1.
Bottle
–
A bottle is a rigid container with a neck that is narrower than the body and a mouth. By contrast, a jar has a large mouth or opening which may be as wide as the overall container. A device applied in the line to seal the mouth of a bottle is termed an external bottle cap, closure. A bottle can also be sealed by a conductive innerseal by using induction sealing, the bottle has developed over millennia of use, with some of the earliest examples appearing in China, Phoenicia, Rome and Crete. Bottles are often recycled according to the SPI recycling code for the material, some regions have a legally mandated deposit which is refunded after returning the bottle to the retailer. The glass bottle was an important development in the history of wine, because, glass has all the qualities required for long-term storage. It eventually gave rise to château bottling, the practice where a wine is put in a bottle at the source. Prior to this, wine would be sold by the barrel and put into bottles only at the merchants shop and this left a large and often abused opportunity for fraud and adulteration, as the consumer had to trust the merchant as to the contents. It is thought that most wine consumed outside of wine-producing regions had been tampered with in some way, also, not all merchants were careful to avoid oxidation or contamination while bottling, leading to large bottle variation. Particularly in the case of port, certain conscientious merchants bottling of old ports fetch higher prices even today, to avoid these problems, most fine wine is bottled at the place of production. There are many sizes and shapes of bottles used for wine, some of the known shapes, Bordeaux, This bottle is roughly straight sided with a curved shoulder that is useful for catching sediment and is also the easiest to stack. Traditionally used in Bordeaux but now worldwide, this is probably the most common type, Burgundy, Traditionally used in Burgundy, this has sides that taper down about 2/3 of the height to a short cylindrical section, and does not have a shoulder. Champagne, Traditionally used for Champagne, it is similar to a Burgundy bottle, in 1872, British soft drink maker Hiram Codd of Camberwell, London, designed and patented a bottle designed specifically for carbonated drinks. The Codd-neck bottle was designed and manufactured to enclose a marble, the bottles were filled upside down, and pressure of the gas in the bottle forced the marble against the washer, sealing in the carbonation. The bottle was pinched into a shape, as can be seen in the photo to the left. This prevented the marble from blocking the neck as the drink was poured, one etymology of the term codswallop originates from beer sold in Codd bottles, though this is generally dismissed as a folk etymology. The bottles were produced for many decades, but gradually declined in usage. Since children smashed the bottles to retrieve the marbles, they are scarce and have become collector items
2.
Glass
–
Glass is a non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware, and optoelectronics. The most familiar, and historically the oldest, types of glass are silicate glasses based on the chemical compound silica, the primary constituent of sand. The term glass, in usage, is often used to refer only to this type of material. Many applications of silicate glasses derive from their optical transparency, giving rise to their use as window panes. Glass can be coloured by adding metallic salts, and can also be painted and printed with vitreous enamels and these qualities have led to the extensive use of glass in the manufacture of art objects and in particular, stained glass windows. Although brittle, silicate glass is extremely durable, and many examples of glass fragments exist from early glass-making cultures, because glass can be formed or moulded into any shape, it has been traditionally used for vessels, bowls, vases, bottles, jars and drinking glasses. In its most solid forms it has also used for paperweights, marbles. Some objects historically were so commonly made of glass that they are simply called by the name of the material, such as drinking glasses. Porcelains and many polymer thermoplastics familiar from everyday use are glasses and these sorts of glasses can be made of quite different kinds of materials than silica, metallic alloys, ionic melts, aqueous solutions, molecular liquids, and polymers. For many applications, like glass bottles or eyewear, polymer glasses are a lighter alternative than traditional glass, silica is a common fundamental constituent of glass. In nature, vitrification of quartz occurs when lightning strikes sand, forming hollow, fused quartz is a glass made from chemically-pure SiO2. It has excellent resistance to shock, being able to survive immersion in water while red hot. However, its high melting-temperature and viscosity make it difficult to work with, normally, other substances are added to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate, which lowers the transition temperature. The soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is undesirable, so lime, some magnesium oxide. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74% silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass, soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass. Most common glass contains other ingredients to change its properties, lead glass or flint glass is more brilliant because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more specular reflection and increased optical dispersion. Adding barium also increases the refractive index, iron can be incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for example in heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths
3.
Wine
–
Wine is an alcoholic beverage made from fermented grapes. These grapes are generally Vitis vinifera, or a hybrid with Vitis labrusca or Vitis rupestris, grapes are fermented without the addition of sugars, acids, enzymes, water, or other nutrients. Yeast consumes the sugar in the grapes and converts it to ethanol, different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts produce different styles of wine. These variations result from the interactions between the biochemical development of the grape, the reactions involved in fermentation, the terroir. Many countries enact legal appellations intended to define styles and qualities of wine and these typically restrict the geographical origin and permitted varieties of grapes, as well as other aspects of wine production. There are also made from fermenting other fruits or cereals. Wines made from other than grapes include rice wine and various fruit wines such as those made from plums or cherries. Some well known examples are hard cider from apples, perry from pears, pomegranate wine, Wine has been produced for thousands of years. The earliest known traces of wine from Georgia in Eurasia where 8000-year-old wine jars were found and in Iran with 7, the earliest known winery is the 6, 100-year-old Areni-1 winery Armenia. Wine reached the Balkans by 4500 BC and was consumed and celebrated in ancient Greece, Thrace, throughout history, wine has been consumed for its intoxicating effects, which are evident after the normal serving size of five ounces. Wine has long played an important role in religion, the earliest chemically attested grape wine was discovered at Hajji Firuz in the northwestern Zagros Mountains dating back to 5400 BC. The earliest evidence of a fermented drink was found in Georgia, where wine residue inside ceramic jars dates from 6000 BC. The earliest evidence of a production facility is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia and is at least 6100 years old, presumably. A2003 report by archaeologists indicates a possibility that grapes were mixed with rice to produce mixed fermented beverages in China in the years of the seventh millennium BC. Pottery jars from the Neolithic site of Jiahu, Henan, contained traces of tartaric acid, however, other fruits indigenous to the region, such as hawthorn, cannot be ruled out. The spread of wine culture westwards was most probably due to the Phoenicians who spread outward from a base of city-states along the Lebanese, Syrian, the wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean. Evidence includes two Phoenician shipwrecks from 750 BC discovered by Robert Ballard, whose cargo of wine was still intact. As the first great traders in wine, the Phoenicians seem to have protected it from oxidation with a layer of oil, followed by a seal of pinewood and resin
4.
