1.
Lock (water navigation)
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A lock is a device used for raising and lowering boats, ships and other watercraft between stretches of water of different levels on river and canal waterways. Locks are used to make a more easily navigable, or to allow a canal to cross land that is not level. Later canals used more and larger locks to allow a direct route to be taken. Since 2016 the largest lock worldwide is the Kieldrecht Lock in the Port of Antwerp, a pound lock is a type of lock that is used almost exclusively nowadays on canals and rivers. A pound lock has a chamber with gates at both ends that control the level of water in the pound, in contrast, an earlier design with a single gate was known as a flash lock. Pound locks were first used in medieval China during the Song Dynasty, having been pioneered by the government official and engineer Qiao Weiyue in 984. The gates were hanging gates, when they were closed the water accumulated like a tide until the level was reached. The water level could differ by 4 feet or 5 feet at each lock, in medieval Europe a sort of pound lock was built in 1373 at Vreeswijk, Netherlands. This pound lock serviced many ships at once in a large basin, yet the first true pound lock was built in 1396 at Damme near Bruges, Belgium. A famous civil engineer of pound locks in Europe was the Italian Bertola da Novate, who constructed 18 of them on the Naviglio di Bereguardo between the years 1452 and 1458. When a stretch of river is navigable, a lock is sometimes required to bypass an obstruction such as a rapid, dam. In large scale river navigation improvements, weirs and locks are used together, a river improved by these means is often called a Waterway or River Navigation. Sometimes a river is made entirely non-tidal by constructing a sea lock directly into the estuary, in more advanced river navigations, more locks are required. Where a longer cut bypasses a stretch of river, the upstream end of the cut will often be protected by a flood lock. The longer the cut, the greater the difference in level between start and end of the cut, so that a very long cut will need additional locks along its length. At this point, the cut is, in effect, a canal, Early completely artificial canals, across fairly flat countryside, would get round a small hill or depression by simply detouring around it. However, locks continued to be built to supplement these solutions, all pound locks have three elements, A watertight chamber connecting the upper and lower canals, and large enough to enclose one or more boats. The position of the chamber is fixed, but its level can vary
2.
Huddersfield Broad Canal
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The Huddersfield Broad Canal or Sir John Ramsdens Canal, is a wide-locked navigable canal in West Yorkshire in northern England. The waterway is 3.75 miles long and has 9 wide locks and it follows the valley of the River Colne and connects the Calder and Hebble Navigation at Cooper Bridge junction with the Huddersfield Narrow Canal near Aspley Basin in Huddersfield. Construction was authorised in 1774, and the canal opened two years later and it became part of a trans-Pennine route in 1811 when the Huddersfield Narrow Canal joined it at Aspley Basin. Traffic was hampered by the long used on the narrow canal that could not use Ramsdens Canals shorter locks. The canal passed into railway ownership in 1845, but prospered into the 20th century, Railway ownership ceased in 1945, when it was bought by the Calder and Hebble Navigation, at which point the narrow canal across the Pennines was abandoned. The broad canal carried commercial traffic, particularly coal for power stations, after the formation of British Waterways in 1962, the canal was designated a cruiseway in 1968, which meant that it was mainly for leisure traffic. Use of the canal has increased significantly since the Hudderfield Narrow Canal re-opened in 2001, many of its structures have been given listed building status, in recognition of their historic importance. In 1766, Robert Whitworth surveyed a route for such a canal, a second survey was carried out in 1773 by Luke Holt and Joseph Atkinson for the Ramsden family, who owned the whole of Huddersfield at the time and keen to develop the canal. The family also owned roughly one-third of the land along the route of the canal. Holt had worked on the construction of the Calder and Hebble above Cooper Bridge, the estimated cost of its construction was £8,000, and it was expected to take one year to complete. Profits were limited by the act, which stipulated that the tolls must be cut as the profits increased, commissioners were to be appointed, with powers to examine the canal accounts and ensure compliance. In order to prevent water drawn by the canal from interfering with the operation of local mills, although a connection to the River Colne at Huddersfield was authorised by the act, the upper terminus was a basin at Apsley, where Ramsden built wharves and warehouses. From the basin it descended 57.3 feet over a distance of 3.75 miles, to its junction with the Calder, the canal opened in 1776, having cost £11,975, although the total included some maintenance costs. Water was taken from the River Colne and fed into the canal from the tail goit of Shaw Foot Mill until it was supplied by the Huddersfield Narrow Canal after it opened in 1811. The canal prospered, and in 1788, a service transporting goods between Huddersfield and Wakefield was operating three times a week. During the 1790s, goods were carried over the Pennines by road, with one service, operated by Richard Milnes, the Rochdale Canal provided a trans-Pennine route from 1804, and Sowerby Bridge remained more important than Huddersfield, even after the Huddersfield Narrow opened throughout in 1811. It was never successful, and Ramsdens Canal was seen almost as a branch of the Calder and Hebble, with links to Yorkshire. The Calder and Hebble brought prosperity to the area, and Ramsdens Canal shared in it, the Narrow Canal was hampered by the need to tranship cargoes at Huddersfield
3.
Winch
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A winch is a mechanical device that is used to pull in or let out or otherwise adjust the tension of a rope or wire rope. In its simplest form it consists of a spool and attached hand crank, in larger forms, winches stand at the heart of machines as diverse as tow trucks, steam shovels and elevators. The spool can also be called the winch drum, more elaborate designs have gear assemblies and can be powered by electric, hydraulic, pneumatic or internal combustion drives. Some may include a solenoid brake and/or a mechanical brake or ratchet, the rope is usually stored on the winch. When trimming a line on a sailboat, the member turns the winch handle with one hand. Some winches have a stripper or cleat to maintain tension and these are known as self-tailing winches. Winches are frequently used as elements of mechanics to move scenery in large theatrical productions. They are often embedded in the floor and used to move large set pieces on. Winches have recently been fabricated specifically for water and snow sports and this new generation of winches is designed to pull riders swiftly across a body of water or snow, simulating a riding experience that is normally supplied by a boat, wave runner, or snow mobile. Lever winches are winches that use self-gripping jaws instead of spools to move rope or wire through the winch, powered by moving a handle back and forth, they allow one person to move objects several tons in weight. Brand names include Tirfor™ and Griphoist™ and this is a vertical spool with a ratchet mechanism similar to a conventional winch, but with no crank handle or other form of drive. The line is wrapped around the spool and can be tightened and reeled in by pulling the tail line and they also allow controlled release of the tension by the operator using the friction of the line around the ratcheted spool. They are used on small sailing boats and dinghies to control sheets and other lines, wakeskate winching is a growing hobby for many watersports enthusiasts. The winch consists of an engine, spool, rope, handle, frame, the person being towed walks away from the winch and pulls out all of the rope. When the winch is engaged, it pulls the boarder usually between 15 to 25 miles per hour, the winch may be mounted on the trailer hitch of a vehicle, set into the ground by stakes, or tied to a tree. These winches have been modified for use by skiers and snowboarders in cities, gliders are often launched using a winch mounted on a trailer or heavy vehicle. This method is used at European gliding clubs, as a cheaper alternative to aerotowing. The engine is usually a large Petrol, LPG or diesel, though hydraulic fluid engines, the winch pulls in a 1,000 to 1, 600-metre cable, made of high-tensile steel wire or a synthetic fibre, attached to the glider
4.
