1.
Women's history
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Womens history is the study of the role that women have played in history and the methods required to do so. The main centers of scholarship have been the United States and Britain, History was written mainly by men and about mens activities in the public sphere—war, politics, diplomacy and administration. Women are usually excluded and, when mentioned, are portrayed in sex-stereotypical roles such as wives, mothers, daughters. The study of history is value-laden in regard to what is considered historically worthy, other aspects of this area of study is the differences in womens lives caused by race, economic status, social status, and various other aspects of society. Changes came in the 19th and 20th centuries, for example, Women traditionally ran the household, bore and reared the children, were nurses, mothers, wives, neighbors, friends, and teachers. During periods of war, women were drafted into the market to undertake work that had been traditionally restricted to men. Following the wars, they invariably lost their jobs in industry and had to return to domestic, the history of Scottish women in the late 19th century and early 20th century was not fully developed as a field of study until the 1980s. In addition, most work on women before 1700 has been published since 1980, scholars are also uncovering womens voices in their letters, memoirs, poetry, and court records. In Ireland studies of women, and gender relationships more generally, had been rare before 1990, they now are commonplace with some 3000 books and articles in print. But approaches used by academics in the research of broadly based social histories has been applied to the field of womens history as well. The high level of research and publication in womens and gender history is due to the high interest within French society, in the Ancien Régime in France, few women held any formal power, some queens did, as did the heads of Catholic convents. In the Enlightenment, the writings of philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau provided a program for reform of the ancien régime. Rousseaus conception of the relations between private and public spheres is more unified than that found in modern sociology, Rousseau argued that the domestic role of women is a structural precondition for a modern society. Salic law prohibited women from rule, however, the laws for the case of a regency, the queen could ensure the passage of power from one king to another—from her late husband to her young son—while simultaneously assuring the continuity of the dynasty. Educational aspirations were on the rise and were becoming increasingly institutionalised in order to supply the church, girls were schooled too, but not to assume political responsibility. Girls were ineligible for leadership positions and were considered to have an inferior intellect to their brothers. France had many local schools where working-class children - both boys and girls - learned to read, the better to know, love. The Enlightenment challenged this model, but no alternative was presented for female education
2.
Legal rights of women in history
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The legal rights of women refers to the social and human rights of women. One of the first womens rights declarations was the Declaration of Sentiments, the dependent position of women in early law is proved by the evidence of most ancient systems. In the Mosaic law, for monetary matters, womens and mens rights were almost exactly equal, a woman was entitled to her own private property, including land, livestock, slaves, and servants. A woman had the right to inherit whatever anyone bequeathed to her as a death gift, a woman could likewise bequeath her belongings to others as a death gift. Upon dying intestate, a womans property would be inherited by her if she had them, her husband if she was married. A woman could sue in court and did not need a male to represent her, in some situations, women actually had more rights than men. For example, captive women had to be ransomed prior to any male captives, when it came to specific religious or sacramental activities, women had fewer opportunities or privileges than men. For example, in monetary or capital cases women could not serve as witnesses, a woman could not serve as a kohen in the Temple. A woman could not serve as queen, the monarch had to be male, a divorce could only be granted by the husband, upon which time she would receive the Ketubah and the return of significant portions of her dowry. In Ancient Egypt, legally, a woman shared the rights and status as a man – at least. An Egyptian woman was entitled to her own property, which could include land, livestock, slaves and servants. She had the right to inherit whatever anyone bequeathed to her and she could divorce her husband, and sue in court. Most notably, a woman could do these legal matters without a male to represent her, however, on the whole, men vastly outnumbered women in most trades, including government administrators, the average woman still centered her time around the home and family. A few women became pharaohs, and women held important positions in government, in ancient Athenian law, women lacked many of the legal rights given to their male counterparts. They were excluded from appearing in law courts or participating in the assembly, historians doubt that this ideal could have been attained except by the richest women, however. Women in Classical Athens did have the right to divorce, though they lost all rights to any children they had by their husband upon divorce, Roman law similar to Athenian law, was created by men in favor of men. Women had no voice, and no public role which only improved after the 1st century to the 6th century BCE. Freeborn women of ancient Rome were citizens had legal privileges and protections that did not extend to non-citizens or slaves, Roman society, however, was patriarchal, and women could not vote, hold public office, or serve in the military
3.
Woman
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A woman is a female human. The term woman is usually reserved for an adult, with the girl being the usual term for a female child or adolescent. The term woman is sometimes used to identify a female human, regardless of age. Women with typical genetic development are usually capable of giving birth from puberty until menopause, the spelling of woman in English has progressed over the past millennium from wīfmann to wīmmann to wumman, and finally, the modern spelling woman. In Old English, wīfmann meant female human, whereas wēr meant male human, the medial labial consonants f and m in wīfmann coalesced into the modern form woman, while the initial element, which meant female, underwent semantic narrowing to the sense of a married woman. It is a misconception that the term woman is etymologically connected to womb. Womb is actually from the Old English word wambe meaning stomach, the symbol for the planet Venus is the sign also used in biology for the female sex. It is a representation of the goddess Venuss hand-mirror or an abstract symbol for the goddess. The Venus symbol also represented femininity, and in ancient alchemy stood for copper, alchemists constructed the symbol from a circle above an equilateral cross. Womanhood is the period in a life after she has passed through childhood and adolescence. The word woman can be used generally, to any female human or specifically. The word girl originally meant young person of either sex in English, in particular, previously common terms such as office girl are no longer widely used. Referring to a female human as a woman may, in such a culture, imply that she is sexually experienced. There are various words used to refer to the quality of being a woman, menarche, the onset of menstruation, occurs on average at age 12-13. The earliest women whose names are known through archaeology include, Neithhotep, the wife of Narmer, merneith, consort and regent of ancient Egypt during the first dynasty. She may have been ruler of Egypt in her own right, merit-Ptah, also lived in Egypt and is the earliest known female physician and scientist. Peseshet, a physician in Ancient Egypt, puabi, or Shubad – queen of Ur whose tomb was discovered with many expensive artifacts. Other known pre-Sargonic queens of Ur include Ashusikildigir, Ninbanda, kugbau, a taverness from Kish chosen by the Nippur priesthood to become hegemonic ruler of Sumer, and in later ages deified as Kubaba
4.
Women and animal advocacy
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Women have played a central role in animal advocacy since the 19th century. The animal advocacy movement – embracing animal rights, animal welfare, Women are more likely to support animal rights than men.4 million people who call themselves vegetarian, 68% are female, while only 32% are male. Women and animals were considered equally irrational and inferior in the past. She published The Perfect Way in Diet, advocating vegetarianism, and was vocal in her opposition to animal experiments. The affair however continued for years, making a name both for Lind af Hageby and for the society. Australian writer and academic Coral Lansbury writes that the suffragist movement in the United Kingdom became closely linked with the anti-vivisection movement, writing about the Brown Dog affair, she argues that the iconography of vivisection struck a chord with women. In 1944 the Vegan Society, a charity and the oldest vegan society in the world, was founded on 1 November in the UK by Elsie Sally Shrigley. The first vegan society in the United States was founded in 1948 by Catherine Nimmo and Rubin Abramowitz in California, in 1951 the Animal Welfare Institute was founded by Christine Stevens. On November 22,1954, the Humane Society of the United States was founded by Marcia Glaser, Helen Jones, in 1962 the Animal Welfare Board of India was founded by Rukmini Devi Arundale. Brophy wrote, The relationship of homo sapiens to the animals is one of unremitting exploitation. We employ their work, we eat and wear them, to us it seems incredible that the Greek philosophers should have scanned so deeply into right and wrong and yet never noticed the immorality of slavery. Perhaps 3000 years from now it will seem equally incredible that we do not notice the immorality of our own oppression of animals, British political scientist Robert Garner writes that Ruth Harrisons book and Brigid Brophys article led to an explosion of interest in the relationship between humans and nonhumans. They decided to put together a symposium to discuss the theory of animal rights, around the same time, the British writer Richard D. Ryder wrote several letters to The Daily Telegraph criticizing animal experimentation, these letters were seen by Brophy, who put Ryder in touch with the Godlovitches and Harris. Harrison, Brophy, and Ryder subsequently became contributors to the Godlovitches symposium, in 1973 Dr. Shirley McGreal founded the International Primate Protection League in Thailand. In 1980 the English-born British/American animal rights activist Ingrid Newkirk co-founded People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. In 1981 Feminists for Animal Rights was founded in California, it became an organization in the following years and was active nationwide for over two decades, but is now defunct. In 1984 Virginia McKenna OBE founded the Born Free Foundation together with her husband Bill Travers OBE, the Born Free Foundation is a dynamic international wildlife charity
5.