Fermentation in winemaking
–
The process of fermentation in winemaking turns grape juice into an alcoholic beverage. During fermentation, yeasts transform sugars present in the juice into ethanol, in winemaking, the temperature and speed of fermentation are important considerations as well as the levels of oxygen present in the must at the start of the fermentation. The natural occurrence of fermentation means it was probably first observed long ago by humans, the Latin fervere means, literally, to boil. The most common genera of yeasts found in winemaking include Candida, Klöckera/Hanseniaspora, Metschnikowiaceae, Pichia. Wild yeasts can produce high-quality, unique-flavored wines, however, they are unpredictable and may introduce less desirable traits to the wine. The cultured yeasts most commonly used in winemaking belong to the Saccharomyces cerevisiae species, the use of different strains of yeasts is a major contributor to the diversity of wine, even among the same grape variety. Alternative, non-Saccharomyces cerevisiae, yeasts are being used more prevalently in the industry to add complexity to wine. After a winery has been in operation for a number of years, the use of active dry yeasts reduces the variety of strains that appear in spontaneous fermentation by outcompeting those strains that are naturally present. The addition of cultured yeast normally occurs with the yeast first in a dried or inactive state and is reactivated in warm water or diluted grape juice prior to being added to the must. To thrive and be active in fermentation, the yeast needs access to a supply of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus as well as access to various vitamins. These components are present in the grape must but their amount may be corrected by adding nutrients to the wine. Newly formulated time-release nutrients, specifically manufactured for wine fermentations, offer the most advantageous conditions for yeast. Oxygen is needed as well, but in making, the risk of oxidation. During this process, the carbon atom is released in the form of carbon dioxide with the remaining components becoming acetaldehyde. The absence of oxygen in this process allows the acetaldehyde to be eventually converted, by reduction. During the conversion of acetaldehyde, an amount is converted, by oxidation, to acetic acid which, in excess. After the yeast has exhausted its life cycle, they fall to the bottom of the tank as sediment known as lees. The metabolism of amino acids and breakdown of sugars by yeasts has the effect of creating other biochemical compounds that can contribute to the flavor and aroma of wine
5.
Bung
–
A bung, stopper or cork is a truncated cylindrical or conical closure to seal a container, such as a bottle, tube or barrel. Unlike a lid, which encloses a container from the outside without displacing the inner volume, a glass stopper is often called a ground glass joint, a rubber stopper is sometimes called a rubber bung, and a cork stopper is called simply a cork. Bung stoppers used for wine bottles are referred to as corks, a common every-day example of a bung is the cork of a wine bottle. Bungs are used to seal the bunghole of barrels, other bungs, particularly those used in chemical barrels, may be made of metal and be screwed into place via threading. Ground glass joint are commonly used with laboratory glassware, mainly because of their nonreactivity, some stoppers used in labs have holes in them to allow the insertion of glass or rubber tubing. This is often used when a reaction is taking place in the flask or test tube, for instance, if one were to boil water in a test tube and wanted to collect the water vapor, one could seal the test tube with a stopper with holes in it. With tubing inserted into the hole, when the tube is heated, water vapor will rise through the hole, make its way through the tubing, and into the collection chamber of choice. The water vapor would not be able to escape into the air, because the stopper, in chemistry, bungs made of hardened rubber are frequently used in high school level demonstrations, or in small-scale experimental set-ups involving non-corrosive gases. Some chemistry bungs may also one or more holes so a glass tube or laboratory funnel may be inserted through the bung. In all cases, the keeps the experimentation environment sealed so that liquids or gases cannot escape. For applications that place higher demand on the bung in terms of temperature and mechanical stability or solvent resistance, silicone bungs are the standard for wine barrels and come in a number of varieties
6.
Screw cap (wine)
–
A screw cap is a metal cap that screws onto threads on the neck of a bottle, generally with a metal skirt down the neck to resemble the traditional wine capsule. A layer of plastic, cork, rubber, or other material is used as wad to make a seal with the mouth of the bottle. Its use as a wine closure is gaining increasing support as an alternative to cork for sealing wine bottles. In markets such as Australia and New Zealand screw caps on bottles have overtaken cork to become the most common means of sealing bottles, right across the wine industry. Compared to cork, screw caps reduce the wine faults of oxidation and of cork taint, Screw caps are generally perceived as easier to open. Screw caps have a lower failure rate than cork, and in theory will allow a wine to reach the customer in perfect condition. However, cork has a centuries-old tradition behind it, and there are concerns about the impact of screw caps on the aging of those few wines that require decades to be at their best. Some argue that the ingress of oxygen plays a vital role in aging a wine, while others argue that this amount is almost zero in a sound cork. Producers in Champagne have aged their wines under crown cap for quite some time, however, the converse of oxidation is reduction, and it has been suggested that screwcapped wine leads to reductive characteristics. These include a sulfur smell which in some circumstances adds a pleasant pungency to the wine, the caps have a long outside skirt, intended to resemble the traditional wine capsule, and use plastic PVDC as a neutral liner on the inside wadding. The Stelvin was developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s by a French company Le Bouchage Mécanique at the behest of Peter Wall, in 1964 Peter Wall approached Le Bouchage Mécanique. The Stelvin cap was trialed in 1970 and 1971 with the Swiss wine Chasselas, which was affected by cork taint. Le Bouchage Mécanique was later acquired by Pea-Pechiney, which part of Alcan, then Rio Tinto Alcan. The brand was developed by Rio Tinto Alcan and it was preceded as a closure by a Stelcap/cork combination, the Stelcap was also a long-skirted screw cap, but with a different inner lining. In 2005, a modified Stelvin cap, Stelvin Lux, was introduced, like the standard Stelvin cap, the outer shell is aluminium, but there is no externally visible screw thread or knurling, giving the closure a cleaner look more like a traditional foil capsule. Internally, there is a thread, and the sealing materials are the same as the standard Stelvin cap. In the UK, acceptance by consumers more than doubled, from 41% in 2003 to 85% in 2011, Screw caps were widely adopted in the 1980s by Swiss winemakers, and have shown increasingly wide adoption in the succeeding years. Screw caps met with resistance in Australia and New Zealand
7.
