1.
Drumming (snipe)
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Drumming is a sound produced by snipe as part of their courtship display flights. The sound is produced mechanically by the vibration of the outer tail feathers, held out at a wide angle to the body. The display is usually crepuscular, or given throughout moonlit nights, the behaviour is generally characteristic of the genera Coenocorypha, Gallinago and Lymnocryptes. Sounds made by the closely related woodcocks in the course of their display flights may be homologous to drumming. The sound made by Gallinago snipes has been described as drumming, bleating, throbbing, a rattle. The drumming of the jack snipe has been likened to the sound made by a cantering or galloping horse, miskelly records Coenocorypha snipes giving a non-vocal “roar” homologous to the drumming displays of Gallinago snipes, a sound formerly ascribed to a mythological bird, the hakawai. When breeding in northern Japan, Lathams snipe are known as “thunder birds” for the noise made in the course of their display flights
2.
Windrow
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A windrow is a row of cut hay or small grain crop. It is allowed to dry before being baled, combined, or rolled. For hay, the windrow is formed by a hay rake. For small grain crops which are to be harvested, the windrow is formed by a swather which both cuts the crop and forms the windrow. By analogy, the term may also be applied to a row of any material such as snow. Snow windrows are created by snow plows when clearing roads of snow, snow windrowed to the centre of the street can be removed by a snow blower and truck. In preparing a pond or lake for ice cutting, the snow on top of the ice, which slows freezing, may be scraped off and windrowed
3.
Tamil Nadu
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Tamil Nadu is one of the 29 states of India. Its capital and largest city is Chennai, Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Puducherry and the South Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. The state shares a border with the nation of Sri Lanka. Tamil Nadu is the eleventh-largest state in India by area and the sixth-most populous, the state was ranked sixth among states in India according to the Human Development Index in 2011, with the second-largest state economy after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu is the second largest state economy in India with ₹13,842 billion in gross domestic product after Maharashtra. Tamil Nadu was ranked as one of the top seven developed states in India based on a Multidimensional Development Index in a 2013 report published by the Reserve Bank of India and its official language is Tamil, which is one of the longest-surviving classical languages in the world. Tamil Nadu is home to natural resources. In addition, its people have developed and continue classical arts, classical music, historic buildings and religious sites include Hindu temples of Tamil architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites, and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Archaeological evidence points to this area being one of the longest continuous habitations in the Indian peninsula, the ASI archaeologists have proposed that the script used at that site is very rudimentary Tamil Brahmi. Adichanallur has been announced as a site for further excavation. About 60 per cent of the epigraphical inscriptions found by the ASI in India are from Tamil Nadu. A Neolithic stone celt with the Indus script on it was discovered at Sembian-Kandiyur near Mayiladuthurai in Tamil Nadu, according to epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan, this was the first datable artefact bearing the Indus script to be found in Tamil Nadu. Mahadevan claimed that the find was evidence of the use of the Harappan language, the date of the celt was estimated at between 1500 BCE and 2000 BCE. The early history of the people and rulers of Tamil Nadu is a topic in Tamil literary sources known as Sangam literature, numismatic, archaeological and literary sources corroborate that the Sangam period lasted for about six centuries, from 300 BC to AD300. Three dynasties, namely the Chera, Chola and Pandya, ruled the area of present-day Tamil Nadu, the Chera ruled the whole of present-day Kerala and parts of western Tamil Nadu comprising Coimbatore, Dharmapuri, Karur, Salem and Erode districts from the capital of Vanchi Muthur. The Chola dynasty ruled the northern and central parts of Tamil Nadu from their capital, Uraiyur, All three dynasties had extensive trade relationships with Rome, Greece, Egypt, Ceylon, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and Persia. Trade flourished in commodities such as spices, ivory, pearls, beads, Chera traded extensively from Muziris on the west coast, Chola from Arikamedu and Puhar and Pandya through Korkai port. A Greco-Roman trade and travel document, the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea gives a description of the Tamil country, besides these three dynasties, the Sangam era Tamilakam was also divided into various provinces named nadu, meaning country
4.
Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
5.
Cereal
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A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grains are grown in quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops. Edible grains from plant families, such as buckwheat, quinoa. In their natural form, cereals are a source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils. When refined by the removal of the bran and germ, the endosperm is mostly carbohydrate. In some developing nations, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, in developed nations, cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial. The word cereal is derived from Ceres, the Roman goddess of harvest, agriculture allowed for the support of an increased population, leading to larger societies and eventually the development of cities. It also created the need for organization of political power, as decisions had to be made regarding labor and harvest allocation and access rights to water. Agriculture bred immobility, as populations settled down for long periods of time, early Neolithic villages show evidence of the development of processing grain. The Levant is the ancient home of the ancestors of wheat, barley and peas, there is evidence of the cultivation of figs in the Jordan Valley as long as 11,300 years ago, and cereal production in Syria approximately 9,000 years ago. During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using man-made floods, fiber crops were domesticated as early as food crops, with China domesticating hemp, cotton being developed independently in Africa and South America, and Western Asia domesticating flax. The first cereal grains were domesticated by early primitive humans, about 8,000 years ago, they were domesticated by ancient farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region. Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the so-called Neolithic founder crops in the development of agriculture, around the same time, millets and rices were starting to become domesticated in East Asia. Sorghum and millets were also being domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, while each individual species has its own peculiarities, the cultivation of all cereal crops is similar. Most are annual plants, consequently one planting yields one harvest, wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, and spelt are the cool-season cereals. These are hardy plants grow well in moderate weather and cease to grow in hot weather. The warm-season cereals are tender and prefer hot weather, barley and rye are the hardiest cereals, able to overwinter in the subarctic and Siberia. Many cool-season cereals are grown in the tropics, however, some are only grown in cooler highlands, where it may be possible to grow multiple crops per year
6.
Chaff
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Chaff is the dry, scaly protective casings of the seeds of cereal grain, or similar fine, dry, scaly plant material such as scaly parts of flowers, or finely chopped straw. Chaff is indigestible by humans, but livestock can eat it and in agriculture it is used as livestock fodder, chaff comes from Middle English chaf, from Old English ceaf, related to Old High German cheva, husk. In grasses, the seed is surrounded by thin, dry, scaly bracts. Once it is removed it is referred to as chaff. In wild cereals and in the primitive domesticated einkorn, emmer and spelt wheats, before the grain can be used, the husks must be removed. The process of loosening the chaff from the grain so as to remove it is called threshing – traditionally done by milling or pounding. Separating remaining loose chaff from the grain is called winnowing – traditionally done by repeatedly tossing the grain up into a wind which gradually blows the lighter chaff away. This method typically utilizes a broad, plate-shaped basket or similar receptacle to hold, domesticated grains such as durum wheat and common wheat have been bred to have chaff that is easily removed. These varieties are known as free-threshing or naked, chaff should not be confused with bran, which is finer scaly material that is part of the grain itself. Chaff is also made by chopping straw into short lengths. Like grain chaff this is used as feed, and is a way of turning coarse fodder into a form more palatable to livestock. In botany, chaff refers to the thin receptacular bracts of many species in the sunflower family Asteraceae and they are modified scale-like leaves surrounding single florets in the flower-head. Chaff as a product from grain processing leads to a metaphorical use of the term. Compare also the Parable of the Tares, which refers to a mixture of wheat, another example is in Psalm 1,4 of the Bible, which says, The ungodly are not so, but are like the chaff which the wind driveth away. Hungarian engineer László Schremmer has recently discovered that by the use of chaff-based filters it is possible to reduce the content of water to 3 microgram/litre. This is especially important in areas where the water is provided by filtering the water extracted from the underground aquifer. Bran Biomass Combine harvester Rice hulls Rice huller Threshing Threshing machine Winnowing
7.
Weevils
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A weevil is a type of beetle from the Curculionoidea superfamily. They are usually small, less than 6 mm, and herbivorous, over 60,000 species are in several families, mostly in the family Curculionidae. Some other beetles, although not closely related, bear the name weevil, such as the biscuit weevil, many weevils are considered pests because of their ability to damage and kill crops, but others are used for biological control of invasive plants. The grain or wheat weevil damages stored grain, the boll weevil attacks cotton crops. It lays its eggs inside cotton bolls, and the larvae eat their way out, one species of weevil, Austroplatypus incompertus, exhibits eusociality, one of the few insects outside the Hymenoptera and the Isoptera to do so. Because so many species exist in such diversity, the classification of weevils is in a state of flux. They are generally divided into two divisions, the Orthoceri or primitive weevils, and the Gonatoceri or true weevils. E. C. Zimmerman proposed a division, the Heteromorphi. Primitive weevils are distinguished by having antennae, while true weevils have elbowed antennae. The elbow occurs at the end of the scape in true weevils, nanophyini are primitive weevils, but have long scapes and geniculate antennae. From the true weevils, Gonipterinae and Ramphus have short scapes, the most recent classification system to family level was provided by Kuschel, with updates from Marvaldi et al. and was achieved using phylogenetic analyses. The accepted families are the primitive weevils, Anthribidae, Attelabidae, Belidae, Brentidae, Caridae, and Nemonychidae, most other weevil families were demoted to subfamilies or tribes. Weevil species radiation was shown to follow steps in plant evolution upon which the weevils feed, some of the features used to distinguish weevil families are, Rhopalapion longirostre exhibits an extreme case of sexual dimorphism. The female rostrum is twice as long and its surface is smoother than in the male, the female bores egg channels into the buds of Alcea rosea. Thus, the dimorphism is not attributed to sexual selection and it is a response to ecological demands of egg deposition. A phylogeny of the Curculionoidea based on 18S ribosomal DNA and morphological data is suggested below, Bright, Donald E. Bouchard, coleoptera, Curculionidae, Entiminae, Weevils of Canada and Alaska Volume 2. Insects and Arachnids of Canada Series, Part 25, media related to Curculionidae at Wikimedia Commons
8.