Female entrepreneurs
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Female entrepreneurs are said to encompass approximately 1/3 of all entrepreneurs worldwide. Traditionally, an entrepreneur has been defined as a person who organizes and manages any enterprise, especially a business, usually with considerable initiative and risk. Rather than working as an employee, an entrepreneur runs a business and assumes all the risk and reward of a given business venture, idea. The entrepreneur is commonly seen as a leader and innovator of new ideas and business processes. Entrepreneurial spirit is characterized by innovation. For example, in the 2000s, the field of social entrepreneurship has been identified, in which entrepreneurs combine business activities with humanitarian and they act as the manager and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise. Entrepreneurship is the process by which an individual identifies a business opportunity and acquires, for Schumpeter, the changes and dynamic disequilibrium brought on by the innovating entrepreneur. The ‘norm’ of a healthy economy, in the 2010s, entrepreneurship can be studied in college or university as part of the disciplines of management or business administration. Before the 20th century, female operated small businesses as a way of supplementing their income, in many cases, they were trying to avoid poverty or were replacing the income from the loss of a spouse. At that time, the ventures that these women undertook were not thought of as entrepreneurial, many of them had to focus on their domestic responsibilities. The term entrepreneur is used to describe individuals who have ideas for products and/or services that turn into a working business. In earlier times, this term was reserved for men, in the 17th century, Dutch colonists who came to what is now known as New York City, operated under a matriarchal society. In this society, many women inherited money and lands, and through this inheritance, one of the most successful women from this time was Margaret Hardenbrook Philipse, who was a merchant, a ship owner, and was involved in the trading of goods. During the mid 18th century, it was popular for women to own certain businesses like brothels, alehouses, taverns, most of these businesses were not perceived with good reputations, because, it was considered shameful for women to be in these positions. Society frowned upon women involved in businesses, because, they detracted from the womens supposed gentle. During the 18th and 19th centuries, more came out from under the oppression of societys limits. Despite the disapproval of society, women such as Rebecca Lukens flourished, in 1825, Lukens took her family business of Iron works, and turned it into a profit-generating steel business. In the 1900s, due to a progressive way of thinking. Although these female entrepreneurs serviced mostly female consumers, they were making great strides
6.
Female education
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Female education is a catch-all term for a complex set of issues and debates surrounding education for girls and women. It includes areas of gender equality and access to education, while the feminist movement certainly promoted the importance of the issues attached to female education the discussion is wide-ranging and by no means narrowly defined. It may include, for example, AIDS education, universal education, meaning state-provided primary and secondary education independent of gender is not yet a global norm, even if it is assumed in most developed countries. In some Western countries, women have surpassed men at many levels of education, for example, in the United States in 2005/2006, women earned 62% of associate degrees, 58% of bachelors degrees, 60% of masters degrees, and 50% of doctorates. Education for disabled women has also improved, in 2011, Giusi Spagnolo became the first woman with Down Syndrome to graduate college in Europe. Improving girls educational levels has been demonstrated to have clear impacts on the health and economic future of young women, the infant mortality rate of babies whose mothers have received primary education is half that of children whose mothers are illiterate. In the poorest countries of the world, 50% of girls do not attend secondary school, yet, research shows that every extra year of school for girls increases their lifetime income by 15%. Improving female education, and thus the potential of women, improves the standard of living for their own children. Yet, many barriers to education for girls remain, in some African countries, such as Burkina Faso, girls are unlikely to attend school for such basic reasons as a lack of private latrine facilities for girls. Education increases a level of health and health awareness. It can lead to rates of barrier and chemical contraceptive use. It has been shown, in addition, to increase communication with their partners and their employers. Education and Violence Against Women In Pakistan, a relationship was found between the formal level of education a woman attains and the likelihood of violence against that woman. The researcher used snowball convenient sampling, a method where participants are referred. Ethical and privacy issues made this the most convenient method, an informant played a major role in gathering information that was then cross-checked. The sample of victims of violence was made up of married women from ages 18–60 both from rural and urban communities, the study described different forms of physical violence that are already present and provided an idea of what women go through, even across communities. Education in this study was stressed to be the solution and a necessity in eliminating violence, a discussion of political and social barriers is needed. The relationship is a lot more complicated than it seems, women can be illiterate, immigrant Latina Women are a highly affected group by domestic violence
7.
Feminism
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Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal, to define and advance political, economic, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish opportunities for women in education. Feminists have also worked to promote autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints, some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle class, and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism. Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word féminisme in 1837, depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians assert that all working to obtain womens rights should be considered feminist movements. Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and those historians use the label protofeminist to describe earlier movements. The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three waves, each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave comprised womens suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the womens liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women, the third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th century, in the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902, in 1928 this was extended to all women over 21. In the U. S. notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing womens right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, in the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, granting women the right to vote in all states. During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days Reform, Chinese feminists called for womens liberation from traditional roles, later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved womens liberation. According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism, in 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the father of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women. He drew links between womens position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University, in 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became its president and a symbol of the Arab womens rights movement
8.
Women in government
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Women in government in the modern era are under-represented in most countries worldwide. Even though some progress has made during the last two centuries, and women are increasingly being politically elected to be heads of state and government. As of January 2017, the participation rate of women in national-level parliaments is 23. 3%. A number of countries are exploring measures that may increase womens participation in government at all levels, increasing womens representation in the government can empower women and is necessary to achieve gender parity. This notion of womens empowerment is rooted in the capabilities approach. Female representatives not only womens rights, but also advance the rights of children. In national legislatures, there is a trend of women advancing gender. This advocacy has been seen in countries ranging from France, Sweden and the Netherlands, to South Africa, Rwanda, furthermore, a number of studies from both industrialized and developed countries indicate that women in local government tend to advance social issues. As of October 25,2013, the average of women in national assemblies is 21. 5%. At http, //www. quotaproject. org/quotas. cfm Although over 60% of countries have reached at least 10% women in their national legislature, by February 2006, only about 10% of sovereign nations had more than 30% women in parliament. The major English-speaking democracies are placed mostly in the top 40% of the ranked countries, New Zealand ranks at position 27 with women comprising 32. 2% of its parliament. Australia and Canada rank at position 46 out of 189 countries, the United Kingdom is ranked at 58, while the United States ranks 78. It should be noted not all of these lower and/or upper houses in national parliaments are democratically elected, for example. Paxton describes three factors that are the basis for why national level representation has become larger over the past several decades. The second is the factor, representation of women in office being based on a proportionality system. Some voting systems are built so that a party that gains 25% of the votes gains 25% of the seats, in these processes, a political party feels obligated to balance the representation within their votes between genders, increasing womens activity in political standing. Women face numerous obstacles in achieving representation in governance and their participation has been limited by the assumption that womens proper sphere is the private sphere. Whereas the public domain is one of authority and contestation, the private realm is associated with the family
9.
Women in conservatism in the United States
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Women in conservatism in the United States have advocated for social, political, economic, and cultural conservative policies since Anti-suffragism. Leading conservative women such as Phyllis Schlafly have expressed that women should embrace their privileged essential nature, Women first began to oppose suffrage in Massachusetts in 1868. They succeeded in blocking the proposal, and this caused the movement to gain momentum, the National Association Opposed to Women Suffrage was thus formed by Josephine Dodge in 1911 with approximately 350,000 members. This organization mostly consisted of women who were often wives of politicians. These women helped defeat nearly 40 suffrage proposals, and published the Womens Protest in order to voice their agenda nationwide. Dodge and the organization argued that women should stay out of politics in order to be efficient and diligent in work for which her nature. These anti-feminist beliefs are shaped the anti-suffrage crusade. A major source of womens activism was in Southern California in the 1950s and 1960s, particularly in Orange County. These women mainly consisted of suburban warriors, or middle class housewives who feared that their Christian nation was under attack. Increasing Cold War tensions and fears of Communism allowed for women to mobilize groups such as the John Birch Society. They eventually backed politician Barry Goldwater and successfully campaigned for him to become the candidate for the Republican Party in 1964. However, Goldwater lost the election to Lyndon Johnson in a landslide. Still, his nomination illustrated the shift from moderation to more hardline stances in many members of the Republican Party and his campaign also showcased the success of conservative grassroots organizations and mobilization. After Goldwaters defeat, grassroots conservatives had to rethink their strategy, thus, conservative women soon turned to Ronald Reagan. He won over the support of the women of Orange County, however, there were some women that opposed him due to his more mainstream views. Cyril Stevenson, a prominent leader of the California Republican Assembly and these attempts failed, nevertheless, as Reagan was elected. However, a lower amount of women than men voted for Reagan when he was eventually elected President of the United States. Reagan gained the support of conservative women by attempting to close this gender gap
10.
