1.
Knowledge
–
Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit or explicit, it can be more or less formal or systematic, however, several definitions of knowledge and theories to explain it exist. Knowledge acquisition involves complex cognitive processes, perception, communication, and reasoning, the eventual demarcation of philosophy from science was made possible by the notion that philosophys core was theory of knowledge, a theory distinct from the sciences because it was their foundation. Without this idea of a theory of knowledge, it is hard to imagine what philosophy could have been in the age of modern science, the definition of knowledge is a matter of ongoing debate among philosophers in the field of epistemology. Some claim that conditions are not sufficient, as Gettier case examples allegedly demonstrate. Richard Kirkham suggests that our definition of knowledge requires that the evidence for the belief necessitates its truth. In contrast to this approach, Ludwig Wittgenstein observed, following Moores paradox, that one can say He believes it, but it isnt so, but not He knows it, but it isnt so. He goes on to argue that these do not correspond to distinct mental states, what is different here is not the mental state of the speaker, but the activity in which they are engaged. For example, on account, to know that the kettle is boiling is not to be in a particular state of mind. Wittgenstein sought to bypass the difficulty of definition by looking to the way knowledge is used in natural languages and he saw knowledge as a case of a family resemblance. Following this idea, knowledge has been reconstructed as a concept that points out relevant features. Symbolic representations can be used to indicate meaning and can be thought of as a dynamic process, hence the transfer of the symbolic representation can be viewed as one ascription process whereby knowledge can be transferred. Other forms of communication include observation and imitation, verbal exchange, philosophers of language and semioticians construct and analyze theories of knowledge transfer or communication. In his collection of essays Technopoly, Neil Postman demonstrates the argument against the use of writing through an excerpt from Platos work Phaedrus, in this excerpt, the scholar Socrates recounts the story of Thamus, the Egyptian king and Theuth the inventor of the written word. In this story, Theuth presents his new invention writing to King Thamus, King Thamus is skeptical of this new invention and rejects it as a tool of recollection rather than retained knowledge. Media theorists like Andrew Robinson emphasise that the depiction of knowledge in the modern world was often seen as being truer than oral knowledge. It is harder to preserve records of what was said or who originally said it – usually neither the nor the content can be verified. Gossip and rumors are examples prevalent in both media, major libraries today can have millions of books of knowledge
Knowledge
–
Robert Reid, Knowledge (1896).
Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.
Knowledge
–
Los portadores de la antorcha (The Torch-Bearers) – Sculpture by
Anna Hyatt Huntington symbolizing the transmission of knowledge from one generation to the next (
Ciudad Universitaria, Madrid, Spain)
Knowledge
–
Sir Francis Bacon, "
Knowledge is Power "
2.
Common sense
–
Common Sense is a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1775–76 advocating independence from Great Britain to people in the Thirteen Colonies. Written in clear and persuasive prose, Paine marshaled moral and political arguments to encourage people in the Colonies to fight for egalitarian government. It was published anonymously on January 10,1776, at the beginning of the American Revolution and it was sold and distributed widely and read aloud at taverns and meeting places. In proportion to the population of the colonies at that time, it had the largest sale, as of 2006, it remains the all-time best selling American title, and is still in print today. Common Sense made public a persuasive and impassioned case for independence and he connected independence with common dissenting Protestant beliefs as a means to present a distinctly American political identity, structuring Common Sense as if it were a sermon. Historian Gordon S. Wood described Common Sense as the most incendiary, the text was translated into French by Antoine Gilbert Griffet de Labaume in 1790. Thomas Paine arrived in the American colonies in November 1774, shortly before the Battles of Lexington, though the colonies and Great Britain had commenced hostilities against one another, the thought of independence was not initially entertained. Writing of his experiences in the colonies in 1778, Paine found the disposition of the people such. Their attachment to Britain was obstinate, and it was, at that time and their ideas of grievance operated without resentment, and their single object was reconciliation. Paine quickly engrained himself in the Philadelphia newspaper business, and began writing Common Sense in late 1775 under the title of Plain Truth. Though it began as a series of letters to be published in various Philadelphia papers, it too long and unwieldy to publish as letters. Benjamin Rush recommended the publisher Robert Bell, promising Paine that, Bell zealously promoted the pamphlet in Philadelphias papers, and demand grew so high as to require a second printing. Paine, overjoyed with its success, endeavored to collect his share of the profits and donate them to purchase mittens for General Montgomerys troops, however, when Paines chosen intermediaries audited Bells accounts, they found that the pamphlet actually had made zero profits. Incensed, Paine ordered Bell not to proceed on a second edition, Bell ignored this and began advertising a new edition. While Bell believed this advertisement would convince Paine to retain his services, Paine secured the assistance of the Bradford brothers, publishers of the Pennsylvania Evening Post, and released his new edition, featuring several appendices and additional writings. Bell began working on a second edition, both Paine and Bell published several more editions through the end of their public squabble. The publicity generated by the success and compounded by the publishing disagreements no doubt propelled the pamphlet to incredible sales. Common Sense sold almost 100,000 copies in 1776, one biographer estimates that 500,000 copies sold in the first year, and another writes that Paines pamphlet went through twenty-five published editions in the first year alone
Common sense
–
Aristotle, the first person known to have discussed "common sense", described it as the ability with which animals (including humans) process sense-perceptions, memories and imagination (phronein) in order to reach many types of basic judgments. In his scheme, only humans have real reasoned thinking (noein), which takes them beyond their common sense.
Common sense
–
Avicenna became one of the greatest medieval authorities concerning Aristotelian common sense, both in Islamic and Christian lands.
Common sense
–
Marcus Aurelius, emperor and stoic philosopher, and an important influence upon the concept of "humanist" common sense.
Common sense
–
René Descartes is the source of the most common way of understanding the "common sense" as a widely spread type of judgement.
3.
Insight
–
Insight is the understanding of a specific cause and effect in a specific context. The term was coined by the German psychologist and theoretical linguist Karl Bühler and it is also known as an epiphany. In psychology, insight occurs when a solution to a problem presents itself quickly and it is the sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based on trial and error. Solutions via Insight have been proven to be accurate than non-insight solutions. Insight was first studied by Gestalt Psychology, in the part of the 20th century, during the search for an alternative to associationism. Generally, methodological approaches to the study of insight in the laboratory involve presenting participants with problems, problems of insight commonly fall into three types. The first type of problem forces participants to use objects in a way they are not accustomed to, in the Duncker candle problem, individuals are given matches and a box of tacks and asked to find a way to attach a candle to the wall to light the room. The solution requires the participants to empty the box of tacks, set the candle inside the box, tack the box to the wall, the second type of insight problem requires spatial ability to solve, like the Nine-dot Problem. The famous Nine-dot problem requires participants to draw four lines, through nine dots, the third and final type of problem requires verbal ability to solve, like the Remote Associates Test. In the RAT, individuals must think of a word that three, seemingly unrelated, words. RAT are often used in experiments, because they can be solved both with and without insight, two clusters of problems, those solvable by insight and those not requiring insight to solve, have been observed. An individual’s cognitive flexibility, fluency, and vocabulary ability are predictive of performance on insight problems, in contrast, fluid intelligence is mildly predictive of performance on non-insight problems, but not on insight problems. People in a mood are more likely to solve problems by insight. Research demonstrated that positive affect of participants uniquely increased insight before and during the solving of a problem. People experiencing anxiety showed the effect, and solved fewer problems by insight. Using a geometric and spatial insight problem, it was found that participants with breaks improved their performance as compared to participants who did not receive a break. However, the length of incubation between problems did not matter, thus, participants performance on insight problems improved just as much with a short break as it did with a long break. Research has shown sleep to help produce insight, individuals were initially trained on insight problems
Insight
–
Solution to the Nine Dot problem.
4.
Virtues
–
A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. Personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting collective and individual greatness, the opposite of virtue is vice. The four classic cardinal virtues are, temperance, prudence, courage, Christianity derives the three theological virtues of faith, hope and love from 1 Corinthians. Together these make up the seven virtues, Buddhisms four brahmavihara can be regarded as virtues in the European sense. The Japanese Bushidō code is characterized by up to ten virtues, including rectitude, courage, for Immanuel Kant a person is virtuous when they act in accordance with moral principles. During Egyptian civilization, Maat or Maat, also spelled māt or mayet, was the ancient Egyptian concept of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. Maat was also personified as a goddess regulating the stars, seasons, the deities set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her counterpart was Isfet, who symbolized chaos, lies, some scholars consider either of the above four virtue combinations as mutually reducible and therefore not cardinal. It is unclear whether multiple virtues were of later construct, in his work Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait. The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, however, the virtuous action is not simply the mean between two opposite extremes. This is not simply splitting the difference between two extremes, for example, generosity is a virtue between the two extremes of miserliness and being profligate. Further examples include, courage between cowardice and foolhardiness, and confidence between self-deprecation and vanity, in Aristotles sense, virtue is excellence at being human. Seneca, the Roman Stoic, said that perfect prudence is indistinguishable from perfect virtue, thus, in considering all consequences, a prudent person would act in the same way as a virtuous person. The same rationale was expressed by Plato in Meno, when he wrote that only act in ways that they perceive will bring them maximum good. It is the lack of wisdom that results in the making of a bad choice instead of a prudent one, in this way, wisdom is the central part of virtue. Plato realized that because virtue was synonymous with wisdom it could be taught and he then added correct belief as an alternative to knowledge, proposing that knowledge is merely correct belief that has been thought through and tethered. The term virtue itself is derived from the Latin virtus, and had connotations of manliness, honour, worthiness of deferential respect, most Roman concepts of virtue were also personified as a numinous deity. The primary Roman virtues, both public and private, were, Auctoritas – spiritual authority – the sense of social standing, built up through experience, Pietas
Virtues
–
Personification of virtue (
Greek ἀρετή) in
Celsus Library in
Ephesos,
Turkey
Virtues
–
Virtues fighting vices, stained glass window (14th century) in the
Niederhaslach Church
5.
Oxford English Dictionary
–
The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
Oxford English Dictionary
–
Seven of the twenty volumes of the printed version of the second edition of the OED
Oxford English Dictionary
–
Frederick Furnivall, 1825–1910
Oxford English Dictionary
–
James Murray in the Scriptorium at Banbury Road
Oxford English Dictionary
–
The 78 Banbury Road,
Oxford, house, erstwhile residence of
James Murray, Editor of the Oxford English Dictionary
6.
Charles Haddon Spurgeon
–
Charles Haddon Spurgeon was an English Particular Baptist preacher. Spurgeon remains highly influential among Christians of various denominations, among whom he is known as the Prince of Preachers and he also famously denied being a Protestant, and held to the view of Baptist Successionism. Spurgeon was the pastor of the congregation of the New Park Street Chapel in London for 38 years and he was part of several controversies with the Baptist Union of Great Britain and later he left the denomination over doctrinal convictions. In 1867, he started a charity organisation which is now called Spurgeons and he also founded Spurgeons College, which was named after him posthumously. Spurgeon was an author of many types of works including sermons, an autobiography, commentaries, books on prayer, devotionals, magazines, poetry, hymns. Many sermons were transcribed as he spoke and were translated into many languages during his lifetime, Spurgeon produced powerful sermons of penetrating thought and precise exposition. His oratory skills held his listeners spellbound in the Metropolitan Tabernacle, born in Kelvedon, Essex, Spurgeons conversion from nominal Anglicanism came on 6 January 1850, at age 15. The text that moved him was Isaiah 45,22 – Look unto me, and be ye saved, all the ends of the earth, for I am God, later that year on 4 April 1850, he was admitted to the church at Newmarket. His baptism followed on 3 May in the river Lark, at Isleham, later that same year he moved to Cambridge, where he later became a Sunday school teacher. He preached his first sermon in the winter of 1850–51 in a cottage at Teversham while filling in for a friend, from the beginning of his ministry his style and ability were considered to be far above average. In the same year, he was installed as pastor of the small Baptist church at Waterbeach, Cambridgeshire, where he published his first literary work and this was the largest Baptist congregation in London at the time, although it had dwindled in numbers for several years. Within a few months of Spurgeons arrival at Park Street, his ability as a preacher made him famous, the following year the first of his sermons in the New Park Street Pulpit was published. Spurgeons sermons were published in printed form every week and had a high circulation, by the time of his death in 1892, he had preached nearly 3,600 sermons and published 49 volumes of commentaries, sayings, anecdotes, illustrations and devotions. Immediately following his fame was criticism, the first attack in the press appeared in the Earthen Vessel in January 1855. His preaching, although not revolutionary in substance, was a plain-spoken and direct appeal to the people, critical attacks from the media persisted throughout his life. The congregation quickly outgrew their building, and moved to Exeter Hall, in these venues Spurgeon frequently preached to audiences numbering more than 10,000. At 22, Spurgeon was the most popular preacher of the day, on 8 January 1856, Spurgeon married Susannah, daughter of Robert Thompson of Falcon Square, London, by whom he had twin sons, Charles and Thomas born on 20 September 1856. At the end of year, tragedy struck on 19 October 1856
Charles Haddon Spurgeon
–
Charles Haddon Spurgeon
Charles Haddon Spurgeon
–
Spurgeon at age 23.
Charles Haddon Spurgeon
–
Spurgeon preaching at the
Surrey Music Hall circa 1858.
7.