Wang Zhen (inventor)
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This article is about Wang Zhen, agronomist and inventor. For other historical figures with this name, see Wang Zhen, Wang Zhen was an official of the Yuan Dynasty of China. He was one of the innovators of the wooden movable type printing technology. His illustrated agricultural treatise was also one of the most advanced of its day, covering a range of equipment and technologies available in the late 13th. Wang Zhen was born in Shandong province, and spent many years as an official of both Anhui and Jiangxi provinces. From the years 1290 to 1301, he was a magistrate for Jingde, Anhui province, the wooden movable type was described in Wang Zhens publication of 1313 AD, known as the Nong Shu, or Book of Agriculture. Although the title describes the focus of the work, it incorporated much more information on a wide variety of subjects that was not limited to the scope of agriculture. Wang Zhens Nong Shu of 1313 was an important medieval treatise outlining the application and use of the various Chinese sciences, technologies. From water powered bellows to movable type printing, it is considered a masterpiece on contemporary medieval Chinese technology. Hence, a such as the Nong Shu could help rural farmers maximize efficiency of producing yields. The Nong Shu was a long book even for its own time. The Chinese during the Han Dynasty were the first to apply hydraulic power in working the bellows of the blast furnace in creating cast iron. This was recorded in the year 31 AD, an innovation of the engineer Du Shi, after Du Shi, Chinese in subsequent dynastic periods continued the use of water power to operate the bellows of the blast furnace. The 5th century text Shui Jing Zhu mentions the use of rushing water to power waterwheels, as does the Tang Dynasty geography text of the Yuan-he Jun Xian Tu Chi. Although Du Shi was the first to apply power to bellows in metallurgy. Wang Zhen is best known for his usage of wooden movable type while he was a magistrate of Jingde in Anhui province from 1290 to 1301. His main contribution was improving the speed of typesetting with simple devices, along with the complex. Wang Zhen improved the earlier experimented process by adding the methods of specific type cutting and finishing, making the type case and revolving table that made the process more efficient
5.
Vitruvius
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His discussion of perfect proportion in architecture and the human body, led to the famous Renaissance drawing by Da Vinci of Vitruvian Man. By his own description Vitruvius served as an artilleryman, the class of arms in the military offices. He probably served as a officer of artillery in charge of doctores ballistarum. Little is known about Vitruvius life, most inferences about him are extracted from his only surviving work De Architectura. Even his first name Marcus and his cognomen Pollio are uncertain. Cetius Faventinus writes of Vitruvius Polio aliique auctores, this can be read as Vitruvius Polio, and others or, less likely, as Vitruvius, Polio, Vitruvius was a military engineer, or a praefect architectus armamentarius of the apparitor status group. He is mentioned in Pliny the Elders table of contents for Naturalis Historia, frontinus refers to Vitruvius the architect in his late 1st-century work De aquaeductu. Likely born a free Roman citizen, by his own account, Vitruvius served the Roman army under Caesar with the otherwise poorly identified Marcus Aurelius, Publius Minidius and these names vary depending on the edition of De architectura. Publius Minidius is also written as Publius Numidicus and Publius Numidius, as an army engineer he specialized in the construction of ballista and scorpio artillery war machines for sieges. It is speculated that Vitruvius served with Caesars chief engineer Lucius Cornelius Balbus, the locations where he served can be reconstructed from, for example, descriptions of the building methods of various foreign tribes. Although he describes places throughout De Architectura, he not say he was present. His service likely included north Africa, Hispania, Gaul and Pontus, the position of the camp, the direction of the entrenchments, the inspection of the tents or huts of the soldiers and the baggage were comprehended in his province. His authority extended over the sick, and the physicians who had the care of them and he had the charge of providing carriages, bathhouses and the proper tools for sawing and cutting wood, digging trenches, raising parapets, sinking wells and bringing water into the camp. He likewise had the care of furnishing the troops with wood and straw, as well as the rams, onagri, balistae, at various locations described by Vitruvius, battles and sieges occurred. He is the source for the siege of Larignum in 56 BC. The broken siege at Gergovia in 52 BC, and the siege of Uxellodunum in 51 BC. These are all sieges of large Gallic oppida, a legion that fits the same sequence of locations is the Legio VI Ferrata, of which ballista would be an auxiliary unit. Mainly known for his writings, Vitruvius was himself an architect, frontinus mentions him in connection with the standard sizes of pipes
6.
Hero of Alexandria
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Hero of Alexandria was a Greek mathematician and engineer who was active in his native city of Alexandria, Roman Egypt. He is considered the greatest experimenter of antiquity and his work is representative of the Hellenistic scientific tradition, Hero published a well recognized description of a steam-powered device called an aeolipile. Among his most famous inventions was a windwheel, constituting the earliest instance of wind harnessing on land and he is said to have been a follower of the atomists. Some of his ideas were derived from the works of Ctesibius, much of Heros original writings and designs have been lost, but some of his works were preserved in Arabic manuscripts. Hero described the construction of the aeolipile which was a reaction engine. It was created almost two millennia before the industrial revolution, another engine used air from a closed chamber heated by an altar fire to displace water from a sealed vessel, the water was collected and its weight, pulling on a rope, opened temple doors. Some historians have conflated the two inventions to assert that the aeolipile was capable of useful work. The first vending machine was one of his constructions, when a coin was introduced via a slot on the top of the machine. This was included in his list of inventions in his book Mechanics and Optics, when the coin was deposited, it fell upon a pan attached to a lever. The lever opened up a valve which let some water flow out, the pan continued to tilt with the weight of the coin until it fell off, at which point a counter-weight would snap the lever back up and turn off the valve. A windwheel operating an organ, marking the first instance of wind powering a machine in history, the sound of thunder was produced by the mechanically-timed dropping of metal balls onto a hidden drum. The force pump was used in the Roman world. A syringe-like device was described by Hero to control the delivery of air or liquids. In optics, Hero formulated the principle of the shortest path of light, If a ray of light propagates from point A to point B within the same medium, a standalone fountain that operates under self-contained hydrostatic energy A programmable cart that was powered by a falling weight. The program consisted of strings wrapped around the drive axle, Hero described a method for iteratively computing the square root of a number. Today, however, his name is most closely associated with Heros formula for finding the area of a triangle from its side lengths, the most comprehensive edition of Heros works was published in five volumes in Leipzig by the publishing house Teubner in 1903. The Mechanical Technology of Greek and Roman Antiquity, A Study of the Literary Sources, madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press. Greek and Roman Artillery, Technical Treatises, Schellenberg, H. M. Anmerkungen zu Hero von Alexandria und seinem Werk über den Geschützbau, in, Schellenberg, H. M. / Hirschmann, V. E. / Krieckhaus, A
7.