Alternative wine closure
–
Alternative wine closures are substitute closures used in the wine industry for sealing wine bottles in place of traditional cork closures. The emergence of these alternatives has grown in response to quality control efforts by winemakers to protect against cork taint caused by the presence of the chemical trichloroanisole, the cork-industry group APCOR cites a study showing a 0. 7-1. 2% taint rate. In a 2005 study of 2800 bottles tasted at the Wine Spectator blind-tasting facilities in Napa, California, synthetic corks are made from plastic compounds designed to look and pop like natural cork, but without the risk of TCA contamination. James Laube of Wine Spectator notes that some can also impart a slight chemical flavour to the wine, unlike natural corks, many wine synthetic corks are made from material that is not biodegradable but recyclable as either #4 or #7 in many communities. There are two main techniques for synthetic wine closures, injection molding and extrusion. Methods also exist which are claimed to combine the two techniques of injection and extrusion, synthetic wine bottle closures may allow for a controlled oxygen transfer rate which affects the sensory characteristics. Screw caps or Stelvin caps are made only from aluminium material that threads onto the bottleneck. They are the predominant closure used by Austrian, Australian and New Zealand wineries and this can be attributed in part to the New Zealand screw cap initiative which promotes the use of screw caps instead of cork. Screw caps form a seal and can keep out oxygen for a longer time than cork. These benefits aid in maintaining the overall quality and aging potential. Michel Laroche of Domaine Laroche noted that played a role in his decision to adopt screwcaps. Extensive quality tests show convincing results, apart from protecting against cork taint, screwcaps are also beneficial in the aging of wine, particularly preserving the aromatic freshness. An often cited contradiction is the case of experiments carried out by Château Haut-Brion in the 1970s, the result was, according to Haut-Brion manager Jean-Bernard Delmas, that it worked perfectly for the first ten years, until the plastic in the caps went brittle and let air in. Furthermore, there is the public image, as consumers still perceive screwcaps as being for cheap wines. Vino-Seal is a plastic/glass closure released by Alcoa, since its introduction into the European market in 2003, over 300 wineries have utilized Vino-Seal. Using a glass stopper with an inert o-ring, the Vino-Seal creates a seal that prevents oxidation. A disadvantage with the Vino-Seal is the high cost of each plug. Vinolok is a glass stopper developed and produced by a Czech crystal glass producer Preciosa, zork is an alternative wine closure for still wines, that seals like a screw cap and pops like a cork, created by an Australian company of the same name
8.
Bible
–
The Bible is a collection of sacred texts or scriptures that Jews and Christians consider to be a product of divine inspiration and a record of the relationship between God and humans. Many different authors contributed to the Bible, what is regarded as canonical text differs depending on traditions and groups, a number of Bible canons have evolved, with overlapping and diverging contents. The Christian Old Testament overlaps with the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint, the New Testament is a collection of writings by early Christians, believed to be mostly Jewish disciples of Christ, written in first-century Koine Greek. These early Christian Greek writings consist of narratives, letters, among Christian denominations there is some disagreement about the contents of the canon, primarily the Apocrypha, a list of works that are regarded with varying levels of respect. Attitudes towards the Bible also differ amongst Christian groups and this concept arose during the Protestant Reformation, and many denominations today support the use of the Bible as the only source of Christian teaching. With estimated total sales of over 5 billion copies, the Bible is widely considered to be the book of all time. It has estimated sales of 100 million copies, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West. The English word Bible is from the Latin biblia, from the word in Medieval Latin and Late Latin. Medieval Latin biblia is short for biblia sacra holy book, while biblia in Greek and it gradually came to be regarded as a feminine singular noun in medieval Latin, and so the word was loaned as a singular into the vernaculars of Western Europe. Latin biblia sacra holy books translates Greek τὰ βιβλία τὰ ἅγια ta biblia ta hagia, the word βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of paper or scroll and came to be used as the ordinary word for book. It is the diminutive of βύβλος byblos, Egyptian papyrus, possibly so called from the name of the Phoenician sea port Byblos from whence Egyptian papyrus was exported to Greece, the Greek ta biblia was an expression Hellenistic Jews used to describe their sacred books. Christian use of the term can be traced to c.223 CE, bruce notes that Chrysostom appears to be the first writer to use the Greek phrase ta biblia to describe both the Old and New Testaments together. The division of the Hebrew Bible into verses is based on the sof passuk cantillation mark used by the 10th-century Masoretes to record the verse divisions used in oral traditions. The oldest extant copy of a complete Bible is an early 4th-century parchment book preserved in the Vatican Library, the oldest copy of the Tanakh in Hebrew and Aramaic dates from the 10th century CE. The oldest copy of a complete Latin Bible is the Codex Amiatinus and he states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. In Christian Bibles, the New Testament Gospels were derived from traditions in the second half of the first century CE. Riches says that, Scholars have attempted to reconstruct something of the history of the oral traditions behind the Gospels, the period of transmission is short, less than 40 years passed between the death of Jesus and the writing of Marks Gospel. This means that there was time for oral traditions to assume fixed form
9.