Robert I. Sutton
–
Robert I. Sutton is Professor of Management science at the Stanford Engineering School and researcher in the field of Evidence-based management. Sutton is also an author and speaker. Sutton received his Ph. D. in Organizational Psychology from the University of Michigan and has served on the Stanford faculty since 1983. He has taught at the Haas Business School and was a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences during the 1986-87, 1994–95, nowadays he is an IDEO Fellow and a Professor of Organizational Behavior, by courtesy, at Stanford Graduate School of Business. The Knowing-Doing Gap, How Smart Firms Turn Knowledge Into Action with Jeffrey Pfeffer, weird Ideas That Work,11 ½ Practices for Promoting, Managing, and Sustaining Innovation. Hard Facts, Dangerous Half-Truths, and Total Nonsense, Profiting from Evidence-Based Management, with Jeffrey Pfeffer, the No Asshole Rule, Building a Civilized Workplace and Surviving One That Isnt Warner 2010. Good Boss, Bad Boss, How to Be The Best. And Learn From The Worst Warner 2014
Robert I. Sutton
–
Robert Sutton at a San Francisco event, March 2014
Robert I. Sutton
–
Sutton (right) at a book promotion event in San Francisco, March 2014.
8.
Ancient Greeks
–
Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th-9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and this was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a influence on ancient Rome. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization. Classical Antiquity in the Mediterranean region is considered to have begun in the 8th century BC. Classical Antiquity in Greece is preceded by the Greek Dark Ages and this period is succeeded, around the 8th century BC, by the Orientalizing Period during which a strong influence of Syro-Hittite, Jewish, Assyrian, Phoenician and Egyptian cultures becomes apparent. The end of the Dark Ages is also dated to 776 BC. The Archaic period gives way to the Classical period around 500 BC, Ancient Periods Astronomical year numbering Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details The history of Greece during Classical Antiquity may be subdivided into five major periods. The earliest of these is the Archaic period, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, the Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens and the start of Athenian Democracy in 508 BC. It was followed by the Classical period, characterized by a style which was considered by observers to be exemplary, i. e. classical, as shown in the Parthenon. This period saw the Greco-Persian Wars and the Rise of Macedon, following the Classical period was the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture and power expanded into the Near and Middle East. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest, Herodotus is widely known as the father of history, his Histories are eponymous of the entire field. Herodotus was succeeded by authors such as Thucydides, Xenophon, Demosthenes, Plato, most of these authors were either Athenian or pro-Athenian, which is why far more is known about the history and politics of Athens than those of many other cities. Their scope is limited by a focus on political, military and diplomatic history, ignoring economic. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. The Lelantine War is the earliest documented war of the ancient Greek period and it was fought between the important poleis of Chalcis and Eretria over the fertile Lelantine plain of Euboea. Both cities seem to have suffered a decline as result of the long war, a mercantile class arose in the first half of the 7th century BC, shown by the introduction of coinage in about 680 BC
Ancient Greeks
–
The
Parthenon, a temple dedicated to
Athena, located on the
Acropolis in
Athens, is one of the most representative symbols of the culture and sophistication of the ancient Greeks.
Ancient Greeks
–
Dipylon Vase of the late Geometric period, or the beginning of the Archaic period,
c. 750 BC.
Ancient Greeks
–
Political geography of ancient Greece in the Archaic and Classical periods
9.
Virtue
–
A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. Personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting collective and individual greatness, the opposite of virtue is vice. The four classic cardinal virtues are, temperance, prudence, courage, Christianity derives the three theological virtues of faith, hope and love from 1 Corinthians. Together these make up the seven virtues, Buddhisms four brahmavihara can be regarded as virtues in the European sense. The Japanese Bushidō code is characterized by up to ten virtues, including rectitude, courage, for Immanuel Kant a person is virtuous when they act in accordance with moral principles. During Egyptian civilization, Maat or Maat, also spelled māt or mayet, was the ancient Egyptian concept of truth, balance, order, law, morality, and justice. Maat was also personified as a goddess regulating the stars, seasons, the deities set the order of the universe from chaos at the moment of creation. Her counterpart was Isfet, who symbolized chaos, lies, some scholars consider either of the above four virtue combinations as mutually reducible and therefore not cardinal. It is unclear whether multiple virtues were of later construct, in his work Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle defined a virtue as a point between a deficiency and an excess of a trait. The point of greatest virtue lies not in the exact middle, however, the virtuous action is not simply the mean between two opposite extremes. This is not simply splitting the difference between two extremes, for example, generosity is a virtue between the two extremes of miserliness and being profligate. Further examples include, courage between cowardice and foolhardiness, and confidence between self-deprecation and vanity, in Aristotles sense, virtue is excellence at being human. Seneca, the Roman Stoic, said that perfect prudence is indistinguishable from perfect virtue, thus, in considering all consequences, a prudent person would act in the same way as a virtuous person. The same rationale was expressed by Plato in Meno, when he wrote that only act in ways that they perceive will bring them maximum good. It is the lack of wisdom that results in the making of a bad choice instead of a prudent one, in this way, wisdom is the central part of virtue. Plato realized that because virtue was synonymous with wisdom it could be taught and he then added correct belief as an alternative to knowledge, proposing that knowledge is merely correct belief that has been thought through and tethered. The term virtue itself is derived from the Latin virtus, and had connotations of manliness, honour, worthiness of deferential respect, most Roman concepts of virtue were also personified as a numinous deity. The primary Roman virtues, both public and private, were, Auctoritas – spiritual authority – the sense of social standing, built up through experience, Pietas
Virtue
–
Personification of virtue (
Greek ἀρετή) in
Celsus Library in
Ephesos,
Turkey
Virtue
–
Virtues fighting vices, stained glass window (14th century) in the
Niederhaslach Church
10.
Personified
–
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, and intentions to non-human entities and is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology. Personification is the attribution of human form and characteristics to abstract concepts such as nations, emotions and natural forces like seasons. Both have ancient roots as storytelling and artistic devices, and most cultures have traditional fables with anthropomorphized animals as characters, people have also routinely attributed human emotions and behavioural traits to wild as well as domestic animals. Anthropomorphism derives from its verb form anthropomorphize, itself derived from the Greek ánthrōpos and it is first attested in 1753, originally in reference to the heresy of applying a human form to the Christian God. One of the oldest known is a sculpture, the Löwenmensch figurine, Germany. It is not possible to say what these prehistoric artworks represent, in either case there is an element of anthropomorphism. This anthropomorphic art has been linked by archaeologist Steven Mithen with the emergence of more systematic hunting practices in the Upper Palaeolithic. In religion and mythology, anthropomorphism refers to the perception of a divine being or beings in human form, ancient mythologies frequently represented the divine as deities with human forms and qualities. They resemble human beings not only in appearance and personality, they exhibited many human behaviors that were used to explain phenomena, creation. The deities fell in love, married, had children, fought battles, wielded weapons and they feasted on special foods, and sometimes required sacrifices of food, beverage, and sacred objects to be made by human beings. Some anthropomorphic deities represented specific concepts, such as love, war, fertility, beauty. Anthropomorphic deities exhibited human qualities such as beauty, wisdom, and power, and sometimes human weaknesses such as greed, hatred, jealousy, Greek deities such as Zeus and Apollo often were depicted in human form exhibiting both commendable and despicable human traits. Anthropomorphism in this case is referred to as anthropotheism, from the perspective of adherents to religions in which humans were created in the form of the divine, the phenomenon may be considered theomorphism, or the giving of divine qualities to humans. Anthropomorphism has cropped up as a Christian heresy, particularly prominently with the Audians in third century Syria, but also in fourth century Egypt and tenth century Italy. This often was based on an interpretation of Genesis 1,27, So God created man in His own image, in the image of God created He him. Some religions, scholars, and philosophers objected to anthropomorphic deities. Ethiopians say that their gods are snub–nosed and blackThracians that they are pale and he said that the greatest god resembles man neither in form nor in mind. Both Judaism and Islam reject an anthropomorphic deity, believing that God is beyond human comprehension, judaisms rejection of an anthropomorphic deity grew during the Hasmonean period, when Jewish belief incorporated some Greek philosophy. Judaisms rejection grew further after the Islamic Golden Age in the tenth century, hindus do not reject the concept of a deity in the abstract unmanifested, but note practical problems
Personified
–
In this illustration by
Milo Winter of
Aesop 's fable, "
The North Wind and the Sun ", an anthropomorphic North Wind tries to strip the cloak off of a traveler
Personified
–
The 40,000-year-old
Löwenmensch figurine
Personified
–
From the
Panchatantra: Rabbit fools Elephant by showing the reflection of the moon
Personified
–
Anthropomorphic
pareidolia by
Giuseppe Arcimboldo
11.
Goddess
–
A goddess is a female deity in polytheistic religions. Goddesses most often have characteristics that are apotheosize in their pure form. However, in some cases goddesses may embody neutral forms personifying both male and female characteristics, or they may even exhibit traits that are associated with the male gender. In some faiths, a female figure holds a central place in religious prayer. For example, Shaktism, the worship of the force that animates the world, is one of the three major sects of Hinduism. Polytheist religions, including Polytheistic reconstructionists, honour multiple goddesses and gods and these deities may be part of a pantheon, or different regions may have tutelary deities. The reconstructionists, like their ancient forebears, honour the deities particular to their country of origin, the noun goddess is a secondary formation, combining the Germanic god with the Latinate -ess suffix. It first appeared in Middle English, from about 1350, the English word follows the linguistic precedent of a number of languages—including Egyptian, Classical Greek, and several Semitic languages—that add a feminine ending to the languages word for god. Joseph Campbell in The Power of Myth, a 1988 interview with Bill Moyers, links the image of the Earth or Mother Goddess to symbols of fertility and reproduction. For example, Campbell states that, There have been systems of religion where the mother is the prime parent, and in Egypt you have the Mother Heavens, the Goddess Nut, who is represented as the whole heavenly sphere. Joseph Campbell, Well that was associated primarily with agriculture and the agricultural societies and it has to do with the earth. The human woman gives birth just as the earth gives birth to the plants. so woman magic, and the personification of the energy that gives birth to forms and nourishes forms is properly female. It is in the world of ancient Mesopotamia, the Egyptian Nile. Campbell also argues that the image of the Virgin Mary was derived from the image of Isis and her child Horus, other Mesopotamian goddesses include Ninhursag, Ninlil, Antu, Gaga Goddesses of the Canaanite religion, Baalat Gebal, Astarte, Anat. Cybele, Her Hittite name was Kubaba, but her name changed to Cybele in Phrygian and Roman culture and her effect can be also seen on Artemis as the Lady of Ephesus. Hebat, Mother Goddess of the Hittite pantheon and wife of the sky god. She was the origin of the Hurrian cult, arinniti, Hittite Goddess of the sun. She became patron of the Hittite Empire and monarchy, leto, A mother Goddess figure in Lykia
Goddess
–
Aphrodite is the Ancient Greek goddess of beauty and love.
Goddess
–
The head of an
Egyptian goddess. The gender is suggested by the lack of a beard, and the simple hairstyle points to the divine status of the subject.
Goddess
–
A statue of the Egyptian war goddess
Neith wearing the
Deshret crown of northern (lower) Egypt, which bears the
cobra of
Wadjet.
Goddess
–
Statue of
Ceres, the
Roman goddess of
agriculture
12.
Athena
–
Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is the goddess of wisdom, craft, and war in ancient Greek religion and mythology. Minerva is the Roman goddess identified with Athena, Athena is known for her calm temperament, as she moves slowly to anger. She is noted to have fought for just reasons. Athena is portrayed as a companion of heroes and is the patron goddess of heroic endeavour. She is the patroness of Athens. The Athenians founded the Parthenon on the Acropolis of her city, Athens. Veneration of Athena was so persistent that archaic myths about her were recast to adapt to cultural changes, in her role as a protector of the city, many people throughout the Greek world worshipped Athena as Athena Polias. While the city of Athens and the goddess Athena essentially bear the same name, Athena is associated with Athens, a plural name, because it was the place where she presided over her sisterhood, the Athenai, in earliest times. Mycenae was the city where the Goddess was called Mykene, at Thebes she was called Thebe, and the city again a plural, Thebae. Similarly, at Athens she was called Athena, and the city Athenae, Athena had a special relationship with Athens, as is shown by the etymological connection of the names of the goddess and the city. According to mythical lore, she competed with Poseidon and she won by creating the olive tree, the Athenians would accept her gift and name the city after her. In history, the citizens of Athens built a statue of Athena as a temple to the goddess, which had piercing eyes, a helmet on her head, attired with an aegis or cuirass, and an extremely long spear. It also had a shield with the head of the Gorgon on it. A large snake accompanied her and she held Nike, the goddess of victory, therefore, Mylonas believes that Athena was a Mycenaean creation. On the other hand, Nilsson claims that she was the goddess of the palace who protected the king, a-ta-no-dju-wa-ja is also found in Linear A Minoan, the final part being regarded as the Linear A Minoan equivalent of the Linear B Mycenaean di-u-ja or di-wi-ja. Divine Athena also was a weaver and the deity of crafts, whether her name is attested in Eteocretan or not will have to wait for decipherment of Linear A. Perhaps, however, the name Theonoe may mean she who knows divine things better than others. Thus for Plato her name was to be derived from Greek Ἀθεονόα, Plato also noted that the citizens of Sais in Egypt worshipped a goddess whose Egyptian name was Neith, and which was identified with Athena. Neith was the war goddess and huntress deity of the Egyptians since the ancient Pre-Dynastic period, in addition, ancient Greek myths reported that Athena had visited many mythological places such as Libyas Triton River in North Africa and the Phlegraean plain
Athena
–
Mattei Athena at
Louvre. Roman copy from the 1st century BC/AD after a Greek original of the 4th century BC, attributed to Cephisodotos or Euphranor.
Athena
–
Athenian
tetradrachm representing the goddess Athena.
Athena
–
A new
peplos was woven for Athena and ceremonially brought to dress her
cult image (
British Museum).
Athena
–
Marble Greek copy signed “Antiokhos”, a 1st-century BC variant of
Phidias ’ 5th-century
Athena Promachos that stood on the
Acropolis.
13.