Threshing
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Threshing is the process of loosening the edible part of cereal grain from the scaly, inedible chaff that surrounds it. It is the step in grain preparation after harvesting and before winnowing, Threshing does not remove the bran from the grain. Threshing may be done by beating the grain using a flail on a threshing floor, another traditional method of threshing is to make donkeys or oxen walk in circles on the grain on a hard surface. A modern version of this in some areas is to spread the grain on the surface of a road so the grain may be threshed by the wheels of passing vehicles. Hand threshing was laborious, with a bushel of wheat taking about an hour, in the late 18th century, before threshing was mechanized, about one-quarter of agricultural labor was devoted to it. Industrialization of threshing began in 1786 with the invention of the machine by Scotsman Andrew Meikle. Today, in developed areas, it is now mostly done by machine, usually by a combine harvester, which harvests, threshes, the cereal may be stored in a barn or silos. A threshing bee was traditionally a bee in which people gathered together to pitch in. Such bees were sometimes festivals or events within larger harvest festivals, today the original purpose is largely obsolete, but the festival tradition lives on in some modern examples that commemorate the past and include flea markets, hog wrestling, and dances. Swing Riots Threshing-board Threshing floor Threshing machine Threshing stone Winnowing
9.
Dionysus
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Dionysus is the god of the grape harvest, winemaking and wine, of ritual madness, fertility, theatre and religious ecstasy in ancient Greek religion and myth. Wine played an important role in Greek culture, and the cult of Dionysus was the religious focus for its unrestrained consumption. He may have been worshipped as early as c, 1500–1100 BC by Mycenean Greeks, traces of Dionysian-type cult have also been found in ancient Minoan Crete. His origins are uncertain, and his cults took many forms, some are described by ancient sources as Thracian, in some cults, he arrives from the east, as an Asiatic foreigner, in others, from Ethiopia in the South. He is a god of epiphany, the god that comes and his festivals were the driving force behind the development of Greek theatre. The earliest cult images of Dionysus show a male, bearded and robed. He holds a staff, tipped with a pine-cone and known as a thyrsus. Later images show him as a beardless, sensuous, naked or half-naked androgynous youth, in its fully developed form, his central cult imagery shows his triumphant, disorderly arrival or return, as if from some place beyond the borders of the known and civilized. His procession is made up of female followers and bearded satyrs with erect penises, some are armed with the thyrsus. The god himself is drawn in a chariot, usually by exotic beasts such as lions or tigers and this procession is presumed to be the cult model for the followers of his Dionysian Mysteries. He is also known as Bacchus, the adopted by the Romans. His thyrsus, sometimes wound with ivy and dripping with honey, is both a beneficent wand and a used to destroy those who oppose his cult and the freedoms he represents. As Eleutherios, his wine, music and ecstatic dance free his followers from self-conscious fear and care and those who partake of his mysteries are possessed and empowered by the god himself. The cult of Dionysus is also a cult of the souls, his maenads feed the dead through blood-offerings and he is sometimes categorised as a dying-and-rising god. Some scholars believe that Dionysus is a syncretism of a local Greek nature deity, Dionysus had a strange birth that evokes the difficulty in fitting him into the Olympian pantheon. His mother was a woman, Semele, the daughter of king Cadmus of Thebes, and his father was Zeus. Zeus wife, Hera, discovered the affair while Semele was pregnant, appearing as an old crone, Hera befriended Semele, who confided in her that Zeus was the actual father of the baby in her womb. Hera pretended not to believe her, and planted seeds of doubt in Semeles mind, curious, Semele demanded of Zeus that he reveal himself in all his glory as proof of his godhood
10.
Eleusinian Mysteries
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The Eleusinian Mysteries were initiations held every year for the cult of Demeter and Persephone based at Eleusis in ancient Greece. They are the most famous of the religious rites of ancient Greece. It is thought that their basis was an old agrarian cult which probably goes back to the Mycenean period and it was a major festival during the Hellenic era, and later spread to Rome. The name of the town, Eleusís, seems to be Pre-Greek and it is probably a counterpart with Elysium, the rites, ceremonies, and beliefs were kept secret and consistently preserved from antiquity. The initiated believed that they would have a reward in the afterlife, there are many paintings and pieces of pottery that depict various aspects of the Mysteries. Since the Mysteries involved visions and conjuring of an afterlife, some believe that the power. Eleusinian Mysteries was the name of the mysteries of the city Eleusis, the name of the city Eleusis is Pre-Greek, and may be related with the name of the goddess Eileithyia, but this is debated. The ancient Greek word mystery means mystery or secret rite and is related with the verb mueō, which means initiation into the mysteries, and the noun mustēs, the word mustikós means connected with the mysteries, or private, secret. The Mysteries are related to a myth concerning Demeter, the goddess of agriculture, according to the hymn, Demeters daughter Persephone was gathering flowers with friends, when she was seized by Hades, the god of death and the underworld. He took her to his underworld kingdom, distraught, Demeter searched high and low for her daughter. Because of her distress, and in an effort to coerce Zeus to allow the return of her daughter and this would have deprived the gods of sacrifice and worship. As a result, Zeus relented and allowed Persephone to return to her mother, according to the myth, during her search Demeter traveled long distances and had many minor adventures along the way. In one she taught the secrets of agriculture to Triptolemus, finally, by consulting Zeus, Demeter reunites with her daughter and the earth returns to its former verdure and prosperity, the first spring. Zeus, pressed by the cries of the people and by the other deities who also heard their anguish. However, it was a rule of the Fates that whoever consumed food or drink in the Underworld was doomed to spend eternity there. Before Persephone was released to Hermes, who had sent to retrieve her, Hades tricked her into eating pomegranate seeds. She was obliged to remain with Hades for six or four months and this left a long period of time when Demeter was unhappy due to Persephones absence, neglecting to cultivate the earth. When Persephone returned to the surface, Demeter became joyful and cared for the earth again, the four months during which Persephone is with Hades correspond to the dry Greek summer, a period during which plants are threatened with drought
11.
Jane Ellen Harrison
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Jane Ellen Harrison was a British classical scholar, linguist and feminist. Harrison is one of the founders, with Karl Kerenyi and Walter Burkert, of modern studies in Ancient Greek religion and she applied 19th century archaeological discoveries to the interpretation of ancient Greek religion in ways that have become standard. Contemporary classics scholar Mary Beard, Harrisons biographer, has described her as in a way. Ellen Wordsworth Crofts, later wife of Sir Francis Darwin, was Jane Harrisons best friend from her student days at Newnham. Harrison was born in Cottingham, Yorkshire on 9 September 1850 and her mother died shortly after she was born and she was educated by a series of governesses. These governesses taught Harrison German, Latin, Ancient Greek and Hebrew, Harrison spent most of her professional life at Newnham, the progressive, recently established college for women at Cambridge. At Newnham, one of her students was Eugenie Sellers, the writer and poet, with whom she lived in England and later in Paris, between 1880 and 1897 Harrison studied Greek art and archaeology at the British Museum under Sir Charles Newton. Harrison then supported herself lecturing at the museum and at schools and her lectures became widely popular and 1600 people ended up attending her Glasgow lecture on Athenian gravestones. She travelled to Italy and Germany, where she met the scholar from Prague, Klein introduced her to Wilhelm Dörpfeld who invited her to participate in his archaeological tours in Greece. Her early book The Odyssey in Art and Literature then appeared in 1882, Harrison met the scholar D. S. MacColl, who supposedly asked her to marry him and she declined. Harrison then suffered a depression and started to study the more primitive areas of Greek art in an attempt to cure herself. In 1888 Harrison began to publish in the periodical that Oscar Wilde was editing called Womans World on The Pictures of Sappho and these two major works caused Harrison to be awarded honorary degrees from the universities of Durham and Aberdeen. Harrison was supposed to marry the scholar R. A, neil, but was unable to as he died in 1901 before they could be married. She became the figure of the group known as the Ritualists at Cambridge. Harrison became close to Francis MacDonald Cornford, and when he married in 1909 she became extremely upset and she made a new friendship with Hope Mirrlees whom she referred to as her spiritual daughter. Harrison retired from Newnham in 1922 and then moved to Paris to live with Mirrlees and she and Mirrlees returned to London in 1925 where she was able to publish her memoirs through Leonard and Virginia Woolfs press, The Hogarth Press. She died three years later at her house in Bloomsbury and is now buried in St Marylebone cemetery, Harrison was, at least ideologically, a moderate suffragist of the early feminist movement. Rather than support womens suffrage by protesting, Harrison applied her scholarship in anthropology to defend right to vote
12.
Mount Parnassus
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Mount Parnassus is a mountain of limestone in central Greece that towers above Delphi, north of the Gulf of Corinth, and offers scenic views of the surrounding olive groves and countryside. According to Greek mythology, this mountain was sacred to Dionysus and the Dionysian mysteries, it was sacred to Apollo and the Corycian nymphs. The mountain was also favored by the Dorians, there is a theory that Parna- derives from the same root as that which appears in the Luwian word for House. Parnassus is one of the largest mountainous regions of Mainland Greece and it spreads over three municipalities, namely of Boeotia, Phthiotis and Phocis, where lies its largest part. Its altitude is 2,547 meters and its highest peak is Liakouras, to the Northeast it is connected to Giona and to the south with Kirphe. Its name is due to the hero of the Greek mythology, son of Cleopompus and Cleodora. Etymological analysis, however, shows an origin of the name. The mountain is delimited to the east by the valley of the Boeotian Kephissus, the geological particularity of Parnassus is its rich deposits of bauxite, which has led to their systematic mining since the end of the 1930s, resulting in ecological damage to part of the mountain. Mount Parnassus is named after Parnassos, the son of the nymph Kleodora, a city, of which Parnassos was leader, was flooded by torrential rains. The citizens ran from the flood, following wolves howling, up the mountain slope, there the survivors built another city, and called it Lykoreia, which in Greek means the howling of the wolves. While Orpheus was living with his mother and his eight beautiful aunts on Parnassus, Apollo became fond of Orpheus and gave him a little golden lyre, and taught him to play it. Orpheuss mother taught him to make verses for singing, as the Oracle of Delphi was sacred to the god Apollo, so did the mountain itself become associated with Apollo. As the home of the Muses, Parnassus became known as the home of poetry, music, Parnassus was also the site of several unrelated minor events in Greek mythology. In some versions of the Greek flood myth, the ark of Deucalion comes to rest on the slopes of Parnassus and this is the version of the myth recounted in Ovids Metamorphoses. Orestes spent his time in hiding on Mount Parnassus, Parnassus was sacred to the god Dionysus. The Corycian Cave, located on the slopes of Parnassus, was sacred to Pan, in Book 19 of The Odyssey, Odysseus recounts a story of how he was gored in the thigh during a boar hunt on Mount Parnassus in his youth. Parnassus was also the home of Pegasus, the horse of Bellerophon. This relation of the mountain to the Muses offered an instigation to its more recent mystification, the periodical Modern Parnassus issued for the first time by Catul Mendes and Xavier Ricard contained direct references to Mt. Parnassus and its mythological feature as habitation of the Muses
13.
