1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Automotive industry
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The automotive industry is a wide range of companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing, and selling of motor vehicles, some of them are called automakers. It is one of the worlds most important economic sectors by revenue, the term automotive was created from Greek autos, and Latin motivus to represent any form of self-powered vehicle. This term was proposed by Elmer Sperry, the automotive industry began in the 1890s with hundreds of manufacturers that pioneered the horseless carriage. For many decades, the United States led the world in automobile production. In 1929, before the Great Depression, the world had 32,028,500 automobiles in use, at that time the U. S. had one car per 4.87 persons. After World War II, the U. S. produced about 75 percent of auto production. In 1980, the U. S. was overtaken by Japan, in 2006, Japan narrowly passed the U. S. in production and held this rank until 2009, when China took the top spot with 13.8 million units. With 19.3 million units manufactured in 2012, China almost doubled the U. S. production, with 10.3 million units, from 1970 over 1998 to 2012, the number of automobile models in the U. S. has grown exponentially. Safety is a state that implies to be protected from any risk, danger, in the automotive industry, safety means that users, operators or manufacturers do not face any risk or danger coming from the motor vehicle or its spare parts. Safety for the automobiles themselves, implies there is no risk of damage. Safety in the industry is particularly important and therefore highly regulated. Automobiles and other vehicles have to comply with a certain number of norms and regulations, whether local or international. The standard ISO26262, is considered as one of the best practice framework for achieving automotive functional safety. In case of safety issues, danger, product defect or faulty procedure during the manufacturing of the motor vehicle and this procedure is called product recall. Product recalls happen in every industry and can be production-related or stem from the raw material, however, the automotive industry is still particularly concerned about product recalls, which cause considerable financial consequences. Around the world, there were about 806 million cars and light trucks on the road in 2007, consuming over 980 billion litres of gasoline, the automobile is a primary mode of transportation for many developed economies. The Detroit branch of Boston Consulting Group predicts that, by 2014, meanwhile, in the developed countries, the automotive industry has slowed down. It is also expected that this trend will continue, especially as the generations of people no longer want to own a car anymore
3.
Alexander Winton
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Alexander Winton was a Scottish-American bicycle, automobile and diesel engine designer and inventor. He also was an automobile racer. Winton was born in Grangemouth, Scotland and his father was a marine engineer, and young Alexander followed in his fathers profession. He emigrated to the United States in 1879, for three years he worked at Delameter Iron Works, and for two years thereafter as a marine engineer on ocean vessels. In 1891, he founded Winton Bicycle Co. and in 1897 he founded the Winton Motor Carriage Company and his cars were custom made, in 1898 he sold a car for $1000. In 1901, Henry Ford defeated him at a race at Grosse Pointe, when he first started manufacturing cars, he wanted to be able to ship them directly to customers without putting any miles onto the product. He therefore developed a car hauler for use by his company and this is the first instance of a semi-trailer truck product. The Winton Motor Carriage Company grew rapidly after the turn of the 20th century, in 1902 three buildings were built, and four more were added in 1903. The company employed 1200 workers in 1903, Winton was an important member of Association of Licensed Automobile Manufacturer, an organization originally formed to challenge the litigation of the fledgling automobile industry by George B. Selden and the Electric Vehicle Company, Winton was a prolific inventor, with over 100 patents in the field of motor cars and engines. He also had several important bicycle inventions and he was known for allowing free use of his patents when a question of safety was involved. One of his first famous races was against Henry Ford, which he lost in 1901, in 1902 he built the first of three custom race cars, all three of which he called the Bullet. Bullet No.1 was the first car to win a race at Daytona Beach. Bullet No.2 was built for the Gordon Bennett Cup in Ireland in 1903 and it was one of the first 8-cylinder automobiles ever built. It suffered mechanical difficulties and did not complete the race, although after being back to the United States Barney Oldfield drove it to a near-record 80 miles per hour at Daytona. Winton retired from racing, but built a Bullet No.3 which Oldfield raced around the United States in his famous career and he married Jeanie Muir McGlashan in 1883, they had six children, Helen, James, Agnes, Jeanie, Cathrine, and Alexander. He married LaBelle McGlashan in 1906, they had two children, LaBelle and Clarice and he married Marion Campbell in 1927 and divorced in 1930, and in 1930, he married Mary Ellen Avery. He was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 2005, the Winton Place Condominium in Lakewood, Ohio, was built in 1962 on the site of his former mansion
4.
