1.
Crane (bird)
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Cranes are a family, Gruidae, of large, long-legged and long-necked birds in the group Gruiformes. There are fifteen species of crane in four genera, unlike the similar-looking but unrelated herons, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Cranes live on all continents except Antarctica and South America and they are opportunistic feeders that change their diet according to the season and their own nutrient requirements. They eat a range of items from suitably sized small rodents, fish, amphibians, and insects to grain, berries, Cranes construct platform nests in shallow water, and typically lay two eggs at a time. Both parents help to rear the young, which remain with them until the breeding season. Some species and populations of cranes migrate over long distances, others do not migrate at all, Cranes are solitary during the breeding season, occurring in pairs, but during the non-breeding season they are gregarious, forming large flocks where their numbers are sufficient. Most species of cranes have been affected by human activities and are at the least classified as threatened, the plight of the whooping cranes of North America inspired some of the first US legislation to protect endangered species. The cranes are large to large birds, including the worlds tallest flying bird. They are long-legged and long-necked birds with streamlined bodies and large rounded wings, the males and females do not vary in external appearance, but on average males tend to be slightly larger than females. The plumage of the cranes varies by habitat, species inhabiting vast open wetlands tend to have more white in the plumage than do species that inhabit smaller wetlands or forested habitats, which tend to be more grey. These white species are generally larger. Most species of crane have some areas of skin on the face. This skin is used in communication with other cranes, and can be expanded by contracting and relaxing muscles, feathers on the head can be moved and erected in the blue, wattled and demoiselle cranes for signalling as well. Also important to communication is the position and length of the trachea, in the two crowned-cranes the trachea is shorter and only slightly impressed upon the bone of the sternum, whereas the trachea of the other species is longer and penetrates the sternum. In some species the entire sternum is fused to the plates of the trachea. The cranes have a distribution, occurring across most of the world continents. They are absent from Antarctica and, mysteriously, South America, east Asia is the centre of crane diversity, with eight species, followed by Africa, which holds five resident species and wintering populations of a sixth. Australia, Europe and North America have two species, the remaining genus, Grus, contains the most species and is the most widespread genus, although only a single species occurs in Africa as a wintering migrant
2.
Great Mosque of Kairouan
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The Great Mosque of Kairouan, also known as the Mosque of Uqba, is one of the most important mosques in Tunisia, situated in the UNESCO World Heritage town of Kairouan. The Great Mosque of Kairouan is one of the most impressive and largest Islamic monuments in North Africa and this vast space contains a hypostyle prayer hall, a huge marble-paved courtyard and a massive square minaret. In addition to its prestige, the Mosque of Uqba is one of the masterpieces of both architecture and Islamic art. Under the Aghlabids, huge works gave the mosque its present aspect, the fame of the Mosque of Uqba and of the other holy sites at Kairouan helped the city to develop and repopulate increasingly. The university, consisting of scholars who taught in the mosque, was a centre of both in Islamic thought and in the secular sciences. Its role can be compared to that of the University of Paris in the Middle Ages, with the decline of the city of Kairouan from the mid 11th century, the centre of intellectual thought moved to the University of Ez-Zitouna in Tunis. Located in the north-east of the medina of Kairouan, the mosque is in the district of Houmat al-Jami. This location corresponded originally to the heart of the fabric of the city founded by Uqba ibn Nafi. But because of the nature of the land, crossed by several tributaries of the wadis. Then there are the upheavals of Kairouan following Hilalians invasions in 449 AH, for all these reasons, the mosque is not any more situated in the center of the medina, and is thereby positioned on the extremity, near the walls. The building is a vast irregular quadrilateral, longer from the side than on the opposite side. It covers a area of 9000 m2. More than a role, the buttresses and towers full serve more to enhance the stability of the mosque built on a soil subject to compaction. At the foundation of Kairouan in 670, the Arab general and conqueror Uqba Ibn Nafi chose the site of his mosque in the center of the city, near the headquarters of the governor. Around 690, shortly after its construction, the mosque was destroyed during the occupation of Kairouan by the Berbers and it was rebuilt by the Ghassanid general Hasan ibn al-Numan in 703. In view of its expansion, he pulled down the mosque and it was under his auspices that the construction of the minaret began. In 774, a new reconstruction accompanied by modifications and embellishments took place under the direction of the Abbasid governor Yazid Ibn Hatim, under the rule of Aghlabid sovereigns, Kairouan was at its apogee, and the mosque profited from this period of stability and prosperity. In 836, Ziadet-Allah I reconstructed the mosque once more, this is when the acquired, at least in its entirety
3.
Tunisia
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Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia is the northernmost country in Africa, covering 165,000 square kilometres. Its northernmost point, Cape Angela, is the northernmost point on the African continent and it is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisias population was estimated to be just under 11 million in 2014, Tunisias name is derived from its capital city, Tunis, which is located on Tunisias northeast coast. Geographically, Tunisia contains the end of the Atlas Mountains. Much of the rest of the land is fertile soil. Tunisia is a unitary semi-presidential representative democratic republic and it is considered to be the only full democracy in the Arab World. It has a human development index. In addition, Tunisia is also a state of the United Nations. Close relations with Europe – in particular with France and with Italy – have been forged through economic cooperation, privatisation, in ancient times, Tunisia was primarily inhabited by Berbers. Phoenician immigration began in the 12th century BC, these immigrants founded Carthage, a major mercantile power and a military rival of the Roman Republic, Carthage was defeated by the Romans in 146 BC. The Romans, who would occupy Tunisia for most of the eight hundred years, introduced Christianity. After several attempts starting in 647, the Arabs conquered the whole of Tunisia by 697, the Ottomans held sway for over three hundred years. The French colonization of Tunisia occurred in 1881, Tunisia gained independence with Habib Bourguiba and declared the Tunisian Republic in 1957. In 2011, the Tunisian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, the country voted for parliament again on 26 October 2014, and for President on 23 November 2014. The word Tunisia is derived from Tunis, an urban hub. The present form of the name, with its Latinate suffix -ia, the French derivative Tunisie was adopted in some European languages with slight modifications, introducing a distinctive name to designate the country. Other languages remained untouched, such as the Russian Туни́с and Spanish Túnez, in this case, the same name is used for both country and city, as with the Arabic تونس, and only by context can one tell the difference. The name Tunis can be attributed to different origins and it is generally associated with the Berber root ⵜⵏⵙ, transcribed tns, which means to lay down or encampment
4.
Woodworking
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Woodworking is the activity or skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinet making, wood carving, joinery, carpentry, and woodturning. Along with stone, clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans, microwear analysis of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials, among early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from Kalambo Falls, Clacton-on-Sea and Lehringen. The spears from Schöningen provide some of the first examples of hunting gear. Flint tools were used for carving, since Neolithic times, carved wooden vessels are known, for example, from the Linear Pottery culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra. Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include tree trunks worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark, there is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in Ancient Egypt. Woodworking is depicted in extant ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture has been preserved. Tombs represent a collection of these artefacts and the inner coffins found in the tombs were also made of wood. The metal used by the Egyptians for woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, commonly used woodworking tools included axes, adzes, chisels, pull saws, and bow drills. Mortise and tenon joints are attested from the earliest Predynastic period and these joints were strengthened using pegs, dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in the New Kingdom period, Ancient Egyptians invented the art of veneering and used varnishes for finishing, though the composition of these varnishes is unknown. Woodworking was essential to the Romans and it provided, sometimes the only, material for buildings, transportation, tools, and household items. Vitruvius dedicates a chapter of his De architectura to timber. Pliny, while not a botanist, dedicated six books of his Natural History to trees and woody plants which provides a wealth of information on trees, the progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring and Autumn period. Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane, chalk-line and his teachings were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing. Despite this, it is believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various items such as pots, tables, altars, etc. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which Chinese furniture was so famous, with the advances in modern technology and the demands of industry, woodwork as a field has changed
5.
Chisel
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The handle and blade of some types of chisel are made of metal or of wood with a sharp edge in it. Chiselling use involves forcing the blade into some material to cut it, the driving force may be applied by pushing by hand, or by using a mallet or hammer. In industrial use, a ram or falling weight drives a chisel into the material. A gouge, one type of chisel, serves - particularly in woodworking, woodturning, gouges most frequently produce concave surfaces. A gouge typically has a U-shaped cross-section, chisel comes from the Old French cisel, modern ciseau, Late Latin cisellum, a cutting tool, from caedere, to cut. Chisels have a variety of uses. Many types of chisel have been devised, each suited to its intended use. Different types of chisel may be constructed differently, in terms of blade width or length, as well as shape. They may have a wooden or plastic handle attached using a tang or socket, woodworking chisels range from small hand tools for tiny details, to large chisels used to remove big sections of wood, in roughing out the shape of a pattern or design. Typically, in woodcarving, one starts with a larger tool, one of the largest types of chisel is the slick, used in timber frame construction and wooden shipbuilding. There are many types of woodworking chisels used for specific purposes, such as, Butt chisel, short chisel with beveled sides and straight edge for creating joints. Carving chisels, used for designs and sculpting, cutting edges are many, such as gouge, skew, parting, straight, paring. Corner chisel, resembles a punch and has an L-shaped cutting edge, cleans out square holes, mortises and corners with 90 degree angles. Bevel edge chisel, can get into acute angles with its bevelled edges, flooring chisel, cuts and lifts flooring materials for removal and repair, ideal for tongue-and-groove flooring. Framing chisel, usually used with mallet, similar to a chisel, except it has a longer. Slick, a large chisel driven by pressure, never struck. Mortise chisel, thick, rigid blade with cutting edge and deep, slightly tapered sides to make mortises. Paring chisel, has a long blade ideal for cleaning grooves, skew chisel, has a 60 degree cutting angle and is used for trimming and finishing
6.