Simple machine
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A simple machine is a mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force. In general, they can be defined as the simplest mechanisms that use mechanical advantage to multiply force, ignoring friction losses, the work done on the load is equal to the work done by the applied force. The machine can increase the amount of the force, at the cost of a proportional decrease in the distance moved by the load. The ratio of the output to the force is called the mechanical advantage. Simple machines can be regarded as the building blocks of which all more complicated machines are composed. For example, wheels, levers, and pulleys are all used in the mechanism of a bicycle, the mechanical advantage of a compound machine is just the product of the mechanical advantages of the simple machines of which it is composed. The great variety and sophistication of modern machine linkages, which arose during the Industrial Revolution, is described by these six simple categories. By the late 1800s, Franz Reuleaux had identified hundreds of machine elements, Models of these devices may be found at Cornell Universitys Kinematic Models for Design website. The idea of a simple machine originated with the Greek philosopher Archimedes around the 3rd century BC, who studied the Archimedean simple machines, lever, pulley and he discovered the principle of mechanical advantage in the lever. Archimedes famous remark with regard to the lever, Give me a place to stand on, expresses his realization that there was no limit to the amount of force amplification that could be achieved by using mechanical advantage. Later Greek philosophers defined the five simple machines and were able to roughly calculate their mechanical advantage. For example, Heron of Alexandria in his work Mechanics lists five mechanisms that can set a load in motion, lever, windlass, pulley, wedge, and screw, and describes their fabrication and uses. However the Greeks understanding was limited to the statics of simple machines, the balance of forces, and did not include dynamics, in 1586 Flemish engineer Simon Stevin derived the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane, and it was included with the other simple machines. The complete dynamic theory of machines was worked out by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei in 1600 in Le Meccaniche. He was the first to understand that simple machines do not create energy and they were rediscovered by Guillaume Amontons and were further developed by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. Although each machine works differently mechanically, the way they function is similar mathematically, in each machine, a force F in is applied to the device at one point, and it does work moving a load, F out at another point. Simple machines do not contain a source of energy, so they cannot do more work than they receive from the input force, a simple machine with no friction or elasticity is called an ideal machine. Similarly the power input from the force is equal to the velocity of the input point v in multiplied by the applied force P in = F in v in
8.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
9.
Chesterfield
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Chesterfield is a market town and a borough in Derbyshire, England. It lies 24 miles north of Derby and 11 miles south of Sheffield, the borough – which includes the settlements of Whittington, Brimington and Staveley – had a population of 103,800 in 2011. Chesterfield is the second largest town in the county of Derbyshire. Archaeological examination of the town has traced its beginnings to the 1st century AD and the construction of a Roman fort, later an Anglo-Saxon village grew up on the site. The name Chesterfield derives from the Anglo-Saxon words caester and feld, Chesterfield received its market charter in 1204. It still has a moderately sized market of about 250 stalls held three days a week, the town sits on a large coalfield, which formed a major part of the areas economy until the 1980s. Little visual evidence of the remains today. The towns best known landmark is the Church of St Mary and All Saints, popularly known for its crooked spire, Chesterfield was in the Hundred of Scarsdale. The town received its charter in 1204 from King John. The charter constituted the town as a borough, granting the burgesses of Chesterfield the same privileges as those of Nottingham. In 1266, it was the site of the Battle of Chesterfield, elizabeth I granted a charter of incorporation in 1594, creating a corporation consisting of a mayor, six aldermen, six brethren, and twelve capital burgesses. This remained the governing charter until the borough was reformed under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, the borough originally consisted only of the township of Chesterfield, but it was extended in 1892 to parts of some surrounding townships. In 1920 there was an extension when the borough absorbed New Whittington. Chesterfield benefited greatly from the building of the Chesterfield Line – part of the Derby to Leeds railway, during the work, a sizeable seam of coal was discovered during the construction of the Clay Cross Tunnel. This and the local ironstone were promptly exploited by Stephenson, who set up a company in Clay Cross to trade in the minerals, during his time in Chesterfield, Stephenson lived at Tapton House, and remained there until his death in 1848. He is interred in Trinity Church, in 2006, a statue of Stephenson was erected outside Chesterfield railway station. Chesterfield is located on the confluence and valleys of the River Rother and River Hipper at the Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and Yorkshire Coalfield. The town also lies in the foothills of the Pennines
10.
Late Middle Ages
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The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history generally comprising the 14th and 15th centuries. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the modern era. Around 1300, centuries of prosperity and growth in Europe came to a halt, a series of famines and plagues, including the Great Famine of 1315–1317 and the Black Death, reduced the population to around half of what it was before the calamities. Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare, France and England experienced serious peasant uprisings, such as the Jacquerie and the Peasants Revolt, as well as over a century of intermittent conflict in the Hundred Years War. To add to the problems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Western Schism. Collectively these events are called the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages. Despite these crises, the 14th century was also a time of progress in the arts. Following a renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts that took root in the High Middle Ages, combined with this influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing, which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would lead to the Protestant Reformation. Toward the end of the period, the Age of Discovery began, the rise of the Ottoman Empire, culminating in the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, eroded the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire and cut off trading possibilities with the east. Europeans were forced to seek new trading routes, leading to the expedition of Columbus to the Americas in 1492 and their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations. The changes brought about by these developments have led scholars to view this period as the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of modern history. However, the division is artificial, since ancient learning was never entirely absent from European society. As a result there was continuity between the ancient age and the modern age. Some historians, particularly in Italy, prefer not to speak of the Late Middle Ages at all, but rather see the period of the Middle Ages transitioning to the Renaissance. The term Late Middle Ages refers to one of the three periods of the Middle Ages, along with the Early Middle Ages and the High Middle Ages, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodization in his History of the Florentine People. Flavio Biondo used a framework in Decades of History from the Deterioration of the Roman Empire. Tripartite periodization became standard after the German historian Christoph Cellarius published Universal History Divided into an Ancient, Medieval, for 18th-century historians studying the 14th and 15th centuries, the central theme was the Renaissance, with its rediscovery of ancient learning and the emergence of an individual spirit
11.
Crossbow
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A crossbow, also known as horizontal bow, is a type of weapon based on the bow and consisting of a horizontal bow-like assembly mounted on a stock. It shoots projectiles called bolts or quarrels, the medieval crossbow was called by many names, most of which were derived from the word ballista, a torsion siege engine resembling a crossbow. Historically, crossbows played a significant role in the warfare of East Asia, Europe, the introduction of the crossbow in ancient China caused a major shift in the role of projectile weaponry. The traditional bow and arrow had long been a weapon that required a considerable training, physical strength. A crossbow is a bow mounted on a stick with a mechanism in it that holds the bow string. The earliest designs featured a slot in the stock, down into which the string was placed, to shoot this design, a vertical rod is thrust up through a hole in the bottom of the notch, forcing the string out. This rod is attached perpendicular to a rear-facing lever called a trigger or tickler. A later design implemented a rolling cylindrical pawl called a nut to retain the string and this nut has a perpendicular center slot for the bolt, and an intersecting axial slot for the string, along with a lower face or slot against which the internal trigger sits. They often also have some form of strengthening internal sear or trigger face and these roller nuts were either free-floating in their close-fitting hole across the stock, tied in with a binding of sinew or other strong cording, or mounted on a metal axle or pins. Removable or integral plates of wood, ivory, or metal on the sides of the stock kept the nut in place laterally, nuts were made of antler, bone, or metal. Bows could be kept taut and ready to shoot for some time with little effort, the bow of early crossbows was made of a single piece of wood, usually ash or yew. Composite bows are made from layers of different material, often wood, horn and these composite bows made of several layers are much stronger and more efficient in releasing energy than simple wooden bows. As steel became more available in Europe around the 14th century. The crossbow prod is very short compared to ordinary bows, resulting in a draw length. This leads to a draw weight in order to store the same amount of energy. Furthermore, the thick prods are a bit less efficient at releasing energy, traditionally, the prod was often lashed to the stock with rope, whipcord, or other strong cording. This cording is called the bridle, the strings for a crossbow are typically made of strong fibers that would not tend to fray. Whipcord was very common, however linen, hemp, and sinew were used as well, in wet conditions, twisted mulberry root was occasionally used
12.