Delphi
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Delphi is famous as the ancient sanctuary that grew rich as the seat of the oracle that was consulted on important decisions throughout the ancient classical world. Moreover, it was considered as the navel of the world by the Greeks as represented by the Omphalos and it occupies an impressive site on the south-western slope of Mount Parnassus overlooking the coastal plain to the south and the valley of Phocis. It is now an archaeological site and the modern town is nearby. The site of Delphi is located in upper central Greece, on multiple plateaux/terraces along the slope of Mount Parnassus, and includes the Sanctuary of Apollo and this semicircular spur is known as Phaedriades, and overlooks the Pleistos Valley. In myths dating to the period of Ancient Greece, the site of Delphi was believed to be determined by Zeus when he sought to find the centre of his Grandmother Earth. He sent two eagles flying from the eastern and western extremities, and the path of the eagles crossed over Delphi where the omphalos, Apollo was said to have slain Python, a drako a serpent or a dragon who lived there and protected the navel of the Earth. Python is claimed by some to be the name of the site in recognition of Python which Apollo defeated. The Homeric Hymn to Delphic Apollo recalled that the ancient name of this site had been Krisa, others relate that it was named Pytho and that Pythia, the priestess serving as the oracle, was chosen from their ranks by a group of priestesses who officiated at the temple. At the settlement site in Delphi, which was a settlement of the late 9th century. Pottery and bronze work as well as tripod dedications continue in a steady stream, the victors at Delphi were presented with a laurel crown which was ceremonially cut from a tree by a boy who re-enacted the slaying of the Python. Delphi was set apart from the other sites because it hosted the mousikos agon. These Pythian Games rank second among the four stephanitic games chronologically and these games, though, were different from the games at Olympia in that they were not of such vast importance to the city of Delphi as the games at Olympia were to the area surrounding Olympia. Delphi would have been a renowned city whether or not it hosted these games, it had other attractions that led to it being labeled the omphalos of the earth, in other words, in the inner hestia of the Temple of Apollo, an eternal flame burned. The name Delphoi comes from the root as δελφύς delphys, womb. Apollo is connected with the site by his epithet Δελφίνιος Delphinios, the epithet is connected with dolphins in the Homeric Hymn to Apollo, recounting the legend of how Apollo first came to Delphi in the shape of a dolphin, carrying Cretan priests on his back. The Homeric name of the oracle is Pytho, another legend held that Apollo walked to Delphi from the north and stopped at Tempe, a city in Thessaly, to pick laurel which he considered to be a sacred plant. In commemoration of this legend, the winners at the Pythian Games received a wreath of laurel picked in the Temple, Delphi became the site of a major temple to Phoebus Apollo, as well as the Pythian Games and the famous prehistoric oracle. Even in Roman times, hundreds of votive statues remained, described by Pliny the Younger, additionally, according to Plutarchs essay on the meaning of the E at Delphi—the only literary source for the inscription—there was also inscribed at the temple a large letter E
14.
Greco-Roman mysteries
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The main characterization of this religion is the secrecy associated with the particulars of the initiation and the ritual practice, which may not be revealed to outsiders. The most famous mysteries of Greco-Roman antiquity were the Eleusinian Mysteries, the mystery schools flourished in Late Antiquity, Julian the Apostate in the mid 4th century is known to have been initiated into three distinct mystery schools — most notably the mithraists. Because of this element of secrecy, we are ill-informed as to the beliefs and we know that they had a general likeness to one another. They too were embraced by the process of the inculturation of Christianity in its initial phase, the term Mystery derives from Latin mysterium, from Greek mysterion, in this context meaning secret rite or doctrine. The Mysteries were thus schools in all religious functions were closed to the uninitiated. This is also reflected in the division of theology by Varro, in civil theology, natural theology. Mysteries thus supplement rather than compete with civil religion, an individual could easily observe the rites of the state religion, be an initiate in one or several mysteries, and at the same time adhere to a certain philosophical school. In contrast to the rituals of civil religion, participation in which was expected of every member of society. This is important in the context of the persecution of Christians. The mystery schools offered a niche for the preservation of ancient religious ritual and they had, more often than not, come up from a barbarous underworld. The mysteries at Eleusis near Athens lasted for a thousand years, for this reason, what glimpses we do have of the older Greek mysteries have been taken as reflecting certain archaic aspects of common Indo-European religion, with parallels in Indo-Iranian religion. The mystery schools of Greco-Roman antiquity include the Eleusinian Mysteries, the Dionysian Mysteries, the ancient mystery schools were a subject of fascination for 19th and early-20th century German and French classical scholars. This literature had an influence on European culture in the late 19th century. Psychiatrist and psychoanalyst Carl Gustav Jung borrowed metaphors from this literature to reframe his theories, navigium Isidis Mysticism Notes Further reading Media related to Mysteric religions in ancient world at Wikimedia Commons
15.
Callimachus
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Callimachus was a native of the Greek colony of Cyrene, Libya. He was a poet, critic and scholar at the Library of Alexandria and enjoyed the patronage of the Egyptian–Greek Pharaohs Ptolemy II Philadelphus. Although he was never made chief librarian, he was responsible for producing a survey based upon the contents of the Library. This, his Pinakes,120 volumes long, provided the foundation for work on the history of Greek literature. As one of the earliest critic-poets, he typifies Hellenistic scholarship, Callimachus was of Libyan Greek origin. He was named after his grandfather, an elder Callimachus, who was regarded by the Cyrenaean citizens and had served as a general. Callimachus married the daughter of a Greek man called Euphrates who came from Syracuse, however, it is unknown if they had children. In later years, he was educated in Athens, when he returned to North Africa, he moved to Alexandria. Elitist and erudite, claiming to abhor all common things, Callimachus is best known for his poems and epigrams. During the Hellenistic period, a trend in Greek-language poetry was to reject epics modelled after Homer. Big book, big evil is another saying attributed to him, often thought to be attacking long, Callimachus also wrote poems in praise of his royal patrons, and a wide variety of other poetic styles, as well as prose and criticism. Some classicists, including Peter Green, speculate that this contributed to the long feud. Though Callimachus was an opponent of big books, the Suda puts his number of works at 800, suggesting that he found large quantities of small works more acceptable. In the first three books at least, the formula appears to ask a question of the Muse, of the form, Why, on Paros, why, at Argos is a month named for lambs. Why, at Leucas, does the image of Artemis have a mortar on its head, a series of questions can be reconstituted from the fragments. One passage of the Aetia, the so-called Coma Berenices, has been reconstructed from papyrus remains, the extant hymns are extremely learned, and written in a style that some have criticised as labored and artificial. The epigrams are more widely respected, and several have been incorporated into the Greek Anthology, according to Quintilian he was the chief of the elegiac poets, his elegies were highly esteemed by the Romans, and imitated by Ovid, Catullus, and especially Sextus Propertius. Many modern classicists hold Callimachus in high regard for his influence on Latin poetry
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Odyssey
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The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the Odyssey is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second-oldest extant work of Western literature, the Iliad is the oldest. Scholars believe the Odyssey was composed near the end of the 8th century BC, somewhere in Ionia, the poem mainly focuses on the Greek hero Odysseus, king of Ithaca, and his journey home after the fall of Troy. It takes Odysseus ten years to reach Ithaca after the ten-year Trojan War. In his absence, it is assumed Odysseus has died, and his wife Penelope and son Telemachus must deal with a group of suitors, the Mnesteres or Proci. The Odyssey continues to be read in the Homeric Greek and translated into languages around the world. Many scholars believe the poem was composed in an oral tradition by an aoidos, perhaps a rhapsode. The details of the ancient oral performance and the conversion to a written work inspire continual debate among scholars. The Odyssey was written in a dialect of Greek—a literary amalgam of Aeolic Greek, Ionic Greek. Among the most noteworthy elements of the text are its non-linear plot, in the English language as well as many others, the word odyssey has come to refer to an epic voyage. The Odyssey has a lost sequel, the Telegony, which was not written by Homer and it was usually attributed in antiquity to Cinaethon of Sparta. In one source, the Telegony was said to have stolen from Musaeus by either Eugamon or Eugammon of Cyrene. The Odyssey begins ten years after the end of the ten-year Trojan War, and Odysseus has still not returned home from the war. Odysseus protectress, the goddess Athena, requests to Zeus, king of the gods, to finally allow Odysseus to return home when Odysseus enemy, then, disguised as a Taphian chieftain named Mentes, she visits Telemachus to urge him to search for news of his father. He offers her hospitality, they observe the suitors dining rowdily while the bard Phemius performs a poem for them. Penelope objects to Phemius theme, the Return from Troy, because it reminds her of her missing husband and that night Athena, disguised as Telemachus, finds a ship and crew for the true prince. The next morning, Telemachus calls an assembly of citizens of Ithaca to discuss what should be done with the suitors. Accompanied by Athena, he departs for the Greek mainland and the household of Nestor, most venerable of the Greek warriors at Troy, now at home in Pylos
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Teiresias
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In Greek mythology, Tiresias was a blind prophet of Apollo in Thebes, famous for clairvoyance and for being transformed into a woman for seven years. He was the son of the shepherd Everes and the nymph Chariclo, Tiresias participated fully in seven generations in Thebes, beginning as advisor to Cadmus himself. On Mount Cyllene in the Peloponnese, as Tiresias came upon a pair of copulating snakes, Hera was displeased, and she punished Tiresias by transforming him into a woman. As a woman, Tiresias became a priestess of Hera, married and had children, including Manto, according to some versions of the tale, Lady Tiresias was a prostitute of great renown. After seven years as a woman, Tiresias again found mating snakes, depending on the myth, either she made sure to leave the snakes alone this time, or, according to Hyginus, trampled on them. As a result, Tiresias was released from his sentence and permitted to regain his masculinity and this ancient story is recorded in lost lines of Hesiod. Tiresias is presented as a complexly liminal figure, mediating between humankind and the gods, male and female, blind and seeing, present and future, this world and the Underworld. An alternative story told by the poet Pherecydes was followed in Callimachus poem The Bathing of Pallas, in it, Tiresias replied, Of ten parts a man enjoys one only. Hera instantly struck him blind for his impiety, zeus could do nothing to stop her or reverse her curse, but in recompense he did give Tiresias the gift of foresight and a lifespan of seven lives. He is said to have understood the language of birds and could divine the future from indications in fire, however it was the communications of the dead he relied the most on, menacing them when they were late to attend him. Tiresias makes a appearance in the Odyssey, book XI. As a seer, Tiresias was a title for soothsayers throughout Greek legendary history. In Greek literature, Tiresias pronouncements are always given in short maxims which are often cryptic and this is his emblematic role in tragedy. Like most oracles, he is extremely reluctant to offer the whole of what he sees in his visions. Tiresias appears as the name of a character in several stories. In The Bacchae, by Euripides, Tiresias appears with Cadmus, along with Cadmus, he dresses as a worshiper of Dionysus to go up the mountain to honor the new god with the Theban women in their Bacchic revels. In Sophocles Oedipus Rex, Oedipus, the king of Thebes, at first, Tiresias refuses to give a direct answer and instead hints that the killer is someone Oedipus really does not wish to find. Outraged, Oedipus throws him out of the palace, but then realizes the truth
18.