Cleveland
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Cleveland is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County, the states second most populous county. The city proper has a population of 388,072, making Cleveland the 51st largest city in the United States, Greater Cleveland ranked as the 32nd largest metropolitan area in the United States, with 2,055,612 people in 2016. The city is the center of the Cleveland–Akron–Canton Combined Statistical Area, the city is located on the southern shore of Lake Erie, approximately 60 miles west of the Pennsylvania border. Clevelands economy has diversified sectors that include manufacturing, financial services, healthcare, Cleveland is also home to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Residents of Cleveland are called Clevelanders, Cleveland has many nicknames, the oldest of which in contemporary use being The Forest City. Cleaveland oversaw the plan for what would become the downtown area, centered on Public Square, before returning home. The first settler in Cleaveland was Lorenzo Carter, who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River, the Village of Cleaveland was incorporated on December 23,1814. In spite of the swampy lowlands and harsh winters, its waterfront location proved to be an advantage. The area began rapid growth after the 1832 completion of the Ohio, growth continued with added railroad links. Cleveland incorporated as a city in 1836, in 1836, the city, then located only on the eastern banks of the Cuyahoga River, nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring Ohio City over a bridge connecting the two. Ohio City remained an independent municipality until its annexation by Cleveland in 1854, the citys prime geographic location as a transportation hub on the Great Lakes has played an important role in its development as a commercial center. Cleveland serves as a point for iron ore shipped from Minnesota. In 1870, John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil in Cleveland, other manufacturers located in Cleveland produced steam-powered cars, which included White and Gaeth, as well as the electric car company Baker. Because of the significant growth, Cleveland was known as the Sixth City during this period, by 1920, due in large part to the citys economic prosperity, Cleveland became the nations fifth largest city. The city counted Progressive Era politicians such as the populist Mayor Tom L. Johnson among its leaders, many prominent Clevelanders from this era are buried in the historic Lake View Cemetery, including President James A. Garfield, and John D. Rockefeller. In commemoration of the centennial of Clevelands incorporation as a city, conceived as a way to energize a city after the Great Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937. The exposition was housed on grounds that are now used by the Great Lakes Science Center, following World War II, the city experienced a prosperous economy. In sports, the Indians won the 1948 World Series, the hockey Barons became champions of the American Hockey League, as a result, along with track and boxing champions produced, Cleveland was dubbed City of Champions in sports at this time
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
7.
Stanhope body
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Stanhope is an archaic car body style characterized by its single bench seat mounted at the center, folding cloth top, and a dashboard at the front. All Stanhopes featured tiller steering, either in the center or at the side, features of the car included a foot button to signal a bell, hard rubber tires, wood trim, and eight forward speeds, three backs and a top speed of about 50 miles. The body style disappeared by the vintage vehicle era and it could be considered a specific type of runabout. It was mentioned many years later as being 20 years ahead of its time, 1899-1916 Woods electric car 1899 Winton 1900-1901 Porter Motor Company 1900-1910 White Steamcar 1901-1907 Oldsmobile Curved Dash 1904-1906 Twyford Stanhope Stanhope horse-drawn carriage
8.
