1.
Congress Poland
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Thus effectively it was little more than a puppet state of the Russian Empire. The autonomy was curtailed following uprisings in 1830–31 and 1863, as the country became governed by namestniks. Thus from the start, Polish autonomy remained little more than fiction, the territory of the Kingdom of Poland roughly corresponds to the Kalisz Region and the Lublin, Łódź, Masovian, Podlaskie and Holy Cross Voivodeships of Poland. Although the official name of the state was the Kingdom of Poland, in order to distinguish it from other Kingdoms of Poland, it was sometimes referred to as Congress Poland. The Kingdom of Poland was created out of the Duchy of Warsaw, the creation of the Kingdom created a partition of Polish lands in which the state was divided among Russia, Austria and Prussia. The Congress was important enough in the creation of the state to cause the new country to be named for it, the Kingdom lost its status as a sovereign state in 1831 and the administrative divisions were reorganized. It was sufficiently distinct that its name remained in official Russian use, originally, the Kingdom had an area of roughly 128,500 km2 and a population of approximately 3.3 million. Its population reached 6.1 million by 1870 and 10 million by 1900, most of the ethnic Poles in the Russian Empire lived in the Congress Kingdom, although some areas outside it also contained a Polish majority. The Kingdom of Poland largely re-emerged as a result of the efforts of Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, the Kingdom of Poland was one of the few contemporary constitutional monarchies in Europe, with the Emperor of Russia serving as the Polish King. His title as chief of Poland in Russian, was Tsar, similar to usage in the fully integrated states within the Empire, theoretically the Polish Kingdom in its 1815 form was a semi-autonomous state in personal union with Russia through the rule of the Russian Emperor. Poland also had traditions and the Polish nobility deeply valued personal freedom. In reality, the Kings had absolute power and the title of Autocrat. All opposition to the Emperor of Russia was suppressed and the law was disregarded at will by Russian officials, however, in time the situation changed and he granted the viceroy, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, almost dictatorial powers. Very soon after Congress of Vienna resolutions were signed, Russia ceased to respect them, in 1819, Alexander I abolished freedom of the press and introduced preventory censorship. Resistance to Russian control began in the 1820s, beginning in 1825, the sessions of the Sejm were held in secret. Nicholas rule promoted the idea of Official Nationality, consisting of Orthodoxy, Autocracy, in relation to Poles, those ideas meant assimilation, turning them into loyal Orthodox Russians. All of this led to discontent and resistance among the Polish population, in January 1831, the Sejm deposed Nicholas I as King of Poland in response to his repeated curtailing of its constitutional rights. Nicholas reacted by sending Russian troops into Poland, resulting in the November Uprising, following an 11-month military campaign, the Kingdom of Poland lost its semi-independence and was integrated much more closely with the Russian Empire
2.
Vence
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Vence is a commune set in the hills of the Alpes Maritimes department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte dAzur region in southeastern France between Nice and Antibes. The first known Bishop of Vence is Severus, bishop in 439, antoine Godeau, Bishop of Grasse, was named Bishop of Vence in 1638, the Holy See wished to unite the two dioceses. Meeting with opposition from the chapter and the clergy of Vence Godeau left Grasse in 1653, to remain Bishop of Vence, the diocese of Nice now unites the three former Dioceses of Nice, Grasse and Vence. Within the historic village, a walled village, there are numerous interesting sights and monuments. The Peyra Gate was remodelled in 1810, the fountain was rebuilt in 1822 replacing an older one dating from 1578. Nearby is an oak, donated by François I and planted in 1538, the castle is today the Fondation Émile Hugues, a modern and contemporary art museum. The cathedral was built in the 4th century on the site of a Roman temple, the stone of the western façade dates from 239. Another, on the right, was engraved in December 220, other stones in the external walls represent funerary dedications. Also on the side of the church, the Pierre du Tauroble evokes the cult of Cybele. A chapel in the cathedral has a mosaic by Marc Chagall, the rue des Portiques is a section of the old Roman road. Vence is famous for its water, which can be collected from numerous fountains in the town. Vence is twinned with the town of Stamford, Lincolnshire. D. H. Lawrence, writer, born in Eastwood, UK, the art museum is named after him. Jacques Morali, disco music author, born in Paris and buried in Vence
3.
University of Warsaw
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The University of Warsaw, established in 1816, is the largest university in Poland. It employs over 6,000 staff including over 3,100 academic educators and it provides graduate courses for 53,000 students. The University offers some 37 different fields of study,18 faculties and over 100 specializations in Humanities and it was founded as a Royal University on 19 November 1816, when the Partitions of Poland separated Warsaw from the oldest and most influential University of Kraków. Tsar Alexander I granted permission for the establishment of five faculties – law and political science, medicine, philosophy, theology, the university expanded rapidly, but was closed during November Uprising in 1830. It was reopened in 1857 under the name Akademia Medyko-Chirurgiczna based in the nearby Staszic Palace with only medical and pharmaceutical faculties, over 70% of students were of Polish nationality, but after the revolution in 1905, the proportion dropped below 10% as a result of the boycott. The university was resurrected during the First World War and the number of students in 1918 was estimated at 4,500, after Polands independence in 1918 the new government focused on improving the university, and in the early 1930s it became the countrys largest. New faculties were established and the curriculum was extended, the university was named after Chief-of-State and Marshal of Poland Józef Piłsudski after his death in 1935. Following the Second World War and the devastation of Warsaw, the University successfully reopened in 1945, the University of Warsaw is one of the top Polish universities. It was ranked by Perspektywy magazine as best Polish university in 2010,2011 and 2014, international rankings such as ARWU and University Web Ranking rank the university as the best Polish higher level institution. On the list of 100 best European universities compiled by University Web Ranking, QS World University Rankings positioned the University of Warsaw as the best higher level institution among the worlds top 400. In 1795 the partitions of Poland left Warsaw with access only to the Academy of Vilnius, in 1815, the newly established autonomous Congress Poland de facto belonging to the Russian Empire found itself without a university at all, as Vilnius was incorporated into Russia. The first to be established in Congress Poland were the Law School, in 1816 Tsar Alexander I permitted the Polish authorities to create a university, comprising five departments, Law and Administration, Medicine, Philosophy, Theology, and Art and Humanities. The university soon grew to 800 students and 50 professors, after most of the students and professors took part in the November 1830 Uprising the university was closed down. After the Crimean War, Russia entered a period of liberalization. In 1862 departments of Law and Administration, Philology and History, the newly established academy gained importance and was soon renamed the Main School. However, after the January 1863 Uprising the liberal period ended, during its short existence, the Main School educated over 3,000 students, many of whom became part of the backbone of the Polish intelligentsia. The Main School was replaced with a Russian-language Imperial University of Warsaw and its purpose was to provide education for the Russian military garrison of Warsaw, the majority of students were Poles. The tsarist authorities believed that the Russian university would become a way to Russify Polish society
4.
Ferdydurke
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Ferdydurke is a novel by the Polish writer Witold Gombrowicz, published in 1937. Gombrowicz himself wrote of his novel that it is not, a satire on some social class, nor a nihilistic attack on culture. We live in an era of violent changes, of accelerated development, the need to find a form for what is yet immature, uncrystalized and underdeveloped, as well as the groan at the impossibility of such a postulate – this is the chief excitement of my book. The first Spanish translation of the novel, published in Buenos Aires in 1947, was done by Gombrowicz himself. A translation committee presided by the Cuban writer Virgilio Piñera helped him in this endeavor, Gombrowicz again collaborated on a French translation of the book, with Ronald Martin in 1958. A direct German translation by Walter Tiel was published in 1960, in 2006, the first Brazilian Portuguese translation by Tomasz Barciński, direct from the Polish original text, was delivered. The first English translation of Ferdydurke, by Eric Mosbacher, was published in 1961 and it was a combined indirect translation of the French, German and possibly Spanish translations. In 2000, Yale University Press published the first direct translation from the original Polish, the 2000 edition, translated by Danuta Borchardt, has an introduction by Susan Sontag. Direct and indirect translations now exist in over twenty languages, in 1999s, Ferdydurke was adapted into internationally acclaimed stage play by Provisorium & Kompania Theater from Lublin
5.