Socrates
–
Socrates was a classical Greek philosopher credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy. He is a figure known chiefly through the accounts of classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon. Platos dialogues are among the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity, though it is unclear the degree to which Socrates himself is hidden behind his best disciple, nothing written by Socrates remains extant. As a result, information about him and his philosophies depends upon secondary sources, furthermore, close comparison between the contents of these sources reveals contradictions, thus creating concerns about the possibility of knowing in-depth the real Socrates. This issue is known as the Socratic problem, or the Socratic question, to understand Socrates and his thought, one must turn primarily to the works of Plato, whose dialogues are thought the most informative source about Socrates life and philosophy, and also Xenophon. These writings are the Sokratikoi logoi, or Socratic dialogues, which consist of reports of conversations apparently involving Socrates, as for discovering the real-life Socrates, the difficulty is that ancient sources are mostly philosophical or dramatic texts, apart from Xenophon. There are no straightforward histories, contemporary with Socrates, that dealt with his own time, a corollary of this is that sources that do mention Socrates do not necessarily claim to be historically accurate, and are often partisan. For instance, those who prosecuted and convicted Socrates have left no testament, historians therefore face the challenge of reconciling the various evidence from the extant texts in order to attempt an accurate and consistent account of Socrates life and work. The result of such an effort is not necessarily realistic, even if consistent, amid all the disagreement resulting from differences within sources, two factors emerge from all sources pertaining to Socrates. It would seem, therefore, that he was ugly, also, Xenophon, being an historian, is a more reliable witness to the historical Socrates. It is a matter of debate over which Socrates it is whom Plato is describing at any given point—the historical figure. As British philosopher Martin Cohen has put it, Plato, the idealist, offers an idol, a Saint, a prophet of the Sun-God, a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic. It is also clear from other writings and historical artefacts, that Socrates was not simply a character, nor an invention, the testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle, alongside some of Aristophanes work, is useful in fleshing out a perception of Socrates beyond Platos work. The problem with discerning Socrates philosophical views stems from the perception of contradictions in statements made by the Socrates in the different dialogues of Plato and these contradictions produce doubt as to the actual philosophical doctrines of Socrates, within his milieu and as recorded by other individuals. Aristotle, in his Magna Moralia, refers to Socrates in words which make it patent that the virtue is knowledge was held by Socrates. Within the Metaphysics, he states Socrates was occupied with the search for moral virtues, however, in The Clouds, Aristophanes portrays Socrates as accepting payment for teaching and running a sophist school with Chaerephon. Also, in Platos Apology and Symposium, as well as in Xenophons accounts, more specifically, in the Apology, Socrates cites his poverty as proof that he is not a teacher. Two fragments are extant of the writings by Timon of Phlius pertaining to Socrates, although Timon is known to have written to ridicule, details about the life of Socrates can be derived from three contemporary sources, the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of Aristophanes
Socrates
–
A bust of Socrates in the Louvre
Socrates
–
Socrates Tears Alcibiades from the Embrace of Sensual Pleasure by
Jean-Baptiste Regnault (1791)
Socrates
–
Socrates and
Alcibiades, by
Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg
14.
Plato
–
Plato was a philosopher in Classical Greece and the founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. He is widely considered the most pivotal figure in the development of philosophy, unlike nearly all of his philosophical contemporaries, Platos entire work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years. Along with his teacher, Socrates, and his most famous student, Aristotle, Plato laid the foundations of Western philosophy. Alfred North Whitehead once noted, the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. In addition to being a figure for Western science, philosophy. Friedrich Nietzsche, amongst other scholars, called Christianity, Platonism for the people, Plato was the innovator of the written dialogue and dialectic forms in philosophy, which originate with him. He was not the first thinker or writer to whom the word “philosopher” should be applied, few other authors in the history of Western philosophy approximate him in depth and range, perhaps only Aristotle, Aquinas and Kant would be generally agreed to be of the same rank. Due to a lack of surviving accounts, little is known about Platos early life, the philosopher came from one of the wealthiest and most politically active families in Athens. Ancient sources describe him as a bright though modest boy who excelled in his studies, the exact time and place of Platos birth are unknown, but it is certain that he belonged to an aristocratic and influential family. Based on ancient sources, most modern scholars believe that he was born in Athens or Aegina between 429 and 423 BCE. According to a tradition, reported by Diogenes Laertius, Ariston traced his descent from the king of Athens, Codrus. Platos mother was Perictione, whose family boasted of a relationship with the famous Athenian lawmaker, besides Plato himself, Ariston and Perictione had three other children, these were two sons, Adeimantus and Glaucon, and a daughter Potone, the mother of Speusippus. The brothers Adeimantus and Glaucon are mentioned in the Republic as sons of Ariston, and presumably brothers of Plato, but in a scenario in the Memorabilia, Xenophon confused the issue by presenting a Glaucon much younger than Plato. Then, at twenty-eight, Hermodorus says, went to Euclides in Megara, as Debra Nails argues, The text itself gives no reason to infer that Plato left immediately for Megara and implies the very opposite. Thus, Nails dates Platos birth to 424/423, another legend related that, when Plato was an infant, bees settled on his lips while he was sleeping, an augury of the sweetness of style in which he would discourse about philosophy. Ariston appears to have died in Platos childhood, although the dating of his death is difficult. Perictione then married Pyrilampes, her mothers brother, who had served many times as an ambassador to the Persian court and was a friend of Pericles, Pyrilampes had a son from a previous marriage, Demus, who was famous for his beauty. Perictione gave birth to Pyrilampes second son, Antiphon, the half-brother of Plato and these and other references suggest a considerable amount of family pride and enable us to reconstruct Platos family tree
Plato
–
Plato: copy of portrait bust by
Silanion
Plato
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
Plato
–
Plato and
Socrates in a medieval depiction
Plato
–
Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of
The School of Athens, a fresco by
Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his
Nicomachean Ethics in his hand. Plato holds his
Timaeus and gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in
The Forms
15.
Philosophy
–
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. The term was coined by Pythagoras. Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument and systematic presentation, classic philosophical questions include, Is it possible to know anything and to prove it. However, philosophers might also pose more practical and concrete questions such as, is it better to be just or unjust. Historically, philosophy encompassed any body of knowledge, from the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle to the 19th century, natural philosophy encompassed astronomy, medicine and physics. For example, Newtons 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics, in the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize. In the modern era, some investigations that were part of philosophy became separate academic disciplines, including psychology, sociology. Other investigations closely related to art, science, politics, or other pursuits remained part of philosophy, for example, is beauty objective or subjective. Are there many scientific methods or just one, is political utopia a hopeful dream or hopeless fantasy. Major sub-fields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, logic, philosophy of science, since the 20th century, professional philosophers contribute to society primarily as professors, researchers and writers. Traditionally, the term referred to any body of knowledge. In this sense, philosophy is related to religion, mathematics, natural science, education. This division is not obsolete but has changed, Natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology and cosmology. Moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, but still includes value theory, metaphysical philosophy has birthed formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, but still includes epistemology, cosmology and others. Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today, colin McGinn and others claim that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval. Chalmers and others, by contrast, see progress in philosophy similar to that in science, in one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture and a search for knowledge. In that sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions such as how are we to live, a broad and impartial conception of philosophy then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality and life in all world civilizations. Socrates was an influential philosopher, who insisted that he possessed no wisdom but was a pursuer of wisdom
Philosophy
–
René Descartes
Philosophy
–
Thomas Aquinas
Philosophy
–
Jeremy Bentham
Philosophy
–
Thomas Hobbes
16.
Sophia (wisdom)
–
Sophia is a central idea in Hellenistic philosophy and religion, Platonism, Gnosticism, orthodox Christianity, Esoteric Christianity, and Christian mysticism. Sophiology is a concept regarding wisdom, as well as a theological concept regarding the wisdom of the biblical God. Sophia is honored as a goddess of wisdom by Gnostics, as well as by some Neopagan, New Age, plato, following his teacher, Socrates, understands philosophy as φιλοσοφία. This understanding of philosophia permeates Platos dialogues, especially the Republic, in that work, the leaders of the proposed utopia are to be philosopher kings, rulers who are friends of sophia or Wisdom. Sophia is one of the four cardinal virtues in Platos Protagoras, the Pythian Oracle reportedly answered the question of who is the wisest man of Greece. Socrates defends this verdict in his Apology to the effect that he, at least and this contrasted with the attitude of contemporaneous Greek Sophists, who claimed to be wise and offered to teach wisdom for pay. The Greek noun sophia is the translation of wisdom in the Greek Septuagint for Hebrew חכמות Ḥokmot, Wisdom is a central topic in the sapiential books, i. e. In Christian theology, wisdom describes an aspect of God, or the theological concept regarding the wisdom of God. Jesus directly mentions Wisdom in the Gospel of Matthew, The Son of man came eating and drinking, and they say, Behold a man gluttonous, and a winebibber, but wisdom is justified by her deeds. St. Paul refers to the concept, notably in 1 Corinthians, where is the disputer of this world. Hath not God made foolish the wisdom of this world, Paul sets worldly wisdom against a higher wisdom of God, But we speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, even the hidden wisdom, which God ordained before the world unto our glory. The Epistle of James distinguishes between two kinds of wisdom, one is a false wisdom, which is characterized as earthly, sensual, devilish and is associated with strife and contention. In Eastern Orthodoxy humility is the highest wisdom and is to be more than any other virtue. Not only does humility cultivate the Holy Wisdom, but it is the quality that grants people salvation. The Hagia Sophia or Holy Wisdom church in Constantinople was the center of the Eastern Orthodox Church for nearly a thousand years. In the Divine Liturgy of the Orthodox Church, the exclamation Sophia, or in English Wisdom. will be proclaimed by the deacon or priest at certain moments, especially before the reading of scripture, to draw the congregations attention to sacred teaching. The concept of Sophia has been championed as a key part of the Godhead by some Eastern Orthodox religious thinkers and these included Vladimir Solovyov, Pavel Florensky, Nikolai Berdyaev, and Sergei Bulgakov whose book Sophia, The Wisdom of God is in many ways the apotheosis of Sophiology. For Bulgakov, the Sophia is co-existent with the Trinity, operating as the aspect of God in concert with the three masculine principles of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit
Sophia (wisdom)
–
Personification of
wisdom (in
Greek, " Σοφία " or " Sophia ") at the
Celsus Library in
Ephesus,
Turkey.
Sophia (wisdom)
–
Ukrainian (
Kyiv) Icon, Sophia, the Holy Wisdom, 1812. Cf. Proverbs 9:1.
Sophia (wisdom)
–
Exterior view of the
Hagia Sophia or the Holy Wisdom, 2004.
Sophia (wisdom)
–
Artwork from a medieval
codex depicting
Hildegard of Bingen 's vision of
Ecclesia and Sophia.
17.
Dialogues
–
Dialogue is a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people, and a literary and theatrical form that depicts such an exchange. In the 20th century, philosophical treatments of dialogue emerged from thinkers including Mikhail Bakhtin, Paulo Freire, Martin Buber, although diverging in many details, these thinkers have articulated a holistic concept of dialogue as a multi-dimensional, dynamic and context-dependent process of creating meaning. Educators such as Freire and Ramón Flecha have also developed a body of theory, the term dialogue stems from the Greek διάλογος, its roots are διά and λόγος. The first extant author who uses the term is Plato, in whose works it is associated with the art of dialectic. Latin took over the word as dialogus, in the West, Plato has commonly been credited with the systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form. Ancient sources indicate, however, that the Platonic dialogue had its foundations in the mime and these works, admired and imitated by Plato, have not survived and we have only the vaguest idea of how they may have been performed. The Mimes of Herodas, which were found in a papyrus in 1891, Plato further simplified the form and reduced it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing element of character-drawing. By about 400 BC he had perfected the Socratic dialogue, all his extant writings, except the Apology and Epistles, use this form. Following Plato, the became a major literary genre in antiquity. Soon after Plato, Xenophon wrote his own Symposium, also, Two French writers of eminence borrowed the title of Lucian’s most famous collection, both Fontenelle and Fénelon prepared Dialogues des morts. Contemporaneously, in 1688, the French philosopher Nicolas Malebranche published his Dialogues on Metaphysics and Religion, in English non-dramatic literature the dialogue did not see extensive use until Berkeley employed it, in 1713, for his treatise, Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous. His contemporary, the Scottish philosopher David Hume wrote Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion, a prominent 19th-century example of literary dialogue was Landor’s Imaginary Conversations. In Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works published between 1780 and 1799, in Spanish literature, the Dialogues of Valdés and those on Painting by Vincenzo Carducci are celebrated. Italian writers of collections of dialogues, following Platos model, include Torquato Tasso, Galileo, Galiani, Leopardi, in the 19th century, the French returned to the original application of dialogue. English writers including Anstey Guthrie also adopted the form, but these seem to have found less of a popular following among the English than their counterparts written by French authors. Authors who have employed it include George Santayana, in his eminent Dialogues in Limbo. Also Edith Stein and Iris Murdoch used the dialogue form, Stein imagined a dialogue between Edmund Husserl and Thomas Aquinas. Murdoch included not only Socrates and Alcibiades as interlocutors in her work Acastos, Two Platonic Dialogues, more recently Timothy Williamson wrote Tetralogue, a philosophical exchange on a train between four people with radically different epistemological views
Dialogues
–
Oldest extant text of Plato's
Republic
Dialogues
–
Frontispiece and title page of
Galileo 's
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, 1632
Dialogues
–
David Bohm, a leading 20th-century thinker on dialogue.
Dialogues
–
A classroom dialogue at
Shimer College.
18.