Odysseus
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Odysseus, also known by the Latin name Ulysses, was a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homers epic poem the Odyssey. Odysseus also plays a key role in Homers Iliad and other works in that same epic cycle. Husband of Penelope, father of Telemachus, and son of Laërtes and Anticlea, Odysseus is renowned for his brilliance, guile, and versatility and he is most famous for the Odyssey, ten eventful years he took to return home after the decade-long Trojan War. The name has several variants, in Greek the character was called Olysseus, Oulixeus, Oulixes, hence, there may originally have been two separate figures, one called something like Odysseus, the other something like Ulixes, who were combined into one complex personality. The etymology of the name is unknown, ancient authors linked the name to the Greek verbs odussomai to be wroth against, to hate, or to oduromai to lament, bewail. Homer in references and puns, relates it to various forms of this verb and it has also been suggested that the name is of non-Greek origin, probably not even Indo-European, with an unknown etymology, R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin. In Book 19 of the Odyssey, where Odysseuss early childhood is recounted, Euryclea tries to guide him to naming the boy Polyaretos, for he has much been prayed for. Autolycus apparently in a sardonic mood, decided to give the child a name that would commemorate his own experience in life. Because I got odium upon myself before coming here, let the childs name be Odysseus to signify this. The pun was prophetic as well as commemorative, Odysseus often receives the patronymic epithet Laertiades, son of Laërtes. In the Iliad and Odyssey there are several epithets used to describe Odysseus and his name and stories were adopted into Etruscan religion under the name Uthuze. Hence, Odysseus was the great-grandson of the Olympian god Hermes, according to the Iliad and Odyssey, his father is Laertes and his mother Anticlea, although there was a non-Homeric tradition that Sisyphus was his true father. The rumor went that Laertes bought Odysseus from the conniving king, Odysseus is said to have a younger sister, Ctimene, who went to Same to be married and is mentioned by the swineherd Eumaeus, whom she grew up alongside, in Book 15 of the Odyssey. Homers Iliad and Odyssey portray Odysseus as a hero, but the Romans. In Virgils Aeneid, written between 29 and 19 BC, he is referred to as cruel Odysseus or deceitful Odysseus. Turnus, in Aeneid ix, reproaches the Trojan Ascanius with images of rugged, forthright Latin virtues, declaring, You shall not find the sons of Atreus here, nor need the frauds of sly Ulysses fear. While the Greeks admired his cunning and deceit, these qualities did not recommend themselves to the Romans, who possessed a rigid sense of honour. His attempts to avoid his sacred oath to defend Menelaus and Helen offended Roman notions of duty, the majority of sources for Odysseus pre-war exploits—principally the mythographers Pseudo-Apollodorus and Hyginus—postdate Homer by many centuries
19.
Tiangong Kaiwu
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The Tiangong Kaiwu, or The Exploitation of the Works of Nature was a Chinese encyclopedia compiled by Song Yingxing. It was published in May 1637 with funding provided by Songs patron Tu Shaokui, the Tiangong Kaiwu is an encyclopedia covering a wide range of technical issues, including the use of various gunpowder weapons. Copies of the book were very scarce in China during the Qing dynasty and it featured detailed illustrations that were valuable for historians in understanding many early Chinese production processes. At the same time, the Tiangong Kaiwu broke from Chinese tradition by rarely referencing previous written work and it is instead written in a style strongly suggestive of first-hand experience. In the preface to the work, Song attributed this deviation from tradition to his poverty and he wrote about the meticulous and proper cultivation of each crop, as well as how to avoid agricultural disasters in the process. The subject of maritime and nautical technology and engineering was discussed extensively by Song Yingxing, Song noted that in northern China the chief means of transportation was by carriage and cart, while in southern China it was by ship and boat. He provided various nuances about nautical matters, such as anchors for battleships. Song noted that there were thousands of names classifying different boats found in China, which was named in accordance to their overall shape, cargo capacity. Song also wrote of the used by the Chinese in his day for pearl diving in Guangdong. This long breathing tube was strengthened by rings of tin and fastened to a watertight leather face mask, a drawn illustration of this was provided in his book. In his admiration for the stern-mounted steering rudder, he wrote and he gave an accurate description of the raising of silkworms, along with their instinctual mating tradition. Those raising the silkworms had their eggs deposited on sheets of paper or cloth, the reason for this, he said, was so that the inferior eggs would die in the process, hence less mulberry leaves would be consumed needlessly. He also provided specifications on how to avoid damaging the eggs in the process of preparation before the bathing process in the 12th month. He noted the differences between two forms of silkworms, late and early, while providing information on a wide variety in different silkworm breeds and cocoons. After their eventful hatching, he described the living conditions and environment that the silkworms should be immersed in. He warned of different sources of foul odors and smoke that had the capability of killing the silkworms if they came into contact, for the process of making silk, he noted that raw silk could not be reeled into normal silk until a formal wadding process was done. In ancient times, he said, cotton was called xima and he outlined two different types of cotton and their characteristics, tree cotton and the cotton plant. He noted their planting in spring and their picking by autumn and he noted the process of straightening the cotton fibers with wooden boards, which prepared them for the spinning wheel, the slivers drawn out to desired size and twisted into yarns
20.
Agriculture in China
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Agriculture is a vital industry in China, employing over 300 million farmers. China ranks first in worldwide farm output, primarily producing rice, wheat, potatoes, tomato, sorghum, peanuts, tea, millet, barley, cotton, oilseed and soybeans. Although accounting for only 10 percent of land worldwide, it produces food for 20 percent of the worlds population. The development of farming over the course of Chinas history has played a key role in supporting the growth of what is now the largest population in the world. Analysis of stone tools by Professor Liu Li and others has shown that the origins of Chinese agriculture is rooted in the pre-agricultural Paleolithic, during this time, hunter-gatherers harvested wild plants with the same tools that would later be used for millet and rice. Remains of domesticated millet have been found in northern China at Xinglonggou, Yuezhang, Dadiwan, Cishan and these sites cover a period over 6250-5050 BCE. The amount of domesticated millet eaten at these sites was proportionally quite low compared to other plants, at Xinglonggou, millet made up only 15% of all plant remains around 6200-5400 BCE, a ratio that changed to 99% by 2050-1550 BCE. Excavations at Kuahuqiao, the earliest known Neolithic site in eastern China, have documented rice cultivation 7,700 years ago, approximately half of the plant remains belonged to domesticated japonica species, whilst the other half were wild types of rice. It is possible that the people at Kuahuqiao also cultivated the wild type, finds at sites of the Hemudu Culture in Yuyao and Banpo near Xian include millet and spade-like tools made of stone and bone. Evidence of settled agriculture has been found at the Hemudu site of Tianluoshan. There is also a tradition involving agriculture in Chinese mythology. In his book Permanent Agriculture, Farmers of Forty Centuries, Professor Franklin Hiram King described and extolled the values of the farming practices of China. Due to Chinas status as a country and its severe shortage of arable land. However, throughout its history, various methods have developed or imported that enabled greater farming production. They also utilized the seed drill to improve on row farming. During the Spring and Autumn period, two revolutionary improvements in farming took place. One was the use of cast iron tools and beasts of burden to pull plows, and the other was the large-scale harnessing of rivers and development of water conservation projects. The engineer Sunshu Ao of the 6th century BC and Ximen Bao of the 5th century BC are two of the oldest hydraulic engineers from China, and their works were focused upon improving irrigation systems
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Wang Zhen (official)
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This article is about Wang Zhen, agronomist and inventor. For other historical figures with this name, see Wang Zhen, Wang Zhen was an official of the Yuan Dynasty of China. He was one of the innovators of the wooden movable type printing technology. His illustrated agricultural treatise was also one of the most advanced of its day, covering a range of equipment and technologies available in the late 13th. Wang Zhen was born in Shandong province, and spent many years as an official of both Anhui and Jiangxi provinces. From the years 1290 to 1301, he was a magistrate for Jingde, Anhui province, the wooden movable type was described in Wang Zhens publication of 1313 AD, known as the Nong Shu, or Book of Agriculture. Although the title describes the focus of the work, it incorporated much more information on a wide variety of subjects that was not limited to the scope of agriculture. Wang Zhens Nong Shu of 1313 was an important medieval treatise outlining the application and use of the various Chinese sciences, technologies. From water powered bellows to movable type printing, it is considered a masterpiece on contemporary medieval Chinese technology. Hence, a such as the Nong Shu could help rural farmers maximize efficiency of producing yields. The Nong Shu was a long book even for its own time. The Chinese during the Han Dynasty were the first to apply hydraulic power in working the bellows of the blast furnace in creating cast iron. This was recorded in the year 31 AD, an innovation of the engineer Du Shi, after Du Shi, Chinese in subsequent dynastic periods continued the use of water power to operate the bellows of the blast furnace. The 5th century text Shui Jing Zhu mentions the use of rushing water to power waterwheels, as does the Tang Dynasty geography text of the Yuan-he Jun Xian Tu Chi. Although Du Shi was the first to apply power to bellows in metallurgy. Wang Zhen is best known for his usage of wooden movable type while he was a magistrate of Jingde in Anhui province from 1290 to 1301. His main contribution was improving the speed of typesetting with simple devices, along with the complex. Wang Zhen improved the earlier experimented process by adding the methods of specific type cutting and finishing, making the type case and revolving table that made the process more efficient
22.