Trans-Atlantyk
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Trans-Atlantyk is a novel by the Polish author Witold Gombrowicz, originally published in 1953. The semi-autobiographical plot of the novel closely tracks Gombrowiczs own experience in the years during, Witold, a Polish writer, embarks on an ocean voyage only to have the war break out while he is visiting Argentina. Finding himself penniless and stranded after the Nazis take over his country, a fantastical series of twists and turns follow in which the young man finds himself, after a debauched night of drinking, involved as a second in a duel. Witold is constantly confronted with the contrasts between his love of country and his status as a forced expatriate and the shallow nationalism of his fellow Poles. The book is an examination of what ones nationality is. The language of Trans-Atlantyk is unusual, as it is written in the style of a gawęda, as such, it is very much in the tradition of another legendary work by a Polish exile writer, the epic poem Pan Tadeusz, by Adam Mickiewicz. Gombrowicz wrote himself that Trans-Atlantic was born in me like a Pan Tadeusz in reverse, the 1994 Carolyn French/Nina Karsov English-language translation uses a sort of faux-seventeenth century English, resulting in a work that the translators themselves regard as experimental
6.
Playwright
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A playwright, also known as a dramatist, is a person who writes plays. The term is not a variant spelling of playwrite, but something quite distinct, hence the prefix and the suffix combine to indicate someone who has wrought words, themes, and other elements into a dramatic form - someone who crafts plays. The homophone with write is in this case entirely coincidental, the term playwright appears to have been coined by Ben Jonson in his Epigram 49, To Playwright, as an insult, to suggest a mere tradesman fashioning works for the theatre. Jonson described himself as a poet, not a playwright, since plays during that time were written in meter and this view was held as late as the early 19th century. The term playwright later lost this negative connotation, the earliest playwrights in Western literature with surviving works are the Ancient Greeks. These early plays were written for annual Athenian competitions among playwrights held around the 5th century BC, such notables as Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes established forms still relied on by their modern counterparts. For the ancient Greeks, playwriting involved poïesis, the act of making and this is the source of the English word poet. In the 4th century BCE, Aristotle wrote his Poetics, the first play-writing manual, in this famous text, Aristotle established the principle of action or praxis as the basis for all drama. He then included a hierarchy of elements for the beginning with plot, character, thought, diction, music. The ends of drama were plot, character, and thought, the means of drama were language and music, since the myths, upon which Greek tragedy were based, were widely known, plot had to do with the arrangement and selection of existing material. Character was equated with choice as rather than psychology, so that character was determined by action, in tragedy, the notion of ethical choice determined the character of the individual. Thought had more to do and the imitation of an action that is serious, thus, he developed his notion of hamartia, or tragic flaw, an error in judgment by the main character or protagonist. It provides the basis for the play, a term still held as the sine qua non of dramaturgy. The Poetics, while very brief and highly condensed, is studied today. Perhaps the most Aristotelian of contemporary playwrights is David Mamet, who embraces the idea of character as agent of the action, and emphasizes causality in the structure of his plays. His recently revived, Speed-the-Plow, is quintessentially Aristotelian, in that it observes the unities and builds its plot through a causal stream of discoveries and reversals. The Italian Renaissance brought about a stricter interpretation of Aristotle, as this long-lost work came to light in the late 15th century. The neoclassical ideal, which was to reach its apogee in France during the 17th century, dwelled upon the unities, of action, place, and time
7.
Polish literature
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Polish literature is the literary tradition of Poland. According to Czesław Miłosz, for centuries Polish literature focused more on drama, the reasons were manifold, but mostly rested on historical circumstances of the nation. The period of Polish Enlightenment began in the 1730s–40s and peaked in the half of the 18th century. One of the leading Polish Enlightenment authors included Ignacy Krasicki and Jan Potocki, Polish Romanticism, unlike Romanticism elsewhere in Europe, was largely a movement for independence against the foreign occupation. Early Polish Romantics were heavily influenced by other European Romantics, notable writers included Adam Mickiewicz, Seweryn Goszczyński, Tomasz Zan and Maurycy Mochnacki. In the second period, many Polish Romantics worked abroad, influential poets included Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki and Zygmunt Krasiński. In the aftermath of the failed January Uprising, the new period of Polish Positivism began to advocate skepticism, the modernist period known as the Young Poland movement in visual arts, literature and music, came into being around 1890, and concluded with the Polands return to independence. Notable authors included Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer, Stanisław Przybyszewski and Jan Kasprowicz, the neo-Romantic era was exemplified by the works of Stefan Żeromski, Władysław Reymont, Gabriela Zapolska, and Stanisław Wyspiański. In 1905 Henryk Sienkiewicz received a Nobel Prize in literature for his patriotic Trilogy inspiring a new sense of hope, Literature of the Second Polish Republic encompasses a short, though exceptionally dynamic period in Polish literary consciousness. The socio-political reality has changed radically with Polands return to independence, new avant-garde writers included Tuwim, Witkacy, Gombrowicz, Miłosz, Dąbrowska and Nałkowska. In the years of German and Soviet occupation of Poland, all life was dramatically compromised. Out of 1,500 clandestine publications in Poland, about 200 were devoted to literature, much of Polish literature written during the Occupation of Poland appeared in print only after the conclusion of World War II, including books by Nałkowska, Rudnicki, Borowski and others. The situation began to worsen dramatically around 1949–1950 with the introduction of the Stalinist doctrine by minister Sokorski, Poland had three Nobel Prize winning authors in the later 20th century, Isaac Bashevis Singer, Czesław Miłosz and Wisława Szymborska. Almost nothing remains of Polish literature prior to the countrys Christianization in 966, within the Polish literary tradition, it is customary to include works that have dealt with Poland, even if not written by ethnic Poles. This is the case with Gallus Anonymus, the first historian to have described Poland in his work entitled Cronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum, Gallus was a foreign monk who accompanied King Bolesław III Wrymouth in his return from Hungary to Poland. The first recorded sentence in the Polish language reads, Day ut ia pobrusa, the work, in which this phrase appeared, reflects the culture of early Poland. The sentence was written within the Latin language chronicle Liber fundationis from between 1269 and 1273, a history of the Cistercian monastery in Henryków, Silesia and it was recorded by an abbot known simply as Piotr, referring to an event almost a hundred years earlier. The sentence was uttered by a Bohemian settler, Bogwal
8.
The Paris Review
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The Paris Review is a quarterly English language literary magazine established in Paris in 1953 by Harold L. Humes, Peter Matthiessen, and George Plimpton. The series has been called one of the single most persistent acts of conservation in the history of the world. The headquarters of The Paris Review moved from Paris to New York City in 1973, Plimpton edited the Review from its founding until his death in 2003, Lorin Stein has been editor since 2010. I think The Paris Review should welcome these people into its pages, the writers and good poets. The Reviews founding editors include Humes, Matthiessen, Plimpton, William Pène du Bois, Thomas Guinzburg, the first publisher was Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan. Du Bois, the magazine’s first art editor, designed the iconic Paris Review eagle to include both American and French significance, an American eagle holding a pen and wearing a Phrygian cap. The magazine’s first office was located in a room of the publishing house Éditions de la Table ronde. Other legendary locations of The Paris Review include a Thames River grain carrier anchored on the Seine from 1956 to 1957, the first-floor and basement rooms in Plimptons 72nd Street apartment became the headquarters of The Paris Review when the magazine moved from Paris to New York City in 1973. Philip Gourevitch was selected by the Reviews board of directors as George Plimptons successor in 2005, under Gourevitchs leadership, the Review began incorporating more nonfiction pieces and, for the first time, began regularly publishing a photography spread. The Paris Review also announced, in 2006, the publication of a set of Paris Review interviews. The Paris Review Interviews, Volumes I-IV were published by Picador from 2006–2009, Gourevitch announced his departure in the fall of 2009, citing a desire to concentrate more fully on his writing. In a May 27,2008 interview with Charlie Rose, Matthiessen stated that he invented The Paris Review as cover for his CIA activities, Lorin Stein was named editor of The Paris Review in April 2010. He oversaw a redesign of the print edition and its website. In September 2010, the Review made available online its entire archive of interviews, contributors include Jeffrey Eugenides, Lydia Davis, and Ali Smith. It promises to be a resource for writers, students. As Stein explains, Some chose classics, Some chose stories that were new even to us. Our hope is that this collection will be useful to young writers, most of all, it is intended for readers who are not in the habit of reading short stories. We hope these object lessons will remind them how varied the form can be, how vital it remains, on October 8,2012, the magazine launched its app for the iPad and iPhone
9.