The Republic (Plato)
–
The Republic is a Socratic dialogue, written by Plato around 380 BCE, concerning justice, the order and character of the just city-state and the just man. It is Platos best-known work, and has proven to be one of the worlds most influential works of philosophy and political theory, both intellectually and historically. In the books dialogue, Socrates discusses the meaning of justice and whether or not the just man is happier than the unjust man with various Athenians and they consider the natures of existing regimes and then propose a series of different, hypothetical cities in comparison. This culminates in the discussion of Kallipolis, a hypothetical city-state ruled by a philosopher king and they also discuss the theory of forms, the immortality of the soul, and the role of the philosopher and that of poetry in society. The dialogues may have taken place during the Peloponnesian War, while visiting the Piraeus with Glaucon, Polemarchus asks Socrates to join him for a celebration. Cephalus, Polemarchus, and Thrasymachus are then asked their definitions of justice by Socrates. Cephalus defines justice as giving what is owed, Polemarchus says justice is the art which gives good to friends and evil to enemies. Thrasymachus proclaims justice is nothing else than the interest of the stronger, Socrates overturns their definitions and says that it is your advantage to be just and disadvantage to be unjust. The first book ends in aporia concerning its essence, Socrates believes he has answered Thrasymachus and is done with the discussion of justice. Socratess young companions, Glaucon and Adeimantus, continue the argument of Thrasymachus for the sake of furthering the discussion. Glaucon would like Socrates to prove that justice is not only desirable, but that it belongs to the highest class of desirable things, Socrates suggests that they look for justice in a city rather than in an individual man. After attributing the origin of society to the not being self-sufficient and having many needs which he cannot supply himself. Socrates first describes the state but Glaucon asks him to describe a city of pigs. He then goes on to describe the city, which he calls a fevered state. This requires a class to defend and attack on its account. This begins a discussion concerning the type of education that ought to be given to these guardians in their early years and they conclude that stories that ascribe evil to the gods are untrue and should not be taught. Socrates and his companions Adeimantus and Glaucon conclude their discussion concerning education, Socrates breaks the educational system into two. They suggest that guardians should be educated in these four virtues, wisdom, courage and they also suggest that the second part of the guardians education should be in gymnastics
The Republic (Plato)
–
Title page of the oldest manuscript: Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, Gr. 1807 (9th century)
The Republic (Plato)
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
The Republic (Plato)
–
P. Oxy. 3679, manuscript from the 3rd century AD
19.
Utopia
–
A utopia is an imagined community or society that possesses highly desirable or nearly perfect qualities for its citizens. The opposite of a utopia is a dystopia and you could also say that utopia is a perfect place that has been made so there are no problems. The term has been used to describe intentional communities, the term utopia was coined from Greek by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book Utopia, describing a fictional island society in the Atlantic Ocean. The word comes from Greek, οὐ and τόπος and means no-place, however, in standard usage, the words meaning has narrowed and now usually describes a non-existent society that is intended to be viewed as considerably better than contemporary society. Eutopia, derived from Greek εὖ and τόπος, means good place, in English, eutopia and utopia are homophonous, which may have given rise to the change in meaning. Chronologically, the first recorded utopian proposal is Platos Republic, part conversation, part fictional depiction, and part policy proposal, Republic would categorize citizens into a rigid class structure of golden, silver, bronze and iron socioeconomic classes. The golden citizens are trained in a rigorous 50-year-long educational program to be benign oligarchs, plato stressed this structure many times in both quotes by him and in his published works, such as the Republic. The wisdom of these rulers will supposedly eliminate poverty and deprivation through fairly distributed resources, the educational program for the rulers is the central notion of the proposal. It has few laws, no lawyers and rarely sends its citizens to war, during the 16th century, Thomas Mores book Utopia proposed an ideal society of the same name. Some maintain the position that Mores Utopia functions only on the level of a satire, but the homophonic prefix eu-, meaning good, also resonates in the word, with the implication that the perfectly good place is really no place. Ecological utopian society describes new ways in which society should relate to nature and these works perceive a widening gap between the modern Western way of living that destroys nature and a more traditional way of living before industrialization. Ecological utopias may advocate a society that is more sustainable, according to the Dutch philosopher Marius de Geus, ecological utopias could be inspirational sources for movements involving green politics. Particularly in the early 19th century, several ideas arose. These ideas are often grouped in a utopian socialist movement. A once common characteristic is a distribution of goods, frequently with the total abolition of money. Citizens only do work which they enjoy and which is for the good, leaving them with ample time for the cultivation of the arts. One classic example of such a utopia was Edward Bellamys Looking Backward, Another socialist utopia is William Morriss News from Nowhere, written partially in response to the top-down nature of Bellamys utopia, which Morris criticized. However, as the socialist movement developed, it moved away from utopianism, in a materialist utopian society, the economy is perfect, there is no inflation, and only perfect social and financial equality exists
Utopia
–
Left panel (The Earthly Paradise –
Garden of Eden) from
Hieronymus Bosch 's
The Garden of Earthly Delights.
Utopia
–
New Harmony, a utopian attempt; depicted as proposed by
Robert Owen
Utopia
–
Utopian flying machines, France, 1890-1900 (chromolithograph
trading card).
Utopia
–
The Golden Age by
Lucas Cranach the Elder.
20.
Philosopher king
–
According to Plato, a Philosopher king is a ruler who possesses both a love of knowledge, as well as intelligence, reliability, and a willingness to live a simple life. Such are the rulers of his utopian city Kallipolis, for such a community to ever come into being, philosophers become kings…or those now called kings …genuinely and adequately philosophize. Plato defined a philosopher firstly as its eponymous occupation, wisdom-lover, archytas was a Pythagorean philosopher and political leader in the ancient Greek city of Tarentum, in Italy. He was a friend of Plato, and some scholars assert that he may have been an inspiration for Platos concept of a philosopher-king. Dion of Syracuse was a disciple of Plato and he overthrew the tyrant Dionysius II of Syracuse and was installed as leader in the city, only to be made to leave by the Syracusans who were unhappy with his opposition to democratic reforms. He was later re-invited to the city, where he attempted to establish an aristocracy along Platonic lines, marcus Aurelius was the first prominent example of a philosopher king. The political right alleged that his policies worked in academia because they were theories, alexander the Great, king of the Macedonians, and Khusraw I, king of the Sassanian Empire, are known by some to be examples of the philosopher king. Reeve, Philosopher-Kings, The Argument of Platos Republic, Princeton University Press,1988, the Republic, the complete and unabridged Jowett translation. Text of section of The Republic pertaining to philosopher-kings
Philosopher king
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
21.
Form of the Good
–
Plato describes The Form of the Good, or more literally the idea of the good, in his dialogue the Republic, speaking through the character of Socrates. Plato introduces several forms in his works, but identifies the Form of the Good as the superlative and this form is the one that allows a philosopher-in-training to advance to a philosopher-king. It cannot be seen or explained, but once it is recognized. The first references that are seen in The Republic to the Form of the Good are within the conversation between Glaucon and Socrates and this form is the basis for understanding all other forms, it is what allows us to understand everything else. Through the conversation between Socrates and Glaucon Plato analogizes the form of the Good with the sun as it is allows us to see things. Here, Plato describes how the sun allows for sight, but he makes a very important distinction, “sun is not sight” but it is “the cause of sight itself. ”As the sun is in the visible realm, the form of Good is in the intelligible realm. It is “what gives truth to the known and the power to know to the knower”. It is not only the “cause of knowledge and truth, it is also an object of knowledge”, Plato identifies how the form of the Good allows for the cognizance to understand such difficult concepts as justice. He identifies knowledge and truth as important, but through Socrates says and he then proceeds to explain “although the good is not being” it is “superior to it in rank and power”, it is what “provides for knowledge and truth”. Plato writes that the Form of the Good is the object of knowledge, although it is not knowledge itself. Humans are compelled to pursue the good, but no one can hope to do successfully without philosophical reasoning. Plato supposes these perfect types to exist from all eternity and calls them the Forms or Ideas and he maintains that degree of skepticism which denies all permanent authority to the evidence of sense. In essence, Plato suggests that justice, truth, equality, beauty, aristotle discusses the Forms of Good in critical terms several times in both of his major surviving ethical works, the Eudemian and Nicomachean Ethics. Aristotle argues that Plato’s Form of the Good does not apply to the physical world, Plato’s Form of the Good is often criticized as too general. Plato’s Form of the Good does not define things in the world that are good. According to Socrates in The Republic, the alternative to accepting a hypothesis is to refute all the objections against it. Aristotle along with other sees the Form of the Good as synonymous with the idea of One. Plato claims that Good is the highest Form, and that all objects aspire to be good
Form of the Good
–
Plato from
The School of Athens by
Raphael, 1509
22.
Aristotle
–
Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher and scientist born in the city of Stagira, Chalkidice, on the northern periphery of Classical Greece. His father, Nicomachus, died when Aristotle was a child, at seventeen or eighteen years of age, he joined Platos Academy in Athens and remained there until the age of thirty-seven. Shortly after Plato died, Aristotle left Athens and, at the request of Philip II of Macedon, teaching Alexander the Great gave Aristotle many opportunities and an abundance of supplies. He established a library in the Lyceum which aided in the production of many of his hundreds of books and he believed all peoples concepts and all of their knowledge was ultimately based on perception. Aristotles views on natural sciences represent the groundwork underlying many of his works, Aristotles views on physical science profoundly shaped medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, some of Aristotles zoological observations, such as on the hectocotyl arm of the octopus, were not confirmed or refuted until the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as The First Teacher and his ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotles philosophy continue to be the object of academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues – Cicero described his style as a river of gold – it is thought that only around a third of his original output has survived. Aristotle, whose means the best purpose, was born in 384 BC in Stagira, Chalcidice. His father Nicomachus was the physician to King Amyntas of Macedon. Aristotle was orphaned at a young age, although there is little information on Aristotles childhood, he probably spent some time within the Macedonian palace, making his first connections with the Macedonian monarchy. At the age of seventeen or eighteen, Aristotle moved to Athens to continue his education at Platos Academy and he remained there for nearly twenty years before leaving Athens in 348/47 BC. Aristotle then accompanied Xenocrates to the court of his friend Hermias of Atarneus in Asia Minor, there, he traveled with Theophrastus to the island of Lesbos, where together they researched the botany and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Pythias, either Hermiass adoptive daughter or niece and she bore him a daughter, whom they also named Pythias. Soon after Hermias death, Aristotle was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to his son Alexander in 343 BC, Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of Macedon. During that time he gave not only to Alexander
Aristotle
–
Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by
Lysippus,
c. 330 BC. The
alabaster mantle is modern.
Aristotle
–
Aristotelianism
Aristotle
–
School of Aristotle in
Mieza,
Macedonia, Greece
Aristotle
–
"Aristotle" by
Francesco Hayez (1791–1882)
23.
Metaphysics (Aristotle)
–
Metaphysics is one of the principal works of Aristotle and the first major work of the branch of philosophy with the same name. The principal subject is being qua being, or being insofar as it is being and it examines what can be asserted about anything that exists just because of its existence and not because of any special qualities it has. Also covered are different kinds of causation, form and matter, the existence of objects. The Metaphysics is considered to be one of the greatest philosophical works and its influence on the Greeks, the Muslim philosophers, the scholastic philosophers and even writers such as Dante, was immense. According to Plato, the nature of things is eternal. However, the world we observe around us is constantly and perpetually changing, Aristotle’s genius was to reconcile these two apparently contradictory views of the world. The result is a synthesis of the naturalism of empirical science, and the rationalism of Plato, at the heart of the book lie three questions. What is existence, and what sorts of things exist in the world, how can things continue to exist, and yet undergo the change we see about us in the natural world. And how can this world be understood, by the time Aristotle was writing, the tradition of Greek philosophy was only two hundred years old. It had begun with the efforts of thinkers in the Greek world to theorize about the structure that underlies the changes we observe in the natural world. Two contrasting theories, those of Heraclitus and Parmenides, were an important influence on both Plato and Aristotle, Heraclitus argued that things that appear to be permanent are in fact always gradually changing. Therefore, though we believe we are surrounded by a world of things that remain identical through time, by contrast, Parmenides argued that we can reach certain conclusions by means of reason alone, making no use of the senses. What we acquire through the process of reason is fixed, unchanging, the world is not made up of a variety of things in constant flux, but of one single Truth or reality. Plato’s theory of forms is a synthesis of two views. Given, any object that changes is in an imperfect state, then, the form of each object we see in this world is an imperfect reflection of the perfect form of the object. For example, Plato claimed a chair may take many forms, Aristotle encountered the theory of forms when he studied at the Academy, which he joined at the age of about 18 in the 360s B. C. Aristotle soon expanded on the concept of forms in his Metaphysics and he believed that in every change there is something which persists through the change, and something else which did not exist before, but comes into existence as a result of the change. To explain how Socrates comes to be born Aristotle says that it is ‘matter’ that underlies the change, the matter has the ‘form’ of Socrates imposed on it to become Socrates himself
Metaphysics (Aristotle)
–
Aristotelianism
Metaphysics (Aristotle)
–
Book 7 of the Metaphysics: Ens dicitur multipliciter - the word 'being' is meant in many ways. From a manuscript of
William of Moerbeke 's translation
24.