Litre
–
The litre or liter is an SI accepted metric system unit of volume equal to 1 cubic decimetre,1,000 cubic centimetres or 1/1,000 cubic metre. A cubic decimetre occupies a volume of 10×10×10 centimetres and is equal to one-thousandth of a cubic metre. The original French metric system used the litre as a base unit. The word litre is derived from an older French unit, the litron, whose name came from Greek — where it was a unit of weight, not volume — via Latin, and which equalled approximately 0.831 litres. The litre was also used in subsequent versions of the metric system and is accepted for use with the SI. The spelling used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures is litre, the less common spelling of liter is more predominantly used in American English. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram. Subsequent redefinitions of the metre and kilogram mean that this relationship is no longer exact, a litre is defined as a special name for a cubic decimetre or 10 centimetres ×10 centimetres ×10 centimetres. Hence 1 L ≡0.001 m3 ≡1000 cm3, from 1901 to 1964, the litre was defined as the volume of one kilogram of pure water at maximum density and standard pressure. The kilogram was in turn specified as the mass of a platinum/iridium cylinder held at Sèvres in France and was intended to be of the mass as the 1 litre of water referred to above. It was subsequently discovered that the cylinder was around 28 parts per million too large and thus, during this time, additionally, the mass-volume relationship of water depends on temperature, pressure, purity and isotopic uniformity. In 1964, the definition relating the litre to mass was abandoned in favour of the current one, although the litre is not an official SI unit, it is accepted by the CGPM for use with the SI. CGPM defines the litre and its acceptable symbols, a litre is equal in volume to the millistere, an obsolete non-SI metric unit customarily used for dry measure. The litre is often used in some calculated measurements, such as density. One litre of water has a mass of almost exactly one kilogram when measured at its maximal density, similarly,1 millilitre of water has a mass of about 1 g,1,000 litres of water has a mass of about 1,000 kg. It is now known that density of water depends on the isotopic ratios of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in a particular sample. The litre, though not an official SI unit, may be used with SI prefixes, the most commonly used derived unit is the millilitre, defined as one-thousandth of a litre, and also often referred to by the SI derived unit name cubic centimetre. It is a commonly used measure, especially in medicine and cooking, Other units may be found in the table below, where the more often used terms are in bold
10.
US gallon
–
The gallon is a unit of measurement for liquid capacity in both the US customary units and the British imperial systems of measurement. Three significantly different sizes are in current use, the imperial gallon defined as 4, while there is no official symbol for the gallon, gal is in common use. The gallon currently has one definition in the system. Historically, there were many definitions and redefinitions, there were more than a few systems of liquid measurements in the pre-1884 United Kingdom. The imperial fluid ounce is defined as 1⁄160 of a gallon, there are four quarts in a gallon. The US gallon is legally defined as 231 cubic inches, which is exactly 3.785411784 liters, a US liquid gallon of water weighs about 8.34 pounds or 3.78 kilograms at 62 °F, making it about 16. 6% lighter than the imperial gallon. There are four quarts in a gallon, two pints in a quart and 16 US fluid ounces in a US pint, which makes the US fluid ounce equal to 1⁄128 of a US gallon. For example, the volume of products and alcoholic beverages are both referenced to 60 °F in government regulations. This dry measure is one-eighth of a US Winchester bushel of 2150.42 cubic inches, the US dry gallon is not used in commerce, and is not listed in the relevant statute, which jumps from the dry quart to the peck. The Imperial gallon is used in life in the United Kingdom. Gallons used in fuel economy expression in Canada are Imperial gallons, the gallon was removed from the list of legally defined primary units of measure catalogued in the EU directive 80/181/EEC, for trading and official purposes, with effect from 31 December 1994. Under the directive the gallon could still be used – but only as a supplementary or secondary unit, Ireland also passed legislation in response to the EU directive with the effective date being 31 December 1993. Though the gallon has ceased to be the legally defined primary unit, it can still be used in both the UK and Ireland as a supplementary unit. The Imperial gallon continues to be used as a unit of measure in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Is. Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, Myanmar, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent & the Grenadines. Other than the United States, the US gallon is used in Liberia, Belize, Colombia, The Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Peru. The United Arab Emirates started selling gasoline by the litre in 2010, along with Guyana, the two former had used the Imperial gallon, and the latter the US gallon until they switched. Antigua and Barbuda plan to switch over to using litres by 2015
11.
Gallon
–
The gallon is a unit of measurement for liquid capacity in both the US customary units and the British imperial systems of measurement. Three significantly different sizes are in current use, the imperial gallon defined as 4, while there is no official symbol for the gallon, gal is in common use. The gallon currently has one definition in the system. Historically, there were many definitions and redefinitions, there were more than a few systems of liquid measurements in the pre-1884 United Kingdom. The imperial fluid ounce is defined as 1⁄160 of a gallon, there are four quarts in a gallon. The US gallon is legally defined as 231 cubic inches, which is exactly 3.785411784 liters, a US liquid gallon of water weighs about 8.34 pounds or 3.78 kilograms at 62 °F, making it about 16. 6% lighter than the imperial gallon. There are four quarts in a gallon, two pints in a quart and 16 US fluid ounces in a US pint, which makes the US fluid ounce equal to 1⁄128 of a US gallon. For example, the volume of products and alcoholic beverages are both referenced to 60 °F in government regulations. This dry measure is one-eighth of a US Winchester bushel of 2150.42 cubic inches, the US dry gallon is not used in commerce, and is not listed in the relevant statute, which jumps from the dry quart to the peck. The Imperial gallon is used in life in the United Kingdom. Gallons used in fuel economy expression in Canada are Imperial gallons, the gallon was removed from the list of legally defined primary units of measure catalogued in the EU directive 80/181/EEC, for trading and official purposes, with effect from 31 December 1994. Under the directive the gallon could still be used – but only as a supplementary or secondary unit, Ireland also passed legislation in response to the EU directive with the effective date being 31 December 1993. Though the gallon has ceased to be the legally defined primary unit, it can still be used in both the UK and Ireland as a supplementary unit. The Imperial gallon continues to be used as a unit of measure in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Is. Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, Myanmar, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent & the Grenadines. Other than the United States, the US gallon is used in Liberia, Belize, Colombia, The Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Peru. The United Arab Emirates started selling gasoline by the litre in 2010, along with Guyana, the two former had used the Imperial gallon, and the latter the US gallon until they switched. Antigua and Barbuda plan to switch over to using litres by 2015
12.