Queen regnant
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An empress regnant is a female monarch who reigns in her own right over an empire. A queen regnant possesses and exercises sovereign powers, a queen consort shares her husbands rank and titles, but does not share the sovereignty of her husband. The husband of a queen regnant traditionally does not share his wifes rank, however, the concept of a king consort is not unheard of in contemporary or classical periods. A queen dowager is the widow of a king, a queen mother is a queen dowager who is also the mother of a reigning sovereign. The Byzantine Empress Irene sometimes called herself basileus, emperor, rather than basilissa, empress and Jadwiga of Poland was crowned as Rex Poloniae, King of Poland. Among the Davidic Monarchs of the Kingdom of Judah, there is mentioned a queen regnant, Athaliah. The much later Hasmonean Queen Salome Alexandra was highly popular, accession of a regnant occurs as a nations order of succession permits. The scope of succession may be matrilineal, patrilineal, or both, or, rarely, open to general election when necessary, the right of succession may be open to men and women, or limited to men only or women only. Historically, many realms forbade succession by women or through a line in obedience to the Salic law. No queen regnant ever ruled France, for example, only one woman, Maria Theresa, ruled Austria. As noted in the list below of widely known ruling queens, in the waning days of the 20th century and early days of the 21st, Sweden, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Luxembourg and the UK amended their acts of succession to absolute primogeniture. In some cases the change does not take effect during the lifetimes of people already in the line of succession at the time the law was passed, in 2011, the 16 Realms of the Commonwealth agreed to remove the rule of male-preference primogeniture. Once the necessary legislation was passed, this means that had Prince William had a daughter first, in China, Wu Zetian became the Chinese empress regnant and established the Zhou Dynasty after dismissing her sons. It should be noted, however, that Empress Wu used the title huangdi and in many European sources, although the Chrysanthemum Throne of Japan is currently barred to women, this has not always been the case, throughout Japanese history there have been eight empresses regnant. Again, the Japanese language uses the term josei tennō for the position which would be empress regnant in English, monarch Order of succession Queen consort Rani Regent Salic law Sultana Monter, William. The Rise of Female Kings in Europe, 1300-1800, studies 30 women who exercised full sovereign authority in Europe
11.
Women's health
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Womens health refers to the health of women, which differs from that of men in many unique ways. Often treated as simply womens reproductive health, many argue for a broader definition pertaining to the overall health of women. These differences are further exacerbated in developing countries where women, whose health includes both their risks and experiences, are further disadvantaged. Gender remains an important social determinant of health, since womens health is influenced not just by their biology but also by such as poverty, employment. Womens reproductive and sexual health places a burden on them. Comorbidity from other non reproductive disease such as cardiovascular disease contribute to both the mortality and morbidity of pregnancy, including preeclampsia. In addition infertility from many causes, birth control, unplanned pregnancy, unconsensual sexual activity. While the rates of the causes of death, cardiovascular disease, cancer. Lung cancer has overtaken all other types of cancer as the cause of cancer death in women, followed by breast cancer, colorectal, ovarian, uterine. While smoking is the cause of lung cancer, amongst nonsmoking women the risk of developing cancer is three times greater than amongst nonsmoking men. HPV vaccine together with screening offers the promise of controlling these diseases, other important health issues for women include cardiovascular disease, depression, dementia, osteoporosis and anemia. Womens experience of health and disease differ from those of men, biological differences vary all the way from phenotype to the cellular, and manifest unique risks for the development of ill health. The World Health Organization defines health as a state of physical, mental and social well-being. Womens health is an example of health, the health of a specific defined population. Womens health has been described as a quilt with gaps. The WHO considers that an emphasis on reproductive health has been a major barrier to ensuring access to good quality health care for all women. Conditions that affect men and women, such as cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, also manifest differently in women. Womens health is of concern due to widespread discrimination against women in the world
12.
Women in journalism
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As journalism became a profession, women were restricted by custom from access to journalism occupations, and faced significant discrimination within the profession. Nevertheless, women operated as editors, reporters, sports analysts and journalists even before the 1890s, the first woman in Denmark who published articles in Danish papers were the writer Charlotte Baden, who occasionally participated in the weekly MorgenPost from 1786 to 1793. In the 1870s, the movement started and published papers of their own, with women editors. In 1912, eight women were members of the reporters union Københavns Journalistforbund, five in the club Journalistforeningen i København and a total of 35 women employed as journalists in Denmark. The first woman in Finland to work as a journalist in Finland under her own name was Adelaïde Ehrnrooth, anne-Marguerite Petit du Noyer has been referred to as one of the most famous early 18th century female journalists in Europe. Her reports of the leading to the Peace of Utrecht were read all over Europe and admired for the distinction with which she reported on scandal. The first female journalist in Norway was Birgithe Kühle, who published the local paper Provincial-Lecture in Bergen between 1794 and 1795. In Sweden, Maria Matras, known as N. Wankijfs Enka, published the paper Ordinarie Stockholmiske Posttijdender in 1690–1695, margareta Momma became the first identified female journalist and chief editor as the editor of the political essaypaper Samtal emellan Argi Skugga och en obekant Fruentimbers Skugga in 1738. Hwad Nytt. between 1773 and 1795, from the 1880s, women became more common in the offices of the press, and when women was admitted to the Swedish Publicists Association in 1885,14 women were inducted as members. The pioneer generation of journalists were generally from the upper class who wished to earn their own income. Women were employed as translators and given the responsibility for the coverage of culture, nor was the struggle of life and competition so sharp, as it has later become. The women pioneers were generally treated with sympathy and interest, even by the men, of the seven biggest newspapers in Stockholm, six had female co-workers prior to 1900, and when Swedish Union of Journalists was founded in 1901, women were included from the start. Women covered World War I and the Russian revolution and several women journalists became famed role models such as Ester Blenda Nordström and Elin Brandell. During World War I, war time rationing made it necessary to cover household interests, in 1939, Elsa Nyblom became vice chairperson of the Publicistklubben. The informal discrimination changed when women started to expand the subjects treated at the womens sections. A noted example of development was Synnöve Bellander, editor of the womens section Hus och hem at Svenska Dagbladet in 1932–59. This development in the womens sections gradually transformed them to sections for family, the 1960s signified a great change. In 1970, Pernilla Tunberger became the first woman to be awarded Stora Journalistpriset and her writing analyzes the relevant events, personalities of key actors and consequences of the military struggles she observed
13.
Women in law enforcement
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Women in law enforcement agencies have typically been outnumbered by men. The first policewoman in Germany was recruited in 1903, the first in the USA appeared in 1910, since that time many law enforcement agencies have sought to reduce discrimination and increase the numbers of women working in this sector. Henriette Arendt was a German Policewoman in 1903 and their trial period was deemed successful and from 1910 onward, policewomen were employed in other Swedish cities. During the First World War a volunteer service was established by Margaret Damer Dawson and they had joined forces after seeing the trouble faced by refugees during the war. These volunteer women were allowed to patrol the streets of London. These Women Police Volunteers were trained and they were intended to assist women during the turmoil of the war, during The First World War The Womens Police Service, led by Margaret Damer Dawson, provided women officers to police the government munitions factories. Some Chief Constables and Watch Committees also choose to employ women police, two of the first were Hull and Southampton in 1915. As the end of the First World War several groups of womens police Voluntary Patrols were in major cities in Great Britain. These well-bred women patrolling the streets to help women and children, the Voluntary Womens Force at Bath, Somerset was created in 1912. Apart from Londons Metropolitan Police commissioning of a report by a female on females in custody in 1907, the Prison Service had involved women many years previously. Matrons had been employed as staff to look after women and children. They were usually the wives of serving police officers, two women in particular sought to point out the lack of a woman Constable presence was wrong. They each had a relative in political high office, one of these women was Edith Tancred. She became a campaigner for the requirement of women police, Peto later decided to take the administrative path within the Constabulary for promotion. Both Tancred and Peto were well placed in society to get their views heard and they were soon joined by three other women campaigners, and around 1911 started unofficial street patrols from an office in Bristol to maintain public morality and decency. In 1914 Peto had joined the National Union of Women Workers, florence Mildred White left her teaching post at the Godolphin School in 1914 to live and work in the newly created Bath office of the group, where Peto had become the Assistant Patrols Organizer. White stayed until May 1918, working under the supervision of Peto, sir Leonard Dunning, Her Majestys Inspector of Constabulary wrote an article in the police magazine in 1918. About two of the six pages of his annual Report concerned the employment of women into police work
14.