Technology of the Song Dynasty
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The Song dynasty provided some of the most significant technological advances in Chinese history, many of which came from talented statesmen drafted by the government through imperial examinations. The ingenuity of advanced mechanical engineering had a tradition in China. The application of movable type printing advanced the already widespread use of printing to educate and amuse Confucian students. Notable advances in engineering, nautics, and metallurgy were made in Song China. These advances, along with the introduction of paper-printed money, helped revolutionize, polymath geniuses – that is, people knowledgeable across an encyclopaedic range of topics – such as Shen Kuo and Su Song embodied the spirit of early empirical science and technology in the Song era. This allowed sailors to navigate the seas more accurately with the magnetic needle compass, Shen was made famous for his written description of Bi Sheng, the inventor of movable type printing. Shen was also interested in geology, as he formulated a theory of geomorphology, along with his colleague Wei Pu in the Bureau of Astronomy, Shen used cosmological hypotheses when describing the variations of planetary motion, including retrogradation. One of Shens greatest achievements, aided by Wei Pu, was correcting the error by diligently recording and plotting the moons orbital path three times a night over a period of five years. Unfortunately Shen had many political rivals at court who were determined to sabotage his work, the court fully accepted their corrections to lunar and solar error, but only partially adopted Shen and Weis corrected plotting of the planetary orbital paths and various speeds. This treatise included many medicinal applications, including the use of ephedrin as a pharmaceutical drug, however, Su was most famous for his hydraulic-powered astronomical clock tower, crowned with a mechanically driven armillary sphere, which was erected in the capital city of Kaifeng in the year 1088. Sus clock tower employed the escapement mechanism two centuries before it was applied in clocks of Europe, sus clock tower also featured the earliest known endless power-transmitting chain drive in the world, as outlined in his horological treatise of 1092. On a court mission to inspect a frontier region, Shen Kuo once made a map of wood and glue-soaked sawdust to show the mountains, roads, rivers. Shen Kuo also experimented with camera obscura, only a few decades after the first to do so, there were many other important figures in the Song era besides Shen Kuo and Su Song, many of whom contributed greatly to the technological innovations of the time period. The Song Shi states, The odometer. is painted red, with pictures of flowers and birds on the four sides, and constructed in two storeys, handsomely adorned with carvings. At the completion of every li, the figure of a man in the lower storey strikes a drum, at the completion of every ten li. The carriage-pole ends in a phoenix-head, and the carriage is drawn by four horses, the escort was formerly of 18 men, but in the 4th year of the Yongxi reign period the emperor Taizong increased it to 30. When the upper horizontal wheel has made 1 revolution, the carriage will have gone 10 li, the number of wheels used, great and small, is 8 inches in all, with a total of 285 teeth. Thus the motion is transmitted as if by the links of a chain, in the Song period, the odometer device was combined with the south-pointing chariot device, which was probably first invented by the ancient Chinese mechanical engineer Ma Jun
23.
Gospel according to Matthew
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The Gospel According to Matthew is the first book of the New Testament. The narrative tells how the Messiah, Jesus, rejected by Israel, most scholars believe the Gospel of Matthew was composed between AD80 and 90, with a range of possibility between AD70 to 110. The title Son of David identifies Jesus as the healing and miracle-working Messiah of Israel, as Son of Man he will return to judge the world, an expectation which his disciples recognise but of which his enemies are unaware. As Son of God he is God revealing himself through his son, the gospel reflects the struggles and conflicts between the evangelists community and the other Jews, particularly with its sharp criticism of the scribes and Pharisees. The original versions of the Gospel of Matthew and the gospels are lost. The oldest relatively complete extant manuscripts of the Bible are the Codex Vaticanus and the Codex Sinaiticus, besides these, there exist manuscript fragments ranging from a few verses to whole chapters. P104 and P67 are notable fragments of Matthew, in the process of recopying, variations slipped in, different regional manuscript traditions emerged, and corrections and adjustments were made. The Gospel of Matthew is anonymous, the author is not named within the text, the consensus is that Papias does not describe the Gospel of Matthew as we know it, and it is generally accepted that Matthew was written in Greek, not in Aramaic or Hebrew. The majority view of scholars is that Mark was the first gospel to be composed. The author of Matthew did not, however, simply copy Mark, an additional 220 verses, shared by Matthew and Luke but not found in Mark, from a second source, a hypothetical collection of sayings to which scholars give the name Quelle, or the Q source. The author also had at his disposal the Greek scriptures, both as book-scrolls and in the form of collections, and, if Papias is correct. The majority view among scholars is that Matthew was a product of the last quarter of the 1st century, the Christian community to which Matthew belonged, like many 1st-century Christians, were still part of the larger Jewish community, hence the designation Jewish Christian to describe them. The author of Matthew wrote for a community of Greek-speaking Jewish Christians located probably in Syria, Matthew, alone among the gospels, alternates five blocks of narrative with five of discourse, marking each off with the phrase When Jesus had finished. The Gospel of Matthew begins with the words The Book of Genealogy of Jesus Christ, John baptizes Jesus, and the Holy Spirit descends upon him. Jesus prays and meditates in the wilderness for forty days, and is tempted by Satan and his early ministry by word and deed in Galilee meets with much success, and leads to the Sermon on the Mount, the first of the discourses. The sermon presents the ethics of the kingdom of God, introduced by the Beatitudes and it concludes with a reminder that the response to the kingdom will have eternal consequences, and the crowds amazed response leads into the next narrative block. From the authoritative words of Jesus the gospel turns to three sets of three miracles interwoven with two sets of two stories, followed by a discourse on mission and suffering. Opposition to Jesus comes to a head with accusations that his deeds are done through the power of Satan, Jesus in turn accuses his opponents of blaspheming the Holy Spirit
24.
American Standard Bible
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By the time its copyright was renewed in 1929, it had come to be known by its present name, the American Standard Version. Because of its prominence in seminaries, it was in America sometimes simply called the Standard Bible, the American Standard Version, which was also known as The American Revision of 1901, is rooted in the work begun in 1870 to revise the Authorized Version/King James Bible of 1611. This revision project eventually produced the Revised Version, an invitation was extended to American religious leaders for scholars to work on the RV project. In 1871, thirty scholars were chosen by Philip Schaff, the denominations represented on the American committee were the Baptist, Congregationalist, Dutch Reformed, Friends, Methodist, Episcopal, Presbyterian, Protestant Episcopal, and Unitarian. These scholars began work in 1872, any suggestion the American team had would be accepted by the British team only if two-thirds of the British team agreed. This principle was backed up by an agreement that if their suggestions were put into the appendix of the RV, the appendix had about three hundred suggestions in it. The New Testament was published in 1881, the Old Testament in 1885, around this time, the British team disbanded. Also around this time, unauthorized copied editions of the RV appeared with the suggestions of the American team in the main text, in 1898, publishers for Oxford and Cambridge Universities published their own editions of the RV with the American suggestions included. However, these suggestions were reduced in number, some of those Americanized editions by Oxford and Cambridge Universities had the title of American Revised Version on the cover of their spines. Some of Thomas Nelsons editions of the American Standard Version Holy Bible included the Apocrypha of the Revised Version, the Revised Version are some of the Bible versions that are authorized to be used in services of the Episcopal Church and the Church of England. It was copyrighted in North America to ensure the purity of the ASV text, in 1928, the International Council of Religious Education acquired the copyright from Nelson and renewed it the following year. The copyright was a reaction to tampering with the text of the Revised Version by some U. S. publishers, there were two rationales for the ASV. One reason was to obviate any justification for the unauthorized copied editions of the RV that had been circulating, consequently, there were several changes to the KJV text in the ASV that were not present in the RV. Gospel Light Publishing Company publishes ASV New Testament editions, like the ASV, this commentary is a work formerly under copyright which has now expired so that it is in the public domain and free to be published at will without the payment of a royalty. There appears to be a growing interest in the ASV, in part because it is included as one of the versions in most recently released Bible-related CD-ROMs and it is also available in most Bible gateway Internet sites, since it is freely available. The divine name of the Almighty is consistently rendered Jehovah in 6,823 places of the ASV Old Testament, the reason for this change, as the Committee explained in the preface, was that. the American Revisers. Other changes from the RV to the ASV included substituting who and that for which when referring to people, page headings were added and footnotes were improved. The ASV was the basis of six revisions, the ASV was also the basis for Kenneth N. Taylors Bible paraphrase, The Living Bible,1971
25.