Causality
–
In general, a process has many causes, which are said to be causal factors for it, and all lie in its past. An effect can in turn be a cause of other effects. The concept is like those of agency and efficacy, for this reason, a leap of intuition may be needed to grasp it. Accordingly, causality is built into the structure of ordinary language. In this case, failure to recognize that different kinds of cause are being considered can lead to futile debate, of Aristotles four explanatory modes, the one nearest to the concerns of the present article is the efficient one. The topic remains a staple in contemporary philosophy, while studying of meaning of causality semantics traditionally appeal to the chicken or the egg causality dilemma, i. e. which came first, the chicken or the egg. Then it allocates its constituent elements, a cause, an effect and link itself, the nature of cause and effect is a concern of the subject known as metaphysics. A general metaphysical question about cause and effect is what kind of entity can be a cause, one viewpoint on this question is that cause and effect are of one and the same kind of entity, with causality an asymmetric relation between them. That is to say, it would make good sense grammatically to say either A is the cause and B the effect or B is the cause and A the effect, though only one of those two can be actually true. In this view, one opinion, proposed as a principle in process philosophy, is that every cause and every effect is respectively some process, event, becoming. An example is his tripping over the step was the cause, another view is that causes and effects are states of affairs, with the exact natures of those entities being less restrictively defined than in process philosophy. Another viewpoint on the question is the classical one, that a cause. For example, in Aristotles efficient causal explanation, an action can be a cause while an object is its effect. Since causality is a metaphysical notion, considerable effort is needed to establish knowledge of it in particular empirical circumstances. Causality has the properties of antecedence and contiguity and these are topological, and are ingredients for space-time geometry. As developed by Alfred Robb, these allow the derivation of the notions of time. Max Jammer writes the Einstein postulate, opens the way to a straightforward construction of the causal topology. of Minkowski space. Causal efficacy propagates no faster than light, thus, the notion of causality is metaphysically prior to the notions of time and space
Causality
–
The Illustrated Sutra of Cause and Effect. 8th century, Japan
Causality
–
Key concepts
Causality
–
Time Portal
25.
Ancient Romans
–
In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
Ancient Romans
–
Senātus Populus que Rōmānus
Ancient Romans
–
According to legend,
Rome was founded in 753 BC by
Romulus and Remus, who were raised by a she-wolf.
Ancient Romans
–
This bust from the
Capitoline Museums is traditionally identified as a portrait of
Lucius Junius Brutus.
Ancient Romans
–
Gaius Marius, a Roman general and politician who dramatically reformed the
Roman military
26.
Christianity
–
Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
Christianity
–
An
Eastern Christian icon depicting
Emperor Constantine and the Fathers of the
First Council of Nicaea (325) as holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381
Christianity
–
Various
depictions of Jesus
Christianity
–
Crucifixion, representing the death of
Jesus on the
Cross, painting by
Diego Velázquez, 17th century
27.
Jesus
–
Jesus, also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth or Jesus Christ, was a Jewish preacher and religious leader who became the central figure of Christianity. Christians believe him to be the Son of God and the awaited Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament, Jesus was a Galilean Jew who was baptized by John the Baptist and subsequently began his own ministry, preaching his message orally and often being referred to as rabbi. He was arrested and tried by the Jewish authorities, and was crucified by the order of Pontius Pilate, Jesus debated fellow Jews on how to best follow God, performed healings, taught in parables and gathered followers. After his death, his followers believed he rose from the dead, and his birth is celebrated annually on December 25 as a holiday known as Christmas, his crucifixion is honored on Good Friday, and his resurrection is celebrated on Easter. The widely used calendar era AD, from the Latin anno Domini, most Christians believe Jesus enables humans to be reconciled to God. The Nicene Creed asserts that Jesus will judge the living and the dead either before or after their bodily resurrection, the great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of three persons of a Divine Trinity. A minority of Christian denominations reject Trinitarianism, wholly or partly, in Islam, Jesus is considered one of Gods important prophets and the Messiah. Muslims believe Jesus was a bringer of scripture and was born of a virgin but was not the Son of God, the Quran states that Jesus himself never claimed divinity. To most Muslims, Jesus was not crucified but was raised into Heaven by God. Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill Messianic prophecies, a typical Jew in Jesus time had only one name, sometimes supplemented with the fathers name or the individuals hometown. Thus, in the New Testament, Jesus is commonly referred to as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus neighbors in Nazareth refer to him as the carpenter, the son of Mary and brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon, the carpenters son, or Josephs son. In John, the disciple Philip refers to him as Jesus son of Joseph from Nazareth, the name Jesus is derived from the Latin Iesus, a transliteration of the Greek Ἰησοῦς. The Greek form is a rendering of the Hebrew ישוע, a variant of the earlier name יהושע, the name Yeshua appears to have been in use in Judea at the time of the birth of Jesus. The 1st century works of historian Flavius Josephus, who wrote in Koine Greek, the etymology of Jesus name in the context of the New Testament is generally given as Yahweh is salvation. Since early Christianity, Christians have commonly referred to Jesus as Jesus Christ, the word Christ is derived from the Greek Χριστός, which is a translation of the Hebrew משיח, meaning the anointed and usually transliterated into English as Messiah. Christians designate Jesus as Christ because they believe he is the Messiah, whose arrival is prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, in postbiblical usage, Christ became viewed as a name—one part of Jesus Christ—but originally it was a title. The term Christian has been in use since the 1st century, the four canonical gospels are the only substantial sources for the life and message of Jesus. Acts of the Apostles refers to the ministry of Jesus
Jesus
–
(
stained glass at
St John's Ashfield in
Sydney, Australia)
Jesus
Jesus
–
A 3rd-century Greek
papyrus of the
Gospel of Luke
Jesus
–
Adoration of the Shepherds by
Gerard van Honthorst, 1622.
28.
Paul the Apostle
–
Paul the Apostle, commonly known as Saint Paul, and also known by his native name Saul of Tarsus was an apostle who taught the gospel of the Christ to the first century world. He is generally considered one of the most important figures of the Apostolic Age, in the mid-30s to the mid-50s AD, he founded several churches in Asia Minor and Europe. Paul took advantage of his status as both a Jew and a Roman citizen to minister to both Jewish and Roman audiences, according to writings in the New Testament, Paul was dedicated to the persecution of the early disciples of Jesus in the area of Jerusalem. He was struck blind but, after three days, his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus, and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah, approximately half of the book of Acts deals with Pauls life and works. Fourteen of the books in the New Testament have traditionally been attributed to Paul. Seven of the epistles are undisputed by scholars as being authentic, Pauline authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews is not asserted in the Epistle itself and was already doubted in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. It was almost unquestioningly accepted from the 5th to the 16th centuries that Paul was the author of Hebrews, but that view is now almost universally rejected by scholars. The other six are believed by scholars to have come from followers writing in his name. Other scholars argue that the idea of an author for the disputed epistles raises many problems. Today, Pauls epistles continue to be roots of the theology, worship, and pastoral life in the Catholic and Protestant traditions of the West. Augustine of Hippo developed Pauls idea that salvation is based on faith, martin Luthers interpretation of Pauls writings influenced Luthers doctrine of sola fide. The main source for information about Pauls life is the material found in his epistles, however, the epistles contain little information about Pauls past. The book of Acts recounts more information but leaves several parts of Pauls life out of its narrative, such as his probable, some scholars believe Acts also contradicts Pauls epistles on multiple accounts, in particular concerning the frequency of Pauls visits to the church in Jerusalem. It has been assumed that Sauls name was changed when he converted from Judaism to Christianity. His Jewish name was Saul, perhaps after the biblical King Saul, a fellow Benjamite, according to the Book of Acts, he inherited Roman citizenship from his father. As a Roman citizen, he bore the Latin name of Paul—in biblical Greek, Παῦλος. It was quite usual for the Jews of that time to have two names, one Hebrew, the other Latin or Greek. Jesus called him Saul, Saul in the Hebrew tongue in the book of Acts, later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus, the Lord referred to him as Saul, of Tarsus
Paul the Apostle
–
Saint Paul by
Bartolomeo Montagna
Paul the Apostle
–
The Conversion of Saul,
fresco by
Michelangelo, 1542–45
Paul the Apostle
–
Conversion on the Way to Damascus (1601), by
Caravaggio
Paul the Apostle
–
Caravaggio (1571–1610), The Conversion of Saint Paul, 1600
29.
First epistle to the Corinthians
–
The First Epistle to the Corinthians, usually referred to simply as First Corinthians and often written 1 Corinthians, is one of the Pauline epistles of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. This epistle contains some well-known phrases, including, all things to all men, through a glass, darkly, there is consensus among historians and Christian theologians that Paul is the author of the First Epistle to the Corinthians. The letter is quoted or mentioned by the earliest of sources, the personal and even embarrassing texts about immorality in the church increase consensus. However, two passages may have been inserted at a later stage, the first passage is 1 Corinthians 11, 2–16, dealing with praying and prophesying with head covering. The second passage is 1 Corinthians 14, 34–35, whose authenticity has been hotly debated, part of the reason for doubt is that in some manuscripts, the verses come at the end of the chapter instead of at its present location. Furthermore, Paul is here appealing to the law which is uncharacteristic of him, lastly, the verses come into conflict with 11,5 where women are described as praying and prophesying. The epistle was written from Ephesus, a city on the west coast of todays Turkey, according to Acts of the Apostles, Paul founded the church in Corinth, then spent approximately three years in Ephesus. The letter was written during time in Ephesus, which is usually dated as being in the range of AD 53–57. In 16,8 Paul declares his intention of staying in Ephesus until Pentecost and this statement, in turn, is clearly reminiscent of Pauls Second Missionary Journey, when Paul traveled from Corinth to Ephesus, before going to Jerusalem for Pentecost. Thus, it is possible that I Corinthians was written during Pauls first stay in Ephesus, at the end of his Second Journey, however, it is more likely that it was written during his extended stay in Ephesus, where he refers to sending Timothy to them. Also, his references to Apollos show that Apollos was known to Paul and the church at the time of writing, the salutation reinforces the legitimacy of Pauls apostolic claim. Thanksgiving The thanksgiving part of the letter is typical of Hellenistic letter writing, in a thanksgiving recitation the writer thanks God for health, a safe journey, deliverance from danger, or good fortune. In this letter, the thanksgiving introduces charismata and gnosis, topics to which Paul will return, greet one another with a holy kiss. I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand, if any man love not the Lord Jesus Christ, let him be Anathema Maranatha. The grace of the Lord Jesus be with you and my love be with you all in Christ Jesus. Some time before 2 Corinthians was written, Paul paid them a visit to check some rising disorder. They had also visited by Apollos, perhaps by Peter. Paul wrote this letter to correct what he saw as erroneous views in the Corinthian church, Paul then wrote this letter to the Corinthians, urging uniformity of belief and expounding Christian doctrine
First epistle to the Corinthians
–
Books of the
New Testament
First epistle to the Corinthians
–
1 Cor. 1:1–21 from the 8th century in
Codex Amiatinus
First epistle to the Corinthians
–
1 Cor. 1:1–2a from the 14th century
Minuscule 223
First epistle to the Corinthians
–
The foundation of Christ 1 Corinthians 3:11; posted at the Menno-Hof
Amish &
Mennonite Museum in
Shipshewana, Indiana
30.
Prudence
–
Prudence is the ability to govern and discipline oneself by the use of reason. It is classically considered to be a virtue, and in one of the four Cardinal virtues. Prudentia is a female personification of the virtue, whose attributes are a mirror and snake, who is frequently depicted as a pair with Justitia. The word derives from the 14th-century Old French word prudence, which, in turn, derives from the Latin prudentia meaning foresight and it is often associated with wisdom, insight, and knowledge. In this case, the virtue is the ability to judge between virtuous and vicious actions, not only in a sense, but with regard to appropriate actions at a given time. Although prudence itself does not perform any actions, and is concerned solely with knowledge, distinguishing when acts are courageous, as opposed to reckless or cowardly, for instance, is an act of prudence, and for this reason it is classified as a cardinal virtue. In modern English, the word has become synonymous with cautiousness. More recently ϕρονησιϛ has been translated by such terms as practical wisdom, prudence was considered by the ancient Greeks and later on by Christian philosophers, most notably Thomas Aquinas, as the cause, measure and form of all virtues. It is considered to be the auriga virtutum or the charioteer of the virtues, for instance, a person can live temperance when he has acquired the habit of deciding correctly the actions to take in response to his instinctual cravings. Its function is to point out which course of action is to be taken in any concrete circumstances and it has nothing to do with directly willing the good it discerns. Prudence has a directive capacity with regard to the other virtues and it lights the way and measures the arena for their exercise. Without prudence bravery becomes foolhardiness, mercy sinks into weakness, and its office is to determine for each in practice those circumstances of time, place, manner, etc. which should be observed, and which the Scholastics comprise under the term medium rationis. So it is that while it qualifies the intellect and not the will, prudence is considered the measure of moral virtues since it provides a model of ethically good actions. The work of art is true and real by its correspondence with the pattern of its prototype in the mind of the artist, in similar fashion, the free activity of man is good by its correspondence with the pattern of prudence. For instance, a stockbroker using his experience and all the data available to him decides that it is beneficial to sell stock A at 2PM tomorrow and buy stock B today. The content of the decision is the product of an act of prudence, while the carrying out of the decision may involve other virtues like fortitude. The actual acts goodness is measured against that decision made through prudence. In Greek and Scholastic philosophy, form is the characteristic of a thing that makes it what it is
Prudence
–
Prudence (
Luca Giordano, 1684–6)
Prudence
–
Allegory of Prudence on the
tomb of Francis II, Duke of Brittany The female face depicts Francis' daughter
Anne of Brittany.
Prudence
–
Allegory of Prudence by
Titian. To Titian, prudence was preparation, foresight and judgement from experience and human history. The three faces in the painting represent the passing of human generations, with the young facing the light while the oldest fade into shadow; the faint inscription above their heads may be translated as "From the past, the present acts prudently, lest it spoils future action".
31.