Figurine
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A figurine or statuette is a small statue that represents a human, deity or animal, or in practice a pair or small group of them. Figurines have been made in many media, with pottery, metal, wood, glass, ceramic figurines not made of porcelain are called terracottas in historical contexts. Figures with movable parts, allowing limbs to be posed, are likely to be called dolls, mannequins, or action figures, or robots or automata. Figurines and miniatures are used in board games, such as chess. In China, there are extant Neolithic figurines, European prehistoric figurines of women, some appearing pregnant, are called Venus figurines, because of their presumed connection to fertility. The two oldest known examples are made of stone, were found in Africa and Asia, and are several hundred years old. Many made of fired clay have been found in Europe that date to 25-30,000 BC, Olmec figurines in semi-precious stones and pottery had a wide influence all over Mesoamerica about 1000-500 BC, and were apparently usually kept in houses. These early figurines are among the first signs of human culture, one cannot know in some cases how they were used. They probably had religious or ceremonial significance and may have used in many types of rituals. Some may have worn as jewelry or intended to amuse children. Porcelain and other ceramics are common materials for figurines, ancient Greek terracotta figurines, made in moulds, were a large industry by the Hellenistic period, and ones in bronze also very common. In Roman art bronze came to predominate, most of these were religious, and deposited in large numbers in temples as votives, or kept in the home and sometimes buried with their owner. But types such as Tanagra figurines included many purely decorative subjects, there are many early examples from China, which drove the experimentation in Europe to replicate the process. The first European porcelain figurines, produced in a process mastered in Germany were known as Meissen ware after the city where it began, soon the technique was copied in other cities, such as the one depicted from Dresden. Genre figurines of gallant scenes, beggars or figurines of saints are carved from pinewood in Val Gardena, South Tyrol, modern figurines, particularly those made of plastic, are often referred to as figures. They can encompass modern action figures and other figures as well as Precious Moments and Hummel figurines, Bobbleheads, Sebastian Miniatures. Two companies which produce porcelain figurines are Royal Doulton, Lladró, Figurines of comic book or sci-fi/fantasy characters without movable parts have been referred to by the terms inaction figures and staction figures. There is also a known as mini war gaming in which players use figurines in table top based games
7.
Sculpture
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Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
8.
Tracery
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In architecture, tracery is the stonework elements that support the glass in a Gothic window. The term probably derives from the floors on which the complex patterns of late Gothic windows were laid out. There are two types, plate tracery and the later bar tracery. Romanesque church windows were normally quite small, somewhat taller than wide, from around the 1140s, the pointed-arch Gothic window started to take over. With this type of design, the spandrels are just blank wall, the rose windows of early- and high-Gothic cathedrals, such as the example in the north transept of Laon Cathedral or the west facade at Chartres, also employed plate tracery. This greatly limited the amount of light admitted to the interior by these windows. The earliest bar tracery designs were made for the windows at Reims around 1215. The cross-section of each mullion or tracery bar was important both for the integrity of the window and for the visual effect. As can be seen in Viollet-le-Ducs diagram there was normally a roll-moulding on both the inside and outside of the windows, which made the mullions appear even more slender than they actually were. The shoulder marked B on the diagram is the glazing slot, as bar tracery opened the way for more complex patterns, masons started applying those same patterns to other surfaces as well as the actual window openings. When used on an otherwise solid walls, such motifs are known as blind tracery, open tracery in particular was a key feature of the later phases of Rayonnant Gothic. Most 19th-century histories of Gothic architectural style used a series of rather arbitrary categories based on the evolution of the dominant patterns of window tracery. Such teleological models are now regarded as oversimplistic and are shunned by art historians. Because of the cost and size limitations of parchment sheets, such designs would normally be drawn by incising onto a board or a conveniently placed section of flat wall. In the latter case, the wall would be prepared with a layer of plaster. A number of churches and cathedrals still show the faint remains of these tracings, from where the compass points scratched through the plaster. A number of building sites originally had dedicated tracery chambers. This also meant that masons could carry on working through the winter season, the tracing floors themselves were covered with plaster of paris, which could be relaid and smoothed down after each set of designs were finished with
9.
History of wood carving
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Wood carving is one of the oldest arts of humankind. Wooden spears from the Middle Paleolithic, such as the Clacton Spear, the North American Indian carves his wooden fish-hook or his pipe stem just as the Polynesian works patterns on his paddle. Figure-work seems to have been universal, the texture of the material, too, often proves challenging to the expression of features, especially in the classic type of youthful face. On the other hand, magnificent examples exist of the rugged features of age, the beetling brows. In ancient work the surface may not have been of such consequence, for figures as a rule being painted for protection and especially color. It is not always realized at the present day to what extent color has even from the most ancient times used to enhance the effect of wood-carving. The modern Colour prejudice against gold and other tints is perhaps because painted work has been vulgarized, the arrangement of a proper and harmonious scheme of colour is not the work of the house painter, but of the specially trained artist. In the early 20th century, the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, on much of this entry is based, commented. The work is slow and requires substantial skill, making the works expensive. Other and cheaper methods of decoration have driven carving from its former place, machine work has much to answer for, and the endeavor to popularize the craft by means of the village class has not always achieved its own end. The gradual disappearance of the individual artist, elbowed out as he has been, the extreme dryness of the climate of Egypt accounts for the existence of a number of woodcarvings from this remote period. Some wood panels from the tomb of Hosul Egypt, at Sakkarah are of the III, the carving consists of Egyptian hieroglyphs and figures in low relief, and the style is extremely delicate and fine. A stool shown on one of the panels has the legs shaped like the fore and hind limbs of an animal, in the Cairo museum may be seen the statue of a man from the period of the Great Pyramid of Giza, possibly 4000 B. C. The expression of the face and the realism of the carriage have never been surpassed by any Egyptian sculptor of this or any other period, the figure is carved out of a solid block of sycamore, and in accordance with the Egyptian custom the arms are joined on. The IV. V. and VI. dynasties cover the finest period of Egyptian sculpture, the statues found in the tombs show a freedom of treatment which was never reached in later times. They are all portraits, which the artist strove his utmost to render exactly like his model, for these are not, like mere modern statues, simply works of art, but had primarily a religious signification. As the spirits of the deceased might inhabit, these Ka statues, sometimes the animal would be carved in the round and its hollowed body used as the case itself. Of furniture, folding seats like the camp stool, and chairs with legs terminating in the heads of beasts or the feet of animals
10.
Stone sculpture
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Stone sculpture is the result of forming 3-dimensional visually interesting objects from stone. It is an ancient activity where pieces of natural stone are shaped by the controlled removal of stone. Petroglyphs are perhaps the earliest form, images created by removing part of a surface which remains in situ, by incising, pecking, carving. Monumental sculpture covers large works, and architectural sculpture, which is attached to buildings. Hardstone carving is the carving for artistic purposes of semi-precious stones such as jade, agate, onyx, rock crystal, sard or carnelian, alabaster or mineral gypsum is a soft mineral that is easy to carve for smaller works and still relatively durable. Engraved gems are small carved gems, including cameos, originally used as seal rings, carving stone into sculpture is an activity older than civilization itself, beginning perhaps with incised images on cave walls. Prehistoric sculptures were usually human forms, such as the Venus of Willendorf, later cultures devised animal, human-animal and abstract forms in stone. The earliest cultures used abrasive techniques, and modern technology employs pneumatic hammers, but for most of human history, sculptors used hammer and chisel as the basic tools for carving stone. In the direct method of carving, the work usually begins with the selection of a stone for carving. The artist using the method may use sketches but eschews the use of a physical model. The fully dimensional form or figure is created for the first time in the stone itself, as the artist removes material, sketches on the block of stone, and develops the work along the way. On the other hand, is the method, when the sculptor begins with a clearly defined model to be copied in stone. The models, usually made of plaster or modeling clay, may be fully the size of the intended sculpture, once the model is complete, a suitable stone must be found to fit the intended design. The model is copied in stone by measuring with calipers or a pointing machine. This method is used when the carving is done by other sculptors. Some artists use the stone itself as inspiration, the Renaissance artist Michelangelo claimed that his job was to free the human form hidden inside the block. When he or she is ready to carve, the carver usually begins by knocking off, or pitching, large portions of unwanted stone. For this task he may select a point chisel, which is a long, hefty piece of steel with a point at one end, a pitching tool may also be used at this early stage, which is a wedge-shaped chisel with a broad, flat edge
11.
Bronze
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These additions produce a range of alloys that may be harder than copper alone, or have other useful properties, such as stiffness, ductility, or machinability. The archeological period where bronze was the hardest metal in use is known as the Bronze Age. In the ancient Near East this began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC, with India and China starting to use bronze around the same time, everywhere it gradually spread across regions. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age starting from about 1300 BC and reaching most of Eurasia by about 500 BC, the discovery of bronze enabled people to create metal objects which were harder and more durable than previously possible. Bronze tools, weapons, armor, and building such as decorative tiles were harder and more durable than their stone. It was only later that tin was used, becoming the major ingredient of bronze in the late 3rd millennium BC. Tin bronze was superior to arsenic bronze in that the process could be more easily controlled. Also, unlike arsenic, metallic tin and fumes from tin refining are not toxic, the earliest tin-alloy bronze dates to 4500 BCE in a Vinča culture site in Pločnik. Other early examples date to the late 4th millennium BC in Africa, Susa and some ancient sites in China, Luristan, ores of copper and the far rarer tin are not often found together, so serious bronze work has always involved trade. Tin sources and trade in ancient times had a influence on the development of cultures. In Europe, a source of tin was the British deposits of ore in Cornwall. In many parts of the world, large hoards of bronze artefacts are found, suggesting that bronze also represented a store of value, in Europe, large hoards of bronze tools, typically socketed axes, are found, which mostly show no signs of wear. With Chinese ritual bronzes, which are documented in the inscriptions they carry and from other sources and these were made in enormous quantities for elite burials, and also used by the living for ritual offerings. Pure iron is soft, and the process of beating and folding sponge iron to wrought iron removes from the metal carbon. Careful control of the alloying and tempering eventually allowed for wrought iron with properties comparable to modern steel, Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, and has continued in use for many purposes to the modern day. Among other advantages, it does not rust, the weaker wrought iron was found to be sufficiently strong for many uses. Archaeologists suspect that a disruption of the tin trade precipitated the transition. The population migrations around 1200–1100 BC reduced the shipping of tin around the Mediterranean, limiting supplies, there are many different bronze alloys, but typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin
12.