New American Bible
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The New American Bible is a Catholic Bible translation first published in 1970. The effort eventually became the New American Bible under the liturgical principles, the text of the first edition of the New American Bible is composed of, The New Testament directly translated from Greek, appearing in portions from 1964 and completed in 1970. The Old Testament, the Confraternity Bible text translated in stages between 1952 and 1969 from the languages, with minor revisions to the text and notes in 1970. Genesis newly translated from the Hebrew in 1970, replacing the 1948 translation, the spelling of proper names found in this edition departs from the ones found in older Catholic Bible versions, such as the Douay, and instead adopts those commonly found in Protestant Bibles. The notes in many places present 20th century theories still current, Catholic scholars translated this version with collaboration from members of other Christian denominations. The NAB is one of the versions authorized to be used in services of the Episcopal Church, the New Testament was almost completely revised, and bears a much closer resemblance to the 1941 Confraternity version, as opposed to the much more periphrastic 1970 NAB NT. In 1991 the Book of Psalms was amended to introduce the use of extensive gender-neutral language, controversy ensued because of its use of vertical gender-neutral language and some uses of horizontal gender-neutral language. These Psalms were rejected for liturgical use, the only difference between the 1986–1990 RNAB and the 1991–2011 RNAB is the book of Psalms, all 72 other books are identical. In 1994, work began on a revision of the Old Testament, however, since the 1991 Psalms were rejected for liturgical use, the text was modified by a committee of the Holy See and the Bishops for use in the Latin-Rite Catholic liturgy in 2000. This is the current text of the Lectionaries of the Catholic Church in the United States, the Holy See accepted some use of gender-neutral language, such as where the speaker is speaking of one of unknown gender, but rejected any changes relating to God or Christ. On November 2008, the revised Grail Psalter was accepted by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and is currently awaiting Vatican approval and this will replace the current modified NAB Psalter for Lectionary use in the United States. In 2002, the Old Testament was completed and sent to the Ad Hoc Committee to see if it was a suitable Catholic translation, however, the US bishops Ad Hoc Committee rejected it. It was again revised in 2008 and sent to the Bishops Committee on Divine Worship, in September 2008, the last book of the Old Testament was accepted by the Ad Hoc Committee. In November of that year, the complete Old Testament was approved by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, however, they would not allow it to be published with the 1991 Psalms. A final revision of the NAB Psalter was undertaken using suggestions vetted by the Ad Hoc Committee, in January 2011, it was announced that the fourth edition of the NAB would be published on March 9 of that year. While the NABRE represents a revision of the NAB towards conformity to Liturgiam Authenticam, in 2012, the USCCB announced a plan to revise the New Testament of the New American Bible Revised Edition so a single version can be used for individual prayer, catechesis and liturgy. After they developed a plan and budget for the revision project, the editorial board is made up of the following individuals, Dr. Harold Attridge Rev. Christopher Ciccarino Dr. Mary Healy Rev. Felix Just, SJ Rev. Edward Mazich, O. S. B. Most Rev. Donald Trautman Mary Elizabeth Sperry The revision is now underway and, after the necessary approvals from the Bishops and the Vatican, is expected to be completed by 2025
26.
New International Version
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The New International Version is an English translation of the Protestant Bible. Biblica is the publisher and copyright holder of the NIV. Originally published in the 1970s, the NIV was updated in 1984 and 2011, a 2014 survey of Americans who read the Bible found that 19% use it. The NIV began in 1956 with the formation of a committee to study the value of producing a translation in the common language of the American people. Wenger, Stephen W. Paine, and Marten Woudstra, the New York Bible Society was selected to do the translation. The New Testament was released in 1973 and the full Bible in 1978, the English version underwent a minor revision in 1984. In 1990 the committee on Bible translation headed by Drs, a planned 1997 English edition was discontinued over inclusive language. An easy-reader version, New International Readers Version, was published in 1996, a revised English edition titled Todays New International Version released a New Testament in March 2002, with the complete Bible published February 2005. In 2011, a version was released. The update modified and dropped some of the language of the TNIV. Translational issues with Pauls letters were also addressed, the manuscript base for the Old Testament was the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia Masoretic Hebrew Text. The manuscript base for the New Testament was the Koine Greek language editions of the United Bible Societies, the deuterocanonical books are not included in the translation. The core translation group consisted of fifteen Biblical scholars using Hebrew, Aramaic, the translation took ten years and involved a team of over 100 scholars. From the USA, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, the range of those participating included many different denominations such as Anglicans, Assemblies of God, Baptist, Christian Reformed, Lutheran and Presbyterian. The NIV is a balance between word-for-word and thought-for-thought or literal and phrase by phrase translations, recent archaeological and linguistic discoveries helped in understanding passages that have traditionally been difficult to translate. Familiar spellings of traditional translations were generally retained, in Genesis 2,19 a translation such as the NRSV uses formed in a plain past tense So out of the ground the LORD God formed every animal. But the NIV imposes a questionable pluperfect Now the LORD God had formed out of the all the wild animals. To try to make it appear that the animals had already been created, theologian John Sailhamer states Not only is such a translation
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New Revised Standard Version
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The New Revised Standard Version of the Christian Bible is an English translation released in 1989. It is a revision of the Revised Standard Version, which was itself an update of the American Standard Version. The NRSV was intended as a translation to serve devotional, liturgical, the full translation includes the books of the standard Protestant canon as well as the books traditionally included in the canons of Roman Catholicism and Orthodox Christianity. Special editions of the NRSV employ British spelling and grammar, the New Revised Standard Version was translated by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of Churches. The group included scholars representing Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant Christian groups as well as Jewish representation in the responsible for the Hebrew Scriptures or Old Testament. The mandate given the committee was summarized in a dictum, “As literal as possible, the NRSV was intended to take advantage of this and other manuscript discoveries, and to reflect advances in scholarship. The RSV retained the second person familiar forms when God was addressed but eliminated their use in other contexts. The NRSV eliminated all such archaisms, the RSV observed the older convention of using masculine nouns in a gender-neutral sense, and in some cases used a masculine word where the source language used a neuter word. The NRSV by contrast adopted a policy of inclusiveness in gender language. ”The following scholars were active on the NRSV Bible Translation Committee at the time of publication. The New Revised Standard Version is the version most commonly preferred by biblical scholars, many of the older mainline Protestant churches officially approve the NRSV for both private and public use. The Episcopal Church and the Anglican Communion in Canon II.2 added the NRSV to the list of translations approved for church services, in accordance with the Code of Canon Law Canon 825. The NRSV, along with the RSV, is one of the texts adapted and quoted in the English-language edition of the Catechism of the Catholic Church. In Coogan, Michael D. Brettler, Mark Zvi, Newsom, ehrman, Bart D. Jesus, Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium. The Complete Guide to Bible Translations, sweeney, Marvin A. Isaiah 1 –39, with an introduction to prophetic literature. Official website Text of the NRSV at the Oremus Bible Browser Religion, Farewell To Thees and Hes, Time magazine
28.
New American Standard Bible
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The New American Standard Bible, also known as the New American Standard Version, is an English translation of the Bible. The New Testament was first published in 1963, the complete Bible was published in 1971. The most recent edition of the NASB text was published in 1995, copyright and trademark to the NASB text are owned by the Lockman Foundation. For convenience, this Concordance uses the same numbering system as Strongs Concordance. They shall give the Lord Jesus Christ His proper place, the place which the Word gives Him, therefore, the Hebrew text used for this translation was the third edition of Rudolf Kittels Biblia Hebraica as well as the Dead Sea Scrolls. The Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia was consulted for the 1995 revision, for Greek, Eberhard Nestles Novum Testamentum Graece was used, the 23rd edition in the 1971 original, and the 26th in the 1995 revision. Seeing the need for a literal, modern translation of the English Bible, in cases where word-for-word literalness was determined to be unacceptable for modern readers, changes were made in the direction of more current idioms. In such instances, the more literal renderings were indicated in footnotes, the greatest strength of the NASB is its reliability and fidelity to the original languages. Additionally, the NASB includes printing of verses as individual units In 1992, in 1995, the Lockman Foundation reissued the NASB text as the NASB Updated Edition. Since then, it has become known as simply the NASB, supplanting the 1977 text in current printings. In the updated NASB, consideration was given to the latest available manuscripts with an emphasis on determining the best Greek text, primarily, the 26th edition of Nestle-Alands Novum Testamentum Graece is closely followed. The Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia is also employed together with the most recent light from lexicography, cognate languages, the updated NASB represents recommended revisions and refinements, and incorporates thorough research based on current English usage. Vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure were meticulously revised for greater understanding and smoother reading, terms found in Elizabethan English such as thy and thou have been modernized, while verses with difficult word ordering are restructured. Punctuation and paragraphing have been formatted for modernization, and verbs with multiple meanings have been updated to account for their contextual usage. YHWH is rendered LORD or GOD in capital letters in the NASB, the committee stated the reason as, This name has not been pronounced by the Jews because of reverence for the great sacredness of the divine name. Therefore it has been consistently translated LORD, the only exception is when it occurs in immediate proximity to the word Lord, that is, Adonai. In that case it is regularly translated GOD in order to avoid confusion and it is known that for many years YHWH has been transliterated as Yahweh, however no complete certainty attaches to this pronunciation. This is in direct contrast to the preface of ASV of 70 years earlier, according to the Lockman Foundation, the committee consisted of people from many Protestant, predominantly conservative, denominations
29.
Winnowing fork
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Wind winnowing is an agricultural method developed by ancient cultures for separating grain from chaff. It is also used to remove weevils or other pests from stored grain, threshing, the loosening of grain or seeds from the husks and straw, is the step in the chaff-removal process that comes before winnowing. In its simplest form it involves throwing the mixture into the air so that the wind blows away the lighter chaff, techniques included using a winnowing fan or using a tool on a pile of harvested grain. In Callimachus Hymn to Zeus, Adrasteia lays the infant Zeus in a golden líknon, her goat suckles him and he is given honey. In the Odyssey, the dead oracle Teiresias tells Odysseus to walk away from Ithaca with an oar until a wayfarer tells him it is a winnowing fan, and there to build a shrine to Poseidon. In Ancient China the method was improved by mechanisation with the development of the winnowing fan. This was featured in Wang Zhens book the Nong Shu of 1313 AD, ruth 3,2 Now Boaz, with whose women you have worked, is a relative of ours. Tonight he will be winnowing barley on the threshing floor, proverbs 20,8 When a king sits on his throne to judge, he winnows out all evil with his eyes. Proverbs 20,26 A wise king winnows out the wicked, isaiah 41,16 You will winnow them, the wind will pick them up, and a gale will blow them away. But you will rejoice in the Lord and glory in the Holy One of Israel, I will bring bereavement and destruction on my people, for they have not changed their ways. Jeremiah 51,2 I will send foreigners to Babylon to winnow her and to devastate her land, in Matthew 3,12, a sentence introduces the separation of wheat and chaff by His winnowing fan is in his hand. In Saxon settlements such as one identified in Northumberland as Bedes Ad Gefrin the buildings were shown by a reconstruction to have opposed entries. In barns a draught created by the use of these opposed doorways was used in winnowing, the technique developed by the Chinese was not adopted in Europe until the 18th century, when winnowing machines used a sail fan. The rotary winnowing fan was exported to Europe, brought there by Dutch sailors between 1700 and 1720, apparently they had obtained them from the Dutch settlement of Batavia in Java, Dutch East Indies. The Swedes imported some from south China at about the same time, until the beginning of the 18th century, no rotary winnowing fans existed in the West. The development of the winnowing barn allowed rice plantations in South Carolina to increase their yields dramatically, in 1737 Andrew Rodger, a farmer on the estate of Cavers in Roxburghshire, developed a winnowing machine for corn, called a Fanner. These were successful and the family sold them throughout Scotland for many years, as the Industrial Revolution, the winnowing process was mechanized by the invention of additional winnowing machines, such as fanning mills. Threshing Rice huller Rice pounder Sieving Winnowing engine machine Winnowing Winnowing machine The dictionary definition of winnowing at Wiktionary
30.