Apothecaries' system
–
The English version of the system is closely related with the English troy system of weights, the pound and grain being exactly the same in both. It divides a pound into 12 ounces, an ounce into 8 drachms, and this exact form of the system was used in the United Kingdom, in some of its former colonies it survived well into the 20th century. The apothecaries system of measures is a system of volume units based on the fluid ounce. For a long time, medical recipes were written in Latin, often using special symbols to denote weights, the use of different measure and weight systems depending on the purpose was an almost universal phenomenon in Europe between the decline of the Roman Empire and metrication. In the 19th century, most European countries or cities still had at least a commercial or civil system for trading. The system for precious metals was usually divided in a different way from the commercial system, more significantly, it was often based on different weight standards. The apothecaries system often used the same ounces as the precious metals system, the apothecaries pound was divided into its own special units, which were inherited from the general-purpose weight system of the Romans. In old merchants handbooks the former system is referred to as the pharmaceutical system. The traditional English apothecaries system of weights is as shown in the table, in the United Kingdom, a reform in 1826 made the troy pound the primary weight unit, but this had no effect on apothecaries weights. However, the Medicinals Act of 1858 completely abolished the system in favour of the standard Avoirdupois system. The confusing variety of definitions and conversions for pounds and ounces is covered elsewhere in a table of pound definitions, in the United States, the apothecaries system remained official until it was abolished in 1971 in favour of the metric system. Similar systems were used all over Europe, but with local variation described below under Variants. The English-speaking countries also used a system of units of measure, or in modern terminology volume units. A volume of liquid that was approximately that of an ounce of water was called a fluid ounce. The analogue of the grain was called a minim, the imperial and US systems differ in the size of the basic unit, and in the number of fluid ounces per pint. Apothecaries systems for volumes were much less common than those for weights. Before introduction of the units in the UK, all apothecaries measures were based on the wine gallon. The wine gallon was abolished in Britain in 1826, and this system was replaced by a new one based on the newly introduced imperial gallon
13.
Secondary fermentation (wine)
–
Secondary fermentation is a process commonly associated with winemaking, which entails a second period of fermentation in a different vessel than the one used to start the fermentation process. An example of this would be starting fermentation in a carboy or stainless steel tank, rather than being a separate, second fermentation, this is most often one single fermentation period that is conducted in multiple vessels. However, the term does apply to procedures that could be described as a second. In sparkling wine production, the secondary fermentation often takes places in the bottle that the wine will be sold in. This is most commonly known as the méthode champenoise or Champagne method after the region most noted for sparkling wine production. When the base wine has been produced from single grape varietals or a blend, the wine is bottled with a mixture of yeast and fresh sugar known as the liqueur de tirage
14.
Traditional method
–
Sparkling wine is a wine that becomes carbonated, either through fermentation or by addition of carbon dioxide. The oldest known production of sparkling wine took place in 1531 with the ancestral method, Champagne is the most well-known variant, but there are other variations such as Spanish Cava, Italian Spumante, Crémant from France and Sekt from Germany. Overall, more or less dry wines are most common among the sparkling wines. In popular parlance and also in the title of this article the term sparkling is used for all wines that produce bubbles at the surface after opening, under EU law the term sparkling has a special meaning that does not include all wines that produce bubbles. For this reason the terms fizzy and effervescent are sometimes used to include all bubbly wines, the following terms are increasingly used to designate different bottle pressures, Beady is a wine with less than 1 additional bar of pressure. Semi-sparkling is a wine with 1 to 2.5 additional bars of pressure, semi-sparkling wines include wines labelled as Frizzante, Spritzig, Pétillant and Pearl. Sparkling is a wine with above 3 additional bars of pressure and this is the only wine that can be labelled as sparkling under EU law. Sparkling wines include wines labelled as Champagne, Cava, Mousseux, Crémant, Espumoso, Sekt, fermentation of sugar into alcohol during winemaking always means that carbon dioxide is released. Carbon dioxide has the property of being soluble in water. Production always starts from a base wine, Champagne production the base wine is usually a blend of wines from different grape varieties and different wineries, where the distribution gives the final wine its special character, called cuvée. In some commonly used methods the base wine undergoes a secondary fermentation, in this way the carbon dioxide content is created which, after opening the bottle, produces the bubbles. The dead yeast cells form a precipitate called lees, that helps with appealing aromas to the sparkling wine. The lees is therefore normally removed before the wine is distributed, the main methods used to make sparkling wines are often given as seven, with some variations. The following table shows the features of each method. The methods are described in the text. It should be noted that each method there may be variations from one producer to another. The so-called classic way to sparkling wine is popularly known as the Champagne method or méthode classique which is the official EU designation. Formerly, the designation was méthode champenoise but this designation is no longer permitted, as the former designation suggests, the method is used for the production of most Champagne, and it is slightly more expensive than the Charmat method
15.
Champagne
–
The primary grapes used in the production of Champagne are black Pinot noir and Pinot Meunier but also white Chardonnay. Champagne appellation law only allows grapes grown according to rules in specifically designated plots within the appellation to be used in the production of champagne. Royalty became associated with Champagne in the 17th, 18th, the leading manufacturers made efforts to associate their Champagnes with nobility and royalty through advertising and packaging, which led to popularity among the emerging middle class. Patricia Harmsworth, Viscountess Rothermere, the English socialite, was nicknamed Bubbles after her love of champagne, wines from the Champagne region were known before medieval times. The Romans were the first to plant vineyards in this area of north-east France, with the region being cultivated by at least the 5th century, later, churches owned vineyards and monks produced wine for use in the sacrament of Eucharist. French kings were anointed in Reims, and Champagne was served as part of coronation festivities. The Champenois were envious of the reputation of the wines made by their Burgundian neighbours to the south, however, the northerly climate of the region gave the Champenois a unique set of challenges in making red wine. At the far extremes of sustainable viticulture, the grapes would struggle to fully and often would have bracing levels of acidity. The wines would be lighter bodied and thinner than the Burgundy wines they were seeking to outdo, the oldest recorded sparkling wine is Blanquette de Limoux, which was apparently invented by Benedictine Monks in the Abbey of Saint-Hilaire, near Carcassonne in 1531. They achieved this by bottling the wine before the initial fermentation had ended, Merret presented a paper at the Royal Society, in which he detailed what is now called méthode champenoise, in 1662. French glass-makers at this time could not produce bottles of the quality or strength. As early as 1663 the poet Samuel Butler referred to brisk champagne, in France the first sparkling Champagne was created accidentally, the pressure in the bottle led it to be called the devils wine, as bottles exploded or corks popped. In 1844 Adolphe Jaquesson invented the muselet to prevent the corks from blowing out, initial versions were difficult to apply and inconvenient to remove. Even when it was produced as a sparkling wine, Champagne was for a very long time made by the méthode rurale. Champagne did not use the méthode champenoise until the 19th century, the 19th century saw an exponential growth in Champagne production, going from a regional production of 300,000 bottles a year in 1800 to 20 million bottles in 1850. In 2007, Champagne sales hit a record of 338.7 million bottles. In the 19th century Champagne was noticeably sweeter than the Champagnes of today, the trend towards drier Champagne began when Perrier-Jouët decided not to sweeten his 1846 vintage prior to exporting it to London. The designation Brut Champagne was created for the British in 1876 and they include codification of the most suitable growing places, the most suitable grape types, and a lengthy set of requirements specifying most aspects of viticulture
16.