Art history
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Art history is the study of objects of art in their historical development and stylistic contexts, i. e. genre, design, format, and style. This includes the arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture as well as the minor arts of ceramics, furniture. As a term, art history encompasses several methods of studying the arts, in common usage referring to works of art. One branch of this area of study is aesthetics, which includes investigating the enigma of the sublime, technically, art history is not these things, because the art historian uses historical method to answer the questions, How did the artist come to create the work. Who were his or her teachers, who were his or her disciples. What historical forces shaped the artists oeuvre, and How did he or she and the creation, in turn, affect the course of artistic, political, and social events. It is, however, questionable whether many questions of this kind can be answered satisfactorily without also considering basic questions about the nature of art, unfortunately the current disciplinary gap between art history and the philosophy of art often hinders this inquiry. Art history is not only a biographical endeavor, Art historians often root their studies in the scrutiny of individual objects. They thus attempt to answer in historically specific ways, questions such as, what meaning did this object convey. Did the artist meet their goals well, the historical backbone of the discipline is a celebratory chronology of beautiful creations commissioned by public or religious bodies or wealthy individuals in western Europe. Such a canon remains prominent, as indicated by the selection of objects present in art history textbooks, nonetheless, since the 20th century there has been an effort to re-define the discipline to be more inclusive of non-Western art, art made by women, and vernacular creativity. Art history as we know it in the 21st century began in the 19th century but has precedents that date to the ancient world, advances in photographic reproduction and printing techniques after World War II increased the ability of reproductions of artworks. Such technologies have helped to advance the discipline in profound ways, the study of visual art thus described, can be a practice that involves understanding context, form, and social significance. Art historians employ a number of methods in their research into the ontology, Art historians often examine work in the context of its time. In short, this approach examines the work of art in the context of the world within which it was created, Art historians also often examine work through an analysis of form, that is, the creators use of line, shape, color, texture, and composition. This approach examines how the artist uses a picture plane or the three dimensions of sculptural or architectural space to create his or her art. The way these individual elements are employed results in representational or non-representational art, is the artist imitating an object or image found in nature. The closer the art hews to perfect imitation, the more the art is realistic, is the artist not imitating, but instead relying on symbolism, or in an important way striving to capture natures essence, rather than copy it directly
13.
Totem pole
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Totem poles are monumental sculptures, a type of Northwest Coast art, consisting of poles, posts or pillars, carved with symbols or figures. They are usually made from trees, mostly western red cedar. The word totem derives from the Algonquian word odoodem, his kinship group, the carvings may symbolize or commemorate cultural beliefs that recount familiar legends, clan lineages, or notable events. The poles may also serve as architectural features, welcome signs for village visitors, mortuary vessels for the remains of deceased ancestors. Given the complexity and symbolic meanings of totem pole carvings, their placement and importance lies in the observers knowledge, Totem pole carvings were likely preceded by a long history of decorative carving, with stylistic features borrowed from smaller prototypes. Renewed interest from tourists, collectors, and scholars in the 1880s and 1890s helped document and collect the remaining totem poles, twentieth-century revivals of the craft, additional research, and continued support from the public have helped establish new interest in this regional artistic tradition. Totem poles primarily serve as symbol to the animistic peoples of western North America reflecting their submission to a pantheon. Makers of these include the Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshian, Kwakwaka’wakw, Nuxalk. Totem poles are carved from the highly rot-resistant trunks of Thuja plicata trees. Because of the climate and the nature of the materials used to make the poles. Noteworthy examples, some dating as far back as 1880, include those at the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria and the Museum of Anthropology at UBC in Vancouver. Totem poles are the largest, but not the objects that coastal Pacific Northwest natives use to depict worship, family legends, animals, people. The freestanding poles seen by the regions first European explorers were likely preceded by a history of decorative carving. Stylistic features of these poles were borrowed from smaller prototypes, or from the support posts of house beams. Before iron and steel arrived in the area, natives used crude tools made of stone, shells, the process was slow and laborious, axes were unknown. By the late century, the use of metal cutting tools enabled more complex carvings. The tall monumental poles appearing in front of homes in coastal villages probably did not appear until after the beginning of the nineteenth century. The scholar Eddie Malin has proposed that totem poles progressed from house posts, funerary containers, malins theory is supported by the photographic documentation of the Pacific Northwest coasts cultural history and the more sophisticated designs of the Haida poles
14.
African sculpture
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Masks are important elements in the art of many peoples, along with human figures, often highly stylized. Direct images of deities are relatively infrequent, but masks in particular are or were made for religious ceremonies. African masks were an influence on European Modernist art, which was inspired by their lack of concern for naturalistic depiction, the Nubian Kingdom of Kush in modern Sudan was in close and often hostile contact with Egypt, and produced monumental sculpture mostly derivative of styles to the north. In West Africa, the earliest known sculptures are from the Nok culture which thrived between 500 BC and 500 AD in modern Nigeria, with figures typically with elongated bodies. Many West African figures are used in rituals and are often coated with materials placed on them for ceremonial offerings. The Mande-speaking peoples of the region make pieces of wood with broad, flat surfaces and arms. In Central Africa, however, the main distinguishing characteristics include heart-shaped faces that are curved inward and display patterns of circles and these poles are, then, placed next to graves and are associated with death and the ancestral world. The culture known from Great Zimbabwe left more impressive buildings than sculpture, modern Zimbabwean sculptors in soapstone have achieved considerable international success. Southern Africa’s oldest known clay figures date from 400 to 600 AD and have heads with a mixture of human. African traditional masks Tribal art African art Hugh Honour and John Fleming, A World History of Art,1982, Macmillan, London, page refs to 1984 Macmillan 1st edn. paperback. Art of the Dogon, selections from the Lester Wunderman collection, new York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Genesis, ideas of origin in African sculpture, new York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Roese, Herbert E. African Wood Carvings, the art of West Africa. Herbert E. Roese Sculpture of Nigeria and Cameroon
15.
Oceania
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Oceania, also known as Oceanica, is a region centred on the islands of the tropical Pacific Ocean. The term is used more specifically to denote a continent comprising Australia. The term was coined as Océanie circa 1812 by geographer Conrad Malte-Brun, the word Océanie is a French word derived from the Latin word oceanus, and this from the Greek word ὠκεανός, ocean. Natives and inhabitants of this region are called Oceanians or Oceanicans, as an ecozone, Oceania includes all of Micronesia, Fiji, and all of Polynesia except New Zealand. New Zealand, along with New Guinea and nearby islands, part of the Philippine islands, Australia, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, in geopolitical terms, however, New Zealand, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia are almost always considered part of Oceania. Australia and Papua New Guinea are usually considered part of Oceania along with the Maluku Islands, puncak Jaya in Papua is often considered the highest peak in Oceania. Oceania was originally conceived as the lands of the Pacific Ocean and it comprised four regions, Polynesia, Micronesia, Malaysia, and Melanesia. The area extends to Sumatra in the west, the Bonin Islands in the northwest, the Hawaiian Islands in the northeast, Rapa Nui and Sala y Gómez Island in the east, and Macquarie Island in the south. Not included are the Pacific islands of Taiwan, the Ryukyu Islands and the Japanese archipelago, all on the margins of Asia, and the Aleutian Islands of North America. The islands at the extremes of Oceania are Bonin, a politically integral part of Japan, Hawaii, a state of the United States. There is also a geographic definition that excludes land on the Sunda Plate. Biogeographically, Oceania is used as a synonym for either the Australasian ecozone or the Pacific ecozone, Oceania is one of eight terrestrial ecozones, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. The Oceania ecozone includes all of Micronesia, Fiji, and all of Polynesia except New Zealand, New Zealand, New Guinea, Melanesia apart from Fiji, and Australia constitute the separate Australasian ecozone. The Malay Archipelago is part of the Indomalaya ecozone, related to these concepts are Near Oceania, that part of western Island Melanesia which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and Remote Oceania which is more recently settled. The term is used to denote a continent comprising Australia. New Zealand forms the corner of the Polynesian Triangle. Its indigenous Māori constitute one of the cultures of Polynesia. It is also, however, considered part of Australasia, the history of Oceania in the medieval period was synonymous with the history of the indigenous peoples of Australasia, Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia
16.
Middle Ages
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In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or Medieval Period lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and merged into the Renaissance, the Middle Ages is the middle period of the three traditional divisions of Western history, classical antiquity, the medieval period, and the modern period. The medieval period is subdivided into the Early, High. Population decline, counterurbanisation, invasion, and movement of peoples, the large-scale movements of the Migration Period, including various Germanic peoples, formed new kingdoms in what remained of the Western Roman Empire. In the seventh century, North Africa and the Middle East—once part of the Byzantine Empire—came under the rule of the Umayyad Caliphate, although there were substantial changes in society and political structures, the break with classical antiquity was not complete. The still-sizeable Byzantine Empire survived in the east and remained a major power, the empires law code, the Corpus Juris Civilis or Code of Justinian, was rediscovered in Northern Italy in 1070 and became widely admired later in the Middle Ages. In the West, most kingdoms incorporated the few extant Roman institutions, monasteries were founded as campaigns to Christianise pagan Europe continued. The Franks, under the Carolingian dynasty, briefly established the Carolingian Empire during the later 8th, the Crusades, first preached in 1095, were military attempts by Western European Christians to regain control of the Holy Land from Muslims. Kings became the heads of centralised nation states, reducing crime and violence, intellectual life was marked by scholasticism, a philosophy that emphasised joining faith to reason, and by the founding of universities. Controversy, heresy, and the Western Schism within the Catholic Church paralleled the conflict, civil strife. Cultural and technological developments transformed European society, concluding the Late Middle Ages, the Middle Ages is one of the three major periods in the most enduring scheme for analysing European history, classical civilisation, or Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Modern Period. Medieval writers divided history into periods such as the Six Ages or the Four Empires, when referring to their own times, they spoke of them as being modern. In the 1330s, the humanist and poet Petrarch referred to pre-Christian times as antiqua, leonardo Bruni was the first historian to use tripartite periodisation in his History of the Florentine People. Bruni and later argued that Italy had recovered since Petrarchs time. The Middle Ages first appears in Latin in 1469 as media tempestas or middle season, in early usage, there were many variants, including medium aevum, or middle age, first recorded in 1604, and media saecula, or middle ages, first recorded in 1625. The alternative term medieval derives from medium aevum, tripartite periodisation became standard after the German 17th-century historian Christoph Cellarius divided history into three periods, Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. The most commonly given starting point for the Middle Ages is 476, for Europe as a whole,1500 is often considered to be the end of the Middle Ages, but there is no universally agreed upon end date. English historians often use the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 to mark the end of the period
17.