Anchor
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An anchor is a device, normally made of metal, used to connect a vessel to the bed of a body of water to prevent the craft from drifting due to wind or current. The word derives from Latin ancora, which comes from the Greek ἄγκυρα. Anchors can either be temporary or permanent, permanent anchors are used in the creation of a mooring, and are rarely moved, a specialist service is normally needed to move or maintain them. Vessels carry one or more anchors, which may be of different designs. A sea anchor is a drogue, not in contact with the seabed, used to control a drifting vessel, anchors achieve holding power either by hooking into the seabed, or via sheer mass, or a combination of the two. Permanent moorings use large masses resting on the seabed, semi-permanent mooring anchors and large ships anchors derive a significant portion of their holding power from their mass, while also hooking or embedding in the bottom. Modern anchors for smaller vessels have metal flukes which hook on to rocks on the bottom or bury themselves in soft seabed, the vessel is attached to the anchor by the rode, which is made of chain, cable, rope, or a combination of these. A10,1 scope gives the greatest holding power, Anchoring with sufficient scope and/or heavy chain rode brings the direction of strain close to parallel with the seabed. If necessary, motoring slowly around the location of the anchor also helps dislodge it, anchors are sometimes fitted with a tripping line attached to the crown, by which they can be unhooked from rocks or coral. The term aweigh describes an anchor when it is hanging on the rope and is not resting on the bottom and this is linked to the term to weigh anchor, meaning to lift the anchor from the sea bed, allowing the ship or boat to move. An anchor is described as aweigh when it has broken out of the bottom and is being hauled up to be stowed. Aweigh should not be confused with under way, which describes a vessel which is not moored to a dock or anchored, the earliest anchors were probably rocks, and many rock anchors have been found dating from at least the Bronze Age. Pre-European Maori waka used one or more hollowed stones, tied with flax ropes, many modern moorings still rely on a large rock as the primary element of their design. However, using pure mass to resist the forces of a storm only works well as a permanent mooring, the ancient Greeks used baskets of stones, large sacks filled with sand, and wooden logs filled with lead. According to Apollonius Rhodius and Stephen of Byzantium, anchors were formed of stone, such anchors held the vessel merely by their weight and by their friction along the bottom. Iron was afterwards introduced for the construction of anchors, and an improvement was made by forming them with teeth, or flukes, the Admiralty Pattern, A. P. or simply Admiralty, and also known as Fisherman, is the anchor shape most familiar to non-sailors. It consists of a shank with a ring or shackle for attaching the rode. At the other end of the shank there are two arms, carrying the flukes, while the stock is mounted to the other end, when the anchor lands on the bottom, it will generally fall over with the arms parallel to the seabed
13.
Capstan (nautical)
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A capstan is a vertical-axled rotating machine developed for use on sailing ships to apply force to ropes, cables, and hawsers. The principle is similar to that of the windlass, which has a horizontal axle, both device and word are considered Spanish inventions. In its earliest form, the capstan consisted of a timber mounted vertically through a structure which was free to rotate. Levers, known as bars, were inserted through holes at the top of the timber, a rope wrapped several turns around the drum was thus hauled upon. A rudimentary ratchet was provided to hold the tension, the ropes were always wound in a clockwise direction. Capstans evolved to consist of a drum or barrel mounted on an iron axle. Two barrels on a common axle were used frequently to allow men on two decks to apply force to the bars, later capstans were made entirely of iron, with gearing in the head providing a mechanical advantage when the bars were pushed counterclockwise. One form of capstan was connected by a shaft and gears to an anchor windlass on the deck below, on riverine vessels, the capstan was sometimes cranked by steam power. Modern capstans are powered electrically, hydraulically, pneumatically, or via an internal combustion engine, typically, a gearbox is used which trades reduced speed, relative to the prime mover, for increased torque. In yachting terminology, a winch functions on the principle as a capstan. However, in applications, the term winch generally implies a machine which stores the rope on a drum. Hydraulically powered capstans were used in railway goods yards for shunting. One example was Broad Street goods station in London, the yard was on a deck above some warehouses, and the deck was not strong enough to carry a locomotive, so ropes and capstans were used instead
14.
Anchor windlass
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A windlass is a machine used on ships that is used to let-out and heave-up equipment such as a ships anchor or a fishing trawl. An anchor windlass is a machine that restrains and manipulates the anchor chain on a boat, a notched wheel engages the links of the chain or the rope. A trawl windlass is a machine that restrains or manipulates the trawl on a commercial fishing vessel. The trawl is a sort of big fishing net that is wound on the windlass, the fishermen either let-out the trawl or heaves-up the trawl during fishing operations. A brake is provided for control and a windlass is usually powered by an electric or hydraulic motor operating via a gear train, technically speaking, the term windlass refers only to horizontal winches. Vertical designs are correctly called capstans, horizontal windlasses make use of an integral gearbox and motor assembly, all typically located above-deck, with a horizontal shaft through the unit and wheels for chain and/or rope on either side. Vertical capstans use a shaft, with the motor and gearbox situated below the winch unit. The unit tends to be more self-contained, protecting the machinery from the corrosive environment found on boats, the dual wheels also allow two anchors on double rollers to be serviced. Vertical capstans, for their part, allow the machinery to be placed below decks, thus lowering the center of gravity, and also allow a flexible angle of pull. It tends to be the case that smaller boats use capstans and this would occur if the windlass brake has slipped and the cable has reached the bitter end. This is the origin of the term to the bitter end and it originally applied in sailing vessels where the cable was a rope, and the windlass or capstan was powered by many sailors below decks. The wheels on either a vertical or horizontal windlass provide for either chain or line to be engaged, the wheel for line is termed a warping head, while the chain handling wheel is variously referred to as the gypsy or wildcat. For clarity in communication the generic term chainwheel is often used and it is important that the chainwheel match the chain size closely. Nowadays, especially on large tankers and cruise ships, the windlass may be split into independent port, in these cases they are frequently coupled with warping drums. In some of these the warping drums are of the self tensioning or constant tension type, while most windlasses require power, many are manually driven in the same manner as most sailing boats winches for sheets. In fact only modern boats have practical sources for power, powered solutions include steam, hydraulics, and electrics. Electrics are convenient and relatively cheap, but hydraulics prove more efficient, in general, windlasses and their power system should be capable of lifting the anchor and all its rode if deployed so that it hangs suspended in deep water. This task should be within the rated working pull, not its maximum pull
15.
Canals of the United Kingdom
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The canals of the United Kingdom are a major part of the network of inland waterways in the United Kingdom. They have a history, from use for irrigation and transport, through becoming the focus of the Industrial Revolution. Despite a period of abandonment, today the system in the United Kingdom is again in increasing use, with abandoned and derelict canals being reopened. Most canals in the United Kingdom are maintained by the Canal & River Trust, previously British Waterways, the majority of canals in the United Kingdom can accommodate boats with a length of between 55 and 80 feet and are now used primarily for leisure. There are a number of canals which are far larger than this including New Junction Canal, one purpose built ship canal exists in the United Kingdom, the Manchester Ship Canal, which is incomparable in size to any other canal in the United Kingdom. Upon opening in 1894 it was the largest ship canal in the world, Canals first saw use during the Roman occupation of the south of Great Britain, and were used mainly for irrigation. The Romans also created several navigable canals, such as Foss Dyke, to link rivers, the United Kingdoms navigable water network grew as the demand for industrial transport increased. The canals were key to the pace of the Industrial Revolution, a system of very large pack horse trains had developed, but few roads were suitable for wheeled vehicles able to transport large amounts of materials quickly. Canal boats were much quicker, could carry large volumes. Following the success of the Bridgewater Canal, other canals were constructed between industrial centres, cities and ports, and were soon transporting raw materials and manufactured goods. There were immediate benefits to households, as well as to commerce, in Manchester, as the Industrial Revolution took hold in the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century, the technology allowed canals to be improved. The early canals contoured round hills and valleys, later ones went straighter, Locks took canals up and down hills, and they strode across valleys on taller and longer aqueducts and through hills in longer and deeper tunnels. From the mid-19th century, railways began to replace canals, especially those built with the narrow bridges. As trains, and later vehicles, became more advanced, they became cheaper than the narrow canal system, being faster. The canal network declined, and many canals were bought by railway companies – in some cases to them to penetrate rival companies areas transhipping to/from canal boats. Some narrow canals became unusable, filled with weeds, silt and rubbish, however, the last new canal before the end of the 20th century was the New Junction Canal in Yorkshire in 1905. A few of the remaining customers turned to road and rail haulage to ensure reliability of supply and never returned, other narrowboat traffic gradually ceased with the change from coal to oil, the closure of canalside factories, and run-down of British heavy industry. Regular narrowboat traffics continued, such as lime juice from Brentford to Boxmoor while aggregates were carried on the River Soar until 1988
16.