Bordeaux wine
–
Average vintages produce over 700 million bottles of Bordeaux wine, ranging from large quantities of everyday table wine, to some of the most expensive and prestigious wines in the world. The vast majority of wine produced in Bordeaux is red, with white wines, dry whites. Bordeaux wine is made by more than 8,500 producers or châteaux, there are 54 appellations of Bordeaux wine. The wine was introduced to the Bordeaux region by the Romans, probably in the mid-1st century, to wine for local consumption. In the 12th century, the popularity of Bordeaux wines in England increased dramatically following the marriage of Henry Plantagenet, the marriage made the province of Aquitaine part of the Angevin Empire, and thenceforth the wine of Bordeaux was exported to England. At this time, Graves was the wine region of Bordeaux. This accounts for the ubiquity of claret in England, the export of Bordeaux was interrupted by the outbreak of the Hundred Years War between France and England in 1337. By the end of the conflict in 1453 France had repossessed the province, Malbec was the dominant grape here, until the early 19th century, when it was replaced by Cabernet Sauvignon. In 1855, the châteaux of Bordeaux were classified, this classification remains widely used today, from 1875–1892 almost all Bordeaux vineyards were ruined by Phylloxera infestations. The regions wine industry was rescued by grafting native vines on to pest-resistant American rootstock, the major reason for the success of winemaking in the Bordeaux region is an excellent environment for growing vines. The geological foundation of the region is limestone, leading to a structure that is heavy in calcium. These rivers define the geographical subdivisions of the region, The right bank, situated on the right bank of Dordogne, in the northern parts of the region. Entre-Deux-Mers, French for between two seas, the area between the rivers Dordogne and Garonne, both of which are tidal, in the centre of the region. The left bank, situated on the bank of Garonne, in the west and south of the region. The left bank is further subdivided into, Graves, the upstream of the city Bordeaux. Médoc, the downstream of the city Bordeaux, situated on a peninsula between Gironde and the Atlantic. The soil of Bordeaux is composed of gravel, sandy stone, the regions best vineyards are located on the well-drained gravel soils that are frequently found near the Gironde river. An old adage in Bordeaux is the best estates can see the river from their vineyards, the majority of land facing riverward is occupied by classified estates
17.
Burgundy wine
–
Burgundy wine is wine made in the Burgundy region in eastern France, in the valleys and slopes west of the Saône, a tributary of the Rhône. The most famous wines produced here—those commonly referred to as Burgundies—are dry red wines made from Pinot noir grapes, red and white wines are also made from other grape varieties, such as Gamay and Aligoté, respectively. Small amounts of rosé and sparkling wines are produced in the region. Burgundy has a number of appellations dorigine contrôlée than any other French region. The various Burgundy AOCs are classified from carefully delineated Grand Cru vineyards down to more non-specific regional appellations, the practice of delineating vineyards by their terroir in Burgundy goes back to medieval times, when various monasteries played a key role in developing the Burgundy wine industry. The Burgundy region runs from Auxerre in the north to Mâcon in the south, Chablis, a white wine made from Chardonnay grapes, is produced in the area around Auxerre. Other smaller appellations near to Chablis include Irancy, which produces red wines and Saint-Bris, eighty-five miles southeast of Chablis is the Côte dOr, where Burgundys most famous and most expensive wines originate, and where all Grand Cru vineyards of Burgundy are situated. The wine-growing part of area in the heart of Burgundy is just 40 kilometres long. The relatively ordinary Village wines are produced from the flat territory nearer the villages, the Côte de Nuits contains 24 out of the 25 red Grand Cru appellations in Burgundy, while all but one of the regions white Grand Cru wines are in the Côte de Beaune. This is explained by the presence of different soils, which favour Pinot noir and Chardonnay, below the Côte Chalonnaise is the Mâconnais region, known for producing large quantities of easy-drinking and more affordable white wine. Further south again is the Beaujolais region, famous for fruity red wines made from Gamay grapes, Burgundy experiences a continental climate characterized by cold winters and hot summers. The weather is unpredictable, with rains, hail. Because of this climate, vintages from Burgundy vary considerably, the earliest recorded praise of the wines of Burgundy was written in 591 by Gregory of Tours, who compared it to the Roman wine Falernian. Monks and monasteries of the Roman Catholic Church have had an important influence on the history of Burgundy wine, the first known donation of a vineyard to the church was by king Guntram in 587, but the influence of the church became important in Charlemagnes era. The Benedictines, through their Abbey of Cluny founded in 910, another order which exerted influence was the Cistercians, founded in 1098 and named after Cîteaux, their first monastery, situated in Burgundy. The Cistercians created Burgundys largest wall-surrounded vineyard, the Clos de Vougeot, more importantly, the Cistercians, extensive vineyard owners as they were, were the first to notice that different vineyard plots gave consistently different wines. They therefore laid the earliest foundation for the naming of Burgundy crus, the only part of Burgundy which could reach Paris in a practical way was the area around Auxerre by means of the Yonne. This area includes Chablis, but had more extensive vineyards until the 19th century
18.