Women in the military
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Even though women serving in the military has often been diverse, a very small number of women in history have fought alongside men. In the American Civil War, there were a few women who cross-dressed as men in order to fight, fighting on the battlefront in disguise was not the only way women involved themselves in war. Some also served as nurses and aides, as increasing numbers of countries begin to expand the role of women in their militaries, the debate continues. More recently, from the beginning of the 1970s, most Western armies have begun to admit women to serve active duty in all of military branches, in 9 countries women are conscripted into military. Thousands of women served as nurses and in support roles in the major armies. The only nation to deploy female combat troops in substantial numbers was Russia, from the outset, female recruits either joined up in disguise or were tacitly accepted by their units. The most prominent were a contingent of front-line light cavalry in a Cossack regiment commanded by a female colonel, in 1917, the Provisional Government raised a number of Womens Battalions, with Bochkareva given an officers commission to command the first unit. They fought well, but failed to provide the value expected of them and were disbanded before the end of the year. In the later Russian Civil War, the Bolsheviks employed some women infantry, in the 1918 Finnish Civil War, more than 2,000 women fought in the Womens Red Guards. All the main nations used women in uniform, the great majority performed nursing, clerical or support roles. Over 500,000 had combat roles in anti-aircraft units in Britain and Germany, in 1938, the British took the lead worldwide in establishing uniformed services for women, in addition to the small units of nurses that had long been in operation. In late 1941, Britain began conscripting women, sending most into factory work and some into the military, especially the Auxiliary Territorial Service and it began as a womans auxiliary to the military in 1938, and in 1941 was granted military status. Women had a role in handling anti-aircraft guns against German planes. The daughter of Prime Minister Winston Churchill was there, and he gushed that any general who saved him 40,000 fighting men had gained the equivalent of a victory. By August,1941, women were operating the instruments, they were never allowed to pull the trigger. By 1943,56,000 women were in Anti-Aircraft Command, most in units close to London where there was a risk of getting killed, the first kill came in April 1942. The Third Reich, contrary to belief, had similar roles for women. Women also served in units in the navy, air force
15.
Mother
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A mother is the female parent of a child. Mothers are women who inhabit or perform the role of bearing some relation to their children, thus, dependent on the context, women can be considered mothers by virtue of having given birth, by raising their child, supplying their ovum for fertilisation, or some combination thereof. Such conditions provide a way of delineating the concept of motherhood, women who meet the third and first categories usually fall under the terms birth mother or biological mother, regardless of whether the individual in question goes on to parent their child. Accordingly, a woman who meets only the condition may be considered an adoptive mother. The above concepts defining the role of mother are neither exhaustive nor universal, as any definition of mother may differ based on how social, cultural, and religious roles are defined. The parallel conditions and terms for males, those who are fathers do not, by definition, Mother and fatherhood are not limited to those who are or have parented. Women who are pregnant may be referred to as expectant mothers or mothers-to-be, the modern English word is from Middle English moder, from Old English mōdor, from Proto-Germanic *mōdēr, from Proto-Indo-European *méh₂tēr. Other cognates include Latin māter, Greek μήτηρ, Common Slavic *mati, Persian مادر, biological motherhood for humans, as in other mammals, occurs when a pregnant female gestates a fertilized ovum. Typically a fetus develops from the zygote, resulting in an embryo. Gestation occurs in the uterus until the fetus is sufficiently developed to be born. In humans, gestation is often around 9 months in duration, after which the woman experiences labor and this is not always the case, however, as some babies are born prematurely, late, or in the case of stillbirth, do not survive gestation. Usually, once the baby is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation process, the mothers breast milk is the source of antibodies for the infants immune system and commonly the sole source of nutrition for the first year or more of the childs life. Mother can often apply to an other than the biological parent. This is commonly either a mother or a stepmother. The term othermother or other mother is used in some contexts for women who provide care for a child not biologically their own in addition to the childs primary mother. Adoption, in forms, has been practiced throughout history. Modern systems of adoption, arising in the 20th century, tend to be governed by comprehensive statutes, in recent decades, international adoptions have become more and more common. Adoption in the United States is common and relatively easy from a point of view
16.
Women in piracy
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While piracy was predominantly a male occupation, a minority of pirates were women. On many ships, women were prohibited by the ships contract, because of the resistance to allowing women on board, many female pirates did not identify themselves as such. Anne Bonny, for example, dressed and acted as a man while on Captain Calico Jacks ship and she and Mary Read, another female pirate, are often identified as being unique in this regard. This article contains a list of female pirates who are recognized by historians, during the Golden Age of Piracy, many men had to leave home to find employment or set sail for economic reasons. This left women with the responsibilities of taking on male roles. The need for women to fill these roles led them to be granted rights that had historically been exclusive to men, Women were allowed to trade, own ships, and work as retailers. Often they were innkeepers or ran alehouses, in some seaside towns, laws were even written to allow widows to keep their husbands responsibilities and property. This was important to local economies, as alehouses and other establishments were centers of commerce. As heads of these establishments, women had an amount of freedom in business. At times, female business owners would even hide their clients when authorities came looking to arrest them for piracy, some women chose to marry pirates. These men were very wealthy, but their wives tended not to gain wealth as a result of their marriages, as it was difficult for pirates to send home wages. These womens houses and establishments were often used as havens for pirates. Women sometimes became pirates themselves, though they tended to have to disguise themselves as men in order to do so, Pirates did not allow women onto their ships very often. Many women of the time were unable to perform the demanding tasks required of the crew. Additionally, women were regarded as bad luck among pirates. It was feared that the members of the crew would argue. On many ships, women were prohibited by the ships contract, because of the resistance to allowing women on board, many female pirates did not identify themselves as such. Anne Bonny, for example, dressed and acted as a man while on Captain Calico Jacks ship and she and Mary Read, another female pirate, are often identified as being unique in this regard
17.
Reproductive rights
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Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health that vary amongst countries around the world. They also include the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion, Reproductive rights began to develop as a subset of human rights at the United Nations 1968 International Conference on Human Rights. States, though, have been slow in incorporating these rights in internationally legally binding instruments, issues related to reproductive rights are some of the most vigorously contested rights issues worldwide, regardless of the populations socioeconomic level, religion or culture. The issue of rights is frequently presented as being of vital importance in discussions. Reproductive rights are a subset of sexual and reproductive health and rights, in 1945, the United Nations Charter included the obligation to promote. Universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without discrimination as to race, sex, language, however, the Charter did not define these rights. Three years later, the UN adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the first international document to delineate human rights. Parents have the right to determine freely and responsibly the number. The 1975 UN International Womens Year Conference echoed the Proclamation of Teheran, the twenty-year Cairo Programme of Action was adopted in 1994 at the International Conference on Population and Development in Cairo. The non-binding Programme of Action asserted that governments have a responsibility to meet individuals reproductive needs, the ICPD also addressed issues such as violence against women, sex trafficking, and adolescent health. Unlike previous population conferences, a range of interests from grassroots to government level were represented in Cairo. 179 nations attended the ICPD and overall eleven thousand representatives from governments, NGOs, international agencies, the ICPD did not address the far-reaching implications of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The Cairo Programme of Action was adopted by 184 UN member states, the Beijing Platform demarcated twelve interrelated critical areas of the human rights of women that require advocacy. The Platform framed womens reproductive rights as indivisible, universal and inalienable human rights, in relation to reproductive health, Principle 9 on The Right to Treatment with Humanity while in Detention requires that States shall. Nonetheless, African, Caribbean and Islamic Countries, as well as the Russian Federation, have objected to the use of these principles as Human Rights standards. The first legal textbook on reproductive rights law, Cases on Reproductive Rights and Justice by Melissa Murray, State abuses against reproductive rights have happened both under right-wing and left-wing governments. Some governments have implemented policies of forced sterilizations of undesirable population groups. It also includes the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion, in the exercise of this right, they should take into account the needs of their living and future children and their responsibilities towards the community
18.
Violence against women
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Violence against women, also known as gender-based violence, is, collectively, violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women. Sometimes considered a crime, this type of violence targets a specific group with the victims gender as a primary motive. This type of violence is gender-based, meaning that the acts of violence are committed against women expressly because they are women. At least one out of three women around the world has been beaten, coerced into sex, or otherwise abused in her lifetime with the abuser usually someone known to her. Violence against women can fit into broad categories. These include violence carried out by individuals as well as states, many forms of VAW, such as trafficking in women and forced prostitution are often perpetrated by organized criminal networks. The World Health Organization, in its research on VAW, has analyzed and categorized the different forms of VAW occurring through all stages of life from birth to old age. Other definitions of VAW are provided by the 1994 Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, Violence perpetrated or condoned by the state or its officials, d. These definitions of VAW as being gender-based are seen by some to be unsatisfactory and these definitions are conceptualized in an understanding of society as patriarchal, signifying unequal relations between men and women. Opponents of such definitions argue that the definitions disregard violence against men, Other critics argue that employing the term gender in this particular way may introduce notions of inferiority and subordination for femininity and superiority for masculinity. The history of violence against women remains vague in scientific literature and this is in part because many kinds of violence against women are under-reported, often due to societal norms, taboos, stigma, and the sensitive nature of the subject. It is widely recognized that even today, a lack of reliable, although the history of violence against women is difficult to track, it is clear that much of the violence was accepted, condoned and even legally sanctioned. This rule for punishment of wives prevailed in England and America until the late 19th century, the history of violence against women is closely related to the historical view of women as property and a gender role of subservience. Explanations of patriarchy and a world system or status quo in which gender inequalities exist and are perpetuated are cited to explain the scope. According to the UN, there is no region of the world, no country, several forms of violence are more prevalent in certain parts of the world, often in developing countries. For example, dowry violence and bride burning is associated with India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, acid throwing is also associated with these countries, as well as in Southeast Asia, including Cambodia. Honor killing is associated with the Middle East and South Asia, Female genital mutilation is found mostly in Africa, and to a lesser extent in the Middle East and some other parts of Asia. Marriage by abduction is found in Ethiopia, Central Asia and the Caucasus, Abuse related to payment of bride price is linked to parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and Oceania
19.