Cardinal virtues
–
The cardinal virtues comprise a quartet set of virtues recognized in the writings of Classical Antiquity and, along with the theological virtues, also in Christian tradition. Cicero expanded on them, and Saint Ambrose, Augustine of Hippo, the term cardinal comes from the Latin cardo, the cardinal virtues are so called because they are regarded as the basic virtues required for a virtuous life. They also relate to the Quadrivium, the four cardinal virtues appear as a group long before they are later given this title. Plato identified the four cardinal virtues with the classes of the city described in The Republic, Plato narrates a discussion of the character of a good city where the following is agreed upon. “Clearly, then, it will be wise, brave, temperate, justice stands outside the class system and divisions of man, and rules the proper relationship among the three of them. In Aristotles Rhetoric we read, “The forms of Virtue are justice, courage, temperance, magnificence, magnanimity, liberality, gentleness, prudence, wisdom. ”The Roman philosopher and statesman Cicero, like Plato, limits the list to four virtues, “Virtue may be defined as a habit of mind in harmony with reason and the order of nature. It has four parts, wisdom, justice, courage, temperance. ”Cicero discusses these further in De Officiis, the cardinal virtues are listed in the Bible. The deuterocanonical book Wisdom of Solomon 8,7 reads, She teaches temperance, and prudence, and justice, and fortitude and they are also found in the Biblical apocrypha. 4 Maccabees 1, 18-19 relates, “Now the kinds of wisdom are right judgment, justice, courage, and self-control. Right judgment is supreme over all of these since by means of it reason rules over the emotions. ”Catholic moral philosophy drew from all of these sources when developing its reflections on the virtues. St. Ambrose was the first to use the expression “cardinal virtues. ”“And we know there are four cardinal virtues temperance, justice, prudence. Together, they comprise what is known as the seven virtues, in the Book of Genesis Jacob describes his vision of a ladder or stairway leading to heaven. In oral tradition, the three principal rungs on the ladder were denominated empathy, Hope and Love and these three are mentioned in 1 Corinthians 13, And now these three remain, faith, hope and love. But the greatest of these is love, because of this reference, the seven attributes are sometimes grouped as four cardinal virtues and three heavenly graces. Efforts to relate the cardinal and theological virtues differ, St. Augustine sees faith as coming under justice. Beginning with a wry comment about the moral mischief of pagan deities, he writes, They have made Virtue also a goddess, the reasons they give are, contemporary writers repeatedly express dissatisfaction with the insufficiency of justice. Additionally, they add, be humble, be hospitable, be merciful, be faithful, reconcile, be vigilant and this totals to 10 new virtues to replace the four cardinal virtues. The Cardinal Virtues are often depicted as female figures and were a popular subject for funerary sculpture
Cardinal virtues
–
The Four Virtues.
Cardinal virtues
–
The Tomb of
Sir John Hotham, supported by figures of the cardinal virtues.
Cardinal virtues
–
Four cardinal virtues; Louvre, Paris. Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection
32.
Catholicism
–
The use of terms catholicism and catholicity is closely related to the use of term Catholic Church. The earliest evidence of the use of term is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 108 to Christians in Smyrna. In 380, Emperor Theodosius I limited use of the term Catholic Christian exclusively to those who followed the faith as Pope Damasus I of Rome. Numerous other early writers including Cyril of Jerusalem, Augustine of Hippo further developed the use of the term catholic in relation to Christianity. In Christian theology, and specially in ecclesiology, terms Catholicism, when used with small c, terms catholicism and catholicity generally designate theological doctrine of the catholicity of the Church without denominational connotations. A common belief in Catholicism is institutional continuity with the early Christian church founded by Jesus Christ, many churches or communions of churches identify singularly or collectively as the authentic church. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils, when the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Romes influence was sometimes challenged. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council and they are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon and this Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures without confusion, without change, without division, without separation and thus is both fully God and fully human, the next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. This division between the Western Church and the Eastern Church is called the East–West Schism, several eastern churches reunited, constituting some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman and Eastern Catholic Churches, in all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. However, in Roman Catholicism, the term catholic is understood as to cover those who recognize and are in standing with the Magisterium. The sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism. It is then meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs, the Roman Catholic Church includes the 23 rites who recognize the Magisterium. Belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the belief that Christ is made manifest in the elements of Holy Communion, possession of the threefold ordained ministry of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and this teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments, liturgical and personal use of the Sign of the Cross The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship
Catholicism
–
Ruins of gothic Catholic church in
Liptovská Mara (
Slovakia).
Catholicism
–
Ancient statue of
Saint Peter in the Basilica dedicated to him in the
Vatican.
Catholicism
–
An
Italian priest during the sacrament of
Baptism
33.
Thomas Aquinas
–
Saint Thomas Aquinas O. P. was an Italian Dominican friar, Catholic priest, and Doctor of the Church. He was an influential philosopher, theologian, and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism, within which he is also known as the Doctor Angelicus. The name Aquinas identifies his ancestral origins in the county of Aquino in present-day Lazio and he was the foremost classical proponent of natural theology and the father of Thomism, of which he argued that reason is found in God. His influence on Western thought is considerable, and much of modern philosophy developed or opposed his ideas, particularly in the areas of ethics, natural law, metaphysics, the works for which he is best known are the Summa Theologiae and the Summa contra Gentiles. His commentaries on Scripture and on Aristotle form an important part of his body of work, furthermore, Thomas is distinguished for his eucharistic hymns, which form a part of the Churchs liturgy. Thomas Aquinas is considered one of the Catholic Churchs greatest theologians, Pope Benedict XV declared, This Order. Acquired new luster when the Church declared the teaching of Thomas to be her own and that Doctor, honored with the praises of the Pontiffs. The English philosopher Anthony Kenny considers Aquinas to be one of the dozen greatest philosophers of the western world, Thomas was most probably born in the castle of Roccasecca, located in Aquino, old county of the Kingdom of Sicily, c.1225. According to some authors, he was born in the castle of his father, though he did not belong to the most powerful branch of the family, Landulf of Aquino was a man of means. As a knight in the service of King Roger II, he held the title miles, Thomass mother, Theodora, belonged to the Rossi branch of the Neapolitan Caracciolo family. Landulfs brother Sinibald was abbot of the first Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino and it was here that Thomas was probably introduced to Aristotle, Averroes and Maimonides, all of whom would influence his theological philosophy. There his teacher in arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music was Petrus de Ibernia, at the age of nineteen Thomas resolved to join the recently founded Dominican Order. Thomass change of heart did not please his family, in an attempt to prevent Theodoras interference in Thomass choice, the Dominicans arranged to move Thomas to Rome, and from Rome, to Paris. Political concerns prevented the Pope from ordering Thomass release, which had the effect of extending Thomass detention, Thomas passed this time of trial tutoring his sisters and communicating with members of the Dominican Order. Family members became desperate to dissuade Thomas, who remained determined to join the Dominicans, at one point, two of his brothers resorted to the measure of hiring a prostitute to seduce him. According to legend Thomas drove her away wielding a fire iron and that night two angels appeared to him as he slept and strengthened his determination to remain celibate. By 1244, seeing all of her attempts to dissuade Thomas had failed, Theodora sought to save the familys dignity. In her mind, an escape from detention was less damaging than an open surrender to the Dominicans
Thomas Aquinas
–
An altarpiece in
Ascoli Piceno, Italy, by
Carlo Crivelli (15th century)
Thomas Aquinas
–
Detail from
Valle Romita Polyptych by
Gentile da Fabriano (circa 1400)
Thomas Aquinas
–
The Castle of
Monte San Giovanni Campano
Thomas Aquinas
–
Diego Velázquez, Aquinas is girded by angels with a mystical belt of purity after his
proof of chastity
34.
Inuit
–
Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada and Alaska. Inuit is a noun, the singular is Inuk. The Inuit languages are part of the Eskimo-Aleut family, Inuit Sign Language is a critically endangered language isolate spoken in Nunavut. In the United States and Canada, the term Eskimo was commonly used to describe the Inuit and Alaskas Yupik, however, Inuit is not accepted as a term for the Yupik, and Eskimo is the only term that includes Yupik, Iñupiat and Inuit. However, aboriginal peoples in Canada and Greenlandic Inuit view Eskimo as pejorative, in Canada, sections 25 and 35 of the Constitution Act of 1982 classified the Inuit as a distinctive group of Aboriginal Canadians who are not included under either the First Nations or the Métis. These areas are known in Inuktitut as the Inuit Nunangat, in the United States, the Iñupiat live primarily on the Alaska North Slope and on Little Diomede Island. The Greenlandic Inuit are descendants of migrations from Canada. In the 21st century they are citizens of Denmark, although not of the European Union, Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, who emerged from western Alaska around 1000 CE. They had split from the related Aleut group about 4,000 years ago and from northeastern Siberian migrants, possibly related to the Chukchi language group and they spread eastwards across the Arctic. They displaced the related Dorset culture, the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture, Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as giants, people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit. Less frequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as dwarfs, researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked the dogs, larger weapons and other technologies of the Inuit society, which gave the latter an advantage. By 1300, Inuit migrants had reached west Greenland, where they settled, faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as the Algonquian and Siouan to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded. They were thought to have become extinct as a people by about 1400 or 1500. But, in the mid-1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruins found at Native Point, the Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902–03, when exposure to new infectious diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction as a people. In the early 21st century, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory of continuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut peoples and it also provided evidence that a population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between the Dorset and Thule transition. In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut and Sadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certain Thule technologies, in Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the Arctic tree line, the effective southern border of Inuit society. The most southern officially recognized Inuit community in the world is Rigolet in Nunatsiavut, south of Nunatsiavut, the descendants of the southern Labrador Inuit in NunatuKavut continued their traditional transhumant semi-nomadic way of life until the mid-1900s. The Nunatukavummuit people usually moved among islands and bays on a seasonal basis and they did not establish stationary communities
Inuit
–
Traditional qamutik (sled),
Cape Dorset,
Nunavut
Inuit
–
Aboriginal peoples
in Canada
Inuit
–
Hudson's Bay Company Ships bartering with Inuit off the Upper Savage Islands,
Hudson Strait, 1819
Inuit
–
Inupiat in a kayak, Noatak, Alaska, c. 1929 (photo by
Edward S. Curtis)
35.
Wisdom tooth
–
A wisdom tooth or third molar is one of the three molars per quadrant of the human dentition. It is the most posterior of the three, Wisdom teeth generally erupt between the ages of 17 and 25. Most adults have four teeth, one in each of the four quadrants. Wisdom teeth commonly affect other teeth as they develop, becoming impacted and they are often extracted when or even before this occurs. Agenesis of wisdom teeth differs by population, ranging from zero in Tasmanian Aborigines to nearly 100% in indigenous Mexicans. The difference is related to the PAX9 gene, Wisdom teeth are vestigial third molars that helped human ancestors to grind plant tissue. After the advent of agriculture 10000 years ago, soft human diets became the norm, including carbohydrate, such diets typically result in jaws growing with less forwards growth than our paleolithic ancestors and not enough room for the wisdom teeth. This is not a change, but rather an environmental change. Wisdom teeth have long identified as a source of problems. The oldest known impacted wisdom tooth belonged to a European woman of the Magdalenian period, a lack of room to allow the teeth to erupt results in a risk of periodontal disease and dental cavities that increases with age. Less than 2% of adults age 65 years or older maintain the teeth without cavities or periodontal disease, impacted wisdom teeth are classified by the direction and depth of impaction, the amount of available space for tooth eruption and the amount soft tissue or bone that covers them. The classification structure allows clinicians to estimate the probabilities of impaction, Wisdom teeth are also classified by the presence of symptoms and disease. Treatment of a wisdom tooth is the same as any other tooth in the mouth. If impacted, treatment can be localized to the tissue overlying the impaction, extraction or coronectomy. The term probably came as a translation of the Latin dens sapientiae and this happens, when it does happen, in the case of people where the wisdom-teeth have not come up in early years. National Institute of Clinical Health and Excellence Guideline to Wisdom teeth removal Wisdom tooth extraction WebMD article
Wisdom tooth
–
Wisdom teeth
Wisdom tooth
–
A wisdom tooth protrudes outwards from the
gumline with inflamed tissue at the back (
pericoronitis; green arrow)
Wisdom tooth
Wisdom tooth
–
The upper left (picture right) and upper right (picture left) wisdom teeth are distoangularly impacted. The lower left wisdom tooth is horizontally impacted. The lower right wisdom tooth is vertically impacted (unidentifiable in
orthopantomogram).
36.
Jacob de Wit
–
Jacob de Wit was a Dutch artist and interior decorator who painted many religious scenes. Jacob de Wit was born in Amsterdam, and became famous for his door and he lived on the Keizersgracht in Amsterdam, and many of the buildings on the Keizersgracht still have door or ceiling paintings done by him. Since many of the families who lived in Amsterdam in those days had country villas, de Wit also painted in houses in the areas of Haarlem. According to the RKD he was the pupil of Albert van Spiers in Amsterdam, while in Antwerp, he made a series of watercolor sketches of the Rubens ceilings in the Carolus Borromeuskerk in Antwerp. After the church was struck by lightning in 1718 these became a historical document and his pupils were Jan de Groot, Dionys van Nijmegen, Jan Punt, Pieter Tanjé, and the brothers Frans and Jacob Xavery. Jacob de Wit died in Amsterdam in 1754, tako Hajo Jelgersma was his follower. A set of paintings of the four seasons depicting cherubs painted in a monochrome style now hangs at Hinton Ampner house in Hampshire. Another of his three-dimensional monochrome style cherub paintings hangs in Kingston Lacy house in Dorset, old City Hall Museum Willet-Holthuysen Jacob de Wit on Artnet
Jacob de Wit
–
"Holy Family and Trinity" (1726) by Jacob de Wit
Jacob de Wit
–
Door piece in
Old City Hall (The Hague) illustrating
Audi alteram partem.
Jacob de Wit
–
Wall grisaille by Jacob de Wit
Jacob de Wit
–
Book of engravings by Jan Punt after the lost ceiling pieces by Jacob de Wit, 1751, collection
Teylers Museum
37.