United States customary units
–
United States customary units are a system of measurements commonly used in the United States. The United States customary system developed from English units which were in use in the British Empire before the US declared its independence, however, the British system of measures was overhauled in 1824 to create the imperial system, changing the definitions of some units. Therefore, while many U. S. units are similar to their Imperial counterparts. The majority of U. S. customary units were redefined in terms of the meter and these definitions were refined by the international yard and pound agreement of 1959. Americans primarily use customary units in commercial activities, as well as for personal and social use, in science, medicine, many sectors of industry and some of government, metric units are used. The International System of Units, the form of the metric system, is preferred for many uses by the U. S. National Institute of Standards. The United States system of units is similar to the British imperial system, both systems are derived from English units, a system which had evolved over the millennia before American independence, and which had its roots in Roman and Anglo-Saxon units. The customary system was championed by the U. S. -based International Institute for Preserving and Perfecting Weights, advocates of the customary system saw the French Revolutionary, or metric, system as atheistic. An auxiliary of the Institute in Ohio published a poem with wording such as down with every metric scheme and A perfect inch, one adherent of the customary system called it a just weight and a just measure, which alone are acceptable to the Lord. The U. S. government passed the Metric Conversion Act of 1975, the legislation states that the federal government has a responsibility to assist industry as it voluntarily converts to the metric system, i. e. metrification. This is most evident in U. S. labeling requirements on food products, according to the CIA Factbook, the United States is one of three nations that have not adopted the metric system as their official system of weights and measures. U. S. customary units are used on consumer products. Metric units are standard in science, medicine, as well as many sectors of industry and government, the metric system also lacks a parallel to the foot. Frequently, however, these units designate quite different sizes, for example, the mile ranged by country from one-half to five U. S. miles, foot and pound also had varying definitions. Historically, a range of non-SI units were used in the U. S. and in Britain. This article deals only with the commonly used or officially defined in the U. S. For measuring length, the U. S. customary system uses the inch, foot, yard, and mile, since July 1,1959, these have been defined on the basis of 1 yard =0.9144 meters except for some applications in surveying. The U. S. the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries agreed on this definition, the NAD27 was replaced in the 1980s by the North American Datum of 1983, which is defined in meters
19.
Vin jaune
–
Vin jaune is a special and characteristic type of white wine made in the Jura region in eastern France. It is similar to dry fino Sherry and gets its character from being matured in a barrel under a film of yeast, known as the voile, Vin jaune shares many similarities with Sherry, including some aromas, but unlike Sherry, it is not a fortified wine. The wine is made from the Savagnin grape, with some of the most premium examples coming from the marl based vineyards in the Château-Chalon AOC. Vin jaune is made from late harvest Savagnin grapes, a variety in the Traminer family which is less aromatic than the better-known Gewürztraminer. The grapes are harvested in late October when the sugars have developed enough to have a potential alcohol level of 13–15% for the finished wine. The grapes are fermented slowly and then kept in small old oak casks that hold 228 liters, the casks are not topped up, as they are with most wines, so an air gap appears above the wine due to evaporation. A film of yeast grows over the wine, protecting it partially from oxidation, in Jura, this film is called the voile, but it is similar to the more familiar flor in Sherry production. The voile yeast has many properties to flor but thrives better in a lower alcohol environment. The voile typically takes two to three years to develop fully, during this time the wine is exposed to slight levels of oxidation that provoke chemical changes that produce ethanal and the aroma compound of sotolon. These compounds contribute to the flavors and aromas associated with vin jaune. Winemakers must carefully observe the wine throughout the process as there is a risk of it developing the wine fault of volatile acidity. After the allotted time, only about 62% of the original wine remains, the vin jaune is then bottled in special squat bottles that hold 62 cl, called clavelins. Historically the bottle size alludes to the amount of left over after six years of aging. The Appellation dorigine contrôlée regions permitted to produce vin jaune include Château-Chalon AOC, Arbois Vin Jaune AOC, Cotes du Jura vin Jaune AOC, there are also a few other vin jaune-style wines made in France outside the Jura region, such as Gaillac. The term vin de voile referring to the yeast film, thus indicates this style of wine, Vin jaune is often served at cellar temperature 13–15 °C and the wine is sometimes decanted, exposing it to more oxygen prior to serving in order to stimulate the wines unique aromas. The wine can be paired with savory food dishes with local Jura cuisine often including chicken recipes where the wine is cooked with the chicken itself, another common pairing is the local Comté cheese that is produced in the Franche-Comté region. Recent events, including tasting sessions, have attracted over 30,000 visitors and this event takes place in a different village in the region every year. La Percée du Vin Jaune mainly in French
20.
Jeroboam
–
Jeroboam I /ˌdʒɛrəˈboʊ. əm/ was the first king of the northern Kingdom of Israel after the revolt of the ten northern Israelite tribes against Rehoboam that put an end to the United Monarchy. William F. Albright has dated his reign from 922 to 901 BC, the name Jeroboam יָרָבְעָם is commonly held to have been derived from riyb רִיב and ʿam עַם, signifying the people contend or he pleads the peoples cause. It is alternatively translated to mean his people are many or he increases the people, in the Septuagint he is called Hieroboam. Jeroboam was the son of Nebat, a member of the Tribe of Ephraim of Zereda and his mother, named Zeruah was a widow. He had at least two sons—Abijah and Nadab, who succeeded him on the throne, after this event he returned and participated in a delegation sent to ask the new king Rehoboam to reduce taxes. After Rehoboam rejected their petition ten of the tribes withdrew their allegiance to the house of David, only the tribes of Judah and Benjamin remaining with the new kingdom of Judah, and Rehoboam. Although criticised for his activities in I Kings 12, 25–33, calf worship was not new in Israelite ritual. Bethel and Dan were already established cultic sites, according to 1 Kings 13, 1–6, while Jeroboam was engaged in offering incense at Bethel, a man of God warned him that a son named Josiah will be born to the house of David who would destroy the altar. Attempting to arrest the prophet for his words of defiance, Jeroboams hand was dried up. At his urgent entreaty his hand was restored him again, and this man of God who warned Jeroboam has been equated with a seer named Iddo. In 1 Kings 14, Jeroboams son Abijah gets sick, ahijahs message, however, is that Abijah will die, which he does. Jeroboam was in constant war with the house of Judah, in the eighteenth year of Jeroboams reign, Abijah, Rehoboams son, became king of Judah. During his short reign of three years, Abijah went to lengths to bring the Kingdom of Israel back under his control. He waged a battle against Jeroboam in the mountains of Ephraim. According to the Book of Chronicles Abijah had a force of 400,000, the Biblical sources mention that Abijah addressed the armies of Israel, urging them to submit and to let the Kingdom of Israel be whole again, but his plea fell on deaf ears. Abijah then rallied his own troops with a phrase which has become famous. The biblical account states that his elite warriors fended off a movement to rout Jeroboams troops—killing 500,000 of them. Jeroboam was crippled by this defeat to Abijah and posed little threat to the Kingdom of Judah for the rest of his reign
21.