Women's suffrage
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Womens suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Limited voting rights were gained by women in Finland, Iceland, Sweden and some Australian colonies, National and international organizations formed to coordinate efforts to gain voting rights, especially the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, and also worked for equal civil rights for women. In 1881, the Isle of Man gave women who owned property the right to vote, in 1893, the British colony of New Zealand, granted women the right to vote. The colony of South Australia, did the same in 1894 and women were able to vote in the next election, South Australia also permitted women to stand for election alongside men. In 1899 Western Australia enacted full womens suffrage, enabling women to vote in the referendum of 31 July 1900. In 1902 women in the four colonies also acquired the right to vote. Discriminatory restrictions against Aboriginal people, including women, voting in elections, were not completely removed until 1962. Norway followed, granting full womens suffrage in 1913, most independent countries enacted womens suffrage in the interwar era, including Canada in 1917, Britain in 1918 and the United States in 1920. If women could work in factories, it seemed both ungrateful and illogical to deny them a place in the polling booth. But the vote was more than simply a reward for war work. Late adopters in Europe included Spain in 1931, France in 1944, Italy in 1946, Greece in 1952, Switzerland in 1971, the United States gave women equal voting rights in all states with the Nineteenth Amendment ratified in 1920. Canada and a few Latin American nations passed womens suffrage before World War II while the vast majority of Latin American nations established womens suffrage in the 1940s, the last Latin American country to give women the right to vote was Paraguay in 1961. In December 2015, women were first allowed to vote in Saudi Arabia, extended political campaigns by women and their supporters have generally been necessary to gain legislation or constitutional amendments for womens suffrage. In many countries, limited suffrage for women was granted before universal suffrage for men, for instance, in ancient Athens, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only adult, male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though forms of parliament arose at different times. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times and they make decisions there like the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace. The Iroquois, like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a kinship system. Property and descent were passed through the female line, Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them
20.
Women in the workforce
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Until modern times, legal and cultural practices, combined with the inertia of longstanding religious and educational conventions, restricted womens entry and participation in the workforce. Womens lack of access to education had effectively excluded them from the practice of well-paid. Women were largely limited to low-paid and poor status occupations for most of the 19th and 20th centuries, or earned less pay than men for doing the same work. Women are viewed as the caregiver to children still to this day. The increasing rates of women contributing in the force has led to a more equal disbursement of hours worked across the regions of the world. However, in western European countries the nature of womens employment participation remains markedly different from that of men, for example, few women are in continuous full-time employment after the birth of a first child. Due to the lack of childcare and because women in Britain lose 9% of their wage after their first child and 16% after their second child. In the United States, womens earnings were 83 percent of male full-time workers in 2014. ”With the current norm in place, women are forced to juggle full-time jobs. As the Civil War raged in the U. S, much of her site visits were conducted in Philadelphia, New York and Boston. She distilled her research to list over 500 jobs that were open to women as well as the information about the jobs and she also indicated when employers offered their reasons for wage differentials based on gender. She dedicated her book to worthy and industrious women in the United States, striving to earn a livelihood, and the book garnered much attention by reviewers and scholars across the country. She sold her rights to the book to another publisher who put it out instead as an encyclopedia, The Employments of Women, A Cyclopaedia of Womans Work and it sold better once it was re-titled again in 1870 as How Women Can Make Money, Married or Single. In total, the different versions of the book ended up with 36 editions published between 1862 and 2006, and six editions of the adaptation in German. In the twentieth century, division of labor by gender has been studied most systematically in womens studies, occupational studies, such as the history of medicine or studies of professionalization, also examine questions of gender, and the roles of women in the history of particular fields. Women dominate as accountants, auditors, and psychologists and this body of law is called employment discrimination law, and gender and race discrimination are the largest sub-sections within the area. Laws specifically aimed at preventing discrimination against women have been passed in countries, see. Women still contribute to their communities in many regions mainly through agricultural work, in Southern Asia, Western Asia, and Africa, only 20% of women work at paid non-agricultural jobs. Worldwide, womens rate of employment outside of agriculture grew to 41% by 2008
21.
Women in science
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Women have made significant contributions to science from the earliest times. The historical, critical and sociological study of issues has become an academic discipline in its own right. The involvement of women in the field of medicine occurred in early civilizations. Women contributed to the proto-science of alchemy in the first or second centuries AD, during the Middle Ages, convents were an important place of education for women, and some of these communities provided opportunities for women to contribute to scholarly research. While the eleventh century saw the emergence of the first universities, women were, for the most part, the attitude to educating women in medical fields in Italy appears to have been more liberal than in other places. The first known woman to earn a university chair in a field of studies, was eighteenth century Italian scientist. Although gender roles were defined in the eighteenth century, women experienced great advances in science. During the nineteenth century, women were excluded from most formal scientific education, in the later nineteenth century the rise of the womens college provided jobs for women scientists, and opportunities for education. Marie Curie, the first woman to receive a Nobel Prize in 1903, went on to become a double Nobel Prize recipient in 1911, forty women have been awarded the Nobel Prize between 1901 and 2010. 17 women have been awarded the Nobel Prize in physics, chemistry, the involvement of women in the field of medicine has been recorded in several early civilizations. An ancient Egyptian, Merit-Ptah, described in an inscription as chief physician, is the earliest known female scientist named in the history of science, agamede was cited by Homer as a healer in ancient Greece before the Trojan War. Agnodike was the first female physician to practice legally in fourth century BC Athens, the study of natural philosophy in ancient Greece was open to women. If we are to argue chemistry as the use of equipment and processes. Even during the time of the Egyptian dynasty, women were involved in applied chemistry, such as the making of beer, a good number of women have been recorded to have made major contributions to alchemy. Many of which lived in Alexandria around the 1st or 2nd centuries AD, such distillation equipment were called kerotakis and the tribikos. Hypatia of Alexandria, daughter of Theon of Alexandria, was a teacher at the Neoplatonic School in Alexandria teaching astronomy, philosophy. She is recognized to be the first known woman mathematician in history through her major contributions to mathematics. Hypatia is credited with writing three major treatises on geometry, algebra and astronomy, as well as the invention of a hydrometer, an astrolabe, there is even evidence that Hypatia gave public lectures and may have held some sort of public office in Alexandria
22.
Women in computing
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Historically, women in computing have had an effect on the evolution of the industry, with many of the first programmers during the early 20th century being female. Since July 2012 and previously an executive, usability leader. Ada Lovelace was the first person to publish an algorithm intended to be executed by the first modern computer, the Analytical Engine created by Charles Babbage. Grace Hopper was the first person to create a compiler for a language and one of the first programmers of Mark I computer. The regularly working programmers of the ENIAC computer in 1944, were six female mathematicians, Marlyn Meltzer, Betty Holberton, Kathleen Antonelli, Ruth Teitelbaum, Jean Bartik, Adele Goldstine was one of the teachers and trainers of the six original programmers of ENIAC computer. Adele died of cancer in 1964 at the age of 44, Smalltalk was later used by Apple to launch Apple Lisa in 1983, the first personal computer with GUI, and one year later its Macintosh. Windows 1.0, based on the principles, was launched a few months later in 1985. 1842, Ada Lovelace was an analyst of Charles Babbages analytical engine,1893, Henrietta Swan Leavitt joined the Harvard computers, a group of women engaged in the production of astronomical data at Harvard. She was instrumental in discovery of the variable stars, which are evidence for the expansion of the universe. 1926, Grete Hermann published the paper for computerized algebra. It was her thesis, titled The Question of Finitely Many Steps in Polynomial Ideal Theory. 1940s, American women were recruited to do calculations and program computers during WWII. 1943, Women worked as WREN Colossus operators during WW2 at Bletchley Park,1943, Many wives of scientists at Los Alamos were first organized as computers on the Manhattan Project. 1943, Gertrude Blanch led the Mathematical Tables Project group from 1938 to 1948,1946, Betty Jennings, Betty Snyder, Frances Spence, Kay McNulty, Marlyn Wescoff, and Ruth Lichterman were the regularly working programmers of the ENIAC. Adele Goldstine, also involved in the programming, wrote the manual for the ENIAC. 1947, Irma Wyman worked on a missile guidance project at the Willow Run Research Center, to calculate trajectory, they used mechanical calculators. In 1947–48, she visited the U. S. Naval Proving Ground where Grace Hopper was working on similar problems,1948, Kathleen Booth is credited with writing the assembly language for the ARC2 computer. 1949, Grace Hopper, was a United States Navy officer and one of the first programmers of the Harvard Mark I and she developed the first compiler for an electronic computer, known as A-0
23.
