared boats, a prize will be pulled for in four oared cots. 6 August, A silver cup value 15gns. for gentlemens four oared gigs - open to gigs from any part of Ireland, a prize for four oared cots. The event now takes place between the bridges in Athlone or at Killinure, Appledore & Instow Regatta - founded in 1885, tracing its origins back to 1831, is held annually on the River Torridge between the Villages of Appledore & Instow North Devon, UK. Catharines, Ontario, Canada, in the first week of August is one of the largest annual regattas in North America, attracting hundreds of clubs in 128 junior, senior, and masters events. Royal St. Johns Regatta, held every year on Quidi Vidi Lake in St. Johns, Newfoundland, summer Eights, along with Torpids, the two intercollegiate bumps races of Oxford University, held on the Isis in Oxford. The Boat Race is a race between the Oxford University Boat Club and the Cambridge University Boat Club