Gordon Bennett Cup (auto racing)
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As one of three Gordon Bennett Cups established by James Gordon Bennett, Jr. millionaire owner of the New York Herald, the automobile racing award was first given in 1900 in France. In 1899 Gordon Bennett offered the Automobile Club de France a trophy to be raced for annually by the clubs of the various countries. The trophy was awarded annually until 1905, after which the ACF held the first Grand Prix motor racing event at the Circuit de la Sarthe, the 1903 event in Ireland gave rise to the birth of British Racing Green. Under the rules, the races were hosted in the country of the years winner. As the races were between national teams, it led to the reorganisation and standardisation of national racing colours, count Eliot Zborowski, father of inter-war racing legend Louis Zborowski, suggested that each national entrant be allotted a different colour. Britain had to choose a different colour from its national colours of red, white and blue, as these had already been taken by USA, Germany. The international motor car race from Paris to Lyons for the Gordon Bennett Cup took place on June 14,1900. The start from Paris was made at 3 oclock in the morning and Charron was the first to reach Lyons, in 1901 the Gordon Bennett Cup race was run in conjunction with the Paris-Bordeaux race on 29 May over a distance of 527.1 km. The race was won by Henri Fournier driving a Mors with a time of 6h 10m 44s, the first of the Gordon Bennett Cup contestants was Leonce Girardot, driving a Panhard with a time of 8h 50m 59s. The 1902 Gordon Bennett Cup was run over a distance of 565 km from Paris to Innsbruck in conjunction with the Paris-Vienna motor car race, the race started in Paris on June 26. Competing were 30 heavy cars,48 light cars, six voiturettes, each nation was allowed to nominate up to three cars to compete for the Gordon Bennett Cup, but only six entries were received, three French and three British. The Automobile Club of Great Britain announced that car No.160 driven by Mr White,45, made by Napier & Son of London with Dunlop tyres, driven by Mr Edge would represent the club. The Times announced on June 30 that Edge had won the Gordon Bennett Cup and it was announced in Vienna on July 1 that M. Marcel Renault had won the Paris-Vienna race, with M. Henri Farman second. The editor of the Dublin Motor News, Richard J, local laws had to be adjusted, ergo the Light Locomotives Bill was passed on 27 March 1903. Eventually Kildare was chosen, partly on the grounds that the straightness of the roads would be a safety benefit. As a compliment to Ireland the British team chose to race in Shamrock green which became known as British racing green although the winning Napier of 1902 had been painted Olive green. The official timekeeper of the race was Mr. T. H, woolen of the Automobile Club of Great Britain and Ireland. Ninety one Chronographs for timing the race were supplied by the Anglo-Swiss firm Stauffer Son & Co. of La Chaux-de-Fonds, competitors were started at seven-minute intervals and had to follow bicycles through the control zones in each town
9.
Athy
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Athy is a market town at the meeting of the River Barrow and the Grand Canal in south-west County Kildare, Ireland,72 kilometres southwest of Dublin. A population of 10,490 makes it the sixth largest town in Kildare, from the first official records in 1813 until 1891 and again in 1926–46 and 1951–61 Athy was the largest town in Kildare. In 1837 the population was 4,494 and it has recently entered the news because of a suspect device found by a member of the public on 15 November 2016. Athy or Baile Átha Í is named after a 2nd-century chieftain, Ae, the earliest maps show development on the river Barrow i the area, Ptolemys map of Ireland circa 150AD clearly names the Rheban district as Rheba. The town developed from a 12th-century Anglo-Norman settlement to an important stronghold on the estates of the FitzGerald earls of Kildare. The town was bombarded by cannon fire many times and the Dominican Monastery, the local castles, the current bridge, the Crom-a-Boo Bridge, was built in 1796. The first town charter dates from 1515 and the hall was constructed in the early 18th century. The completion of the Grand Canal in 1791, linking here with the River Barrow, from early on in its history Athy was a garrison town loyal to the Crown. English garrisons stayed in the barracks in Barrack Lane after the Crimean War, home for centuries to English soldiers, Athy gave more volunteer soldiers to the Great War of 1914–18 than any other of similar sized town in Ireland. Athy has evolved as a centre for Hiberno-English, the mix of the Irish and English language traditions, a dialect starting with old Irish beginnings, evolved through Norman and English influences, dominated by a church whose first language was Latin and educated through Irish. Athy in particular was a pot of languages that led to modern Hiberno-English. Many locals words borrow from the Irish tradition, such as bokety, fooster or sleeveen, while words like kip and this tradition of spoken word led to a lyrical approach to composition and perhaps explains the disproportionate number of writers Athy has produced. Athy becomes subject and object of creative endeavours – the traditional folk song, other songs in this tradition include Lanigans Ball and Maid of Athy. Another song of note from the area is called The Curragh Of Kildare, Athy is referenced by Patrick Kavanagh in his poem Lines Written on a Seat on the Grand Canal, Dublin, And look. A barge comes bringing from Athy/And other far-flung towns mythologies, on Thursday,2 July 1903 the Gordon Bennett Cup ran through Athy. It was the first international race to be held in United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The editor of the Dublin Motor News, Richard J, local laws had to be adjusted, ergo the Light Locomotives Bill was passed on 27 March 1903. Eventually Kildare was chosen, partly on the grounds that the straightness of the roads would be a safety benefit, the route consisted of two loops that comprised a figure of eight