Women in medicine
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Historically and presently, in many parts of the world, womens participation in the profession of medicine has been significantly restricted. However, womens informal practice of medicine in roles such as caregivers or as allied health professionals has been widespread, most countries of the world now provide women with equal access to medical education. However, not all countries ensure equal employment opportunities, and gender equality has yet to be achieved within medical specialties, Women did, however, continue to practice during this time. They continued to practice without formal training or recognition in England, Womens participation in the medical professions was generally limited by legal and social practices during the decades while medicine was professionalizing. However, through the half of the twentieth century, women had gains generally across the board. In the United States, for instance, women were 9% of total US medical school enrollment in 1969, by 1985, women constituted 16% of practicing US physicians. At the beginning of the twenty-first century in industrialized nations, women have made significant gains, Women have achieved parity in medical school in some industrialized countries, since 2003 forming the majority of the United States medical student body. In 2007-2008, women accounted for 49% of medical school applicants and 48. 3% of those accepted. According to the American Association of Medical Colleges 48. 3% of medical degrees awarded in the US in 2009-10 were earned by women, however, the practice of medicine remains disproportionately male overall. In industrialized nations, the recent parity in gender of students has not yet trickled into parity in practice. In many developing nations, neither school nor practice approach gender parity. In the United States, female physicians outnumber male physicians in pediatrics and female residents outnumber male residents in family medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pathology, Women continue to dominate in nursing. In 2000,94. 6% of registered nurses in the United States were women, in health care professions as a whole in the US, women numbered approximately 14.8 million, as of 2011. Biomedical research and academic medical professions—i. e, faculty at medical schools—are also disproportionately male. The involvement of women in the field of medicine has been recorded in early civilizations. An Egyptian, Merit Ptah, described in an inscription as chief physician, is the earliest woman named in the history of science, agamede was cited by Homer as a healer in Greece before the Trojan War. Agnodike was the first female physician to practice legally in 4th century BC Athens, metrodora was a physician and generally regarded as the first medical writer. During the Middle Ages, convents were an important place of education for women, an example is the German abbess Hildegard of Bingen, whose prolific writings include treatments of various scientific subjects, including medicine, botany and natural history
24.
Women in dentistry
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There is a long history of women in dentistry. Unknown, 16th century, In an early engraving by Lucas Van Leyden. 1855, Emeline Roberts Jones became the first woman to practice dentistry in the United States and she married the dentist Daniel Jones when she was a teenager, and became his assistant in 1855. 1866, Lucy Hobbs Taylor became the first woman to graduate from a dental college and she graduated from the Pennsylvania College of Dental Surgery in 1869. 1874, Fanny A. Rambarger became the second American woman to earn the degree of Doctor of Dental Surgery in 1874 and she worked in Philadelphia and limited her practice to women and children only. 1881, Margaret Caro became the first woman to be listed on the Dentists Register of New Zealand,1886, Margarita Chorné y Salazar became the first female dentist in Mexico. 1890, Ida Gray Rollins became the first African-American woman to earn a degree in the United States. 1892, The Womens Dental Association of the U. S. was founded in 1892 by Mary Stillwell-Kuesel with 12 charter members,1895, Lilian Lindsay became the first licensed female dentist in Britain. 1898, Emma Gaudreau Casgrain became the first licensed female dentist in Canada,1907, Frances Dorothy Gray became Australia’s first female Bachelor of Dental Science graduate from the Australian College of Dentistry, University of Melbourne, in 1907. 1920, Maude Tanner became the first recorded female delegate to the American Dental Association, aAWDs first president, M. Evangeline Jordan, was one of the first to limit her practice to children and was a founder of pedodontics. She graduated from the University of California School of Dentistry in 1898,1923, Anita Martin became the first woman inducted into the American dental honor society Omicron Kappa Upsilon. 1946, Lilian Lindsay became the first female president of the British Dental Association,1951, Helen E. Myers of Lancaster, Pa. A1941 graduate of Temple University, was commissioned as the U. S. Army Dental Corps’ first female officer in 1951. 1975, On July 1,1975, Jeanne Sinkford became the first female dean of an American dental school when she was appointed the dean of Howard University,1977, The American Association of Dental Schools had Nancy Goorey as its first female president in 1977. 1988, In 1988, the American Student Dental Association elected its first female president,1991, Geraldine Morrow became the first female president of the American Dental Association. 1997, Hazel J. Harper became the first female president of the National Dental Association,2001, Marjorie Jeffcoat became the first female editor of The Journal of the American Dental Association. Turner became the first female Chief of the U. S. Navy Dental Corps,2004, Sandra Madison, of Asheville, N. C. was elected as the first female president of the American Association of Endodontists. 2005, Michele Aerden became the first female president of the FDI World Dental Federation,2007, Laura Kelly became the first female president of the American Academy of Cosmetic Dentistry
25.
Women in STEM fields
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STEM professions, like medicine, require higher education or training—especially in mathematics—in nearly all cases. Since the feminist revolution of the 1970s, the opportunities available to men and women in education have become broadly similar in most advanced economies. This has not yet translated to equal representation for women in the STEM professions on the ground, scholars are exploring the various reasons for the continued existence of this gender disparity in STEM fields. Those who view this disparity as resulting from discriminatory forces are also seeking ways to redress this disparity within STEM fields, some proponents view diversity as an inherent human good, and wish to increase diversity for its own sake, regardless of its historical origin or present cause. In the United States, research findings are mixed concerning when boys and girls attitudes about mathematics, analyzing several nationally representative longitudinal studies, one researcher found few differences in girls and boys attitudes towards science in the early secondary school years. Students aspirations to pursue careers in mathematics and science influence both the courses they choose to take in areas and the level of effort they put forth in these courses. A report by the U. S. Department of Education found that the gap in the aspirations of boys. Girls begin to lose self-confidence in middle school because they believe that men possess more intelligence in technical fields, the fact that men outperform women in spatial analysis, a skillset many engineering professionals deem vital, generates this misconception. Boys are more likely to gain spatial skills outside the classroom because they are encouraged to build. Research shows that girls can develop these skills with training. A1996 study of college freshmen by the Higher Education Research Institute shows that men and women differ greatly in their fields of study. The differences in the majors between male and female first-time freshmen directly relate to the differences in the fields in which men and women earn their degree. At the post-secondary level, women are less likely than men to earn a degree in mathematics, physical sciences, or computer sciences, the exception to this gender imbalance is in the life sciences. In Scotland, a number of women graduate in STEM subjects. This represents a £170 million per annum loss to Scotlands national income, although female college graduates shared in the earnings growth of all college graduates in the 1980s, they earned less on average than male college graduates. Some of the differences in salary are related to the differences in occupations entered by women and men, among recent science and engineering bachelors degree recipients, women were less likely than men to be employed in science and engineering occupations. There remains wage gap between men and women in comparable scientific positions, among more experienced scientists and engineers, the gender gap in salaries is greater than for recent graduates. Salaries are highest in mathematics, computer science, and engineering, an fact sheet published by UNESCO in March 2015 presented worldwide statistics of women in the STEM fields, with a focus on Asia and the Pacific region
26.
Women in space
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This article addresses the subject of women traveling above the Kármán line. This includes orbiting in the thermosphere through to travel in outer space, however, as of December 2016, no woman has traveled beyond low earth orbit. Women of many nationalities have worked in space, the first woman in space, Soviet cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova, flew in 1963. Space programs were slow to employ women, and only began to include them from the 1980s, most women in space have been United States citizens, primarily with missions on the Space Shuttle. Three countries maintain active space programs that include women, China, Russia, and the United States of America. In addition, a number of other countries – Canada, France, India, Iran, Italy, Japan, South Korea, women in space face many of the same challenges faced by men, physical difficulties from non-Earth conditions and psychological stresses of isolation and separation. A number of women have traveled into space, although the first woman flew into space in 1963, very early in crewed space exploration, it would not be until almost 20 years later that another flew. The first woman in space was a Soviet cosmonaut, Valentina Tereshkova launched with the Vostok 6 mission on June 16,1963. Russian Yelena V. Kondakova became the first woman to travel for both the Soyuz programme and the Space Shuttle, Yelena Serova became the first female Russian cosmonaut to visit the International Space Station on 26 September 2014. The Russian space program has hosted international cosmonauts. The United States did not have a woman in space until 1983, since then more than 40 American women have entered space. Most served on the various Space Shuttle flights from 1983 to 2011, Sally Ride was the third woman overall to go into space, launching on the space shuttle. Ride served on the STS-7 from June 18 to 24 in 1983, the first U. S. woman to go on an EVA was Kathryn Sullivan on the STS-41-G which launched on October 11,1984. The first woman to be on an ISS expedition crew was Susan Helms on Expedition 2 and she returned in October 2016, having spent 12 hours and 46 minutes on EVA and 115 days in space and 12 hours and 46 minutes in space as part of these missions. During her stay on ISS she also conducted numerous experiments including in the area of biology and she was the first woman, and first person to sequence DNA in space. In addition to U. S. citizens, US rockets have launched international astronauts, roberta Bondar and Julie Payette from Canada, Kalpana Chawla of India, and Chiaki Mukai and Naoko Yamazaki of Japan flew as part of the US space program. A number of other women have contributed to interest in space programs. In the early 2000s, Lori Garver initiated a project to increase the visibility and viability of commercial spaceflight with the AstroMom project
27.