Germany
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Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a federal parliamentary republic in central-western Europe. It includes 16 constituent states, covers an area of 357,021 square kilometres, with about 82 million inhabitants, Germany is the most populous member state of the European Union. After the United States, it is the second most popular destination in the world. Germanys capital and largest metropolis is Berlin, while its largest conurbation is the Ruhr, other major cities include Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart, Düsseldorf and Leipzig. Various Germanic tribes have inhabited the northern parts of modern Germany since classical antiquity, a region named Germania was documented before 100 AD. During the Migration Period the Germanic tribes expanded southward, beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation, in 1871, Germany became a nation state when most of the German states unified into the Prussian-dominated German Empire. After World War I and the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the Empire was replaced by the parliamentary Weimar Republic, the establishment of the national socialist dictatorship in 1933 led to World War II and the Holocaust. After a period of Allied occupation, two German states were founded, the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic, in 1990, the country was reunified. In the 21st century, Germany is a power and has the worlds fourth-largest economy by nominal GDP. As a global leader in industrial and technological sectors, it is both the worlds third-largest exporter and importer of goods. Germany is a country with a very high standard of living sustained by a skilled. It upholds a social security and universal health system, environmental protection. Germany was a member of the European Economic Community in 1957. It is part of the Schengen Area, and became a co-founder of the Eurozone in 1999, Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, and the OECD. The national military expenditure is the 9th highest in the world, the English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine. This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz popular, derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- people, the discovery of the Mauer 1 mandible shows that ancient humans were present in Germany at least 600,000 years ago. The oldest complete hunting weapons found anywhere in the world were discovered in a mine in Schöningen where three 380, 000-year-old wooden javelins were unearthed
18.
Russia
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Russia, also officially the Russian Federation, is a country in Eurasia. The European western part of the country is more populated and urbanised than the eastern. Russias capital Moscow is one of the largest cities in the world, other urban centers include Saint Petersburg, Novosibirsk, Yekaterinburg, Nizhny Novgorod. Extending across the entirety of Northern Asia and much of Eastern Europe, Russia spans eleven time zones and incorporates a range of environments. It shares maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, the East Slavs emerged as a recognizable group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD. Founded and ruled by a Varangian warrior elite and their descendants, in 988 it adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next millennium. Rus ultimately disintegrated into a number of states, most of the Rus lands were overrun by the Mongol invasion. The Soviet Union played a role in the Allied victory in World War II. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the worlds first human-made satellite and the launching of the first humans in space. By the end of 1990, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy, largest standing military in the world. It is governed as a federal semi-presidential republic, the Russian economy ranks as the twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russias extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it one of the producers of oil. The country is one of the five recognized nuclear weapons states and possesses the largest stockpile of weapons of mass destruction, Russia is a great power as well as a regional power and has been characterised as a potential superpower. The name Russia is derived from Rus, a state populated mostly by the East Slavs. However, this name became more prominent in the later history, and the country typically was called by its inhabitants Русская Земля. In order to distinguish this state from other states derived from it, it is denoted as Kievan Rus by modern historiography, an old Latin version of the name Rus was Ruthenia, mostly applied to the western and southern regions of Rus that were adjacent to Catholic Europe. The current name of the country, Россия, comes from the Byzantine Greek designation of the Kievan Rus, the standard way to refer to citizens of Russia is Russians in English and rossiyane in Russian. There are two Russian words which are translated into English as Russians
19.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
20.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
21.
Iconography
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The word iconography comes from the Greek εἰκών and γράφειν. A secondary meaning is the production of images, called icons, in the Byzantine and Orthodox Christian tradition. In art history, an iconography may also mean a depiction of a subject in terms of the content of the image, such as the number of figures used, their placing. Sometimes distinctions have been made between iconology and iconography, although the definitions, and so the distinction made, varies, when referring to movies, genres are immediately recognizable through their iconography, motifs that become associated with a specific genre through repetition. Gian Pietro Bellori, a 17th-century biographer of artists of his own time, describes and analyses, not always correctly, many works. Lessings study of the classical figure Amor with a torch was an early attempt to use a study of a type of image to explain the culture it originated in. These early contributions paved the way for encyclopedias, manuals, mâles lArt religieux du XIIIe siècle en France translated into English as The Gothic Image, Religious Art in France of the Thirteenth Century has remained continuously in print. In the United States, to which Panofsky immigrated in 1931, students such as Frederick Hartt, the period from 1940 can be seen as one where iconography was especially prominent in art history. These are now being digitised and made online, usually on a restricted basis. For example, the Iconclass code 71H7131 is for the subject of Bathsheba with Davids letter, whereas 71 is the whole Old Testament and 71H the story of David. A number of collections of different types have been classified using Iconclass, notably types of old master print, the collections of the Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. These are available, usually on-line or on DVD, the system can also be used outside pure art history, for example on sites like Flickr. Central to the iconography and hagiography of Indian religions are mudra or gestures with specific meanings, the symbolic use of colour to denote the Classical Elements or Mahabhuta and letters and bija syllables from sacred alphabetic scripts are other features. Under the influence of art developed esoteric meanings, accessible only to initiates. The art of Indian Religions esp, for example, Narasimha an incarnation of Vishnu though considered a wrathful deity but in few contexts is depicted in pacified mood. Conversely, in Hindu art, narrative scenes have become more common in recent centuries, especially in miniature paintings of the lives of Krishna. Eventually the Church would succeed in weeding most of these out, after the period of Byzantine iconoclasm iconographical innovation was regarded as unhealthy, if not heretical, in the Eastern Church, though it still continued at a glacial pace. More than in the West, traditional depictions were often considered to have authentic or miraculous origins, the Eastern church also never accepted the use of monumental high relief or free-standing sculpture, which it found too reminiscent of paganism
22.
Oak
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An oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus of the beech family, Fagaceae. There are approximately 600 extant species of oaks, the common name oak also appears in the names of species in related genera, notably Lithocarpus, as well as in those of unrelated species such as Grevillea robusta and the Casuarinaceae. North America contains the largest number of oak species, with approximately 90 occurring in the United States, the second greatest center of oak diversity is China, which contains approximately 100 species. Oaks have spirally arranged leaves, with lobate margins in many species, also, the acorns contain tannic acid, as do the leaves, which helps to guard from fungi and insects. Many deciduous species are marcescent, not dropping dead leaves until spring, in spring, a single oak tree produces both male flowers and small female flowers. The fruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a structure known as a cupule, each acorn contains one seed and takes 6–18 months to mature. The live oaks are distinguished for being evergreen, but are not actually a distinct group, the oak tree is a flowering plant. Oaks may be divided into two genera and a number of sections, The genus Quercus is divided into the following sections, Quercus, the white oaks of Europe, Asia and North America. Styles are short, acorns mature in 6 months and taste sweet or slightly bitter, the leaves mostly lack a bristle on their lobe tips, which are usually rounded. The type species is Quercus robur, Mesobalanus, Hungarian oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia. Styles long, acorns mature in about 6 months and taste bitter, the section Mesobalanus is closely related to section Quercus and sometimes included in it. Cerris, the Turkey oak and its relatives of Europe and Asia, styles long, acorn mature in 18 months and taste very bitter. The inside of the shell is hairless. Its leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Protobalanus, the live oak and its relatives, in southwest United States. Styles short, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter, the inside of the acorn shell appears woolly. Leaves typically have sharp tips, with bristles at the lobe tip. Lobatae, the red oaks of North America, Central America, styles long, acorns mature in 18 months and taste very bitter
23.
Chip carving
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Chip carving or chip-carving, kerbschnitt in German, is a style of carving in which knives or chisels are used to remove small chips of the material from a flat surface in a single piece. The style became important in Migration Period metalwork, mainly Animal style jewellery and this was very probably a transfer to metalworking of a technique already used in woodcarving, but no wooden examples have survived. Famous Anglo-Saxon examples include the jewellery from Sutton Hoo and the Tassilo Chalice, in modern wood carving, the style is also called spoon carving. The style is traditional in the art of many countries. Patterns can be free form style or based on geometric figures, in America it is mostly used with basswood, butternut, pine, or mahogany. Chip carving knives can also be used for whittling, cabinet making, and general workbench purposes
24.
Relief carving
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Relief carving as a type of wood carving in which figures are carved in a flat panel of wood. The figures project only slightly from the rather than standing freely. Depending on the degree of projection, reliefs may also be classified as high or medium relief, Relief carving can be described as carving pictures in wood. The process of carving involves removing wood from a flat wood panel in such a way that an object appears to rise out of the wood. Relief carving begins with an idea, usually put to paper in the form of a master pattern which is then transferred to the wood surface. Most relief carving is done with hand tools - chisels and gouges - which often require a mallet to drive them through the wood, as wood is removed from the panel around the objects traced onto it from the pattern, the objects themselves stand up from the background wood. Modeling of the objects can take place as soon as enough background has been removed, in order to secure the wood panel, a workbench with fixtures like bench-dogs, carvers screw or clamps, is necessary. Carving tools come in a variety of shapes and sizes, some aimed strictly at the hobbyist. Some carving tools are held one hand while the carving is held in the other. But most relief carving requires that the wood panel be secured so that both hands may be on the carving tool, much of the skill required for relief carving lies in learning to grip and manipulate tools to get the desired effect. Tool sharpening is also a skill to learn, and dull tools are a severe obstacle to effective carving. Create a pattern, drawn on paper, prepare a wood panel for carving. This may be a piece of wood or a laminated panel. Transfer the pattern to the panel, using paper as the transfer medium. Remove wood around the objects that comprise the pattern, model the objects Detail the objects Tidy the background behind the objects Apply a suitable finish to the panel 1. High relief, usually between 1/2 and 2 in depth, bas relief, or Low relief usually under 1/2 in depth. Deep relief, usually over 2 in depth, pierced relief, where holes are carved clear through the wood. Some carvers prefer to finish their carving with a clear finish, but others incorporate color and pyrography into their relief carvings
25.
Scandinavian flat-plane style of woodcarving
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The Scandinavian flat-plane style of woodcarving is a style of figure carving. The figures are carved in large planes, created primarily using a carving knife. Tool marks are left in the carving and very little rounding or sanding is done. Emil Janel, a common example of the style is the Dalecarlian horse, whose distinctive shape is due to this manner of carving
26.