Holman Christian Standard Bible
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The Holman Christian Standard Bible is a modern English Bible translation from Holman Bible Publishers. The first full edition was completed in March 2004, with the New Testament alone having been published in 1999. The roots of the HCSB can be traced back as early as 1984, in 1998, Farstad and LifeWay Christian Resources came to an agreement that would allow LifeWay to fund and publish the completed work. Farstad died shortly thereafter, and leadership of the team was turned over to Dr. Edwin Blum. He followed the Greek Majority Text which he and Zane C. Hodges had authored, after Farstads death, the editorial team replaced this text with the Greek New Testament as established by twentieth-century scholars. Holman Bible Publishers assembled an international, interdenominational team of 100 scholars and proofreaders, the translation committee sought to strike a balance between the two prevailing philosophies of Bible translation, formal equivalence and dynamic or functional equivalence. The translators called this balance optimal equivalence, according to the translators, the primary goal of an optimal equivalence translation is to convey a sense of the original text with as much clarity as possible. To that end, the ancient source texts were exhaustively scrutinized at every level to determine its original meaning, afterwards, using the best language tools available, the semantic and linguistic equivalents were translated into as readable a text as possible. There are a few places in the NT that the translation team, however, these texts were retained because of their undeniable antiquity and their value for tradition and the history of NT interpretation in the church. The HCSB is available now in electronic form for WORDsearch and Bible Explorer software, an HCSB Study Bible became available in October 2010. The HCSB is available online and is also being marketed in Christian publications as an Apologetics Bible, the HCSB was updated in 2010. The most significant change was an increase in places where the covenant name of God, known as the tetragrammaton, was transliterated as Yahweh, in the first edition Yahweh was found in 78 places, the update raised that to 495 instances. Text editions began rolling out in 2010, in June 2016 B&H Publishing announced a major revision of the translation that will be called simply the Christian Standard Bible. The CSB printed text began appearing in March 2017 with the electronic edition already available, thus both Adonai and the tetragrammaton are translated by the same English word. This is a reversal of the direction the committee has done for the past decade of highlighting that God has a personal name that should be in Scripture. HCSB, May they know that You alone— whose name is Yahweh— are the Most High over all the earth, CSB, May they know that you alone— whose name is the LORD are the Most High over the whole earth. Broadman & Holman Publishers announces new Bible translation, Holman Christian Standard Bible New Testament now available. A Users Guide to Bible Translations, HCSB Official website CSB official website
31.
Saxon
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The Saxons were a group of Germanic tribes first mentioned as living near the North Sea coast of what is now Germany, in the late Roman empire. They were soon mentioned as raiding and settling in many North Sea areas, as well as pushing south inland towards the Franks. Significant numbers settled in parts of Great Britain in the early Middle Ages. Many Saxons however remained in Germania, where they resisted the expanding Frankish Empire through the leadership of the semi-legendary Saxon hero, the Saxons earliest area of settlement is believed to have been Northern Albingia, an area approximately that of modern Holstein. This general area also included the probable homeland of the Angles, Saxons, along with the Angles and other continental Germanic tribes, participated in the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain during and after the 5th century. The British-Celtic inhabitants of the isles tended to refer to all of these collectively as Saxons. It is unknown how many Saxons migrated from the Continent to Britain, the Saxons may have derived their name from seax, a kind of knife for which they were known. The seax has a symbolic impact in the English counties of Essex and Middlesex. Their names, along with those of Sussex and Wessex, contain a remnant of the word Saxon. The Elizabethan era play Edmund Ironside suggests the Saxon name derives from the Latin saxa, Their names discover what their natures are, More hard than stones, in the Celtic languages, the words designating English nationality derive from the Latin word Saxones. The most prominent example, a loanword in English, is the Scottish Gaelic Sassenach and it derives from the Scottish Gaelic Sasunnach meaning, originally, Saxon, from the Latin Saxones. Scots- or Scottish English-speakers in the 21st century usually use it as a term for an English person. The Oxford English Dictionary gives 1771 as the date of the earliest written use of the word in English. Sasanach, the Irish word for an Englishman, has the same derivation, as do the words used in Welsh to describe the English people, Cornish terms the English Sawsnek, from the same derivation. In the 16th century Cornish-speakers used the phrase Meea navidna cowza sawzneck to feign ignorance of the English language, England in Scottish Gaelic is Sasainn. Other examples include the Welsh Saesneg, Irish Sasana, Breton saoz, and Cornish Sowson, Sowsnek, the label Saxons was also applied to German settlers who migrated during the 13th century to southeastern Transylvania. From Transylvania, some Saxons migrated to neighbouring Moldavia, as the name of the town, Sas-cut, sascut is located in the part of Moldavia that is today part of Romania. The Finns and Estonians have changed their usage of the term Saxony over the centuries to denote now the country of Germany
32.
Bede
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He is well known as an author and scholar, and his most famous work, Ecclesiastical History of the English People gained him the title The Father of English History. Bedes monastery had access to a library which included works by Eusebius, Orosius. Almost everything that is known of Bedes life is contained in the last chapter of his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, a history of the church in England. It was completed in about 731, and Bede implies that he was then in his fifty-ninth year, a minor source of information is the letter by his disciple Cuthbert which relates Bedes death. Bede, in the Historia, gives his birthplace as on the lands of this monastery, Bede says nothing of his origins, but his connections with men of noble ancestry suggest that his own family was well-to-do. Bedes first abbot was Benedict Biscop, and the names Biscop, Bedes name reflects West Saxon Bīeda. It is an Anglo-Saxon short name formed on the root of bēodan to bid, the name also occurs in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, s. a. 501, as Bieda, one of the sons of the Saxon founder of Portsmouth, the Liber Vitae of Durham Cathedral names two priests with this name, one of whom is presumably Bede himself. Some manuscripts of the Life of Cuthbert, one of Bedes works, mention that Cuthberts own priest was named Bede, at the age of seven, Bede was sent to the monastery of Monkwearmouth by his family to be educated by Benedict Biscop and later by Ceolfrith. Bede does not say whether it was intended at that point that he would be a monk. Monkwearmouths sister monastery at Jarrow was founded by Ceolfrith in 682, in 686, plague broke out at Jarrow. The two managed to do the service of the liturgy until others could be trained. The young boy was almost certainly Bede, who would have been about 14, when Bede was about 17 years old, Adomnán, the abbot of Iona Abbey, visited Monkwearmouth and Jarrow. Bede would probably have met the abbot during this visit, in about 692, in Bedes nineteenth year, Bede was ordained a deacon by his diocesan bishop, John, who was bishop of Hexham. There might have been minor orders ranking below a deacon, in Bedes thirtieth year, he became a priest, with the ordination again performed by Bishop John. In about 701 Bede wrote his first works, the De Arte Metrica and De Schematibus et Tropis and he continued to write for the rest of his life, eventually completing over 60 books, most of which have survived. Not all his output can be dated, and Bede may have worked on some texts over a period of many years. His last-surviving work is a letter to Ecgbert of York, a former student, Bede may also have worked on one of the Latin bibles that were copied at Jarrow, one of which is now held by the Laurentian Library in Florence
33.
Yeavering
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Yeavering /ˈjɛvəriŋ/ is a very small hamlet in the north-east corner of the civil parish of Kirknewton in the English county of Northumberland. It is located on the River Glen at the edge of the Cheviot Hills. It is noteworthy as the site of a large Anglo-Saxon settlement that archaeologists have interpreted as being one of the seats of power held by the kings of Bernicia in the 7th century CE. In this period, a heavily inhabited hillfort was constructed on Yeavering Bell which appears to have been a major settlement centre at the time, the placename Gefrin, which is a Brittonic name meaning hill of the goats, survives as the modern Yeavering. Yeavering is situated at the end of a valley known as Glendale, Northumberland, where the Cheviots foothills give way to the Tweed Valley. Yeaverings most prominent feature is the hill, Yeavering Bell. To the north of the Bell, the land drops off to a terrace 72 metres above sea level, the River Glen cuts through the whaleback, creating a relatively wide but shallow channel that lies 50 metres above sea level. Strong winds persistently blow through the area from a west or south-westerly direction, often reaching level 8, Archaeological discoveries have shown that humans were living in the Glen Valley during the Mesolithic period. Such Mesolithic Britons were hunter-gatherers, moving around the landscape in small family or tribal groups in search of food and they made use of stone tools such as microliths, some of which have been found in the Glen Valley, indicating their presence during this period. In the later Neolithic and Bronze Age periods, humans living in Britain settled down in permanent communities, there is evidence of human activity in the valley dating from this period too, namely several ritual pits and cremation burials. The Yeavering site had seen human settlement before the Early Mediaeval period, the area was settled during the British Iron Age, when a hill fort was constructed on the Yeavering Bell hill. This fort was the largest of its kind in Northumberland, and had dry stone walls constructed around both of the Bells peaks, on the hill, over a hundred Iron Age roundhouses had been constructed, supporting a large local population. The tribal group in the area was, according to written sources. In the 1st century CE, southern and central Britain was invaded by the forces of the Roman Empire, the period of Roman occupation, known as Roman Britain or the Roman Iron Age, lasted until circa 410 CE, when the Roman armies and administration left Britain. Romano-British artefacts have also found in relation to these roundhouses. He argued that this was evidenced by the heavily Anglicised place name evidence in that area, on the other hand, he thought that the British populations were larger in the central regions of Bernicia, where very few Anglo-Saxon artefacts have been discovered in Early Mediaeval burials. There were a series of buildings constructed on the site that were excavated by archaeologists in the mid 20th century. Building A1 was initially a plain, aisled hall, devoid of annexes which had a doorway situated on every wall
34.