Radom Governorate
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Radom Governorate was a governorate of the Congress Poland. It was created in 1844 from the merger of the Sandomierz Governorate with Kielce Governorate and it was divided into 8 powiats, Kielce, Miechów, Olkusz, Opatów, Opoczno, Radom and Sandomierz. In 1866 the Kielce Governorate was once made an independent entity. By the Imperial census of 1897, in bold are languages spoken by more people than the state language
10.
Russian Empire
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The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until it was overthrown by the short-lived February Revolution in 1917. One of the largest empires in history, stretching over three continents, the Russian Empire was surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires. The rise of the Russian Empire happened in association with the decline of neighboring powers, the Swedish Empire, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Persia. It played a role in 1812–14 in defeating Napoleons ambitions to control Europe. The House of Romanov ruled the Russian Empire from 1721 until 1762, and its German-descended cadet branch, with 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third-largest population in the world at the time, after Qing China and India. Like all empires, it included a large disparity in terms of economics, ethnicity, there were numerous dissident elements, who launched numerous rebellions and assassination attempts, they were closely watched by the secret police, with thousands exiled to Siberia. Economically, the empire had an agricultural base, with low productivity on large estates worked by serfs. The economy slowly industrialized with the help of foreign investments in railways, the land was ruled by a nobility from the 10th through the 17th centuries, and subsequently by an emperor. Tsar Ivan III laid the groundwork for the empire that later emerged and he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. Tsar Peter the Great fought numerous wars and expanded an already huge empire into a major European power, Catherine the Great presided over a golden age. She expanded the state by conquest, colonization and diplomacy, continuing Peter the Greats policy of modernisation along West European lines, Tsar Alexander II promoted numerous reforms, most dramatically the emancipation of all 23 million serfs in 1861. His policy in Eastern Europe involved protecting the Orthodox Christians under the rule of the Ottoman Empire and that connection by 1914 led to Russias entry into the First World War on the side of France, Britain, and Serbia, against the German, Austrian and Ottoman empires. The Russian Empire functioned as a monarchy until the Revolution of 1905. The empire collapsed during the February Revolution of 1917, largely as a result of failures in its participation in the First World War. Perhaps the latter was done to make Europe recognize Russia as more of a European country, Poland was divided in the 1790-1815 era, with much of the land and population going to Russia. Most of the 19th century growth came from adding territory in Asia, Peter I the Great introduced autocracy in Russia and played a major role in introducing his country to the European state system. However, this vast land had a population of 14 million, grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling nearly the entire population to farm. Only a small percentage lived in towns, the class of kholops, close to the one of slavery, remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when Peter I converted household kholops into house serfs, thus including them in poll taxation
11.
Vilnius
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Vilnius is the capital of Lithuania and its largest city, with a population of 542,664 as of 2015. Vilnius is located in the southeast part of Lithuania and is the second largest city in the Baltic states, Vilnius is the seat of the main government institutions of Lithuania as well as of the Vilnius District Municipality. Vilnius is classified as a Gamma global city according to GaWC studies and its Jewish influence until the 20th century has led to it being described as the Jerusalem of Lithuania and Napoleon named it the Jerusalem of the North as he was passing through in 1812. In 2009, Vilnius was the European Capital of Culture, together with the Austrian city of Linz, the name of the city originates from the Vilnia River. The city has also known by many derivate spellings in various languages throughout its history. The most notable names for the city include, Polish, Wilno, Belarusian, Вiльня, German, Wilna, Latvian, Viļņa, Russian, Вильнюс, Yiddish, ווילנע , Czech. A Russian name from the time of the Russian Empire was Вильна/Вильно, the name Vilna is still used in Finnish, Portuguese, Spanish, and Hebrew. Wilna is still used in German, along with Vilnius, the neighborhoods of Vilnius also have names in other languages, which represent the languages spoken by various ethnic groups in the area. Historian Romas Batūra identifies the city with Voruta, one of the castles of Mindaugas, during the reign of Vytenis a city started to emerge from a trading settlement and the first Franciscan Catholic church was built. These letters contain the first unambiguous reference to Vilnius as the capital, According to legend, Gediminas dreamt of an iron wolf howling on a hilltop and consulted a pagan priest for its interpretation. He was told, What is destined for the ruler and the State of Lithuania, is thus, the Iron Wolf represents a castle and a city which will be established by you on this site. This city will be the capital of the Lithuanian lands and the dwelling of their rulers, the location offered practical advantages, it lay within the Lithuanian heartland at the confluence of two navigable rivers, surrounded by forests and wetlands that were difficult to penetrate. The duchy had been subject to intrusions by the Teutonic Knights, Vilnius was the flourishing capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the residence of the Grand Duke. Gediminas expanded the Grand Duchy through warfare along with strategic alliances and marriages, at its height it covered the territory of modern-day Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, Transnistria, and portions of modern-day Poland and Russia. His grandchildren Vytautas the Great and Jogaila, however, fought civil wars, during the Lithuanian Civil War of 1389–1392, Vytautas besieged and razed the city in an attempt to wrest control from Jogaila. The two later settled their differences, after a series of treaties culminating in the 1569 Union of Lublin, the rulers of this federation held either or both of two titles, Grand Duke of Lithuania or King of Poland. In 1387, Jogaila acting as a Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Władysław II Jagiełło, the city underwent a period of expansion. The Vilnius city walls were built for protection between 1503 and 1522, comprising nine city gates and three towers, and Sigismund August moved his court there in 1544
12.
Kaunas
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Kaunas is the second-largest city in Lithuania and has historically been a leading centre of Lithuanian economic, academic, and cultural life. Kaunas was the biggest city and the centre of a county in Trakai Municipality of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania since 1413, in the Russian Empire it was the capital of the Kaunas Governorate from 1843 to 1915. It became the temporary capital city in Europe during the interwar period. Now it is the capital of Kaunas County, the seat of the Kaunas city municipality and it is also the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kaunas. Kaunas is located at the confluence of the two largest Lithuanian rivers, the Nemunas and the Neris, and near the Kaunas Reservoir, the citys name is of Lithuanian origins and most likely derives from a personal name. Before Lithuania regained independence, the city was known in English as Kovno, the traditional Slavicized form of its name, the Polish name is Kowno. An earlier Russian name was Ковно Kovno, although Каунас Kaunas has been used since 1940, the Yiddish name is Kovne, while its names in German include Kaunas and Kauen. The city and its elderates also have names in other languages, an old legend claims that Kaunas was established by the Romans in ancient times. These Romans were supposedly led by a patrician named Palemon, who had three sons, Barcus, Kunas and Sperus, Palemon fled from Rome because he feared the mad Emperor Nero. Palemon, his sons and other relatives travelled all the way to Lithuania, after Palemons death, his sons divided his land. Kunas got the land where Kaunas now stands and he built a fortress near the confluence of the Nemunas and Neris rivers, and the city that grew up there was named after him. There is also a region in the vicinity named Palemonas. On 30 June 1993, the coat of arms of Kaunas city was established by a special presidential decree. The coat of arms features a white aurochs with a cross between his horns, set against a deep red background. The aurochs is the heraldic symbol of the city since 1400. The heraldic seal of Kaunas, introduced in the early 15th century during the reign of Grand Duke Vytautas, is the oldest city heraldic seal known in the territory of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The current emblem was the result of study and discussion on the part of the Lithuanian Heraldry Commission. An aurochs has replaced a wisent, depicted in the Soviet era emblem, blazon, Gules, an aurochs passant guardant argent ensigned with a cross Or between his horns
13.