Caricature
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A caricature is a rendered image showing the features of its subject in a simplified or exaggerated way through sketching, pencil strokes, or through other artistic drawings. In literature, a caricature is a description of a person using exaggeration of some characteristics, Caricatures can be insulting or complimentary and can serve a political purpose or be drawn solely for entertainment. Caricatures of politicians are commonly used in cartoons, while caricatures of movie stars are often found in entertainment magazines. The term is derived from the Italian caricare—to charge or load, an early definition occurs in the English doctor Thomas Brownes Christian Morals, published posthumously in 1716. Expose not thy self by four-footed manners unto monstrous draughts, with the footnote, When Mens faces are drawn with resemblance to some other Animals, the Italians call it, to be drawn in Caricatura Thus, the word caricature essentially means a loaded portrait. Some of the earliest caricatures are found in the works of Leonardo da Vinci, the point was to offer an impression of the original which was more striking than a portrait. Caricature took a road to its first successes in the aristocratic circles of France and Italy. These caricatures were the work of Brig. -Gen, george Townshend whose caricatures of British General James Wolfe, depicted as Deformed and crass and hideous, were drawn to amuse fellow officers. Elsewhere, two great practitioners of the art of caricature in 18th-century Britain were Thomas Rowlandson and James Gillray, Rowlandson was more of an artist and his work took its inspiration mostly from the public at large. Gillray was more concerned with the vicious visual satirisation of political life and they were, however, great friends and caroused together in the pubs of London. In a lecture titled The History and Art of Caricature, the British caricaturist Ted Harrison said that the caricaturist can choose to either mock or wound the subject with an effective caricature. Drawing caricatures can simply be a form of entertainment and amusement – in which case gentle mockery is in order – or the art can be employed to make a social or political point. A caricaturist draws on the characteristics of the subject, the acquired characteristics. Sir Max Beerbohm, created and published caricatures of the men of his own time. His style of single-figure caricatures in formalized groupings was established by 1896 and his published works include Caricatures of Twenty-five Gentlemen, The Poets Corner, and Rossetti and His Circle. He published widely in magazines of the time, and his works were exhibited regularly in London at the Carfax Gallery. George Cruikshank created political prints that attacked the family and leading politicians. He went on to create caricatures of British life for popular publications such as The Comic Almanack
27.
Lovespoon
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A Lovespoon is a wooden spoon decoratively carved that was traditionally presented as a gift of romantic intent. The spoon is decorated with symbols of love, and was intended to reflect the skill of the carver. Due to the designs, lovespoons are no longer used as functioning spoons and are now decorative craft items. The lovespoon is a craft that dates back to the seventeenth century. Over generations, decorative carvings were added to the spoon and it lost its practical use. The earliest known dated lovespoon from Wales, displayed in the St Fagans National History Museum near Cardiff, is from 1667, the earliest dated lovespoon worldwide originates from Germany, and is dated as 1664. The lovespoon was given to a woman by her suitor. It was important for the father to see that the young man was capable of providing for the family. Sailors would often carve lovespoons during their journeys, which is why anchors would often be incorporated into the carvings. Certain symbols came to have specific meanings, a horseshoe for luck, a cross for faith, bells for marriage, hearts for love, a wheel supporting a loved one, caged balls indicated the number of children hoped for. Other difficult carvings, such as chains, were as much a demonstration of the skill as a symbolic meaning. Today lovespoons are given as wedding and anniversary gifts, as well as birthday, baby gifts and they are now mostly seen as a folk craft. In old times, newly wed couples in Norway ate with linked spoons to symbolize the linkage of their marriage, often the spoons and chain were made from a single piece of wood, emphasizing wood-carving craftsmanship. Similar linked spoons can be found in ethnographic museums. A design for making linked spoons was published in Popular Science, the Fine Art of Carving Lovespoons. East Petersburg, Pennsylvania, US, Fox Chapel Publishers, east Petersburg, Pennsylvania, US, Fox Chapel Publishers. The Bulletin of the Board of Celtic Studies
28.
Treen (wooden)
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Treen, literally of a tree is a generic name for small handmade functional household objects made of wood. Treen is distinct from furniture, such as chairs, and cabinetry, as well as clocks, before the late 17th-century, when silver, pewter, and ceramics were introduced for tableware, most small household items, boxes and tableware were carved from wood. Today, treen is highly collectable for its beautiful patina and tactile appeal, anything from wooden plates and bowls, snuff boxes and needle cases, spoons and stay busks to shoehorns and chopping boards can be classed as treen. Domestic and agricultural tools are also usually classed with treen. Before the advent of metal wares in industrialized societies, and later plastic. Turning and carving were the key manufacturing techniques, Wooden objects have survived relatively less well than those of metal or stone, and their study by archaeologists and historians has been somewhat neglected until recently. Their strongly functional and undecorated forms have, however, been regarded by designers and collectors. The scholarly study of treen was greatly advanced by Edward Pinto, in 1965, when Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery purchased his collection, it contained over 7,000 items. Lovespoon Wooden spoon Daniel Cragin Mill Pinto, Edward, Wooden Bygones Of Smoking And Snuff Taking
29.
Whittling
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Whittling may refer either to the art of carving shapes out of raw wood using a knife or a time-occupying, non-artistic process of repeatedly shaving slivers from a piece of wood. Casual whittling is typically performed with a light, small-bladed knife, specialized whittling knives, with fixed single blades, are preferred for sculpting artistic work. They have thick handles which are easier to grip for long periods, allowing precise control. Occasionally the terms whittling and carving are used interchangeably, but they are different arts, carving employs the use of chisels, gouges, and a mallet, while whittling involves only the use of a knife. Carving frequently involves powered equipment such as lathes, in industrialized areas of the world, whittling is mainly a hobby and not an occupational activity as it was before powered wood working equipment enabled modern production. Splash whittling is a historical, decorative technique in Norway using an ax to create a herringbone pattern, always protect your thumb with a leather thimble and your holding hand with a carving glove. While any type of wood can be used for whittling, there are woods which are easier to work with, soft woods with a small grain, such as basswood, are easier to whittle and are relatively inexpensive. Hardwoods are more difficult to whittle
30.
Desay Madu Jhya
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Desay Madu Jhyā is a traditional wooden window in Kathmandu which is celebrated for its uniqueness. The name means window without equal in the country in Nepal Bhasa, the window is set into the facade of a residential house in central Kathmandu. Desay Madu Jhyā is a specimen of the heritage of the Newar people of Nepal which goes back more than a thousand years. Newar architecture is characterised by windows and doors set into bare brick walls. The intricate carvings mostly depict religious motifs, ritual objects, mythical beasts, the level of design and carving of the Newar window reached its peak in the mid-18th century. They are found on palaces, private residences and sacred houses across Nepal Mandala, Desay Madu Jhyā is famed for being the only one of its kind. While most traditional windows are bay windows carved with elaborate details and its design looks like the bellows in an old folding camera. The unique window is set into a house at Yatkhā, a street to the north of Kathmandu Durbar Square, the street forms part of the ceremonial circuit in the historic section of Kathmandu though which chariot processions and festival parades pass. The window is a tourist attraction and is part of the itinerary on sightseeing tours of the city, Desay Madu Jhyā is more than a century old and has been declared a national treasure. In 1978, the Postal Service Department of the Nepal government issued a stamp depicting the window
31.
Kathmandu
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Kathmandu is the capital city of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, the largest Himalayan state in Asia. Kathmandu is also the largest metropolis in the Himalayan hill region, the city stands at an elevation of approximately 1,400 metres above sea level in the bowl-shaped Kathmandu Valley of central Nepal. The valley is termed as Nepal Proper and has been the home of Newar culture. The city was the capital of the Kingdom of Nepal and hosts palaces. It has been home to the headquarters of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation since 1985, today, it is the seat of government of the Nepalese republic established in 2008, and is part of the Bagmati Zone in Nepalese administrative geography. Kathmandu has been the center of Nepals history, art, culture and it has a multiethnic population within a Hindu and Buddhist majority. Religious and cultural festivities form a part of the lives of people residing in Kathmandu. Tourism is an important part of the economy as the city is the gateway to the Nepalese Himalayas, there are also seven casinos in the city. In 2013, Kathmandu was ranked third among the top ten upcoming travel destinations in the world by TripAdvisor, historic areas of Kathmandu were devastated by a 7.8 magnitude earthquake on 25 April 2015. Nepali is the most spoken language in the city, while English is understood by the citys educated residents, the city of Kathmandu is named after Kasthamandap temple, that stood in Durbar Square. In Sanskrit, Kāṣṭha means wood and Maṇḍap means covered shelter and this temple, also known as Maru Satal in the Newar language, was built in 1596 by Biseth in the period of King Laxmi Narsingh Malla. The two-story structure was entirely of wood, and used no iron nails nor supports. According to legend, all the used to build the pagoda was obtained from a single tree. The structure collapsed during the earthquake on 25 April 2015. The colophons of ancient manuscripts, dated as late as the 20th century, the city is called Kāṣṭhamaṇḍap in a vow that Buddhist priests still recite to this day. Thus, Kathmandu is also known as Kāṣṭhamaṇḍap, during medieval times, the city was sometimes called Kāntipur. This name is derived from two Sanskrit words – Kānti and pur, Kānti is a word that stands for beauty and is mostly associated with light and pur means place. Thus, giving it a meaning as City of light, among the indigenous Newar people, Kathmandu is known as Yeṃ Deśa, and Patan and Bhaktapur are known as Yala Deśa and Khwopa Deśa
32.
Nepal
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Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked central Himalayan country in South Asia. Nepal is divided into 7 provinces and 75 districts and 744 local units including 4 metropolises,13 sub-metropolises,246 municipal councils and 481 village and it has a population of 26.4 million and is the 93rd largest country by area. Bordering China in the north and India in the south, east, Nepal does not border Bangladesh, which is located within only 27 km of its southeastern tip. It neither borders Bhutan due to the Indian state of Sikkim being located in between, Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the worlds ten tallest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. It is a nation with Nepali as the official language. The territory of Nepal has a history since the Neolithic age. The name Nepal is first recorded in texts from the Vedic Age, the era which founded Hinduism, in the middle of the first millennium BCE, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet, the Kathmandu Valley in central Nepal became known as Nepal proper because of its complex urban civilization. It was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala, the Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valleys traders. The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture, by the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal. The Shah dynasty established the Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire, the country was never colonized but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and Colonial India. In the 20th century, Nepal ended its isolation and forged ties with regional powers. Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951, but was suspended by Nepalese monarchs in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War resulted in the proclamation of a republic in 2008, modern Nepal is a federal secular parliamentary republic. Nepal is a nation, ranking 144th on the Human Development Index in 2016. The country struggles with the transition from a monarchy to a republic and it also suffers from high levels of hunger and poverty. Despite these challenges, Nepal is making progress, with the government declaring its commitment to elevate the nation from least developed country status by 2022
33.