Winnowing barn
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Winnowing barns were commonly found in South Carolina on antebellum rice plantations. A winnowing barn consists of a shed on tall posts with a hole in the floor. Raw, husked rice was carried up into the barn by workers, as the grain dropped to the ground, the lighter and undesirable chaff was carried away in the wind, leaving a mound of purified rice grains directly below the winnowing barn. The purified grain was then packed into barrels and carried down river to port cities for distribution, prior to the development of the winnowing barn, winnowing was done by hand using winnowing baskets — a long and labor-intensive process. Thus, the development of the winnowing barn helped South Carolina become the second largest exporter of rice in the world, next to Indonesia, national Park Service, When Rice Was King Slavery in America website at Slaveryinamerica Mansfield Plantation website Rice hulls Rice huller Rice pounder Rice barn
35.
South Carolina
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South Carolina /ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/ is a state in the southeastern region of the United States. The state is bordered to the north by North Carolina, to the south and west by Georgia across the Savannah River, South Carolina became the eighth state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, doing so on May 23,1788. South Carolina became the first state to vote to secede from the Union on December 20,1860, after the American Civil War, it was readmitted into the United States on June 25,1868. South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 23rd most populous U. S. state and its GDP as of 2013 was $183.6 billion, with an annual growth rate of 3. 13%. The capital and largest city is Columbia with a 2013 population of 133,358, South Carolina is named in honor of King Charles I of England, under whose reign the English colony was first formed, with Carolus being Latin for Charles. There is evidence of activity in the area about 12000 years ago. Along the Savannah River were the Apalachee, Yuchi, and the Yamasee, further west were the Cherokee, and along the Catawba River, the Catawba. These tribes were village-dwellers, relying on agriculture as their food source. The Cherokee lived in wattle and daub houses made with wood and clay, about a dozen separate small tribes summered on the coast harvesting oysters and fish, and cultivating corn, peas and beans. Travelling inland as much as 50 miles mostly by canoe, they wintered on the plain, hunting deer and gathering nuts. The names of these survive in place names like Edisto Island, Kiawah Island. The Spanish were the first Europeans in the area, in 1521, founding San Miguel de Gualdape, established with 500 settlers, it was abandoned within a year by 150 survivors. In 1562 French settlers established a settlement at what is now the Charlesfort-Santa Elena archaeological site on Parris Island, three years later the Spanish built a fort on the same site, but withdrew following hostilities with the English navy. In 1629, King Charles I of England established the Province of Carolina an area covering what is now South and North Carolina, Georgia, in the 1670s, English planters from the Barbados established themselves near what is now Charleston. Settlers built rice plantations in the South Carolina Lowcountry, east of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line, settlers came from all over Europe. Plantation labor was done by African slaves who formed the majority of the population by 1720, another cash crop was the Indigo plant, a plant source of blue dye, developed by Eliza Lucas. Meanwhile, in Upstate South Carolina, west of the Fall Line, was settled by farmers and traders. Colonists overthrew the rule, seeing more direct representation
36.
Roxburghshire
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Roxburghshire or the County of Roxburgh is a historic county in the Southern Uplands of Scotland. It borders Dumfriesshire to the west, Selkirkshire to the north-west, to the south-east it borders Cumberland and Northumberland in England. It was named after the Royal Burgh of Roxburgh, a town which declined markedly in the 15th century and is no longer in existence, latterly, the county town of Roxburghshire was Jedburgh. The county has much the area as Teviotdale, the basin drained by the River Teviot. The term is often treated as synonymous with Roxburghshire, but may omit Liddesdale as Liddel Water drains to the west coast. Today, Roxburghshire is within the Scottish Borders council area for government purposes and contains the administrative centre of the area. It retains official status as a county, and falls within the Roxburgh, Ettrick. The county has a population of 48639, which is 43% of the population of the Scottish Borders area. Today, the towns in the county are, Jedburgh -4,030 Hawick -14,294 Kelso -5,639 Melrose -2,307 Hawick is now much the largest town. More than half the population live in the two parishes of Hawick and Melrose, until 1975, Roxburghshire was one of the counties of Scotland, governed by a county council from 1890. The county appears to have originated in the 12th century with the creation of the sheriffdom of Roxburgh, the first known sheriff is Gospatric. The hereditary sheriffship of Roxburghshire was possessed by the family of Douglas until the abolition of heritable jurisdictions in the 18th century, the ancient royal burgh of Roxburgh, from which the county had taken its name, fell into decay by the fifteenth century. After the demise of the town of Roxburgh, the county administration was based in Jedburgh, County Buildings were erected near the market place in 1812, in which the different courts met and the county officials transacted their business. After the 1894 County Council meetings were held at Newtown St Boswells, Kelso, Roxburgh County Offices were built there around 1930. New buildings by Peter Womersley were opened in 1968 and after local government re-organisation they became the headquarters of Borders Regions in 1975, the Duke of Buccleuch and the Duke of Roxburghe between them held the convenorship of Roxburgh County Council for 43 years between 1900 and 1975. The Local Government Act 1973 abolished the county and incorporated its area into the Borders Region, Borders was divided into four districts, one of which was named Roxburgh. Roxburgh District consisted of the county less the Melrose area. The regional and four district councils were abolished in 1996, merging to form the present Scottish Borders council area, the County of Roxburgh was the first Scottish county to receive a grant of arms
37.
Winnowing machine
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Wind winnowing is an agricultural method developed by ancient cultures for separating grain from chaff. It is also used to remove weevils or other pests from stored grain, threshing, the loosening of grain or seeds from the husks and straw, is the step in the chaff-removal process that comes before winnowing. In its simplest form it involves throwing the mixture into the air so that the wind blows away the lighter chaff, techniques included using a winnowing fan or using a tool on a pile of harvested grain. In Callimachus Hymn to Zeus, Adrasteia lays the infant Zeus in a golden líknon, her goat suckles him and he is given honey. In the Odyssey, the dead oracle Teiresias tells Odysseus to walk away from Ithaca with an oar until a wayfarer tells him it is a winnowing fan, and there to build a shrine to Poseidon. In Ancient China the method was improved by mechanisation with the development of the winnowing fan. This was featured in Wang Zhens book the Nong Shu of 1313 AD, ruth 3,2 Now Boaz, with whose women you have worked, is a relative of ours. Tonight he will be winnowing barley on the threshing floor, proverbs 20,8 When a king sits on his throne to judge, he winnows out all evil with his eyes. Proverbs 20,26 A wise king winnows out the wicked, isaiah 41,16 You will winnow them, the wind will pick them up, and a gale will blow them away. But you will rejoice in the Lord and glory in the Holy One of Israel, I will bring bereavement and destruction on my people, for they have not changed their ways. Jeremiah 51,2 I will send foreigners to Babylon to winnow her and to devastate her land, in Matthew 3,12, a sentence introduces the separation of wheat and chaff by His winnowing fan is in his hand. In Saxon settlements such as one identified in Northumberland as Bedes Ad Gefrin the buildings were shown by a reconstruction to have opposed entries. In barns a draught created by the use of these opposed doorways was used in winnowing, the technique developed by the Chinese was not adopted in Europe until the 18th century, when winnowing machines used a sail fan. The rotary winnowing fan was exported to Europe, brought there by Dutch sailors between 1700 and 1720, apparently they had obtained them from the Dutch settlement of Batavia in Java, Dutch East Indies. The Swedes imported some from south China at about the same time, until the beginning of the 18th century, no rotary winnowing fans existed in the West. The development of the winnowing barn allowed rice plantations in South Carolina to increase their yields dramatically, in 1737 Andrew Rodger, a farmer on the estate of Cavers in Roxburghshire, developed a winnowing machine for corn, called a Fanner. These were successful and the family sold them throughout Scotland for many years, as the Industrial Revolution, the winnowing process was mechanized by the invention of additional winnowing machines, such as fanning mills. Threshing Rice huller Rice pounder Sieving Winnowing engine machine Winnowing Winnowing machine The dictionary definition of winnowing at Wiktionary
38.
Industrial Revolution
–
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
39.
Rice huller
–
A rice huller or rice husker is an agricultural machine used to automate the process of removing the chaff of grains of rice. Throughout history, there have been numerous techniques to hull rice, traditionally, it would be pounded using some form of mortar and pestle. An early simple machine to do this is a rice pounder, later even more efficient machinery was developed to hull and polish rice. The Engelberg huller uses steel rollers to remove the husk
40.
Rice pounder
–
A rice pounder is an agricultural tool, a simple machine that is commonly used in Southeast Asia to dehull rice or to turn rice into rice flour. The device has similar functionality to a mortar and pestle, rice is dehulled by continually raising and then dropping the heavy head or pestle of the pounder into a block or mortar. Some rice pounders are foot-operated, the head is raised by standing on the handle of the device past its fulcrum, once raised, the user quickly removes themselves from the handle to allow the heavy head to fall into the mortar and pulverize its contents. In Bengal, this is called Dhenki, and is used traditionally in the villages for personal use. This is because it preserves the brown rice coating that is perceived as a healthy part, however, because it is so labor-intensive, its use is gradually decreasing. Recently, complex mechanical dehuskers or rice hullers powered by gas engines or electricity have replaced many rice pounders
41.
Sieving
–
The word sift derives from sieve. In cooking, a sifter is used to separate and break up clumps in dry ingredients such as flour, as well as to aerate, a strainer is a form of sieve used to separate solids from liquid. Some industrial strainers available are simplex basket strainers, duplex basket strainers, simple basket strainers are used to protect valuable or sensitive equipment in systems that are meant to be shut down temporarily. Some commonly used strainers are bell mouth strainers, foot valve strainers, most processing industries will opt for a self-cleaning strainer instead of a basket strainer or a simplex strainer due to limitations of simple filtration systems. The self-cleaning strainers or filters are more efficient and provide an automatic filtration solution, sieving is a simple technique for separating particles of different sizes. A sieve such as used for sifting flour has very small holes, coarse particles are separated or broken up by grinding against one-another and screen openings. Depending upon the types of particles to be separated, sieves with different types of holes are used, sieves are also used to separate stones from sand. Triage sieving refers to grouping people according to their severity of injury, the mesh in a wooden sieve might be made from wood or wicker. Use of wood to avoid contamination is important when the sieve is used for sampling, henry Stephens, in his Book of the Farm, advised that the withes of a wooden riddle or sieve be made from fir or willow with American elm being best. The rims would be made of fir, oak or, especially, a sieve analysis is a practice or procedure used to assess the particle size distribution of a granular material. Sieve sizes used in combinations of four to eight sieves
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The dictionary definition of winnowing at Wiktionary