Education in the United States
–
Education in the United States is provided by public, private, and home schools. Funding comes from the state, local, and federal government, private schools are generally free to determine their own curriculum and staffing policies, with voluntary accreditation available through independent regional accreditation authorities. About 87% of school-age children attend schools, about 10% attend private schools. Education is compulsory over an age range starting between five and eight and ending somewhere between ages sixteen and eighteen, depending on the state and this requirement can be satisfied in public schools, state-certified private schools, or an approved home school program. In most schools, education is divided into three levels, elementary school, middle or junior school, and high school. Children are usually divided by age groups into grades, ranging from kindergarten and first grade for the youngest children, there are also a large number and wide variety of publicly and privately administered institutions of higher education throughout the country. Post-secondary education, divided into college, as the first tertiary degree, the United States spends more per student on education than any other country. In 2014, the Pearson/Economist Intelligence Unit rated US education as 14th best in the world, just behind Russia. In 2015 the Programme for International Student Assessment rated U. S. high school students #40 globally in Math and #24 in Science and Reading. ”King, Jr. acknowledged the results in conceding U. S. students were well behind their peers. According to a report published by the U. S. News & World Report, of the top ten colleges and universities in the world, government-supported and free public schools for all began to be established after the American Revolution. Between 1750 and 1870 parochial schools appeared as ad hoc efforts by parishes, historically, many parochial elementary schools were developed which were open to all children in the parish, mainly Catholics, but also Lutherans, Calvinists and Orthodox Jews. Nonsectarian Common schools designed by Horace Mann were opened, which taught the three Rs and also history and geography, States passed laws to make schooling compulsory between 1852 and 1917. They also used federal funding designated by the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up land grant colleges specializing in agriculture, by 1870, every state had free elementary schools, albeit only in urban centers. His movement spread to many other Southern states to small colleges for Colored or Negro students entitled A. & M. or A. & T. some of which later developed into state universities. By 1910,72 percent of children attended school, private schools spread during this time, as well as colleges and — in the rural centers — land grant colleges also. Between 1910 and 1940 the high school movement resulted in increasing public high school enrollment. By 1930,100 percent of children attended school, during World War II, enrollment in high schools and colleges plunged as many high school and college students dropped out to take war jobs. The 1954 Supreme Court case Brown v, in 1965, the far-reaching Elementary and Secondary Education Act, passed as a part of President Lyndon B
Education in the United States
–
A teacher and her students in an elementary school classroom
Education in the United States
–
A high-school senior (twelfth grade) classroom in
Calhan, Colorado
Education in the United States
–
A building of
New York Institute of Technology on its
Manhattan campus
Education in the United States
–
Cost of US college education relative to the
consumer price index (inflation).
38.
Benjamin Franklin
–
Benjamin Franklin was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Franklin was a polymath and a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, freemason, postmaster, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman. As a scientist, he was a figure in the American Enlightenment. As an inventor, he is known for the rod, bifocals. He facilitated many civic organizations, including Philadelphias fire department and the University of Pennsylvania, Franklin earned the title of The First American for his early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity, initially as an author and spokesman in London for several colonies. As the first United States Ambassador to France, he exemplified the emerging American nation, in the words of historian Henry Steele Commager, In a Franklin could be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat. To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin the most accomplished American of his age, Franklin became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, the leading city in the colonies, publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette at the age of 23. He became wealthy publishing this and Poor Richards Almanack, which he authored under the pseudonym Richard Saunders, after 1767, he was associated with the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms of the British policies. He pioneered and was first president of The Academy and College of Philadelphia which opened in 1751 and he organized and was the first secretary of the American Philosophical Society and was elected president in 1769. Franklin became a hero in America as an agent for several colonies when he spearheaded an effort in London to have the Parliament of Great Britain repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a figure in the development of positive Franco-American relations. His efforts proved vital for the American Revolution in securing shipments of crucial munitions from France, during the Revolution, he became the first US Postmaster General. He was active in community affairs and colonial and state politics, from 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of Pennsylvania. He initially owned and dealt in slaves but, by the 1750s, he argued against slavery from an economic perspective, Franklins father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, a soap-maker and a candle-maker. Josiah was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England on December 23,1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith-farmer, and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, on August 15,1667, to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife, Mary Morrill, Josiah Franklin had seventeen children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683, after her death, Josiah was married to Abiah Folger on July 9,1689 in the Old South Meeting House by Samuel Willard. Benjamin, their child, was Josiah Franklins fifteenth child and tenth
Benjamin Franklin
–
Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin
–
Franklin's birthplace on
Milk Street, Boston, Massachusetts
Benjamin Franklin
–
Benjamin Franklin (center) at work on a
printing press. Reproduction of a Charles Mills painting by the
Detroit Publishing Company.
Benjamin Franklin
–
Deborah Read Franklin (c. 1759). Common-law wife of Benjamin Franklin
39.
Academia
–
Academy is a type of secondary or tertiary education institutions. The word comes from the Academy in ancient Greece, which derives from the Athenian hero, outside the city walls of Athens, the gymnasium was made famous by Plato as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, Athena, had formerly been an olive grove, in these gardens, the philosopher Plato conversed with followers. Plato developed his sessions into a method of teaching philosophy and in 387 BC, by extension academia has come to mean the cultural accumulation of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations and its practitioners and transmitters. In the 17th century, British, Italian and French scholars used the term to describe types of institutions of higher learning, in ancient Greece, after the establishment of the original Academy, Platos colleagues and pupils developed spin-offs of his method. Arcesilaus, a Greek student of Plato established the Middle Academy, carneades, another student, established the New Academy. In 335 BC, Aristotle refined the method with his own theories, the library of Alexandria in Egypt was frequented by intellectuals from Africa, Europe and Asia studying various aspects of philosophy, language and mathematics. The University of Timbuktu was a university in Timbuktu, present-day Mali. During its zenith, the university had an attendance of around 25,000 students within a city of around 100,000 people. In China a higher education institution Shang Xiang was founded by Shun in the Youyu era before the 21st century BC, in the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named Shuyuan, which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times, the degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as Bailudong Shuyuan and Yuelu Shuyuan can be classified as higher institutions of learning. Taxila or Takshashila, in ancient India, modern-day Pakistan, was an early Buddhist centre of learning and it is considered as one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC, some scholars date Takshashilas existence back to the 6th century BC. The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis. Takshashila is described in detail in later Jātaka tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century AD. It became a centre of learning at least several centuries BC. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya, the famous treatise Arthashastra by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya, the Maurya Emperor Chandragupta and the Ayurvedic healer Charaka studied at Taxila, generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen
Academia
–
Students and scholars at the entrance to the
University of Concepción,
Chile.
Academia
–
Nalanda, ancient center of higher learning in
Bihar,
India from 427 to 1197
40.
Positive psychology
–
Those who practice positive psychology attempt psychological interventions that foster positive attitudes toward ones subjective experiences, individual traits, and life events. The goal is to minimize pathological thoughts that may arise in a hopeless mindset, Other sorts of psychological intervention have often focused on mental illness, which suggests an emphasis on maladaptive behavior and negative thinking. Around the mid-20th century, the humanistic movement encouraged an emphasis on happiness, well-being, a pioneer of this development was Martin Seligman, who made positive psychology his main theme when he became President of the American Psychological Association in 1998. Positive psychologists have suggested a number of ways in which individual happiness may be fostered, Social ties with a spouse, family, friends and wider networks through work, clubs or social organisations are of particular importance. Such things as physical exercise and the practice of meditation also may contribute to happiness, Happiness may rise with increasing financial income, though it may plateau or even fall when no further gains are made. The remainder of this article expands on these and many other themes, Positive psychology complements, without intending to replace or ignore, the traditional areas of psychology. Topics of interest to researchers in the field are, states of pleasure or flow, values, strengths, virtues, talents, as well as the ways that these can be promoted by social systems and institutions. The words, the life are derived from speculation about what holds the greatest value in life – the factors that contribute the most to a well-lived. While not attempting a strict definition of the life, positive psychologists agree that one must live a happy, engaged. Martin Seligman referred to the life as using your signature strengths every day to produce authentic happiness. Positive psychologists are concerned with four topics, positive experiences, enduring psychological traits, positive relationships, some thinkers and researchers, like Seligman, have collected data to support the development of guiding theories. Research from this branch of psychology has been applied in various ways, the basic premise of positive psychology is that human beings are often drawn by the future more than they are driven by the past. L. M. Keyes and Shane Lopez illustrate the four typologies of mental functioning, flourishing, struggling, floundering and languishing. However, complete mental health is a combination of high emotional well-being, high psychological well-being, most psychologists focus on a persons most basic emotions. There are thought to be between seven and fifteen basic emotions, the emotions can be combined in many ways to create more subtle variations of emotional experience. This suggests that any attempt to eliminate negative emotions from our life would have the unintended consequence of losing the variety and subtlety of our most profound emotional experiences. Efforts to increase positive emotions will not automatically result in decreased negative emotions, nor will decreased negative emotions necessarily result in increased positive emotions. The International Positive Psychology Association is an established association that has expanded to thousands of members from 80 different countries. ”In cognitive therapy
Positive psychology
–
To
Martin Seligman, psychology (particularly its positive branch) can investigate and promote realistic ways of fostering more well-being in individuals and communities.
Positive psychology
–
The "Remembering self" may not be the best source of information for pleasing the "Experiencing self"
Positive psychology
–
Money, once one reaches middle class, may be best spent ensuring one's job and social ties are enjoyable
Positive psychology
–
According to Peterson, the Buddhist saying that "Life is Suffering" can be understood as a reality that humans must accept, as well as a call to cultivate virtues.
41.
Self-knowledge (psychology)
–
Self-knowledge is a term used in psychology to describe the information that an individual draws upon when finding an answer to the question What am I like. While seeking to develop the answer to question, self-knowledge requires ongoing self-awareness and self-consciousness. Young infants and chimpanzees display some of the traits of self-awareness and agency/contingency, at some greater level of cognition, however, a self-conscious component emerges in addition to an increased self-awareness component, and then it becomes possible to ask What am I like. Self-knowledge is a component of the self, or more accurately and it is the knowledge of ones self and ones properties and the desire to seek such knowledge that guide the development of the self-concept. Self-knowledge informs us of our representations of ourselves, which contain attributes that we uniquely pair with ourselves. The cognitive self is made up of everything we know and this implies physiological properties such as hair color, race, and height etc. and psychological properties like beliefs, values, and dislikes to name but a few. Self-knowledge and its structure affect how events we experience are encoded, how they are selectively retrieved/recalled, the analytical interpretation of our own memory can also be called meta memory, and is an important factor of meta cognition. Studies have shown there is an advantage for information encoded with reference to the self. Patients with Alzheimers who have difficulty recognizing their own family have not shown evidence of self-knowledge, self-theories have traditionally failed to distinguish between different source that inform self-knowledge, these are episodic memory and semantic memory. Both episodic and semantic memory are facets of declarative memory, which contains memory of facts, declarative memory is the explicit counterpart to procedural memory, which is implicit in that it applies to skills we have learnt, they are not facts that can be stated. Episodic memory is the memory that individuals possess which contains events, emotions. Semantic memory does not refer to concept-based knowledge stored about an experience like episodic memory. Instead it includes the memory of meanings, understandings, general knowledge about the world and this makes semantic knowledge independent of context and personal information. Semantic memory enables an individual to know information, including information about their selves, individuals have been shown to maintain a sense of self despite catastrophic impairments in episodic recollection. For example, subject W. J. who suffered dense retrograde amnesia leaving her unable to recall any events that occurred prior to the development of amnesia, however, her memory for general facts about her life during the period of amnesia remained intact. Self-knowledge must therefore be expanded to include the semantic component of memory, Self-knowledge about the traits one possesses can be accessed without the need for episodic retrieval. People have goals that lead them to seek, notice, and these goals begin the quest for self-knowledge. People are motivated to feel good about themselves in order to maximize their feelings of self-worth, the emphasis on feelings differs slightly from how other theories have previously defined self-enhancement needs, for example the Contingencies of Self-Worth Model
Self-knowledge (psychology)
–
A basic schematic representation of memory showing the 'locations' of semantic and episodic memory.
42.
McLean Hospital
–
McLean Hospital — formerly known as Somerville Asylum and Charlestown Asylum — is a psychiatric hospital in Belmont, Massachusetts, USA. McLean is noted for its clinical staff expertise and ground-breaking neuroscience research, McLean maintains the worlds largest neuroscientific and psychiatric research program in a private hospital. It is the largest psychiatric facility of Harvard Medical School, an affiliate of Massachusetts General Hospital and owned by Partners HealthCare, McLean was founded in 1811 in a section of Charlestown, Massachusetts that is now a part of neighboring Somerville, Massachusetts. The effort was organized by Rev. John Bartlett, chaplain of the Boston Almshouse, the hospital was built around a Charles Bulfinch mansion, which became the hospitals administrative building, most of the other hospital buildings were completed by 1818. A portrait of McLean now hangs in the present Administration Building, along with paintings that were once displayed in the original hospital. In 1892, the facility was renamed McLean Hospital in recognition of broader views on the treatment of mental illness, in 1895 the campus moved to Waverley Oaks Hill in Belmont, Massachusetts. The move was necessitated by changes in Charlestown, including new rail lines, olmsted was eventually treated at McLean, but there is no evidence that he was responsible for the design of the grounds. Once hospital construction began, Curtis was hired by the hospital, in the 1990s, facing falling revenue in a changing health care industry, the hospital drafted a plan to sell a percentage of its grounds for development by the Town of Belmont. The sale of the land became the root of a divisive, the deal was finalized in 2005 and land development was well underway at the end of the year. Most of the Belmont campus was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003, McLean is known widely for its treatment of adolescents, most specifically its treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder using Dialectical Behavioral Therapy developed by Marsha M. Linehan. McLean is presently led by Scott L. Rauch, President and Psychiatrist in Chief, McLean is differentiated from its New England peers by its combination of teaching, treatment, and research. Most other facilities focus on one of these priorities and it is home to the Harvard Brain Tissue Resource Center, the largest brain bank in the world. The hospital developed and implemented national health screenings for alcohol, depression, the Cole Resource Center, a mental health consumer resource and advocacy center, is located at the hospital. McLean Hospital is a hospital for Harvard University Residents and the continued development of Harvard faculty. One popular and anecdotal history of McLean is Alex Beams Gracefully Insane, Life, more factual and scholarly accounts of the history are recorded in the Little and Sutton books listed below. Samuel Shems roman à clef Mount Misery tells a story inspired at least in part by the experiences at McLean. The 1994 Under Observation, Life Inside A Mental Hospital by Lisa Berger and Alexander Vuckovic uses some fictional techniques to some of the typical events at McLean. James Taylors Knockin Round the Zoo recalls his stay at McLean as a teenager, McLean Hospital is currently ranked 2nd among all psychiatric hospitals in the country according to U. S. News and World Report
McLean Hospital
–
Map of the McLean Insane Asylum from an 1884 atlas of Somerville, Massachuttes
McLean Hospital
–
Administration Building
43.