Women in telegraphy
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Women in telegraphy have been evident since the 1840s. The introduction of systems of telegraphy in the 1840s led to the creation of a new occupational category. Duties of the telegrapher included sending and receiving messages, known as telegrams, using a variety of signaling systems. While telegraphy is often viewed as an occupation, women were also employed as telegraph operators from its earliest days. Telegraphy was one of the first communications technology occupations open to women, operation of this network required skilled operators at each station, capable of sending and receiving messages in Morse code. The shortage of qualified operators led to the hiring of women as well as men to fill a growing need for operators in the late 1840s as the telegraph spread across the country. She probably became aware of the telegraph and its potential from her previous work as an editor for the reform newspaper, phoebe Wood, sister of Morses associate Ezra Cornell and wife of telegraph entrepreneur Martin B. Wood, became the telegrapher in Albion, Michigan, in 1849, initially used to transmit personal messages, business transactions and news reports, the telegraph began to be used for train routing by the railroads as well in the 1850s. Elizabeth Cogley of Lewistown, Pennsylvania, became one of the earliest women to work as a railroad telegrapher when she was hired by the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1855. The employment of women in the industry in the United States increased during the American Civil War as male telegraphers were drafted or joined the U. S. Military Telegraph Corps of the Union army, a few women served in the Military Telegraph Corps. Louisa Volker, the operator at Mineral Point, Missouri. According to the U. S. Census, the percentage of telegraphers who were women in the U. S. grew from four percent in 1870 to twenty percent in 1920, Telegraph service in Canada was provided both by private companies and the Government Telegraph Service. In Toronto in 1902,42 percent of the operators at the Great Northwestern Telegraph Company were women, at the offices of the Canadian Pacific Railway in the same city,28 percent of the operators were female in 1902. The percentage of the workforce that was female was somewhat lower in western Canada, in 1917,18 percent of the operators in Winnipeg were women. Many telegraphers from the United States came to Mexico to work for the railroads during the administration of Porfirio Diaz, including several American women. Abbie Struble Vaughan worked for the Mexican National Railroad and the Mexican Central Railroad from 1891 to 1911, Women began to work for a number of private telegraph companies in England in the 1850s, including the Electric Telegraph Company. The Telegraph School for Women was established in London in 1860, the Queens Institute for the Training and Employment of Educated Women began classes in telegraphy in Dublin in 1862, its graduates were employed by the Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company
28.
Women artists
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While women artists have been involved in making art throughout history, their work often has not been as well acknowledged as that of men. Often certain media are associated with artists, such as textile arts. Womens roles in relation to art, of course, vary in different cultures and communities, many art forms considered to be created predominantly by women have been historically dismissed from the art historical canon as craft, as opposed to fine art. Women artists faced challenges due to biases in the mainstream fine art world. They have often encountered difficulties in training, travelling and trading their work, collaboration on large projects was typical. Extrapolation to the artwork and skills of the Paleolithic era suggests that these cultures followed similar patterns, cave paintings of this era often have human hand prints, 75% of which are identifiable as womens. For about three years, the women – and only the women – of Mithila have been making devotional paintings of the gods. It is no exaggeration, then, to say that art is the expression of the most genuine aspect of Indian civilization. The earliest records of western cultures rarely mention specific individuals, although women are depicted in all of the art and some are shown laboring as artists. Ancient references by Homer, Cicero, and Virgil mention the prominent roles of women in textiles, poetry, music, Other women include Timarete, Eirene, Kalypso, Aristarete, Iaia, and Olympias. While only some of their work survives, in Ancient Greek pottery there is a hydria in the Torno Collection in Milan. It is attribute to the Leningrad painter from circa 460-450 B. C. Artists from the Medieval period include Claricia, Diemudus, Ende, Guda, Herrade of Landsberg and Hildegard of Bingen. In the early Medieval period, women worked alongside men. Manuscript illuminations, embroideries, and carved capitals from the period clearly demonstrate examples of women at work in these arts, documents show that they also were brewers, butchers, wool merchants, and iron mongers. Artists of the period, including women, were from a small subset of society whose status allowed them freedom from these more strenuous types of work. Women artists often were of two classes, either wealthy aristocratic women or nuns. Women in the category often created embroideries and textiles, those in the later category often produced illuminations. It is presumed that women were almost entirely responsible for this production, one of the most famous embroideries of the Medieval period is the Bayeux Tapestry, which was embroidered with wool and is 230 feet long
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Women in architecture
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Women in architecture have been documented for many centuries, as professional practitioners, educators and clients. Since architecture became organized as a profession in 1857, the number of women in architecture has been low, at the end of the 19th century, starting in Finland, certain schools of architecture in Europe began to admit women to their programmes of study. However, only in recent years have begun to achieve wider recognition with several outstanding participants including two Pritzker prizewinners since the turn of the millennium. However, despite the fact that some 40% of architecture graduates in the world are now women. Two European women stand out as examples of women playing an important part in architecture. She has been put forward as the architect of Wotton House in Buckinghamshire and it has also been suggested that she tutored Sir Christopher Wren. Wilbraham had to use male architects to supervise the construction work, there is now much research including that by John Millar to show she may have designed up to 400 buildings including 18 London churches previously attributed to her pupil Sir Christopher Wren. Sarah Losh was an English woman and landowner of Wreay and she has been described as a lost Romantic genius, antiquarian, architect and visionary. Her main work is St Marys Church, Cumbria, but she also constructed various associated buildings, Louise Blanchard Bethune from Waterloo, New York, was the first American woman known to have worked as a professional architect. In 1881, she opened an independent office partnered with her husband Robert Bethune in Buffalo and she was named the first female associate of the American Institute of Architects in 1888 and in 1889, she became its first female fellow. Another early practicing architect in the United States was Emily Williams from northern California, in 1901, together with her friend Lillian Palmer, she moved to San Francisco where she studied drafting at the California High School of Mechanical Arts. Encouraged by Palmer, she went on to build a number of cottages and houses in the area, including a home on 1037 Broadway in San Francisco. Theodate Pope Riddle grew up in a background in Farmington, Connecticut. Her early designs, such as that for Hill-Stead, were translated into working drawings by the firm of McKim, Mead and White, providing her with an apprenticeship in architecture. She was the first woman to become an architect in both New York and Connecticut and in 1926 was appointed to the AIA College of Fellows. A notable pioneer of the days was Josephine Wright Chapman. Chapman received no education in architecture but went on design a number of buildings before setting up her own firm. The architect of Tuckerman Hall in Worcester, Massachusetts, she is considered to be one of Americas earliest and most successful female architects, Romanian architect Virginia Andreescu Haret, first woman to graduate with a degree in architecture in 1919 and first woman as Romanian Architectural Inspector General
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Women in dance
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The important place of women in dance can be traced back to the very origins of civilization. In the Middle Ages, what has become known as ballet had its beginnings in Italian court festivals when women played the parts of men. It was however in late 17th-century France that the Paris Opera produced the first celebrated ballerinas, more recently, women have played a leading role in developing various forms of modern dance including flamenco and expressionist dance. Women have always played a predominant role in dance, as can be seen from its earliest history until the emergence of formal dances in the 15th century which developed into ballet, Cave paintings from as long ago as 6000 BC provide scenes of dancing women. Examples can be seen in the Addauta Cave near Palermo and in the Roca dels Moros in Catalonia, in Ancient Egypt, women performed ritual dances for religious ceremonies such as funerals, as illustrated by frescos on the pharaohs tombs. The oldest records of organised dance and of female dancers come from Egypt. Especially in the Old Kingdom, women were organised into groups known as khener, in the Indian subcontinent too, there is early evidence of dancing women, most notably a bronze statuette from Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley dating from around 2500 BC. While mens early participation in dancing rituals appears to have connected to hunting and fighting, womens dance was above all related to fertility. Dance in classical Crete and Greece seems to have influenced by the dances of Ancient Egypt. There are many examples of ancient Greek art from the 6th and 5th centuries BC depicting dancing women, the virgins of Delos danced in a circle to honour Apollo while Terpsichore was the Muse of dance. In Ancient Rome, female singers and dancers performed in the celebrations of Isis which included mystery plays representing the resurrection of Osiris. The Bible contains several accounts of women dancing, in particular the celebrations led by Miriam after the crossing of the Red Sea when women are said to have danced and played hand-drums, after David had returned from slaying Goliath, women came out singing and dancing. In the New Testament, Matthew tells the story of how Salome danced for Herod in order to be given the head of John the Baptist, in China too there is a long recorded history of women dancers since the Zhou Dynasty reaching a peak in the Tang Dynasty. The chorus dances performed by women in the Zhou dynasty were known as xi, the ancient theatrical spectacles called baixi probably involved dancing girls in dresses with fluttering silk sleeves. In 12th-century Japan, the Shirabyoshi were famous for their dancing, one of the most famous was the court dancer Shizuka who appears in the Japanese literature of the period. In the Middle Ages, with the spread of Christianity across Europe, in France and Italy, chain and circular dances such as the carole, and the tresque were popular from the 4th to 14th centuries. They were usually danced in a circle with men and women interspersed. In Italy, the lively saltarello from Naples became popular in the 14th and 15th centuries, groups of courtesans dressed as men performed the dance at masquerades