Last Supper
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The Last Supper is the final meal that, in the Gospel accounts, Jesus shared with his Apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is commemorated by Christians especially on Maundy Thursday, the Last Supper provides the scriptural basis for the Eucharist, also known as Holy Communion or The Lords Supper. The First Epistle to the Corinthians contains the earliest known mention of the Last Supper, during the meal Jesus predicts his betrayal by one of the Apostles present, and foretells that before the next morning, Peter will deny knowing him. Scholars have looked to the Last Supper as the source of early Christian Eucharist traditions, others see the account of the Last Supper as derived from 1st-century eucharistic practice as described by Paul in the mid-50s. The term Last Supper does not appear in the New Testament, most Protestants use the term Lords Supper, stating that the term last suggests this was one of several meals and not the meal. The term Lords Supper refers both to the event and the act of Holy Communion and Eucharistic celebration within their liturgy. Evangelical Protestants also use the term Lords Supper, but most do not use the terms Eucharist or the word Holy with the name Communion, the Eastern Orthodox use the term Mystical Supper which refers both to the biblical event and the act of Eucharistic celebration within liturgy. The last meal that Jesus shared with his disciples is described in all four canonical Gospels and this meal later became known as the Last Supper. The Last Supper was likely a retelling of the events of the last meal of Jesus among the early Christian community, after the meal, Jesus is betrayed, arrested, tried, and then crucified. In Matthew 26, 24-25, Mark 14, 18-21, Luke 22, 21-23 and John 13, 21-30 during the meal and it would be better for him if he had not been born. In Matthew 26, 23-25 and John 13, 26-27, Judas is specifically identified as the traitor. In the Gospel of John, when asked about the traitor, Jesus states, “It is the one to whom I will give this piece of bread when I have dipped it in the dish. ”Then, dipping the piece of bread, he gave it to Judas, the son of Simon Iscariot. As soon as Judas took the bread, Satan entered into him, in the course of the Last Supper, Jesus divides up some bread, says a prayer, and hands the pieces of bread to his disciples, saying this is my body. He then takes a cup of wine, offers another prayer, and hands it around, saying this is my blood of the everlasting covenant, finally, according to Paul and Luke, he tells the disciples do this in remembrance of me. This event has been regarded by Christians of most denominations as the institution of the Eucharist, there is recorded celebration of the Eucharist by the early Christian community in Jerusalem. The institution of the Eucharist is recorded in the three Synoptic Gospels and in Pauls First Epistle to the Corinthians, the words of institution differ slightly in each account. In addition, Luke 22, 19b-20 is a text which does not appear in some of the early manuscripts of Luke. Some scholars, therefore, believe that it is an interpolation, a comparison of the accounts given in the Gospels and 1 Corinthians is shown in the table below, with text from the ASV
34.
Tilman Riemenschneider
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Tilman Riemenschneider was a German sculptor and woodcarver active in Würzburg from 1483. He was one of the most prolific and versatile sculptors of the period between late Gothic and Renaissance, a master in stone and limewood. Tilman Riemenschneider was born around the year 1460 at Heiligenstadt im Eichsfeld in present-day Thuringia, when Riemenschneider was about five years old, his father was involved in a violent political conflict, the Mainzer Stiftsfehde, so the family had to leave Heiligenstadt and all their possessions. They resettled in Osterode, where his father became Master of the Mint, Riemenschneider likely came to Würzburg for the first time at the age of 18 in 1478/9. His uncle served as notary and financial advisor to the bishop there, around 1473, Riemenschneider learned the trade of sculpting and woodcarving, likely in Swabia or the Upper Rhine — possibly in Strasbourg and/or Ulm. At that time, the statutes of the guild of sculptors required that a travel to many different workshops to gain experience. Very little is known about this period of his life, but he came in contact with the work of Martin Schongauer. In 1483, he settled in Würzburg, on 7 December 1483, he joined the Saint Lukes Guild of painters, sculptors, and glass workers as a painters assistant. On 28 February 1485, he married Anna Schmidt, a widow of a goldsmith with three sons. This marriage not only brought him property, but it meant that he could end his apprenticeship. Also in 1485, Riemenschneider became a citizen of Würzburg, which made it possible to attain the status of master craftsman and his earliest confirmed work is the gravestone of Eberhard von Grumbach in the Pfarrkirche at Rimpar. This may be the type of work he started out with before obtaining large church commissions and he started to receive numerous orders from the town councils of Würzburg and neighboring towns. In 1490, the council of Münnerstadt ordered an altarpiece for the altar of St Maria Magdalena, the parish church. In 1491, the council of Würzburg ordered two life-sized stone figures of Adam and Eve for the south portal of the councils church. In 1494, Riemenschneiders first wife died, leaving him with three stepsons and a daughter, in keeping with the times and his status, he remarried in 1497, Anna Rappolt. She bore him two daughters and three sons, all of whom seem to have inherited their fathers artistic talent, in 1495, he created the statue of Mary with child. More high-profile work followed, In 1496 Riemenschneider received the order to carve the tomb of Prince-Bishop Rudolf von Scherenberg at Würzburg Cathedral and it was delivered in 1499, the same year in which an order arrived for the Imperial tomb at Bamberg Cathedral. By 1500, he had developed a reputation as an artist and had become a wealthy Würzburg citizen
35.
Rothenburg ob der Tauber
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Rothenburg ob der Tauber is a town in the district of Ansbach of Mittelfranken, the Franconia region of Bavaria, Germany. It is well known for its medieval old town, a destination for tourists from around the world. It is part of the popular Romantic Road through southern Germany, Rothenburg was a Free Imperial City from the late Middle Ages to 1803. The name Rothenburg ob der Tauber means, in German, Red fortress above the Tauber and this is so because the town is located on a plateau overlooking the Tauber River. As to the name Rothenburg, some say it comes from the German words rot and burg, the name may also refer to the process of retting flax for linen production. In 950, the system in today’s castle garden was constructed by the Count of Comburg-Rothenburg. In 1070, the counts of Comburg-Rothenburg, who owned the village of Gebsattel. The counts of the Comburg-Rothenburg dynasty died out in 1116, the last count, Count Heinrich, Emperor Heinrich V appointed instead his nephew Konrad von Hohenstaufen as successor to the Comburg-Rothenburg properties. He held court there and appointed officials called reeves to act as caretakers, in 1170, the city of Rothenburg was founded at the time of the building of Staufer Castle. The centre was the marketplace and St. James Church, the development of the oldest fortification can be seen, the old cellar/old moat and the milk market. Walls and towers were built in the 13th century, preserved are the “White Tower” and the Markus Tower with the Röder Arch. From 1194 to 1254, the representatives of the Staufer dynasty governed the area around Rothenburg, around this time, the Order of St. John and other orders were founded near St. James Church and a Dominican nunnery. From 1241 to 1242, the Staufer Imperial tax statistics recorded the names of the Jews in Rothenburg, rabbi Meir Ben Baruch of Rothenburg had a great reputation as a jurist in Europe. Most members of the family were arrested and interred by the Nazis and are presumed to have been killed during the Second World War. The family is survived by its last living descendant, Andrew Sandilands Graf von Rothberg, 9th Count of Rothenburg, in 1274, Rothenburg was accorded privileges by King Rudolf of Habsburg as a Free Imperial City. Three famous fairs were established in the city and in the following centuries, the citizens of the city and the Knights of the Hinterland build the Franziskaner Monastery and the Holy Ghost Hospital. The German Order began the building of St. James Church, the Heilig Blut pilgrimage attracted many pilgrims to Rothenburg, at the time one of the 20 largest cities of the Holy Roman Empire. The population was around 5,500 people within the city walls, the Staufer Castle was destroyed by an earthquake in 1356, the St. Blaise chapel is the last remnant today
36.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
37.
Wood carving
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The phrase may also refer to the finished product, from individual sculptures to hand-worked mouldings composing part of a tracery. It therefore forms an important hidden element in the art history of many cultures, outdoor wood sculptures do not last long in most parts of the world, so it is still unknown how the totem pole tradition developed. Many of the most important sculptures of China and Japan in particular are in wood, and so are the majority of African sculpture. Wood is light and can take very fine detail so it is suitable for masks. It is also easier to work on than stone. Some of the finest extant examples of early European wood carving are from the Middle Ages in Germany, Russia, Italy and France, in England, many complete examples remain from the 16th and 17th century, where oak was the preferred medium. The gouge, a tool with a cutting edge used in a variety of forms and sizes for carving hollows, rounds. The coping saw, a saw that is used to cut off chunks of wood at once. The chisel, large and small, whose straight cutting edge is used for lines, the V-tool, used for parting, and in certain classes of flat work for emphasizing lines. The U-Gauge, a deep gouge with a U-shaped cutting edge. Sharpening equipment, such as stones and a strop, necessary for maintaining edges. The nature of the wood being carved limits the scope of the carver in wood is not equally strong in all directions. The direction in which wood is strongest is called grain and it is smart to arrange the more delicate parts of a design along the grain instead of across it. Less commonly, this principle is used in solid pieces of wood. Probably the two most common used for carving in North America are basswood and tupelo, both are hardwoods that are relatively easy to work with. Chestnut, butternut, oak, American walnut, mahogany and teak are also very good woods, while for fine work Italian walnut, sycamore maple, apple, pear, box or plum, are usually chosen. Decoration that is to be painted and of not too delicate a nature is often carved in pine, the type of wood is important. Hardwoods are more difficult to shape but have greater luster and longevity, softer woods may be easier to carve but are more prone to damage
38.