Harvard Medical School
–
Harvard Medical School is the graduate medical school of Harvard University. It is located in the Longwood Medical Area of the Mission Hill neighborhood of Boston, the school has a large and distinguished faculty to support its missions of education, research, and clinical care. These faculty hold appointments in the science departments on the HMS Quadrangle. There are approximately 2,900 full- and part-time voting faculty members consisting of assistant, associate, and full professors, and over 5,000 full or part-time, non-voting instructors. The school is the third-oldest medical school in the United States and was founded by John Warren on September 19,1782, with Benjamin Waterhouse, the first lectures were given in the basement of Harvard Hall and then in Holden Chapel. The first class, composed of two students, graduated in 1788 and it moved from Cambridge to 49 Marlborough Street in Boston in 1810. From 1816 to 1846, the school, known as Massachusetts Medical College of Harvard University, was located on Mason Street, in 1847 the school relocated to North Grove Street, and then to Copley Square in 1883. The school moved to its current location on Longwood Avenue in 1906, the architect for the campus was the Boston firm of Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge. The Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology offers an alternative MD program with a emphasis on biomedical research. The HST MD program is significantly smaller than the Pathways program, every winter, second year students at HMS write, direct, and perform a full-length musical parody of Harvard, their professors, and themselves. Upon matriculation, medical students at Harvard Medical School are divided into five named after famous alumni. Each society has an advisory dean along with several associate deans who serve as advisors to students. Students work in small group tutorials and lab sessions within their societies, every year, the five societies compete in Society Olympics for the famed Pink Flamingo trophy in a series of events that test the unorthodox talents of the students in each society. Francis Weld Peabody William Bosworth Castle Walter Bradford Cannon Oliver Wendell Holmes Irving M. London Harvard Medical School has a medical-consulting arm, other long-standing relationships include PHMIs work with Asan Medical Center in Seoul, South Korea, and Tokyo Medical and Dental University in Japan. In 2007 PHMI began a 10‑year collaboration with Lebanese American University, in October 2009 LAU opened a new medical school with assistance from PHMI
Harvard Medical School
–
Harvard Medical School quadrangle in
Longwood Medical Area.
Harvard Medical School
–
Massachusetts Medical College at Mason St. (Old building)
Harvard Medical School
–
History
44.
Memory
–
Memory is the faculty of the mind by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Memory is vital to experiences and related to systems, it is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If we could not remember past events, we could not learn or develop language, relationships, often memory is understood as an informational processing system with explicit and implicit functioning that is made up of a sensory processor, short-term memory, and long-term memory. The sensory processor allows information from the world to be sensed in the form of chemical and physical stimuli and attended to with various levels of focus. Working memory serves as an encoding and retrieval processor, information in the form of stimuli is encoded in accordance with explicit or implicit functions by the working memory processor. The working memory also retrieves information from previously stored material, finally, the function of long-term memory is to store data through various categorical models or systems. Explicit and implicit functions of memory are known as declarative and non-declarative systems. These systems involve the purposeful intention of memory retrieval and storage, declarative, or explicit, memory is the conscious storage and recollection of data. Under declarative memory resides semantic and episodic memory, semantic memory refers to memory that is encoded with specific meaning, while episodic memory refers to information that is encoded along a spatial and temporal plane. Declarative memory is usually the primary process thought of when referencing memory, non-declarative, or implicit, memory is the unconscious storage and recollection of information. An example of a process would be the unconscious learning or retrieval of information by way of procedural memory. Memory is not a processor, and is affected by many factors. The manner information is encoded, stored, and retrieved can all be corrupted, the amount of attention given new stimuli can diminish the amount of information that becomes encoded for storage. Also, the process can become corrupted by physical damage to areas of the brain that are associated with memory storage. Finally, the retrieval of information from long-term memory can be disrupted because of decay within long-term memory, normal functioning, decay over time, and brain damage all affect the accuracy and capacity of memory. Sensory memory holds sensory information less than one second after an item is perceived, the ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is out of control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to see more than they can actually report, the first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were precisely conducted by George Sperling using the partial report paradigm
Memory
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Olin Levi Warner, Memory (1896). Library of Congress
Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.
Memory
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Overview of the forms and functions of memory in the sciences
45.
Limbic
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The limbic system is a set of brain structures located on both sides of the thalamus, immediately beneath the cerebrum. It has also referred to as the paleomammalian cortex. It is not a system but a collection of structures from the telencephalon, diencephalon. The limbic system supports a variety of functions including emotion, behavior, motivation, long-term memory, Emotional life is largely housed in the limbic system, and it has a great deal to do with the formation of memories. These structures were known together as the limbic lobe, further studies began to associate these areas with emotional and motivational processes and linked them to subcortical components that were grouped into the limbic system. Therefore, the definition of anatomical structures considered part of the system is a controversial subject. Piriform cortex, part of the olfactory system, entorhinal cortex, related with memory and associative components. Hippocampus and associated structures, which play a role in the consolidation of new memories. Amygdala, located deep within the lobes and related with a number of emotional processes. Nucleus accumbens, involved in reward, pleasure, and addiction and it regulates a great number of autonomic processes. Mammillary bodies, part of the hypothalamus receives signals from the hippocampus via the fornix. Anterior nuclei of thalamus receive input from the mammillary bodies, the structures of the limbic system are involved in motivation, emotion, learning, and memory. The limbic system is where the subcortical structures meet the cerebral cortex, the limbic system operates by influencing the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system. It is highly interconnected with the nucleus accumbens, which plays a role in sexual arousal and these responses are heavily modulated by dopaminergic projections from the limbic system. The limbic system includes the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia are a set of structures that direct intentional movements. The basal ganglia are located near the thalamus and hypothalamus and they receive input from the cerebral cortex, which sends outputs to the motor centers in the brain stem. A part of the basal ganglia called the striatum controls posture, recent studies indicate that, if there is an inadequate supply of dopamine, the striatum is affected, which can lead to visible behavioral symptoms of Parkinsons disease
Limbic
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Cross section of the
human brain showing parts of the limbic system from below. Traité d'Anatomie et de Physiologie (1786)
Limbic
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The limbic system largely consists of what was previously known as the limbic lobe.
46.
Mirror neuron
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A mirror neuron is a neuron that fires both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron mirrors the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting, such neurons have been directly observed in primate species. Birds have been shown to have imitative resonance behaviors and neurological evidence suggests the presence of some form of mirroring system, the function of the mirror system in humans is a subject of much speculation. Some researchers in neuroscience and cognitive psychology consider that this system provides the physiological mechanism for the perception/action coupling. They argue that mirror neurons may be important for understanding the actions of other people, some researchers speculate that mirror systems may simulate observed actions, and thus contribute to theory of mind skills, while others relate mirror neurons to language abilities. Neuroscientists such as Marco Iacoboni have argued that mirror neuron systems in the brain help us understand the actions and intentions of other people. In addition, Iacoboni has argued that mirror neurons are the basis of the human capacity for emotions such as empathy. However, there are scientists who express skepticism about the theories being advanced to explain the function of mirror neurons, remember too that there are many different types of mirror neuron. And that we’re still trying to establish for sure whether they exist in humans, as for understanding the functional significance of these cells … don’t be fooled, that journey has only just begun. To date, no widely accepted neural or computational models have been put forward to describe how mirror neuron activity supports cognitive functions, the subject of mirror neurons continues to generate intense debate. In 2014, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B published an issue entirely devoted to mirror neuron research. They found that some neurons responded when the monkey observed a person picking up a piece of food, the discovery was initially sent to Nature, but was rejected for its lack of general interest before being published in a less competitive journal. In 2002 Christian Keysers and colleagues reported that, in humans and monkeys, the mirror system also responds to the sound of actions. Reports on mirror neurons have been published and confirmed with mirror neurons found in both inferior frontal and inferior parietal regions of the brain. These additional areas include the cortex and are thought to make the observer feel what it feels like to move in the observed way. The other theories as to the origin of mirror neurons include Associative Learning, the first animal in which researchers have studied mirror neurons individually is the macaque monkey. In these monkeys, mirror neurons are found in the frontal gyrus. Mirror neurons are believed to mediate the understanding of other animals behaviour, for example, a mirror neuron which fires when the monkey rips a piece of paper would also fire when the monkey sees a person rip paper, or hears paper ripping
Mirror neuron
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The mirror neurons can be activated only after the goal of the observed action has been attributed by other brain structures.
Mirror neuron
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Diagram of the brain, showing the locations of the frontal and parietal lobes of the
cerebrum, viewed from the left. The inferior frontal lobe is the lower part of the blue area, and the superior parietal lobe is the upper part of the yellow area.
47.
Sapience Analytics
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Sapience Analytics is a software startup which develops workforce management software called Sapience. The company is headquartered in Pune, India and co-founded by Shirish Deodhar, Madhukar Bhatia, Swati Deodhar, Sapience is the main application software produced by Sapience Analytics. It uses an architecture to implement employee time tracking software. A server-side component collates data from employees at all levels of an organizational hierarchy. A per-employee client-side component is installed on each of the companys computers, besides the graphs, there is also a detailed log, the app tracks which files and websites were accessed, and maps them into the activity-categories. Time spent away from the computer is tracked as offline time, managers can see a combined-dashboard showing daily/weekly/monthly activity of all their direct employees, once data has been uploaded to the server-component from each employees computer. Best and worst time by individual employees are highlighted, as are best and worst time by teams, Sapience has been adopted by several business leaders and big companies as a self-help tool for employees to can measure their own productivity). The software is intended to help companies offer more flexible work policies. Recently, in October 2014, the company raised ₹45 crore in a round of funding led by Orios Venture Partners for expanding its operations in the United States. TiE Global confers TiE50 award to Sapience, it is meant for 50 hottest tech start-ups globally Awarded NASSCOM League of 10 Emerge companies in 2013, Sapience was named in the Deloitte Technology Fast 50 India 2014, a ranking of the 50 fastest growing technology companies in India. Sapience won Frost & Sullivan Product Innovation Award Sapience in talks to raise up to $10 million to fund US expansion, Sapience is Top 10 Emerging Analytics Start-ups in India to Watch in 2014. Sapience awarded Best Emerging SME2013, Sapience makes it to Red Herring Top 100 Asia Technology Companies
Sapience Analytics
–
Sapience Analytics
48.
Latin
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Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
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Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
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Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
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A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
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Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
49.
Verb
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A verb, from the Latin verbum meaning word, is a word that in syntax conveys an action, an occurrence, or a state of being. In the usual description of English, the form, with or without the particle to, is the infinitive. In many languages, verbs are inflected to encode tense, aspect, mood, a verb may also agree with the person, gender or number of some of its arguments, such as its subject, or object. Verbs have tenses, present, to indicate that an action is being carried out, past, to indicate that an action has been done, future, in languages where the verb is inflected, it often agrees with its primary argument in person, number or gender. With the exception of the verb to be, English shows distinctive agreements only in the person singular, present tense form of verbs. The rest of the persons are not distinguished in the verb, Latin and the Romance languages inflect verbs for tense–aspect–mood, and they agree in person and number with the subject. Verbs vary by type, and each type is determined by the kinds of words that accompany it, classified by the number of their valency arguments, usually three basic types are distinguished, intransitives, transitives, ditransitives and double transitive verbs. In addition, verbs can be nonfinite, namely, not inflected for tense, an intransitive verb is one that does not have a direct object. Intransitive verbs may be followed by an adverb or end a sentence, for example, The woman spoke softly. The athlete ran faster than the official, a transitive verb is followed by a noun or noun phrase. These noun phrases are not called predicate nouns, but are called direct objects because they refer to the object that is being acted upon. For example, My friend read the newspaper, the teenager earned a speeding ticket. A way to identify a verb is to invert the sentence. For example, The newspaper was read by my friend, a speeding ticket was earned by the teenager. Ditransitive verbs precede either two noun phrases or a phrase and then a prepositional phrase often led by to or for. For example, The players gave their teammates high fives, the players gave high fives to their teammates. When two noun phrases follow a transitive verb, the first is an object, that which is receiving something, and the second is a direct object. Indirect objects can be noun phrases or prepositional phrases, double transitive verbs are followed by a noun phrase that serves as a direct object and then a second noun phrase, adjective, or infinitive phrase
Verb
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A single-word verb in
Spanish contains information about time (past, present, future), person and number. The process of grammatically modifying a verb to express this information is called
conjugation.
. PMID 20233730. doi:10.1093/geront/gnq022.