Water well
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A water well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving, boring, or drilling to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The well water is drawn by a pump, or using containers, such as buckets, placing a lining in the well shaft helps create stability and linings of wood or wickerwork date back at least as far as the Iron Age. Wells have been sunk by hand digging as is the case in rural developing areas. These wells are inexpensive and low-tech as they use mostly manual labour, a more modern method called caissoning uses pre-cast reinforced concrete well rings that are lowered into the hole. Deeper wells can be excavated by hand drilling methods or machine drilling, using a bit in a borehole, drilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe composed of steel or plastic. Drilled wells can access water at greater depths than dug wells. A collector well can be constructed adjacent to a lake or stream with water percolating through the intervening material. The site of a well can be selected by a hydrogeologist, Water may be pumped or hand drawn. Impurities from the surface can easily reach shallow sources and contamination of the supply by pathogens or chemical contaminants needs to be avoided, Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require treatment before being potable. Soil salination can occur as the water falls and the surrounding soil begins to dry out. Another environmental problem is the potential for methane to seep into the water, hand-dug wells are excavations with diameters large enough to accommodate one or more people with shovels digging down to below the water table. The excavation is braced horizontally to avoid landslide or erosion endangering the people digging, a more modern method called caissoning uses reinforced concrete or plain concrete pre-cast well rings that are lowered into the hole. A well-digging team digs under a ring and the well column slowly sinks into the aquifer. Hand-dug wells are inexpensive and low tech as they use mostly manual labour to access groundwater in rural locations in developing countries and they may be built with a high degree of community participation, or by local entrepreneurs who specialize in hand-dug wells. They have been excavated to 60 metres. They have low operational and maintenance costs, in part because water can be extracted by hand bailing, without a pump. The water is coming from an aquifer or groundwater, and can be easily deepened. The yield of existing hand dug wells may be improved by deepening or introducing vertical tunnels or perforated pipes, drawbacks to hand-dug wells are numerous
17.
Isidore of Seville
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He was influential in the inner circle of Sisebut, Visigothic king of Hispania. Like Leander, he played a prominent role in the Councils of Toledo, the Visigothic legislation that resulted from these councils influenced the beginnings of representative government. His fame after his death was based on his Etymologiae, an encyclopedia which assembled extracts of many books from classical antiquity that would have otherwise been lost. Isidore was probably born in Cartagena, Spain, a former Carthaginian colony, to Severianus, both Severianus and Theodora belonged to notable Hispano-Roman families of high social rank. His parents were members of a family who were instrumental in the political-religious manoeuvring that converted the Visigothic kings from Arianism to Catholicism. A younger brother, Saint Fulgentius of Cartagena, served as the Bishop of Astigi at the start of the new reign of the Catholic King Reccared and his sister, Saint Florentina, served God as a nun and allegedly ruled over forty convents and one thousand consecrated religious. This claim seems unlikely, however, given the few functioning monastic institutions in Iberia during her lifetime, Isidore received his elementary education in the Cathedral school of Seville. In this institution, the first of its kind in Iberia, a body of learned men including Archbishop Saint Leander of Seville taught the trivium and quadrivium, Saint Isidore applied himself to study diligently enough that he quickly mastered Latin, and acquired some Greek, and Hebrew. Two centuries of Gothic control of Iberia incrementally suppressed the ancient institutions, classic learning, the associated culture entered a period of long-term decline. The ruling Visigoths nevertheless showed some respect for the trappings of Roman culture. Arianism meanwhile took deep root among the Visigoths as the form of Christianity that they received, scholars may debate whether Isidore ever personally embraced monastic life or affiliated with any religious order, but he undoubtedly esteemed the monks highly. After the death of Saint Leander of Seville on 13 March 600 or 601, on his elevation to the episcopate, he immediately constituted himself as protector of monks. He used all available religious resources toward this end and succeeded, Isidore practically eradicated the heresy of Arianism and completely stifled the new heresy of Acephali at its very outset. Archbishop Isidore strengthened religious discipline throughout his See, Archbishop Isidore also used resources of education to counteract increasingly influential Gothic barbarism throughout his episcopal jurisdiction. His quickening spirit animated the educational movement centered on Seville, Saint Isidore introduced Aristotle to his countrymen long before the Arabs studied Greek philosophy extensively. In 619, Saint Isidore of Seville pronounced anathema against any ecclesiastic who in any way should molest the monasteries, through the enlightened statecraft of his two brothers, the Councils of Seville and Toledo emanated Visigothic legislation which influenced the beginnings of representative government. The Acts of the Council fully set forth the nature of Christ, countering the conceptions of Gregory, based on a few surviving canons found in the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, Saint Isidore is known to have presided over an additional provincial council around 624. The council dealt with a conflict over the see of Ecija, and wrongfully stripped bishop Martianus of his see and it also addressed a concern over Jews who had been forced to convert to Christianity by Sisebut failing to present their children for baptism
18.
Gold mining
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Gold mining is the resource extraction of gold by mining. As of 2015, the worlds largest gold producer by far was China with 455 tonnes, the second-largest producer, Australia, mined 270 tonnes in the same year, followed by Russia with 250 tonnes. It is impossible to know the date that humans first began to mine gold. The graves of the necropolis were built between 4700 and 4200 BC, indicating that gold mining could be at least 7000 years old. A group of German and Georgian archaeologists claims the Sakdrisi site in southern Georgia, dating to the 3rd or 4th millennium BC, bronze age gold objects are plentiful, especially in Ireland and Spain, and there are several well known possible sources. Romans used hydraulic mining methods, such as hushing and ground sluicing on a scale to extract gold from extensive alluvial deposits. Mining was under the control of the state but the mines may have been leased to civilian contractors some time later, Gold was a prime motivation for the campaign in Dacia when the Romans invaded Transylvania in what is now modern Romania in the second century AD. The legions were led by the emperor Trajan, and their exploits are shown on Trajans Column in Rome, under the Eastern Roman Empire Emperor Justinians rule, gold was mined in the Balkans, Anatolia, Armenia, Egypt, and Nubia. In the area of the Kolar Gold Fields in Bangarpet Taluk, Kolar District of Karnataka state, India, gold was first mined prior to the 2nd and 3rd century AD by digging small pits. The Champion reef at the Kolar gold fields was mined to a depth of 50 metres during the Gupta period in the fifth century AD, during the Chola period in the 9th and 10th century AD, the scale of the operation grew. The metal continued to be mined by the eleventh century kings of South India, the Vijayanagara Empire from 1336 to 1560, and later by Tipu Sultan, the king of Mysore state and it is estimated that the total gold production in Karnataka to date is 1000 tons. The mining of the Slovak deposit primarily around Kremnica was the largest of the Medieval period in Europe, the discovery of gold in the Witwatersrand led to the Second Boer War and ultimately the founding of South Africa. The Carlin Trend of Nevada, U. S. was discovered in 1961, as of 2015, the worlds largest gold producer by far was China with 455 tonnes/year. The second-largest producer, Australia, mined 270 tonnes in the same year, despite the decreasing gold content of ores, the production is increasing. This can be achieved with industrial installations, and new process, placer mining is the technique by which gold that has accumulated in a placer deposit is extracted. Placer deposits are composed of loose material that makes tunneling difficult. Gold panning is mostly a manual technique of separating gold from other materials, wide, shallow pans are filled with sand and gravel that may contain gold. The pan is submerged in water and shaken, sorting the gold from the gravel, as gold is much denser than rock, it quickly settles to the bottom of the pan
19.