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Women in philosophy
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Women have engaged in philosophy throughout the fields history. A notable medieval philosopher was Hypatia, notable modern philosophers included Mary Wollstonecraft and Sarah Margaret Fuller. Influential contemporary philosophers include Susanne Langer, Hannah Arendt, Simone de Beauvoir, Mary Midgley, Mary Warnock, Julia Kristeva, Patricia Churchland and Susan Haack. In the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in the UK and US began admitting women, nevertheless, U. S. Department of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that philosophy is one of the least proportionate fields in the humanities with respect to gender. Women make up as little as 17% of philosophy faculty in some studies, in 2014, Inside Higher Education described the philosophy. discipline’s own long history of misogyny and sexual harassment of women students and professors. Jennifer Saul, a professor of philosophy at the University of Sheffield, stated in 2015 that women are. leaving philosophy after being harassed, assaulted, or retaliated against. In the early 1990s, the Canadian Philosophical Association claimed that there is gender imbalance, in June 2013, a US sociology professor stated that out of all recent citations in four prestigious philosophy journals, female authors comprise just 3.6 percent of the total. According to Eugene Sun Park, hilosophy is predominantly white and predominantly male and this homogeneity exists in almost all aspects and at all levels of the discipline. Susan Price argues that the philosophical. canon remains dominated by white males—the discipline that. still hews to the myth that genius is tied to gender, according to Saul, hilosophy, the oldest of the humanities, is also the malest. While other areas of the humanities are at or near gender parity, in the early 1990s, the Canadian Philosophical Association claimed that. there is compelling evidence of. philosophy’s gender imbalance and bias and partiality in many of its theoretical products. In 1992, the association recommended that fifty percent of. positions should be filled by women, in 2014, philosophy professors Neven Sesardic and Rafael De Clercq published an article entitiled Women in Philosophy, Problems with the Discrimination Hypothesis. Sesardic and De Clercq argue that proponents of the discrimination hypothesis, Haslanger states that she experienced “occasions when a woman’s status in graduate school was questioned because she was married, or had a child, or was in a long-distance relationship. In July 2015, British philosopher Mary Warnock addressed the issue of the representation of women in British university philosophy departments, against intervention, by quotas or otherwise, to increase women’s chances of employment in philosophy. There is nothing intrinsically harmful about this imbalance and she states that she does not. believe it shows a bias against women. Philosopher Julian Baggini states that he believes there is. little or no conscious discrimination against women in philosophy. At the same time, Baggini states that there may be a. great deal of unconscious bias against women in philosophy, in 2014, Inside Higher Education described the philosophy. discipline’s own long history of misogyny and sexual harassment. The post proposed that, since institutional procedures seemed to have been ineffective at removing or punishing harassers, philosophers should socially shun known offenders, the story was subsequently featured at Inside Higher Ed and several blogs, including Gawker and Jezebel. In 2013, a series of posts on the blog Whats it like to be a woman in philosophy, instigated a spate of mainstream media articles on the continued dominance of men in philosophy
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Women in photography
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The participation of women in photography goes back to the very origins of the process. Several of the earliest women photographers, most of whom were from Britain or France, were married to male pioneers or had relationships with their families. Not until the 1890s did the first studios run by women open in New York City, in Vienna, Dora Kallmus pioneered the use of photographic studios as fashionable meeting places for the Austro-Hungarian aristocracy. In the United States, women first photographed as amateurs, several producing fine work which they were able to exhibit at key exhibitions and they not only produced portraits of celebrities and Native Americans but also took landscapes, especially from the beginning of the 20th century. The involvement of women in photojournalism also had its beginnings in the early 1900s, Women were however involved in photography from the start. Constance Fox Talbot, the wife of Henry Fox Talbot, one of the key players in the development of photography in the 1830s and 1840s, had experimented with the process as early as 1839. Richard Ovenden attributes to her an image of a short verse by the Irish poet Thomas Moore. Anna Atkins, a botanist, was introduced to photography by Fox Talbot. After learning about the process from its inventor, John Herschel. She published them in 1843 in her Photographs of British Algae, Cyanotype Impressions, another botanist and keen amateur photographer, John Dillwyn Llewelyn, was possibly introduced to photography by his wife Emma Thomasina Talbot, a cousin of Fox Talbot. His wife had shown an early interest in photography and did all his printing, in France, Geneviève Élisabeth Disdéri was an early professional in the photography business. Together with her husband, André-Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri who is remembered for patenting the carte de visite process, after Disdéri left her for Paris in 1847, she continued to run the business alone. Bertha Wehnert-Beckmann was probably Germanys first professional female photographer, in 1843, she opened a studio in Leipzig together with her husband and ran the business herself after his death in 1847. Emilie Bieber opened a studio in Hamburg in 1852. After a slow start, business picked up and she ran the studio until 1885 when she transferred it to her nephew, in the United States, Sarah Louise Judd is reported to have made daguerrotypes in Minnesota as early as 1848. Thora Hallager, one of Denmarks earliest women photographers, probably practiced in Copenhagen from the beginning of the 1850s and she is however remembered above all for the fine portrait of Hans Christian Andersen she took in 1869. In Sweden too, women entered the business at an early stage. Brita Sofia Hesselius performed Daguerreotype photography in Karlstad as early as 1845, hilda Sjölin became a professional photographer in Malmö in 1860, opening a studio there the following year, while Sofia Ahlbom also included photography among the arts she practiced in the 1860s
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Women in music
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As well, it describes music movements, events and genres related to women, womens issues and feminism. Notable women artists in pop, such as Bjork and Lady Gaga have commented about sexism, Women comprise a significant proportion of instrumental soloists in classical music and the percentage of women in orchestras is increasing. A2015 article on concerto soloists in major Canadian orchestras, however, in 2012, women still made up just 6% of the top-ranked Vienna Philharmonic orchestra. Women are less common as players in popular music genres such as rock and heavy metal, although there have been a number of notable female instrumentalists. Women are particularly underrepresented in extreme metal genres, Women are also underrepresented in orchestral conducting, music criticism/music journalism, music producing, and sound engineering. Duchen states that here are women musicians who refuse to play on their looks. the ones who do tend to be more materially successful. One of the most recorded artists is a woman, Asha Bhosle, a songwriter is an individual who writes the lyrics, melodies and chord progressions for songs, typically for a popular music genre such as pop, rock or country music. A songwriter can also be called a composer, although the term tends to be mainly used for individuals from the classical music genre. Only a few of the women in America had their music published and heard during the late 19th. According to Richard A. Reublin and Richard G. Beil, Women. struggled to write and publish music in the mans world of 20th century Tin Pan Alley. Prior to 1900 and even after 1900, it was expected that. women would perform music, as part of womens role in music education, women wrote hymns and childrens music. The secular music in print in America before 1825 shows only about 70 works by women, in the mid 19th century, notable women songwriters emerged, including Faustina Hasse Hodges, Susan Parkhurst, Augusta Browne and Marion Dix Sullivan. By 1900, there were more women songwriters, but. many were still forced to use pseudonyms or initials to hide the fact that they were women. Carrie Jacobs-Bond was the. preeminent woman composer of the late 1800s, the first million selling woman songwriter. Maude Nugent wrote Sweet Rosie OGrady in 1896 and she also penned Down At Rosie Reillys Flat, My Irish Daisy and Mary From Tipperary. Charlotte Blake was a writer for at the Whitney Warner Publishing Co. in Detroit. Initially, the company billed her as C, Blake to hide her gender, but by 1906 ads used her full name. Caro Roma was the pseudonym for Carrie Northly