Coping saw
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A coping saw is a type of hand saw used to cut intricate external shapes and interior cut-outs in woodworking or carpentry. It is widely used to cut moldings to create coped rather than miter joints and it is occasionally used to create fretwork though it is not able to match a fretsaw in intricacy of cut, particularly in thin materials. Coping saw blades are always thicker and much coarser cutting than typical fretsaw blades, coping saws can however cut slight bends in the work, allowing circles to be cut if used carefully. The coping saw was most likely invented in middle of the 16th century following innovations in metallurgy, blades made of this material were strong and flexible thanks to rolling. This saw was used in combination with so called Chevalet du Marqueterie, invented in 1780. A coping saw consists of a thin, hardened steel blade, the blade is easily removed from the frame so that the blade can be passed through a drilled hole in the middle of a piece of wood. The frame is then re-attached to the blade and the cut starts from the middle of the piece, long cuts perpendicular to the edge of the material are possible but the shallow depth of the frame rather limits how far from the edge one may cut. The much deeper frame of the fretsaw is more useful for cutting away from the edge. The coping saw blade is installed with the teeth pointing towards the handle, unlike a hacksaw, which has the teeth pointed away from the handle, the coping saw cuts on the pull stroke. The coping saw blade is removable by partially unscrewing the handle, the blade is prevented from rotating by means of the short, steady bar provided where the blade is attached. Loosening the handle also allows the blade to be rotated relative to the frame as desired, carefully aligning the finger with the steady bars at the top and bottom of the blade ensures that the thin blade is straight and not twisted along its length. Retightening the handle tensions the blade and locks it at the angle relative to the frame. The short steady bar nearest the handle is held securely between finger and thumb while the handle is tightened to ensure the remains at the desired angle. Unlike the fretsaw the coping saw blade has holding pins which lock securely into the slots of the rotatable blade holders. The direction of the cut is quite easy to change because of the thinness of the blade, gentle curves are achieved by slowly turning the whole frame by means of the handle while continuing to cut steadily. When necessary, the blade can also be rotated with respect to the frame to make sharper curves in the material being cut, blade breakage is much rarer than with a fretsaw. A coping saw can also be used to cut through tubing and other metal objects. The thin blade tends to make cuts in thick materials unless skill is achieved through much practice on a wide variety of materials of varying thicknesses
39.
Sharpening
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Sharpening is the process of creating or refining a sharp edge of appropriate shape on a tool or implement designed for cutting. There are a variety of ways of sharpening tools. Malleable metal surfaces such as bronze, iron and mild steel may be formed by beating or peening a flat surface into an edge which incidentally causes work hardening. More commonly, a material may be rubbed against the cutting edge to be sharpened. Several cutlery manufacturers now offer electric knife sharpeners with multiple stages with at least one grinding stage and these electric sharpeners are typically used in the kitchen but have the ability to sharpen blades such as pocket or tactical knives. The main benefit of using an electric sharpener is speed with many models that can complete the process in one to two minutes. The disadvantage is that the angle is fixed so some specialized knives, like a Japanese style Santoku. Very sharp knives sharpen at about 10 dps, generally speaking, razors, paring knives, and fillet knives should be the sharpest knives at an angle of 12° – 18°. Most kitchen knives, like utility/slicing knives, chef’s knives, boning knives, carving knives, the exceptions are Japanese style knives that are usually sharpened to 14° – 16° depending on the knife maker. Japanese style knives utilize a much harder steel, and are more brittle than their Western style counterparts. This means care should be taken when handling these knives as they are susceptible to chipping and breaking, the sporting knife category, including pocket knives, survival knives, and hunting knives, sees more intense action and should be sharpened to the 25° – 30° angle range. The less sharp angle means there is more there to cut. For an extremely durable edge, a machete, chisel, drawknife or ax should be sharpened down to 30° – 40° providing even more ruggedness, many implements have a cutting edge which is essentially straight. Knives, chisels, straight-edge razors, and scissors are examples, Sharpening these implements can be expressed as the creation of two intersecting planes which produce an edge that is sharp enough to cut through the target material. For example, the blade of a knife is ground to a bevel so that the two sides of the blade meet. This edge is then refined by honing until the blade is capable of cutting, the extent to which this honing takes place depends upon the intended use of the tool or implement. For some applications an edge with an amount of jaggedness is acceptable, or even desirable. In other applications the edge must be as smooth as possible, Sharpening straight edges by hand can be divided into phases
40.
Workbench
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A workbench is sturdy table at which manual work is done. They range from flat surfaces to very complex designs that may be considered tools in themselves. Workbenches vary in size from tiny jewelers benches to the benches used by staircase makers. Almost all workbenches are rectangular in shape, often using the surface, corners and edges as flat/square, epitomized by the Black & Decker Workmate, a bench invented and patented by Ron Hickman, they can be used for a wide range of manual work. Woodworking May be used for general woodworking but may be specialized for joinery, cabinetmaking, patternmaking, stairbuilding, carving and they are usually made from solid wood and have integral clamping mechanisms. Metalworking Metalworkers need benches built to handle grinding, welding, light casting and forging, most of these benches include a metalworkers vise mounted to the top. Gardening Gardeners benches must be resistant to moisture and dirt and they are used for potting, seeding, and grooming, and usually have built-in shelving and storage. Electronics Formally a fixture in radio shacks, now used for assembly and repair of all sorts of equipment including communication, computer. These benches usually have sources of power built in, along with shelves, the height of most electronics benches are set for a seated worker. General repair Almost all family farms have one of these, also found in small engine repair shops. Used for sharpening, cleaning, lubricating, assembly/disassembly, and light metal work, laboratory work Utilized especially with the chemical and biological sciences. Surfaces are typically made of chemical resistant materials such as resin, phenolic resin, high density polyethylene. Some of these benches have integrated services like water, gas, art and sculpture These benches are most likely to be used in the round. They are designed so that the workpiece can be mounted firmly, usually from underneath, used by wood and stone carvers. Jewelers and Watchmakers Purpose built benches which generally have a bench pin - a small wooden work surface protruding out towards the worker, in addition there is usually a tray or leather apron underneath to catch precious metal filings or dropped items. They are designed so that when the worker is seated the work is at or near eye level, an online article describing the design and construction of an electronics workbench
41.
Mallet
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A mallet is a kind of hammer, often made of rubber or sometimes wood, that is smaller than a maul or beetle, and usually has a relatively large head. The term is descriptive of the size and proportions of the tool. Tool mallets come in different types, the most common of which are and they are typically used to form sheet metal, since they do not leave marks and are less likely to dent the workpiece. Rubber mallets are used for forcing tight-fitting parts together, for shifting plasterboard into place, in upholstery work. It is a tool of preference for wood workers using chisels with plastic, metal, or wooden handles and it is the most commonly used mallet. Wooden mallets are used in carpentry to knock wooden pieces together. A wooden mallet will not deform the striking end of a metal tool and it also is used to reduce the force driving the cutting edge of a chisel, giving better control. Hardwood mallets are used to knock in cricket bats. Copper, brass and leaden mallets are used on machinery to apply force to parts with a reduced risk of damaging them. As these metals are softer than steel, the mallet is deformed by any excessive force, meat mallets tenderise or flatten meat. Made from wood or metal, they are typically two-sided, one flat or with slight bumps, and their use has been reduced with the invention of cube steak machines and other electric tenderisers, but they can still be readily found at cookery stores and in professional use. Plastic mallets, made of nylon, polycarbonate, or polystyrene are used especially in leatherwork, split head mallets have removable faces which can be changed to an appropriate material for the job. Beetle mallets are large mallets with a wood or plastic head, with rounded ends about 15 to 18 inches in diameter. It is used by paviours for tapping paving stones into position when bedding them, beetles are also used in jobs such as timber framing to shift the bases of large wooden posts, to fit joints, and to drive in pegs. Dead blow mallets typically have an internal cavity partially filled with shot, lead shot. This modification evens out the curve of the impact, enabling a more powerful blow to be delivered without risk of marring the target. Mallets of various types are some of the oldest forms of tools, Mallets used as drumsticks are often used to strike a marimba, xylophone, glockenspiel, metallophone, or vibraphone, collectively referred to as mallet percussion. The sticks usually have made of rattan, birch, or fiberglass
42.
Router (woodworking)
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A router is a tool used to rout out an area in the face of a relatively hard workpiece, typically of wood or plastic. The main application of routers is in woodworking, especially cabinetry, the router is most commonly used as a plunging tool and also inverted in a router table. The hand tool form of router is the original form and it is a specialized type of hand plane with a broad base and a narrow blade projecting well beyond its base plate. Today the power tool form of router, with a spindle, is the more common form. Although the hand tool has a few advantages over the tool and retains favour with some workers, it has been mostly replaced by the modern spindle router. Some workers consider it to be the single most versatile woodworking power tool, becoming more popular is the use of a CNC wood router, which implements the advantages of CNC. Related to the router is a smaller, lighter version designed specifically for trimming laminates and it can be used for smaller general routing work. For example, with an appropriate jig it can be used for recessing door hinges, even rotary tools can be used as routers when the right bits and accessories are attached. Before power routers existed, the hand tool form was used, especially by patternmakers. The first handheld power routers were invented in 1915 and were Jet Motor Hand Routers, the name derives from a combination of the inventors last name Onsrud and the term router. The Onsruter married a router plane with an endmill to create the first handheld power router, the idea for the Onsruter started when a rail road company decided they wanted to power the front light on a Steam Locomotive using exhaust steam from the engine. Oscar Onsrud and his son Rudy came up with, and submitted, a few months later Rudy was talking with a friend about his frustrations making the groove in the bottom of a cane bottom chair using a router plane. The modified endmills would have to spin at 30,000 RPM, instead of the 3,000 RPM of a machine, in order to cut wood. These bits also needed a steeper rake and clearance angle to evacuate the chips than needed on a traditional endmill and these new bits became known as router bits or router cutters. Further refinement produced the plunge router, invented by ELU in Germany around 1949 and this is even better adapted for many types of work. Starting in the 1960s, the power tool form of router became the common form. Modern routers are used in place of traditional moulding planes or spindle moulder machines for edge decoration of timber. Routing is a high speed process of cutting, trimming, and shaping wood, metal, plastic, routing is properly applied to relatively weak and brittle materials, typically wood
43.