Whim (mining)
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A whim, also called a whim gin or a horse capstan, is a device similar to a windlass used in mining for hauling materials to the surface. It comprises a capstan or a drum with a vertical axle. A rope is wound around the drum, with both ends traversing several pulleys and hanging down the mine shaft. As the drum is turned around, one end of the rope is lowered, carrying an empty bucket, while the one is raised. The major benefit from using a whim is that its operation can be performed at a distance from the shaft, early whims were horse-powered, but later they were powered by waterwheels or steam engines, including the most advanced Cornish engines. Whims were used in coal mines until the end of the nineteenth century, horse whims were also used to power team boats. The Brendon Hills Iron Mines and the West Somerset Mineral Railway
20.
Differential pulley
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A differential pulley, also called Weston differential pulley, sometimes chain hoist or colloquially chain fall, is used to manually lift very heavy objects like car engines. It is operated by pulling upon the section of a continuous chain that wraps around pulleys. The relative size of two connected pulleys determines the weight that can be lifted by hand. The load will remain in place until the chain is pulled, the differential pulley was invented in 1854 by Thomas Aldridge Weston from Kings Norton, England. The pulleys were manufactured in collaboration with Richard and George Tangye, according to Richard Tangyes autobiography, the Weston differential pulley evolved from the Chinese windlass, with an endless chain replacing the finite length of rope. Marketed as Weston Differential Pulley Blocks with Patent Chain Guides, the pulley had good sales, namely,3000 sets in 9 months. It was displayed in 5 sizes — from 10 long hundredweight to 3 long tons — at the 1862 International Exhibition in London and received a medal for original application, practical utility, the Yale Lock Company acquired the patent rights in 1876. A dumb pulley can lift very large masses a short distance and it consists of two fixed pulleys of unequal radii that are attached to each other and rotate together, a single pulley bearing the load, and an endless rope looped around the pulleys. To avoid slippage, the rope is replaced by a chain. This leads to an advantage, the force needed to lift a load is only a fraction of the loads weight. At the same time, the distance the load is lifted is smaller than the length of chain pulled by the same factor, the difference in radii can be made very small, making the mechanical advantage of this pulley system very large. In the extreme case of difference in radii, MA becomes infinite, thus no force is needed to move the chain. At the other extreme, when r is zero, the system becomes a simple gun tackle with an advantage of 2. The same principle is used in a differential windlass, where the connected pulleys are replaced by winches, in the above graphic, the four segments of the chain are labelled W, X, Y and Z. The magnitudes of their forces are FW, FX, FY and FZ. Assuming that the chain is massless, FX =0 because segment X is not supporting any weight, taking the system at equilibrium, FW and FY are equal — if they were not, the lower pulley would freely turn until they were. Next, the force acting on the lower pulley equal the upward forces acting on it, so FL = FW + FY. As FW = F L/2, F L/2 = FZ · R/R − r, finally, the mechanical advantage, F L/F Z =2 R/R − r or 2/1 − r/R
21.
Movable pulley
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A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft that is designed to support movement and change of direction of a taut cable, supporting shell is referred to as a block. A pulley may also be called a sheave or drum and may have a groove or grooves between two flanges around its circumference. The drive element of a system can be a rope, cable, belt. Hero of Alexandria identified the pulley as one of six simple machines used to lift weights, pulleys are assembled to form a block and tackle in order to provide mechanical advantage to apply large forces. Pulleys are also assembled as part of belt and chain drives in order to power from one rotating shaft to another. A set of pulleys assembled so that they rotate independently on the axle from a block. Two blocks with an attached to one of the blocks. A block and tackle is assembled so one block is attached to fixed mounting point, the ideal mechanical advantage of the block and tackle is equal to the number of parts of the rope that support the moving block. This system is included in the list of simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists, if the rope and pulley system does not dissipate or store energy, then its mechanical advantage is the number of parts of the rope that act on the load. This can be shown as follows, consider the set of pulleys that form the moving block and the parts of the rope that support this block. If there are p of these parts of the supporting the load W. This means the force on the rope is T=W/p. Thus, the block and tackle reduces the force by the factor p. The simplest theory of operation for a pulley system assumes that the pulleys and lines are weightless, and it is also assumed that the lines do not stretch. In equilibrium, the forces on the block must sum to zero. In addition the tension in the rope must be the same for each of its parts and this means that the two parts of the rope supporting the moving block must each support half the load. These are different types of systems, Fixed, A fixed pulley has an axle mounted in bearings attached to a supporting structure. A fixed pulley changes the direction of the force on a rope or belt that moves along its circumference, mechanical advantage is gained by combining a fixed pulley with a movable pulley or another fixed pulley of a different diameter
22.
Bight (knot)
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In knot tying, a bight is a curved section or slack part between the two ends of a rope, string, or yarn. Any section of line that is bent into a U-shape is a bight, an open loop is a curve in a rope narrower than a bight but with separated ends. The term is used in a more specific way when describing Turks head knots. In order to make a knot, a bight must be passed. This slipped form of the knot is more easily untied, the traditional bow knot used for tying shoelaces is simply a reef knot with the final overhand knot made with two bights instead of the ends. Similarly, a hitch is a slipped clove hitch. The phrase in the means a bight of line is itself being used to make a knot. Specifically this means that the knot can be formed without access to the ends of the rope. This can be an important property for knots to be used in situations where the ends of the rope are inaccessible, many knots normally tied with an end also have a form which is tied in the bight. In other cases, a knot being tied in the bight is a matter of the method of tying rather than a difference in the form of the knot. For example, the hitch can be made in the bight if it is being slipped over the end of a post but not if being cast onto a closed ring. Other knots, such as the knot, cannot be tied in the bight without changing their final form
23.