January Uprising
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The January Uprising was an uprising in the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth against the Russian Empire. It began on 22 January 1863 and lasted until the last insurgents were captured in 1864, the uprising began as a spontaneous protest by young Poles against conscription into the Imperial Russian Army. It was soon joined by high-ranking Polish-Lithuanian officers and various politicians, the insurrectionists, severely outnumbered and lacking serious outside support, were forced to resort to guerrilla warfare tactics. Public executions and deportations to Siberia led many Poles to abandon armed struggle and turn instead to the idea of work, economic. After the Russian Empire lost the Crimean war and was weakened economically and politically, in Vilna alone 116 demonstrations were held in 1861. In August 1861, protests in Vilna ended in clashes with the Imperial Russian Army, in spite of Russian police and Cossack interference, a symbolic meeting of hymn-singing Poles and Lithuanians took place on the bridge across the Niemen River. Another mass gathering took place in Horodło, where the Union of Horodło had been signed in 1413, the crowds sang Boże, broń Polskę in Lithuanian and Belarusian. In the autumn of 1861 Russians had introduced a state of emergency in Vilna Governorate, Kovno Governorate, after a series of patriotic riots, the Russian Namestnik of Tsar Alexander II, General Karl Lambert, introduced martial law in Poland on 14 October 1861. Public gatherings were banned and some leaders were declared outlaws. The future leaders of the uprising gathered secretly in St. Petersburg, Warsaw, Vilna, Paris, after this series of meetings two major factions emerged. The Reds represented united peasants, workers, and some clergy, while The Whites represented liberal minded landlords, in 1862 two initiative groups were formed for the two components of the former Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. To deal with these units the Russian government had at its disposal an army of 90,000 men under General Ramsay in Poland. It looked as if the rebellion would be crushed quickly, the die was cast, however, the provisional government applied itself to this great task with fervor. It issued a manifesto in which it pronounced all sons of Poland are free and equal citizens without distinction of creed, condition and rank. The revolutionary government did its very best to supply with provisions the unarmed and scattered guerrillas who, during the month of February, met the Russians in eighty bloody encounters. Meanwhile, it issued an appeal to the nations of western Europe, pope Pius IX ordered a special prayer for the success of the Catholic Polish in their defence against the Orthodox Russians, and was very active in arousing sympathy for the Polish rebels. In Lithuania, Belarus, Latvia, northern Ukraine and western Russia the uprising started on February 1,1863, a coalition government of the Reds and the Whites was formed. It was led by Zygmunt Sierakowski, Antanas Mackevičius and Konstanty Kalinowski and they fully supported their counterparts in Poland and adhered to the same policy
14.
MS Chrobry
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MS Chrobry was an ocean-going passenger ship, so far the last such newbuilding for the Polish merchant marine. She was built for the Poland – South America Line to replace the aging SS Kościuszko, built in Denmark as the younger and bigger ship of a pair of consorts, she was named in honour of the first Polish king Bolesław I Chrobry. The name of the King means Braveheart, the ship was in the middle of its maiden passenger voyage to South America when World War II broke out. As a transatlantic liner she made one transatlantic voyage, never coming back to her home port of Gdynia. The ship was used as a transport during the Norwegian Campaign, on 14 May 1940 she sailed from Tjeldsundet transporting British troops to Bodø. Just before midnight German dive bombers attacked the three times in the middle of the Vestfjorden, setting the ship on fire, exploding ammunition. Both escorts, loaded with survivors, sailed for Harstad, the abandoned Chrobry was scuttled by aircraft from the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal on 16 May. A considerable amount of equipment went down with the ship, photo of MS Chrobry from July 1939, from NAC archive
15.
Buenos Aires
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Buenos Aires is the capital and most populous city of Argentina. The city is located on the shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata. The city of Buenos Aires is neither part of Buenos Aires Province nor the Provinces capital, rather, in 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalized and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores, the 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Its citizens first elected a chief of government in 1996, previously, Buenos Aires is considered an alpha city by the study GaWC5. Buenos Aires quality of life was ranked 81st in the world and one of the best in Latin America in 2012 and it is the most visited city in South America, and the second-most visited city of Latin America. Buenos Aires is a top tourist destination, and is known for its preserved Spanish/European-style architecture, Buenos Aires held the 1st Pan American Games in 1951 as well as hosting two venues in the 1978 FIFA World Cup. Buenos Aires will host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics and the 2018 G20 summit, Buenos Aires is a multicultural city, being home to multiple ethnic and religious groups. Several languages are spoken in the city in addition to Spanish, contributing to its culture, the hill was known to them as Buen Ayre, as it was free of the foul smell prevalent in the old city, which is adjacent to swampland. During the siege of Cagliari, the Aragonese built a sanctuary to the Virgin Mary on top of the hill, in 1335, King Alfonso the Gentle donated the church to the Mercedarians, who built an abbey that stands to this day. In the years after that, a story circulated, claiming that a statue of the Virgin Mary was retrieved from the sea after it miraculously helped to calm a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, the statue was placed in the abbey. Spanish sailors, especially Andalusians, venerated this image and frequently invoked the Fair Winds to aid them in their navigation, a sanctuary to the Virgin of Buen Ayre would be later erected in Seville. Pedro de Mendoza called the city Holy Mary of the Fair Winds, mendoza’s settlement soon came under attack by indigenous people, and was abandoned in 1541. For many years, the name was attributed to a Sancho del Campo, a second settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción. Garay preserved the name chosen by Mendoza, calling the city Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire. The short form Buenos Aires became the common usage during the 17th century, the usual abbreviation for Buenos Aires in Spanish is Bs. As. It is common as well to refer to it as B. A. or BA /ˌbiːˈeɪ/ bee-AY), while BA is used more by expats residing in the city, the locals more often use the abbreviation Baires, in one word. Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís, navigating in the name of Spain, was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516 and his expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay
16.
Bank Pekao
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Bank Polska Kasa Opieki Spółka Akcyjna, commonly using the shorter name Bank Pekao S. A. is a universal bank with its headquarters in Warsaw, Poland. The Italian bank UniCredit owns 59% of the company, the bank was founded in 1929 by the Ministry of Treasury as a national bank, mainly to provide financial services to Poles living abroad. In 1939 the bank had branches in every capital city of countries where Poles lived. The full name Polska Kasa Opieki may be translated literally as Polish Bank of Aid, Polska Kasa Opieki can also be translated Polish Health Fund Pekao Banks website About history page Bon PeKaO Ukrsotsbank Media related to Pekao at Wikimedia Commons
17.
Jerzy Giedroyc
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Jerzy Władysław Giedroyc was a Polish writer and political activist. In 1930 he took over as editor of the weekly Dzień Akademicki which he transformed into the biweekly Bunt Młodych. During World War II he served under General Władysław Anders in the Polish Army and his closest collaborator was Juliusz Mieroszewski, who provided the theoretical justification for Polish recognition of the borders with Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania. In 2006 the Polish Sejm declared the year 2006 to be the Year of Jerzy Giedroyc and he died in Maisons-Laffitte, Yvelines, Île-de-France, France. Giedroyc Doctrine Jerzy Giedroyc Literary Award Correspondences between Giedroyc and Melchior Wańkowicz Sarmatian Review September 1999
18.