Sloyd
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Sloyd, also known as Educational sloyd, is a system of handicraft-based education started by Uno Cygnaeus in Finland in 1865. The system was refined and promoted worldwide, and was taught in the United States until the early 20th Century. It is still taught as a subject in Swedish and Norwegian schools. The word sloyd is derived from the Swedish word Slöjd, which translates as crafts, handicraft and it refers primarily to woodwork but also paper-folding and sewing, embroidery, knitting and crochet. Otto Salomon, with the support of his uncle, started a school for teachers in Nääs in the 1870s. The school attracted students throughout the world and was active until around 1960. Sloyd had a impact on the early development of manual training, manual arts, industrial education. Sloyd has been a Swedish school subject since the 1870s and compulsory since 1955, in the present national curriculum for Swedish elementary schools, students have classes in Slöjd every semester, normally between the ages of nine and fifteen. In most schools, the course is divided traditionally in two parts, soft materials and hard materials. Each semester, students switch between the two different classrooms, differences in what kind of tasks are selected, and how the subject-specific content is handled, depend on the teachers training. Throughout its history, the school has had a single aim—social betterment by means of education as shall increase efficiency. Indeed, it is due to the work started here. The implication is that the teachings were absorbed into the Boston educational system. Gustaf Larsson wrote a number of books about sloyd and sloyd education, ednah Anne Rich, a graduate of Gustaf Larssons school in Boston and of the Sloyd Training School at Nääs started Sloyd teacher training in Santa Barbara. In a few years, sloyd was being taught in hundreds of schools throughout the US, in “Educational sloyd, ” as devised by Otto Salomon in the 1870s, woodworking projects were designed to build incrementally on the child’s growing skill. Salomon believed that the teacher should carefully study and know each child and it was said that from the student’s perspective, no project should be any more difficult than the immediately preceding project. Sloyd was taught through the use of series of models, growing in difficulty and complexity that the students were supposed to reproduce without interference from the teacher. Salomon developed exercises in the use of various tools leading to proficiency in the making of models, the objects in the model series were designed to be useful to the child and his family, thereby building a relationship of good will and mutual support in the childs education
44.
Spoon
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A spoon is a utensil consisting of a small shallow bowl, oval or round, at the end of a handle. A type of cutlery, especially as part of a place setting, Spoons are also used in food preparation to measure, mix, stir and toss ingredients. Present day spoons are made from metal, wood, porcelain or plastic, preserved examples of various forms of spoons used by the ancient Egyptians include those composed of ivory, flint, slate and wood, many of them carved with religious symbols. During the Neolithic Ozieri civilization in Sardinia, ceramic ladles and spoons were already in use, in Shang Dynasty China, spoons were made of bone. Early bronze spoons in China were designed with a sharp point, the spoons of the Greeks and Romans were chiefly made of bronze and silver and the handle usually takes the form of a spike or pointed stem. There are many examples in the British Museum from which the forms of the types can be ascertained. In the early Muslim world, spoons were used for eating soup, medieval spoons for domestic use were commonly made of cow horn or wood, but brass, pewter, and latten spoons appear to have been common in about the 15th century. The full descriptions and entries relating to silver spoons in the inventories of the royal and other point to their special value. The earliest English reference appears to be in a will of 1259, in the wardrobe accounts of Edward I for the year 1300 some gold and silver spoons marked with the fleur-de-lis, the Paris mark, are mentioned. One of the most interesting medieval spoons is the coronation spoon used in the anointing of the English sovereign. The earlier English spoon-handles terminate in an acorn, plain knob or a diamond, at the end of the 16th century, the baluster and seal ending becomes common, the bowl being fig-shaped. During The Restoration, the handle becomes broad and flat, the bowl is broad and oval and the termination is cut into the shape known as the hinds foot. In the first quarter of the 18th century, the bowl becomes narrow and elliptical, with a tongue or rats tail down the back, and the handle is turned up at the end. The modern form, with the tip of the bowl narrower than the base, in Southeast Asia, spoons are the primary utensil used for eating, forks are used to push foods such as rice onto the spoon as well as their western usage for piercing the food. Spoons are also used in cooking and serving. In baking, batter is usually enough to pour or drop from a spoon. Rolled dough dropped from a spoon to a sheet can be made into rock cakes and other cookies. A spoon is similarly useful in processing jelly, sugar and syrup, a test sample of jelly taken from a boiling mass may be allowed to slip from a spoon in a sheet, in a step called sheeting
45.
Tang (tools)
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One can classify various tang designs by their appearance, by the manner in which they attach to a handle, and by their length in relation to the handle. A full tang extends the length of the grip-portion of a handle. A full tang may or may not be as wide as the handle itself, there are a wide variety of full and partial tang designs. The tang is left exposed along the belly, butt, and spine of the handle, partial tang designs include stub, half, and three-quarter tangs, describing how far the tang extends into the handle of the tool. The most common partial tang design found in commercial knives is on folding knives, hollow-handled knives also incorporate a partial tang. Many inexpensive knives and swords designed for decorative purposes incorporate partial tangs and are not intended to be used for cutting applications. In general, a forward-balanced blade excels at chopping but sacrifices agility and ease of manipulation, knives and swords intended for specific purposes will usually incorporate whichever design is most suited to how the tool will be handled for that specific purpose. A partial tang knife or sword is not able to leverage as much force against the resistance of material being cut as a full tang design would allow. This limits the amount of force which a user should apply to the handle of such a weapon, such designs may be optimal in light-weight knives or swords designed to be kept extremely sharp and used to cut less-resistant materials. Scalpels and Japanese samurai swords are perhaps the most well-known examples of such tools and it should be noted that most of these design styles can be used with full or partial tangs and the use of one does not exclude the use of another. For example, a sword may have a hidden, encapsulated, push Tang, the tang is inserted or pushed into a pre-made handle and fastened in place. Encapsulated Tang, handle material is molded around the tang itself, hidden Tang, the tang is fastened within the handle such that neither the tang nor the mechanism by which it is fastened is visible on the surface of the handle. A hidden tang may be accomplished in a number of ways, the simplest way to accomplish a hidden tang is with epoxy. A more sophisticated method is to construct the tang with a protrusion which fits into a notch in the handle. Another common method is to cut bolt-threading into the end of the tang whereby a pommel-nut screws into place and this style of tang is often used in decorative swords and blades, which are never intended for actual use and therefore do not require a strong, functional tang. Tapered Tang, the width of the tang gradually decreases in one or more dimensions along its length, tapered tangs may feature thinning along the spine from blade to pommel, thinning from spine to belly, or even hollowing from the edges toward the midsection of the tang-stock. This is an uncommon but sophisticated design used to reduce the amount of material in the handle of the tool without significant sacrifice of strength along horizontal and vertical vectors. Skeletonized Tang, large sections along the tang are cut away and this is another sophisticated, modern method of reducing the material weight of the tang without sacrificing significant material strength or support
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Bolster
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A bolster is a long narrow pillow or cushion filled with cotton, down or fibre. Bolsters are usually firm for back or arm support or for decorative application and they are not a standard size or shape and commonly have a zipper or hook-and-loop enclosure. A foam insert is used for additional support. A bolster is also referred to as a cushion, a pillow, in western countries, a bolster is usually placed at the head of ones bed and functions as head or lower back support, or as an arm support on furniture with high rigid sides. Bolster pillows are used as bumpers in cribs and for lounging on the floor in family. In the United States, body pillows resemble bolsters and are designed to be hugged when sleeping, the word is from both Middle and Old English, and is a cognate of the Old English belg, bag. The first known use of the word bolster was before the 12th century, in Southeast Asian countries, in particular Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia, Bangladesh and Thailand, the bolster is designed to be hugged when sleeping. In Vietnam, it is called gối ôm, while in the Philippines, malays call it bantal peluk and Indonesians called it bantal guling. In India and Pakistan, a type of bolster is known there as a lode, gao-takkiya, masnad masland, or paash-baalish/kol-baalish (in Bengali, in China, it is called bàozhěn in Mandarin, while in Cantonese it is known as laam2 zam2. Bolsters are called dakimakura in Japan, in Korea, it is referred to as a jukbuin, from the words juk and puin. A jukbuin is used in the months to cool down while sleeping. A person tightly wraps their arms and legs around the jukbuin while sleeping
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Ferrule
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A ferrule is any of a number of types of objects, generally used for fastening, joining, sealing or reinforcement. They are often narrow circular rings made from metal, or less commonly, ferrules are also often referred to as eyelets or grommets within the manufacturing industry. A metal or plastic ring used in plumbing as part of a compression fitting along with a nut for making a liquid-tight connection when joining pipe or tubing. Some of the people use ferrules include, To shield parts or cables from electromagnetic pulses, environmental damage, the elements, thermal factors. To cover parts, adding wear resistance, damage protection, or packaging, as a connector, to connect wires, structural devices, and systems To bind parts together, including bundles of wires, or cloth threads to the end of the mop, as an example. To act as conveyance for fluids like oil and water, or for gasses like air
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Rockwell scale
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The Rockwell scale is a hardness scale based on indentation hardness of a material. The Rockwell test determines the hardness by measuring the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large load compared to the penetration made by a preload, there are different scales, denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or indenters. The result is a number noted as HRA, HRB, HRC. When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength and this important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held Rockwell hardness testers. The differential depth hardness measurement was conceived in 1908 by a Viennese professor Paul Ludwik in his book Die Kegelprobe, the differential-depth method subtracted out the errors associated with the mechanical imperfections of the system, such as backlash and surface imperfections. The Brinell hardness test, invented in Sweden, was developed earlier – in 1900 – but it was slow, not useful on fully hardened steel, Hugh M. Rockwell and Stanley P. Rockwell from Connecticut in the United States co-invented the Rockwell hardness tester and they applied for a patent on July 15,1914. The requirement for this tester was to determine the effects of heat treatment on steel bearing races. The application was approved on February 11,1919. At the time of invention, both Hugh and Stanley Rockwell worked for the New Departure Manufacturing Co. of Bristol, CT, New Departure was a major ball bearing manufacturer which in 1916 became part of United Motors and, shortly thereafter, General Motors Corp. After leaving the Connecticut company, Stanley Rockwell, then in Syracuse, NY, applied for an improvement to the invention on September 11,1919. Rockwell moved to West Hartford, CT, and made an improvement in 1921. Stanley collaborated with instrument manufacturer Charles H. Wilson of the Wilson-Mauelen Company in 1920 to commercialize his invention, Stanley started a heat-treating firm circa 1923, the Stanley P. Rockwell Company, which exists in Hartford, CT. The later-named Wilson Mechanical Instrument Company has changed ownership over the years, the determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material involves the application of a minor load followed by a major load. The minor load establishes the zero position, the major load is applied, then removed while still maintaining the minor load. The depth of penetration from the datum is measured from a dial. That is, the depth and hardness are inversely proportional
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Crallan, Franklyn Arden (1911). "Wood-Carving". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 791–797. This contains a detailed description of classic techniques.
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