Mechanical advantage
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Mechanical advantage is a measure of the force amplification achieved by using a tool, mechanical device or machine system. Ideally, the device preserves the power and simply trades off forces against movement to obtain a desired amplification in the output force. The model for this is the law of the lever, machine components designed to manage forces and movement in this way are called mechanisms. An ideal mechanism transmits power without adding to or subtracting from it and this means the ideal mechanism does not include a power source, is frictionless, and is constructed from rigid bodies that do not deflect or wear. The lever operates by applying forces at different distances from the fulcrum, as the lever pivots on the fulcrum, points farther from this pivot move faster than points closer to the pivot. The power into and out of the lever is the same, power is the product of force and velocity, so forces applied to points farther from the pivot must be less than when applied to points closer in. This is the law of the lever, which was proven by Archimedes using geometric reasoning, if the distance from the fulcrum to the input force is less than from the fulcrum to the output force, then the lever reduces the input force. The use of velocity in the analysis of a lever is an application of the principle of virtual work. The requirement for power input to a mechanism to equal power output provides a simple way to compute mechanical advantage from the input-output speed ratio of the system. The power input to a train with a torque TA applied to the drive pulley which rotates at an angular velocity of ωA is P=TAωA. This shows that for a mechanism the input-output speed ratio equals the mechanical advantage of the system. This applies to all mechanical systems ranging from robots to linkages, gear teeth are designed so that the number of teeth on a gear is proportional to the radius of its pitch circle, and so that the pitch circles of meshing gears roll on each other without slipping. The speed ratio for a pair of meshing gears can be computed from ratio of the radii of the pitch circles, where NA is the number of teeth on the input gear and NB is the number of teeth on the output gear. The mechanical advantage of a pair of meshing gears for which the gear has NA teeth. This shows that if the output gear GB has more teeth than the input gear GA, and, if the output gear has fewer teeth than the input gear, then the gear train reduces the input torque. If the output gear of a gear train rotates more slowly than the input gear, in this case, because the output gear must have more teeth than the input gear, the speed reducer will amplify the input torque. Mechanisms consisting of two connected by a chain, or two pulleys connected by a belt are designed to provide a specific mechanical advantage in power transmission systems. Where NA is the number of teeth on the input sprocket, for a toothed belt drive, the number of teeth on the sprocket can be used
24.
Tourniquet
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A tourniquet is a constricting or compressing device, specifically a bandage, used to control venous and arterial circulation to an extremity for a period of time. Pressure is applied circumferentially upon the skin and underlying tissues of a limb and it is generally used as a tool for a medical professional in applications such as cannulation or to stem the flow of traumatic bleeding, especially by military medics. The tourniquet is usually applied when the patient is in a state as a result of continuous bleeding. A primitive tourniquet can be made from a stick and a rope, the rope is made into a loop that fits over the damaged limb and the stick is inserted through the loop. The loop is tightened by twisting the stick and this primitive device stems the flow of blood but side-effects such as tissue damage and nerve damage may occur. In modern medicine, pre-assembled devices have been developed and they avoid side-effects of the traditional rope-and-stick tourniquets and can be faster or easier to apply. Some modern tourniquets, such as the Combat Application Tourniquet or the SOF Tourniquet can be applied with one hand by the person himself. However, it does require some practice to ensure it is applied correctly and quickly, during Alexander the Great’s military campaigns in the fourth century BC, tourniquets were used to stanch the bleeding of wounded soldiers. Romans used them to control bleeding, especially during amputations and these tourniquets were narrow straps made of bronze, using only leather for comfort. In 1718, French surgeon Jean Louis Petit developed a device for occluding blood flow in surgical sites. Before this invention, the tourniquet was a simple garrot, tightened by twisting a rod. ”Joseph Lister is credited for being the first to use a device to create a bloodless surgical field in 1864. He also recommended exsanguinations prior to tourniquet application by limb elevation, in 1873, Friedrich von Esmarch developed a rubber bandage that would both control bleeding and exsanguinate. This device is known as Esmarchs bandage for surgical haemostasis or Eschmarchs Tourniquet, at the time this device was superior to Petit’s device as there were no screws to loosen or cloth to tear. In 1881, Richard von Volkmann showed that limb paralysis can occur from the use of the Esmarch tourniquet, in 1904, Harvey Cushing created a pneumatic tourniquet. This type of tourniquet compressed the underlying blood vessels using a gas source to inflate a cylindrical bladder. This was superior to the Esmarch tourniquet in two ways, the tourniquet could be applied and removed quickly, and this method of limb occlusion decreased the incidence of nerve paralysis, august Bier used two tourniquets for administering segmental anesthesia in 1908. In this procedure circulation is isolated in a limb and the limb is then infused intravenously, in 1963 Hamilton E. Holmes reintroduced Bier’s method as a single tourniquet technique. Today, the technique is used frequently and is called intravenous regional anesthesia
25.
Straitjacket
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A straitjacket is a garment shaped like a jacket with overlong sleeves and is typically used to restrain a person who may otherwise cause harm to him/herself or others. Once the arms are inserted into the sleeves, they are then crossed across the chest. The ends of the sleeves are tied to the back of the wearer. Although straitjacket is the most common spelling, strait-jacket is also frequently used, straitjackets are also known as camisoles. The straitjackets effectiveness as a restraint makes it of special interest in escapology, the straitjacket is also a staple prop in stage magic and is sometimes used in bondage. The negative connotations of the straitjacket as an instrument of torture come from the earlier Victorian era of medicine, physical restraint was then extensively used both as treatment for mental illness and as a means of pacifying patients in understaffed asylums. Due to the strength of the material, canvas or duck cloth is used for making institutional straitjackets. However, leather or PVC is most often used for recreational or fashion wear, the term is used metaphorically, as in the phrase intellectual straitjacket to criticize very tight boundaries on what ideas are allowed, as imposed by an ideological system of thought. Before psychiatric medications and talking therapies were developed, doctors simply did not know how to treat disorders such as schizophrenia, depression. As a result, doctors attempted a variety of treatments that seem cruel by modern standards, the straitjacket was one of these treatments. At the height of its use, it was considered more humane than traditional restraints made of ropes or chains and it prevented the sufferer from damaging clothes or furniture, and from injuring self, staff or fellow inmates. Before the American Civil War, the ill were often placed in poorhouses, workhouses. Patients were often forced to live with criminals and were treated likewise, by the 1860s, Americans wanted to provide better assistance to the less fortunate, including the mentally ill. The number of devoted to the care of people with mental disorders increased significantly. These facilities, meant to be places of refuge, were referred to as insane asylums, between 1825 and 1865, the number of asylums in the United States increased from nine to 62. The establishment of asylums did not mean that treatment greatly improved, because doctors did not understand what caused the behavior of their patients, they often listed the possible causes of mental illness as religious excitement, sunstroke, or even reading novels. They believed that the patient had lost all control over their morals, asylums often employed straitjackets to restrain patients who could not control themselves. Many assessors, including Marie Ragone and Diane Fenex, considered straitjackets to be a form of treatment
26.
Hoist (device)
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A hoist is a device used for lifting or lowering a load by means of a drum or lift-wheel around which rope or chain wraps. It may be operated, electrically or pneumatically driven and may use chain. The load is attached to the hoist by means of a lifting hook, the basic hoist has two important characteristics to define it, Lifting medium and power type. The lifting medium is either wire rope, wrapped around a drum, or load-chain, the power can be provided by different means. Common means are hydraulics, electrical and air driven motors, both the wire rope hoist and chain hoist have been in common use since the 1800s, however mass production of an electric hoist did not start until the early 1900s and was first adapted by Germany. A hoist can be built as one unit, designed for cost-effective purchasing and moderate use, or it can be built as a built-up custom unit, designed for durability. The built-up hoist will be more expensive, but will also be easier to repair. Package units were regarded as being designed for light to moderate usage. Built-up units are designed for heavy to severe service, but over the years that market has decreased in size since the advent of the more durable packaged hoist. A machine shop or fabricating shop will use an integral-package hoist, while a Steel Mill or NASA would use a unit to meet durability, performance. NASA has also seen a change in the use of package hoists, the NASA Astronaut training pool, for example, utilizes cranes with packaged hoists. The more commonly used hoist in todays worldwide market is an electrically powered hoist and these are either the chain type or the wire rope type. See the Hoists Manufacturers Institute site for true life calculation which is based on load, in todays modern world for the North American market there are a few governing bodies for the industry. The Overhead Alliance is a group that represents Crane Manufacturers Association of America, Hoist Manufacturers Institute and these product counsels of the Material Handling Industry of America have joined forces to create promotional materials to raise the awareness of the benefits to overhead lifting. The members of group are marketing representatives of the member companies. Common small portable hoists are of two types, the chain hoist or chain block and the wire rope or cable type. Chain hoists may have a lever to actuate the hoist or have a loop of operating chain that one pulls through the block which then activates the block to take up the main lifting chain. For a given rated load wire rope is lighter in weight per unit length, the lift chain of a chain hoist is far larger than the liftwheel over which chain may function
27.