Ford Foundation
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The Ford Foundation is a New York headquartered, globally oriented private foundation with the mission of advancing human welfare. Created in 1936 by Edsel Ford and Henry Ford, it was funded by a US$25,000 gift from Edsel Ford. By 1947, after the death of the two founders, the foundation owned 90 percent of the shares of the Ford Motor Company. Between 1955 and 1974, the foundation sold its Ford Motor Company holdings, the foundation makes grants through its headquarters and ten international field offices. For fiscal year 2014, it reported assets of US$12.4 billion, after the deaths of Edsel Ford in 1943 and Henry Ford in 1947, the presidency of the foundation fell to Edsels eldest son, Henry Ford II. It quickly became clear that the foundation would become the largest philanthropy in the world, the board of trustees then commissioned the Gaither Study Committee to chart the foundations future. The committee, headed by California attorney H, the board embraced the recommendations in 1949. The board of directors decided to diversify the foundations portfolio and gradually divested itself of its substantial Ford Motor Company stock between 1955 and 1974 and this divestiture allowed Ford Motor to become a public company. In 2012, stating that it is not a research library, in 1951, the foundation made its first grant to support the development of the public broadcasting system, then known as National Educational Television, which went on the air in 1952. These grants continued, and in 1969 the foundation gave US$1 million to the Childrens Television Workshop to help create, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting replaced NET with the Public Broadcasting Service on October 5,1970. The foundations first international office opened in 1952 in New Delhi. In 1961, Kofi Annan received a grant from the foundation to finish his studies at Macalester College in St. Paul. In 1968, the foundation began disbursing $12 million to persuade law schools to make law school clinics part of their curriculum, clinics were intended to give practical experience in law practice while providing pro bono representation to the poor. In 1967 and 1968, the provided financial support for decentralization. Decentralization in Ocean Hill–Brownsville led to the firing of some teachers and administrators. Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing through the 1970s, the foundation expanded into civil rights litigation, the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund was incorporated in 1967 with a US$2.2 million grant from the foundation. In the same year, the foundation funded the establishment of the Southwest Council of La Raza. In 1972, the foundation provided a three-year US$1.2 million grant to the Native American Rights Fund, the same year, the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund opened with funding from numerous organizations, including the foundation
19.
Ingmar Bergman
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Ernst Ingmar Bergman was a Swedish director, writer, and producer who worked in film, television, theatre and radio. He directed over sixty films and documentaries for cinematic release and for television and he also directed over 170 plays. From 1953 he forged a creative partnership with his full-time cinematographer Sven Nykvist. Among his company of actors were Harriet and Bibi Andersson, Liv Ullmann, Gunnar Björnstrand, Erland Josephson, Ingrid Thulin, most of his films were set in Sweden, and numerous films from Through a Glass Darkly onward were filmed on the island of Fårö. His work often dealt with death, illness, faith, betrayal, bleakness and insanity. Ingmar Bergman was born in Uppsala, Sweden, the son of Erik Bergman, a Lutheran minister and later chaplain to the King of Sweden, and Karin and he grew up with his older brother Dag and sister Margareta surrounded by religious imagery and discussion. His father was a parish minister with strict ideas of parenting. Ingmar was locked up in dark closets for infractions, such as wetting the bed, there was everything that ones imagination could desire—angels, saints, dragons, prophets, devils, humans. Although raised in a devout Lutheran household, Bergman later stated that he lost his faith at age eight and only came to terms with this fact while making Winter Light in 1962. His interest in theatre and film began early, At the age of nine, he traded a set of tin soldiers for a magic lantern, a possession that altered the course of his life. Within a year, he had created, by playing with this toy and he fashioned his own scenery, marionettes, and lighting effects and gave puppet productions of Strindberg plays in which he spoke all the parts. Bergman attended Palmgrens School as a teenager and his school years were unhappy, and he remembered them unfavorably in later years. Bergman wrote in a response that he had disliked the emphasis on homework. In 1934, aged 16, he was sent to Germany to spend the vacation with family friends. He attended a Nazi rally in Weimar at which he saw Adolf Hitler, Bergman commented that Hitler was unbelievably charismatic. The Nazism I had seen seemed fun and youthful, Bergman did two five-month stretches of mandatory military service. In 1937 he entered Stockholm University College to study art and literature and he spent most of his time involved in student theatre and became a genuine movie addict. At the same time, a romantic involvement led to a break with his father lasted for years
20.
Adam Mickiewicz
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Adam Bernard Mickiewicz was a Polish poet, dramatist, essayist, publicist, translator, professor of Slavic literature, and political activist. He is regarded as national poet in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus, a principal figure in Polish Romanticism, he is counted one of Polands Three Bards and is widely regarded as Polands greatest poet. He is also considered one of the greatest Slavic and European poets and has dubbed a Slavic bard. A leading Romantic dramatist, he has compared in Poland and Europe to Byron. He is known chiefly for the poetic drama Dziady and the epic poem Pan Tadeusz. His other influential works include Konrad Wallenrod and Grażyna, All these served as inspiration for uprisings against the three imperial powers that had partitioned the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth out of existence. After, as a consequence, spending five years exiled to central Russia, in 1829 he succeeded in leaving the Russian Empire and, like many of his compatriots, lived out the rest of his life abroad. He settled first in Rome, then in Paris, where for a little over three years he lectured on Slavic literature at the Collège de France. He died, probably of cholera, at Constantinople in the Ottoman Empire, in 1890, his remains were repatriated from Montmorency, Val-dOise, in France, to Wawel Cathedral in Kraków, Poland. Adam Mickiewicz was born on 24 December 1798, either at his uncles estate in Zaosie near Navahrudak or in Navahrudak itself in what was then part of the Russian Empire and is now Belarus. The region was on the periphery of Lithuania proper and had part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania until the Third Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Its upper class, including Mickiewiczs family, were either Polish or Polonized, the poets father, Mikołaj Mickiewicz, a lawyer, was a member of the Polish nobility and bore the hereditary Poraj coat-of-arms, Adams mother was Barbara Mickiewicz, née Majewska. Adam was the son in the family. Mickiewicz spent his childhood in Navahrudak, initially taught by his mother and he was a mediocre student, although active in games, theatricals, and the like. In September 1815, Mickiewicz enrolled at the Imperial University of Vilnius, after graduating, under the terms of his government scholarship, he taught secondary school at Kaunas from 1819 to 1823. In 1818, in the Polish-language Tygodnik Wileński, he published his first poem, about the summer of 1820, Mickiewicz met the love of his life, Maryla Wereszczakówna. They were unable to due to his familys poverty and relatively low social status, in addition, she was already engaged to Count Wawrzyniec Puttkamer. In 1817, while still a student, Mickiewicz, Tomasz Zan and other friends had created a secret organization, the group focused on self-education but had ties to a more radical, clearly pro-Polish-independence student group, the Filaret Association
21.