Rehoboam
–
Rehoboam was an Israelite king mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. He was a son of Solomon and a grandson of David and his mother was Naamah the Ammonite. One of the most difficult issues in identifying Shishak with Shoshenq I is the statement that King Shishak of Egypt attacked Jerusalem. Solomons wisdom and power were not sufficient to prevent the rebellion of several of his border cities, Damascus under Rezon secured its independence of Solomon, and Jeroboam, a superintendent of works, his ambition stirred by the words of the prophet Ahijah, fled to Egypt. Thus before the death of Solomon the apparently unified kingdom of David began to disintegrate, with Damascus independent and a powerful man of Ephraim, the most prominent of the Ten Tribes, awaiting his opportunity, the future of Solomons kingdom became dubious. Conventional Bible chronology dates the start of Rehoboams reign to the mid-10th century BC and his reign is described in 1 Kings 12 and 14, 21-31 and in 2 Chronicles 10-12 In the Hebrew Bible, Rehoboam was 41 years old when he ascended the throne. The assembly for the coronation of Solomons successor, Rehoboam, was called at Shechem, before the coronation took place the assembly requested certain reforms in the policy followed by Rehoboams father, Solomon. The reforms requested would materially reduce the royal exchequer and hence its power to continue the magnificence of Solomons court, the older men counseled Rehoboam at least to speak to the people in a civil manner. However, the new king sought the advice from the people he had grown up with, who advised the king to show no weakness to the people, and to tax them even more, which Rehoboam did. He proclaimed to the people, Whereas my father laid upon you a heavy yoke, Whereas my father chastised you with whips, so shall I chastise you with scorpions. For my littlest finger is thicker than my fathers loins, and your backs, the two sections had acted independently until David, by his victories, succeeded in uniting all the tribes, though the Ephraimitic jealousy was ever ready to develop into open revolt. The building of the Temple was a blow for the various sanctuaries scattered through the land. Josephus makes the rebels exclaim, We leave to Rehoboam the Temple his father built, Jeroboam and the people rebelled, with the ten northern tribes breaking away and forming a separate kingdom. The new breakaway kingdom continued to be called Kingdom of Israel, the realm Rehoboam was left with was called Kingdom of Judah. Rehoboam went to war against the new Kingdom of Israel with a force of 180,000 soldiers, however, he was advised against fighting his brethren, and so returned to Jerusalem. The text reports that Israel and Judah were in a state of war throughout his 17-year reign, in the 5th year of Rehoboams reign Shishaq, king of Egypt, brought a huge army and took many cities. According to Joshua, son of Nadav, the mention in 2 Chron,11,6 sqq. that Rehoboam built fifteen fortified cities, indicates that the attack was not unexpected. The account in Chronicles states that Shishaq marched with 1,200 chariots,60,000 horsemen and troops who came with him from Egypt, Libyans, Sukkites, shishaqs armies captured all of the fortified towns leading to Jerusalem between Gezer and Gibeon
22.
Methuselah
–
Methuselah is the man reported to have lived the longest at the age of 969 in the Hebrew Bible. Extra-biblical tradition maintains that he died on the 11th of Cheshvan of the year 1656AM, Methuselah was the son of Enoch, the father of Lamech, and the grandfather of Noah. Additionally, Methuselah is also mentioned in Islam in the collections of tales of the pre-Islamic prophets. Furthermore, early Islamic historians like Ibn Ishaq and Ibn Hisham always included his name in the genealogy of the Prophet Muhammad, Methuselah is mentioned in one passage in the Hebrew Bible, Genesis 5, 21–27, as part of the genealogy linking Adam to Noah. The genealogy is repeated, without the chronology, at 1Chronicles 1,3, the following is taken from the King James Version of the Bible. —Genesis 5, 21–27 The verses are available in three manuscript traditions, the Masoretic, the Septuagint and the Samaritan Torah, the three traditions do not agree with each other. The differences can be summarized as follows, There have been attempts to account for these differences – the most obvious being accidental corruption by copyists. Some errors may be the result of attempts to correct previous errors. Methuselah appears in two important Jewish works from the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, in the Book of Enoch, Enoch tells Methuselah of the coming worldwide flood and of the future Messianic kingdom. He is known to have a sword that conquers evils. The Book of Jubilees names Methuselahs mother and his wife – both are named Edna – and his daughter-in-law, Betenos, Lamechs wife, the 17th century midrashic Sefer haYashar describes Methuselah with his grandson Noah attempting to persuade the people of the earth to return to godliness. All other very long-lived people died, and Methuselah was the one of this class left. God planned to bring the flood after all the men who walked in the ways of the Lord had died, Methuselah lived until the ark was built, but died before the flood, since God had promised he would not be killed with the unrighteous. The Sefer haYashar gives Methuselahs age at death as 960 and does not synchronize his death with the flood, the Sumerian king list mentions a character named Ubara-Tutu who seems almost identical to Methuselah. He was the son of En-men-dur-ana the Sumerian Enoch, and king of Sumer until the flood swept over the land, although their ages are different, their father and their year of death remain the same. The meaning of Methuselahs age has engendered considerable speculation, but no widely accepted conclusions and these speculations can be discussed under four categories and their combinations, literal, mistranslation, symbolic, and fictional interpretations. Interpretations of the Bible following Biblical literalism take Methuselahs 969 years to be 969 solar years, some literalists suggest certain arguments for how this could be, early humans had a better diet, or a water vapor canopy protected the earth from radiation before the Flood. Donald V. Etz suggested that the Genesis 5 numbers might for convenience have all been multiples of 5 or 10
_Burgundy_Bottle_.jpg)
Media related to Wine bottles at Wikimedia Commons