Joseph Needham
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Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham CH FRS FBA was a British scientist, historian and sinologist known for his scientific research and writing on the history of Chinese science. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1941, in 1992, the Queen conferred on him the Companionship of Honour, and the Royal Society noted he was the only living person to hold these three titles. Needham was the child of a London family. His father was a doctor, and his mother, Alicia Adelaïde, née Montgomery, was a composer from Oldcastle. Needham was educated at Oundle School before attending Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, where he received a BA in 1921, an Oxbridge MA in January 1925 and he had intended to study medicine but came under the influence of Frederick Hopkins, resulting in his switch to biochemistry. His three-volume work Chemical Embryology, published in 1931, includes a history of embryology from Egyptian times up to the early 19th century and his Terry Lecture of 1936 was published by Cambridge University Press in association with Yale University Press under the title of Order and Life. In 1939 he produced a work on morphogenesis that a Harvard reviewer claimed will go down in the history of science as Joseph Needhams magnum opus. Although his career as biochemist and an academic was well established, his career developed in unanticipated directions during, three Chinese scientists came to Cambridge for graduate study in 1937, Lu Gwei-djen, Wang Ying-lai and Shen Shih-Chang. Lu, daughter of a Nanjingese pharmacist, taught Needham Chinese, igniting his interest in Chinas ancient technological and he then pursued, and mastered, the study of Classical Chinese privately with Gustav Haloun. Under the Royal Societys direction, Needham was the director of the Sino-British Science Co-operation Office in Chongqing from 1942 to 1946, during this time he made several long journeys through war-torn China and many smaller ones, visiting scientific and educational establishments and obtaining for them much needed supplies. His longest trip in late 1943 ended in far west in Gansu at the caves in Dunhuang at the end of the Great Wall where the earliest dated printed book - a copy of the Diamond Sutra - was found. The other long trip reached Fuzhou on the east coast, returning across the Xiang River just two days before the Japanese blew up the bridge at Hengyang and cut off part of China. In 1944 he visited Yunnan in an attempt to reach the Burmese border, everywhere he went he purchased and was given old historical and scientific books which he shipped back to Britain through diplomatic channels. They were to form the foundation of his later research, on his return to Europe, he was asked by Julian Huxley to become the first head of the Natural Sciences Section of UNESCO in Paris, France. In fact it was Needham who insisted that science should be included in the organisations mandate at a planning meeting. He devoted his energy to the history of Chinese science until his retirement in 1990, in 1948, Needham proposed a project to the Cambridge University Press for a book on Science and Civilisation in China. Within weeks of being accepted, the project had grown to seven volumes and his initial collaborator was the historian Wang Ling, whom he had met in Lizhuang and obtained a position for at Trinity. The first years were devoted to compiling a list of every mechanical invention and abstract idea that had been made and conceived in China
28.
George Sarton
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George Alfred Leon Sarton, a Belgian-American chemist and historian, is considered the founder of the discipline of history of science. He has a significant importance in the history of science and his most influential work was the Introduction to the History of Science, which consists of three volumes and 4,296 pages. Sarton ultimately aimed to achieve an integrated philosophy of science provided a connection between the sciences and the humanities, which he referred to as the new humanism. George Alfred Leon Sarton was born in Ghent, Belgium on August 31,1884 and his parents were Alfred Sarton and Léonie Van Halmé, his mother died when he was less than a year old. He graduated from the University of Ghent in 1906 and two years won a gold medal for one of his papers on chemistry. He received his PhD in mathematics at the University of Ghent in 1911 and he emigrated to the United States from Belgium due to First World War, and worked there the rest of his life, researching and writing about the history of science. In 1911, he married Mabel Eleanor Elwes, an English artist and their daughter Eleanore Marie was born the following year in 1912. Although he and his emigrated to England after World War I broke out, they immigrated to the United States in 1915. He worked for the Carnegie Foundation for International Peace and lectured at Harvard University, at Harvard, he became a lecturer in 1920, and a professor of the history of science from 1940 until his retirement in 1951. He was also an associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington from 1919 until 1948. By the time of his death, he had completed only the first three volumes, Sarton had been inspired for his project by his study of Leonardo da Vinci, but he had not reached this period in history before dying. After his death, a selection of his papers was edited by Dorothy Stimson. It was published by Harvard University Press in 1962, in honor of Sartons achievements, the History of Science Society created the award known as the George Sarton Medal. It is the most prestigious award of the History of Science Society and it has been awarded annually since 1955 to an outstanding historian of science selected from the international scholarly community. The medal honors a scholar for lifetime scholarly achievement, Sarton was the founder of this society and of its journals, Isis and Osiris, which publish articles on science and culture. Sarton, George, Introduction to the History of Science, Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication no.376, baltimore, Williams and Wilkins, Co. George Sarton, The Incubation of Western Culture in the Middle East, a George C. Keiser Foundation Lecture, March 29,1950, Washington, D. C, Introduction to the History of Science. Ancient science through the Golden Age of Greece, Cambridge, Mass, hellenistic science and culture in the last three centuries B. C
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John Peter Oleson
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John Peter Oleson is a Canadian classical archaeologist and historian of ancient technology. His main interests are the Roman Near East, maritime archaeology, and ancient technology, especially hydraulic technology, water-lifting devices, born in 1946 in Hackensack, New Jersey, United States, Oleson was schooled at the Loomis School in Windsor, Connecticut. He received his BA in Classics at Harvard University in 1967, Oleson received his MA and PhD in Classical Archaeology at Harvard University, working in particular with George M. A. Hanfmann and David Mitten. From 1973–1976 Oleson taught in the Classics Department of Florida State University, since 1976 he has been a member of the Greek and Roman Studies Department of the University of Victoria, Canada, where he was appointed Distinguished Professor in 2003. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada in 1994, from 1997 to 2001 he was a member of Council of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. From 1999–2002 he was a Trustee of the Board of the Royal British Columbia Museum and he was appointed a Killam Research Fellow for 2000–2002. Since 1997 he has been a member of the Board of the American Center for Oriental Research in Amman, in 1997, along with McCann Taggart, he was a project archaeologist at the Skerki Bank Deep Water Shipwreck Survey, directed by Robert Ballard. From 1986 until 2005 he directed survey and excavation at the site of Hawara, a Nabataean, Roman, since 2001 he has co-directed the Roman Maritime Concrete Study with Christopher J. Brandon and Robert L. Hohlfelder. As of 2010 Oleson has published ten books and more than 95 articles concerning ancient technology, marine archaeology, the Nabataeans, and he has presented more than 150 refereed public papers and invited lectures since 1976. In 2010 the Royal Society of Canada awarded Oleson the Pierre Chauveau Medal for distinguished contribution to knowledge in the humanities, vol.1, The Site and the Excavations, BAR International Series, supplement 491,1989, ISBN 0-86054-628-4 The Harbours of Caesarea Maritima. Vol.2, The Finds and the Ship, BAR International Series, supplement 594,1994, ISBN 0-86054-768-X Classical Views/Echos du monde classique, the History and Technology of Roman Concrete Engineering in the Sea. Oxford, Oxbow Books,2014, ISBN 978-1-78297-420-8 Greek technology Roman technology Personal website at University of Victoria
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