Existentialism
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While the predominant value of existentialist thought is commonly acknowledged to be freedom, its primary virtue is authenticity. Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophies, in style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience. Søren Kierkegaard is generally considered to have been the first existentialist philosopher and he proposed that each individual—not society or religion—is solely responsible for giving meaning to life and living it passionately and sincerely, or authentically. Existentialism became popular in the years following World War II, and strongly influenced many disciplines besides philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology. The term is seen as a historical convenience as it was first applied to many philosophers in hindsight. In fact, while existentialism is generally considered to have originated with Kierkegaard, Sartre posits the idea that what all existentialists have in common is the fundamental doctrine that existence precedes essence, as scholar Frederick Copleston explains. Sartre himself, in a lecture delivered in 1945, described existentialism as the attempt to draw all the consequences from a position of consistent atheism and this assertion comes from two sources. The Norwegian philosopher Erik Lundestad refers to the Danish philosopher Fredrik Christian Sibbern, Sibbern is supposed to have had two conversations in 1841, the first with Welhaven and the second with Kierkegaard. This was then brought to Kierkegaard by Sibbern, the second claim comes from the Norwegian historian Rune Slagstad, who claims to prove that Kierkegaard himself said the term existential was borrowed from the poet. He strongly believes that it was Kierkegaard himself who said that Hegelians do not study philosophy existentially, on the other hand, the Norwegian historian Anne-Lise Seip is critical of Slagstad, and believes the statement in fact stems from the Norwegian literary historian Cathrinus Bang. The actual life of the individuals is what constitutes what could be called their true essence instead of there being an arbitrarily attributed essence others use to define them, thus, human beings, through their own consciousness, create their own values and determine a meaning to their life. However, an existentialist philosopher would say such a wish constitutes an inauthentic existence - what Sartre would call bad faith, instead, the phrase should be taken to say that people are defined only insofar as they act and that they are responsible for their actions. For example, someone who acts cruelly towards other people is, by that act, furthermore, by this action of cruelty, such persons are themselves responsible for their new identity. This is as opposed to their genes, or human nature, as Sartre writes in his work Existentialism is a Humanism. Man first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world—and defines himself afterwards. Of course, the positive, therapeutic aspect of this is also implied, A person can choose to act in a different way. Here it is clear that since humans can choose to be either cruel or good, they are, in fact. Sartres definition of existentialism was based on Heideggers magnum opus Being and this way of living, Heidegger called average everydayness
22.
Structuralism
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It works to uncover the structures that underlie all the things that humans do, think, perceive, and feel. Alternatively, as summarized by philosopher Simon Blackburn, structuralism is the belief that phenomena of life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in the surface there are constant laws of abstract culture. Structuralism in Europe developed in the early 1900s, in the linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure. French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss was arguably the first such scholar, sparking a widespread interest in structuralism, the structuralist mode of reasoning has been applied in a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, psychology, literary criticism, economics and architecture. The most prominent thinkers associated with structuralism include Claude Lévi-Strauss, linguist Roman Jakobson, as an intellectual movement, structuralism was initially presumed to be the heir apparent to existentialism. Though elements of their work necessarily relate to structuralism and are informed by it, in the 1970s, structuralism was criticized for its rigidity and ahistoricism. The term structuralism is a term that describes a particular philosophical/literary movement or moment. The origins of structuralism connect with the work of Ferdinand de Saussure on linguistics, along with the linguistics of the Prague, in brief, de Saussures structural linguistics propounded three related concepts. De Saussure argued for a distinction between langue and parole and he argued that the sign was composed of both a signified, an abstract concept or idea, and a signifier, the perceived sound/visual image. Because different languages have different words to describe the objects or concepts. Signs thus gain their meaning from their relationships and contrasts with other signs, as he wrote, in language, there are only differences without positive terms. Blending Freud and de Saussure, the French structuralist Jacques Lacan applied structuralism to psychoanalysis and, in a different way, in this foreword Althusser states the following, Despite the precautions we took to distinguish ourselves from the structuralist ideology. Despite the decisive intervention of categories foreign to structuralism, the terminology we employed was too close in many respects to the structuralist terminology not to give rise to an ambiguity. Our interpretation of Marx has generally been recognized and judged, in homage to the current fashion and we believe that despite the terminological ambiguity, the profound tendency of our texts was not attached to the structuralist ideology. In a later development, feminist theorist Alison Assiter enumerated four ideas that she says are common to the forms of structuralism. First, that a structure determines the position of each element of a whole, second, that every system has a structure. Third, structural laws deal with co-existence rather than change, fourth, structures are the real things that lie beneath the surface or the appearance of meaning
23.
Michel Foucault
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Michel Foucault was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, social theorist, philologist and literary critic. His theories addressed the relationship between power and knowledge, and how they are used as a form of control through societal institutions. Though often cited as a post-structuralist and postmodernist, Foucault rejected these labels and his thought has been highly influential both for academic and for activist groups, especially those working within contemporary sociology, cultural studies, and critical theory. After several years as a cultural diplomat abroad, he returned to France and published his first major book and these first three histories exemplified a historiographical technique Foucault was developing called archaeology. In 1970 he was admitted to the Collège de France, membership of which he retained until his death and he also became active in a number of left-wing groups involved in anti-racist campaigns, anti-human rights abuses movements, and the struggle for penal reform. He went on to publish The Archaeology of Knowledge, Discipline and Punish, in these books he developed archaeological and genealogical methods which emphasized the role which power plays in the evolution of discourse in society. Paul-Michel Foucault was born on 15 October 1926 in the city of Poitiers, west-central France and he had been named after his father, Dr. His father was a local surgeon, having been born in Fontainebleau before moving to Poitiers. She was the daughter of prosperous surgeon Dr. Prosper Malapert, Paul Foucault eventually took over his father-in-laws medical practice, while his wife took charge of their large mid-19th-century house, Le Piroir, in the village of Vendeuvre-du-Poitou. Together the couple had three children, a girl named Francine and two boys, Paul-Michel and Denys, all of whom shared the same hair and bright blue eyes. The children were raised to be nominal Roman Catholics, attending mass at the Church of Saint-Porchair, in later life, Foucault would reveal very little about his childhood. Describing himself as a delinquent, he claimed his father was a bully who would sternly punish him. In 1930, Foucault began his two years early at the local Lycée Henry-IV. Here he undertook two years of education before entering the main lycée, where he stayed until 1936. He then undertook his first four years of education at the same establishment, excelling in French, Greek, Latin and history but doing poorly at arithmetic. In 1939, the Second World War broke out and France was occupied by Nazi Germany until 1945, his parents opposed the occupation and the Vichy regime, in 1940, Foucaults mother enrolled him in the Collège Saint-Stanislas, a strict Roman Catholic institution run by the Jesuits. Lonely, he described his years there as the ordeal, but excelled academically, particularly in philosophy, history, in 1942, he entered his final year, the terminale, where he focused on the study of philosophy, earning his baccalauréat in 1943. Returning to the local Lycée Henry-IV, he studied history and philosophy for a year, aided by a personal tutor and these ideas influenced Foucault, who adopted Hyppolites conviction that philosophy must be developed through a study of history
24.
Roland Barthes
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Roland Gérard Barthes was a French literary theorist, philosopher, linguist, critic, and semiotician. Roland Barthes was born on 12 November 1915 in the town of Cherbourg in Normandy and his father, naval officer Louis Barthes, was killed in a battle during World War I in the North Sea before Barthes first birthday. His mother, Henriette Barthes, and his aunt and grandmother raised him in the village of Urt, when Barthes was eleven, his family moved to Paris, though his attachment to his provincial roots would remain strong throughout his life. Barthes showed great promise as a student and spent the period from 1935 to 1939 at the Sorbonne and he was plagued by ill health throughout this period, suffering from tuberculosis, which often had to be treated in the isolation of sanatoria. His repeated physical breakdowns disrupted his career, affecting his studies. They also exempted him from service during World War II. His life from 1939 to 1948 was largely spent obtaining a license in grammar and philology, publishing his first papers, taking part in a medical study and he received a diplôme détudes supérieures from the University of Paris in 1941 for his work in Greek tragedy. In 1948, he returned to academic work, gaining numerous short-term positions at institutes in France, Romania. During this time, he contributed to the leftist Parisian paper Combat, out of which grew his first full-length work, in 1952, Barthes settled at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, where he studied lexicology and sociology. During his seven-year period there, he began to write a series of bi-monthly essays for the magazine Les Lettres Nouvelles. Knowing little English, Barthes taught at Middlebury College in 1957 and befriended the future English translator of much of his work, Richard Howard, that summer in New York City. Barthes spent the early 1960s exploring the fields of semiology and structuralism, chairing various faculty positions around France, many of his works challenged traditional academic views of literary criticism and of renowned figures of literature. By the late 1960s, Barthes had established a reputation for himself and he traveled to the US and Japan, delivering a presentation at Johns Hopkins University. Barthes continued to contribute with Philippe Sollers to the literary magazine Tel Quel. In 1970, Barthes produced what many consider to be his most prodigious work, throughout the 1970s, Barthes continued to develop his literary criticism, he developed new ideals of textuality and novelistic neutrality. In 1971, he served as visiting professor at the University of Geneva, in 1975 he wrote an autobiography titled Roland Barthes and in 1977 he was elected to the chair of Sémiologie Littéraire at the Collège de France. In the same year, his mother, Henriette Barthes, to whom he had been devoted, died, aged 85 and they had lived together for 60 years. The loss of the woman who had raised and cared for him was a blow to Barthes
25.
Jacques Lacan
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Jacques Marie Émile Lacan was a French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist who has been called the most controversial psycho-analyst since Freud. Giving yearly seminars in Paris from 1953 to 1981, Lacan influenced many leading French intellectuals in the 1960s and his ideas had a significant impact on post-structuralism, critical theory, linguistics, 20th-century French philosophy, film theory and clinical psychoanalysis. Lacan was born in Paris, the eldest of Émilie and Alfred Lacans three children and his father was a successful soap and oils salesman. His mother was ardently Catholic – his younger brother went to a monastery in 1929, during the early 1920s, Lacan attended right-wing Action Française political meetings, of which he would later be highly critical, and met the founder, Charles Maurras. By the mid-1920s, Lacan had become dissatisfied with religion and became an atheist and he quarreled with his family over this issue. In 1920, after being rejected for service on the grounds that he was too thin. During that period, he was interested in the philosophies of Karl Jaspers and Martin Heidegger. In 1932, after a year at Saint Annes Clinique de Maladies Mentales et de lEncéphale. In 1932 he was awarded the Diplôme dÉtat de docteur en médecine for his thesis On Paranoiac Psychosis in its Relations to the Personality. It had a reception in the 1930s because it was not published until four decades later. This thesis is thought to mark Lacans entry into psychoanalysis and it shows Lacan’s dissatisfaction with traditional psychiatry and the growing influence of Sigmund Freud on his works. ‘Paranoid Psychosis and its Relation to the Personality’ was based on observations of patients with a primary focus on one female patient whom Lacan called Aimee. It was published in the Revue française de psychanalyse, in Autumn of that same year, Lacan began his training analysis with Rudolph Lowenstein, which was to last until 1938. Two years later Lacan was elected to the Société psychanalytique de Paris, in January 1934 he married Marie-Louise Blondin, and in January 1937 they had their first child, a daughter named Caroline. Their second child, a son named Thibaut, was born in August 1939, in 1936, Lacan presented his first analytic report at the Congress of the International Psychoanalytical Association in Marienbad on the Mirror Phase. The congress chairman, Ernest Jones, terminated the lecture before its conclusion, insulted, Lacan left the congress to witness the Berlin Olympic Games. No copy of the original lecture remains, Lacan was an active intellectual of the inter-war period—he was associated with André Breton, Georges Bataille, Salvador Dalí, and Pablo Picasso. He attended the mouvement Psyché that Maryse Choisy founded and he published in the Surrealist journal Minotaure and attended the first public reading of James Joyces Ulysses
26.
Jean-Paul Sartre
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Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre was a French philosopher, playwright, novelist, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the key figures in the philosophy of existentialism and phenomenology and his work has also influenced sociology, critical theory, post-colonial theory, and literary studies, and continues to influence these disciplines. Sartre was also noted for his relationship with prominent feminist. Together, Sartre and de Beauvoir challenged the cultural and social assumptions and expectations of their upbringings, Sartres introduction to his philosophy is his work Existentialism and Humanism, originally presented as a lecture. He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature but refused it, saying that he always declined official honours, Jean-Paul Sartre was born on 21 June 1905 in Paris as the only child of Jean-Baptiste Sartre, an officer of the French Navy, and Anne-Marie Schweitzer. His mother was of Alsatian origin and the first cousin of Nobel Prize laureate Albert Schweitzer, when Sartre was two years old, his father died of a fever overseas. When he was twelve, Sartres mother remarried, and the moved to La Rochelle. As a teenager in the 1920s, Sartre became attracted to philosophy upon reading Henri Bergsons essay Time and Free Will and he attended the Cours Hattemer, a private school in Paris. It was at ENS that Sartre began his lifelong, sometimes fractious, perhaps the most decisive influence on Sartres philosophical development was his weekly attendance at Alexandre Kojèves seminars, which continued for a number of years. From his first years in the École Normale, Sartre was one of its fiercest pranksters, in 1927, his antimilitarist satirical cartoon in the revue of the school, coauthored with Georges Canguilhem, particularly upset the director Gustave Lanson. Many newspapers, including Le Petit Parisien, announced the event on 25 May, thousands, including journalists and curious spectators, showed up, unaware that what they were witnessing was a stunt involving a Lindbergh look-alike. The publics resultant outcry forced Lanson to resign, in 1929 at the École Normale, he met Simone de Beauvoir, who studied at the Sorbonne and later went on to become a noted philosopher, writer, and feminist. The two became inseparable and lifelong companions, initiating a romantic relationship, though they were not monogamous, the first time Sartre took the exam to become a college instructor, he failed. He took it a time and virtually tied for first place with Beauvoir, although Sartre was eventually awarded first place in his class. Sartre was drafted into the French Army from 1929 to 1931 and he later argued in 1959 that each French person was responsible for the collective crimes during the Algerian War of Independence. From 1931 until 1945, Sartre taught at various lycées of Le Havre, Laon, in 1932, Sartre discovered Voyage au bout de la nuit by Louis-Ferdinand Céline, a book that had a remarkable influence on him. In 1933–34, he succeeded Raymond Aron at the Institut français dAllemagne in Berlin where he studied Edmund Husserls phenomenological philosophy, Aron had already advised him in 1930 to read Emmanuel Levinass Théorie de l’intuition dans la phénoménologie de Husserl. The Neo-Hegelian revival led by Alexandre Kojève and Jean Hyppolite in the 1930s inspired a generation of French thinkers, including Sartre
27.
Gothic fiction
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Gothic fiction, which is largely known by the subgenre of Gothic horror, is a genre or mode of literature and film that combines fiction and horror, death, and at times romance. Its origin is attributed to English author Horace Walpole, with his 1764 novel The Castle of Otranto, the effect of Gothic fiction feeds on a pleasing sort of terror, an extension of Romantic literary pleasures that were relatively new at the time of Walpoles novel. It originated in England in the half of the 18th century and had much success in the 19th, as witnessed by Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Another well known novel in this genre, dating from the late Victorian era, is Bram Stoker’s Dracula, the name Gothic refers to the -medieval buildings, emulating Gothic architecture, in which many of these stories take place. This extreme form of romanticism was very popular in England and Germany, the English Gothic novel also led to new novel types such as the German Schauerroman and the French Georgia. The novel usually regarded as the first Gothic novel is Horace Walpoles The Castle of Otranto, Horace Walpoles declared aim was to combine elements of the medieval romance, which he deemed too fanciful, and the modern novel, which he considered to be too confined to strict realism. Walpole published the first edition disguised as a romance from Italy discovered and republished by a fictitious translator. When Walpole admitted to his authorship in the edition, its originally favourable reception by literary reviewers changed into rejection. A romance with elements, and moreover void of didactical intention, was considered a setback. Walpoles forgery, together with the blend of history and fiction, contravened the principles of the Enlightenment and associated the Gothic novel with fake documentation. Clara Reeve, best known for her work The Old English Baron, set out to take Walpoles plot, the question now arose whether supernatural events that were not as evidently absurd as Walpoles would not lead the simpler minds to believe them possible. Ann Radcliffe developed the technique of the supernatural in which every seemingly supernatural intrusion is eventually traced back to natural causes. Among other elements, Ann Radcliffe introduced the figure of the Gothic villain. Radcliffes novels, above all The Mysteries of Udolpho, were best-sellers, however, along with most novels at the time, they were looked down upon by many well-educated people as sensationalist nonsense. Radcliffe also provided an aesthetic for the genre in an influential article On the Supernatural in Poetry, Romantic literary movements developed in continental Europe concurrent with the development of the Gothic novel. The roman noir appeared in France, by writers as François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil, Baculard dArnaud. In Germany, the Schauerroman gained traction with writers as Friedrich Schiller, with novels like The Ghost-Seer and these works were often more horrific and violent than the English Gothic novel. Matthew Gregory Lewiss lurid tale of debauchery, black magic
28.
Jan Jakub Kolski
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Jan Jakub Kolski is a Polish film director, cinematographer, and writer. Kolski comes from a closely connected to cinema. His father, Roman Kolski, and his sister, Ewa Pakulska were film editors and his brother, Włodzimierz Kolski, is a production manager. His paternal grandfather was a film producer, Kolskis wife, Grażyna Błęcka-Kolska is an actress. From age eleven until age fourteen, Kolski lived in a village, Popielawy, near Tomaszów Mazowiecki. Those years became the inspiration for his later films, during the late 1970s, he worked his way through the ranks at a TV station in his home town, ending up as chief director of photography. He then studied cinematography at the famous Film School in Łódź, in 2007 he gained his doctoral degree in film art. Hes also a lecturer at Andrzej Wajda Master School of Film Directing, the shorts won many awards in Poland. Many of Kolskis short films documented his passion for climbing and speleology. More recently, Kolski created three film diaries, Zobaczyc jak najwiecej, Gdzie jestes Paititi. and Między rajem a ziemią during his journeys to Asia and South America. Kolskis first feature, Pogrzeb kartofla, was shot in Popielawy in 1990, since then, Kolski has made many more films, most of them located in the same village or mythical countryside. Among those films are, Pograbek, Magneto, Jańcio Wodnik, Cudowne miejsce, Grający z talerza, Szabla od komendanta, and Historia kina w Popielawach, in 1994 Jańcio Wodnik won the Findling Award at the Filmfestival Cottbus. Daleko od okna, made in 2000, opened a new chapter in Kolskis filmography, the screenplay by Cezary Harasimowicz was based on a real-life story written by Hanna Krall, famous for writing about the Holocaust. His next work, Pornografia was in turn based on the novel with the title by Witold Gombrowicz. The next two Jasminum and Afonia i pszczoły were based on his own screenplays, whereas Wenecja. Kolski continued to work with television, and many of his films and he wrote several plays for television, including Bajka o bardzo lekkim chlebie, Skrzypki, Noga dla Józefa, and Kamera marzen, which were primarily addressed to children. Others, such as Wyspa róż and Diabeł przewrotny, were Kolskis adaptations of original plays, Kolski also directed several commercials, video clips, and one television series, Małopole, czyli świat, in which he returns to the life in the countryside. Kolskis literary output includes short stories collected in two books – Jańcio Wodnik i inne nowele, and Mikroświaty, a novel, Kulka z chleba, Kolski has won many awards in Poland and abroad
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Jerzy Skolimowski
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Jerzy Skolimowski is a Polish film director, screenwriter, dramatist and actor. A graduate of the prestigious National Film School in Łódź, Skolimowski has directed more than twenty films since his 1960 début Oko wykol, in 1967 he was awarded Golden Bear for his film Le départ. His famous film is Deep End, jane Asher and John Moulder Brown acted in Deep End. He lived in Los Angeles for over 20 years where he painted in a figurative, expressionist mode, more recently, he returned to Poland, and to film making as a writer and director after a 17-year hiatus with Cztery noce z Anną in 2008. He received the Golden Lion Award for Lifetime Achievement at the 2016 Venice Film Festival, Skolimowski was born in Łódź, Poland, the son of Maria and Stanisław Skolimowski, an architect. He often recognized indications in his work to a childhood ineradicably scarred by the War, as a small child he witnessed the brutalities of war, even having been rescued from the rubble of a bombed-out house in Warsaw. His father, a member of the Polish Resistance, was executed by the Nazis and his mother hid a Jewish family in the house and Skolimowski recalls being required to take candy from the Nazis to maintain appearances. After the war, his became the cultural attaché of the Polish embassy in Prague. His fellow pupils at school in Poděbrady, a spa town near Prague, included future film-makers Miloš Forman and Ivan Passer, Skolimowski was considered as a trouble maker at school as he was the origin of many pranks which angered the authorities. At college he studied ethnography, history and literature and took up boxing, Skolimowskis interest in jazz and association with composer Krzysztof Komeda brought him into contact with actor Zbigniew Cybulski and directors Andrzej Munk and Roman Polanski. In his early twenties Skolimowski was already a writer, having published several books of poems, short stories, Skolimowski was not impressed and dismissed the script. However, in response to a challenge by Wajda, he produced his own version became a basis for the finished film, Innocent Sorcerers. Skolimowski enrolled in the Łódź Film School with the intention of avoiding the long apprenticeship required before graduating to feature film direction, while scoring poorly in course work Skolimowski had a finished feature film by the end of the course. Skolimowski then collaborated with Polański, writing the dialogue for the script of Knife in the Water, between 1964 and 1984 he completed six semi-autobiographical feature films, Rysopis, Walkover, Barrier, Hands Up. Moonlighting and Success Is the Best Revenge, a segment in Dialóg, Barrier won Grand Prix at Bergamo International Film Festival. Le Départ won the Golden Bear at the 17th Berlin International Film Festival, after Barrier he left Poland to make Le Départ in Belgium in French. According to him Le Départ was a film rather than a comedy. Skolimowski returned to Poland to make Ręce do góry, the film of the Andrzej trilogy
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1937 in literature
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This article presents lists of the literary events and publications in 1937. January 9 – The first issue of Look magazine goes on sale in the United States, january 19 – BBC Television broadcasts The Underground Murder Mystery by J. Bissell Thomas from its London station, the first play written for television. February 6 – John Steinbecks novella of the Great Depression Of Mice, april – Irish writers Elizabeth Bowen and Seán Ó Faoláin first meet, in London. May 14 – BBC Television broadcasts a 30-minute excerpt of Twelfth Night, among the cast are Peggy Ashcroft and Greer Garson. May 21 – Penguin Books launches its Pelican Books sixpenny paperback non-fiction imprint in the U. K. with a 2-volume edition of Bernard Shaws The Intelligent Womans Guide to Socialism and Capitalism. June – John Cowper Powys visits Sycharth, birthplace of Owain Glyndŵr, june 30 – Poems of colonial American pastor Edward Taylor, discovered by Thomas H Johnson, are published in The New England Quarterly. Summer – American-born writer Thomas Quinn Curtiss meets German-born novelist Klaus Mann in Europe, july Establishment of Buchenwald concentration camp in Nazi Germany around the Goethe Oak. July 4 – The Lost Colony historical drama by Paul Green is first performed at a theater in the location where it is set, Roanoke Island. July 31 – Stephen Vincent Benéts post-apocalyptic short story By the Waters of Babylon, september 10 – Soviet playwright Sergei Tretyakov commits suicide while under sentence of death at Butyrka prison in Moscow as part of the Great Purge. September 21 – J. R. R. Tolkiens juvenile fantasy novel The Hobbit, or There, september 29 – French playwright Antonin Artaud is expelled from Ireland. October 6 – The fictional character Mrs. Miniver first appears in the column on domestic life written by Jan Struther for The Times, november 11 – BBC Television broadcasts Journeys End by R. C. Sherriff, the first full-length television adaptation of a stage play, reginald Tate plays the lead, a rôle he has performed extensively in the theatre. Undated The National Library of Iran is inaugurated in Tehran, the future novelist Angus Wilson becomes a book cataloguer at the British Museum Library in London
31.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
