1.
Cooperative
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Cooperatives frequently have social goals which they aim to accomplish by investing a proportion of trading profits back into their communities. As an example of this, in 2013, retail co-operatives in the UK invested 6. 9% of their profits in the communities in which they trade as compared with 2. 4% for other rival supermarkets. The International Co-operative Alliance was the first international association formed by the cooperative movement and it includes the World Council of Credit Unions. A second organization was formed later in Germany, the International Raiffeisen Union, in the United States, the National Cooperative Business Association serves as the sectors oldest national membership association. It is dedicated to ensuring that cooperative businesses have the same opportunities as other businesses operating in the country, a U. S. National Cooperative Bank was formed in the 1970s. By 2004, a new association focused on worker co-ops was founded, since 2002 cooperatives and credit unions could be distinguished on the Internet by use of a. coop domain. Since 2014, following International Cooperative Alliances introduction of the Cooperative Marque, ICA cooperatives, cooperation dates back as far as human beings have been organizing for mutual benefit. Tribes were organized as cooperative structures, allocating jobs and resources among each other, in alpine environments, trade could only be maintained in organized cooperatives to achieve a useful condition of artificial roads such as Viamala in 1472. Pre-industrial Europe is home to the first cooperatives from an industrial context, in 1761, the Fenwick Weavers Society was formed in Fenwick, East Ayrshire, Scotland to sell discounted oatmeal to local workers. Its services expanded to include assistance with savings and loans, emigration and education, owen left New Lanark to pursue other forms of cooperative organization and develop coop ideas through writing and lecture. Cooperative communities were set up in Glasgow, Indiana and Hampshire, in 1828, William King set up a newspaper, The Cooperator, to promote Owens thinking, having already set up a cooperative store in Brighton. The Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, founded in 1844, is considered the first successful cooperative enterprise, used as a model for modern coops. A group of 28 weavers and other artisans in Rochdale, England set up the society to open their own store selling food items they could not otherwise afford, within ten years there were over a thousand cooperative societies in the United Kingdom. Other events such as the founding of a society by the Tolpuddle Martyrs in 1832 were key occasions in the creation of organized labor. Cooperatives traditionally combine social benefit interests with capitalistic property-right interests, Cooperatives achieve a mix of social and capital purposes by democratically governing distribution questions by and between equal by not controlling members. Democratic oversight of decisions to equitably distribute assets and other benefits means capital ownership is arranged in a way for social benefit inside the organization, external societal benefit is also encouraged by incorporating the operating-principle of cooperation between co-operatives. In the final year of the 20th century, cooperatives banded together to establish a number of social enterprise agencies which have moved to adopt the cooperative model. In the years 1994–2009 the EU and its member nations gradually revised national accounting systems to make visible the increasing contribution of social economy organizations, the roots of the cooperative movement can be traced to multiple influences and extend worldwide
2.
Workers' self-management
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Self-management or workers self-management is a form of organizational management based on self-directed work processes on the part of an organizations workforce. There are many variations of self-management, an enterprise that is self-managed is referred to as a labour-managed firm. Self-management refers to control rights within an organization, being distinct from the questions of ownership. An economic system consisting of self-managed enterprises is sometimes referred to as a participatory economy, the major proponents of self-managed market socialism in the 20th century include the economists Benjamin Ward, Jaroslav Vanek and Branko Horvat. The Ward-Vanek model of self-management involves the diffusion of entrepreneurial roles amongst all the partners of the enterprise, according to Horvat, these developments are moving the world toward a self-governing socialistic mode of organization. In the economic theory of self-management, workers are no longer employees, contemporary proponents of self-management include the American Marxist economist Richard D. Wolff and Anarchist Philosopher Noam Chomsky. The theory of the labor manager firm explains the behavior, performance, although self-managed firms can coincide with worker ownership, the two are distinct concepts, and one need not imply the other. According to traditional economic theory, in a competitive market economy. In Western market economies, despite their advantages in efficiency, the firm is comparatively rare. Benjamin Ward critiqued the labor managed firms objective function, the objective function of the labor managed firm creates an incentive to limit employment in order to boost the net income of the firms existing members. An economy consisting of labor-managed firms would thus have a tendency to under-utilize labor, in the 19th century, the idea of a self-managed economy was first fully articulated by the anarchist philosopher and economist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. This economic model was called mutualism to highlight the relationship among individuals in this system. Karl Marx championed the idea of an association of producers as a characteristic of communist society. This concept is related to the Marxist idea of transcending alienation, in his book Drive, The Surprising Truth About What Motivates Us, Daniel H. Pink argues on the basis of evidence that self-management/self-directed processes, mastery, worker autonomy. French trade-union CFDT included worker self-management in its 1970 program, before abandoning it. The philosophy of workers self-management has been promoted by the Industrial Workers of the World since its founding in the United States in 1905, such critics suggest that capitalism is more than a relationship of management. Guild socialism is a movement advocating workers control of industry through the medium of trade-related guilds in an implied contractual relationship with the public
3.
Decision-making
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This article deals with decision-making as analyzed in psychology. In psychology, decision-making is regarded as the process resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of action among several alternative possibilities. Every decision-making process produces a final choice, it may or may not prompt action, decision-making is the process of identifying and choosing alternatives based on the values and preferences of the decision-maker. Decision-making can be regarded as a problem-solving activity terminated by a solution deemed to be satisfactory and it is therefore a process which can be more or less rational or irrational and can be based on explicit or tacit knowledge. Cognitive, the decision-making process regarded as a continuous process integrated in the interaction with the environment, normative, the analysis of individual decisions concerned with the logic of decision-making, or communicative rationality, and the invariant choice it leads to. A major part of decision-making involves the analysis of a set of alternatives described in terms of evaluative criteria. Then the task might be to rank these alternatives in terms of how attractive they are to the decision-maker when all the criteria are considered simultaneously. Another task might be to find the best alternative or to determine the relative priority of each alternative when all the criteria are considered simultaneously. Solving such problems is the focus of multiple-criteria decision analysis and this leads to the formulation of a decision-making paradox. Logical decision-making is an important part of all science-based professions, where specialists apply their knowledge in an area to make informed decisions. For example, medical decision-making often involves a diagnosis and the selection of appropriate treatment and they may follow a recognition primed decision that fits their experience and arrive at a course of action without weighing alternatives. The decision-makers environment can play a part in the decision-making process, for example, environmental complexity is a factor that influences cognitive function. A complex environment is an environment with a number of different possible states which come. Studies done at the University of Colorado have shown that more complex environments correlate with cognitive function. One experiment measured complexity in a room by the number of objects and appliances present. Cognitive function was greatly affected by the measure of environmental complexity making it easier to think about the situation. Research about decision-making is also published under the label problem solving and it is important to differentiate between problem analysis and decision-making. Traditionally, it is argued that problem analysis must be done first, information overload is a gap between the volume of information and the tools we have to assimilate it
4.
Robert Owen
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Robert Owen was a Welsh social reformer and one of the founders of utopian socialism and the cooperative movement. He worked in the industry in Manchester before setting up a large mill at New Lanark in Scotland. In 1824, Owen travelled to America to invest the bulk of his fortune in an experimental 1, 000-member colony on the banks of Indianas Wabash River, New Harmony was intended to be a Utopian society. Robert Owen was born in Newtown a small town in Montgomeryshire, Mid Wales. He was the sixth of seven children and his father, also named Robert Owen, had a small business as a saddler and ironmonger. Owens mother came from a farming family called Williams. There Owen received almost all his education, which ended at the age of ten. In 1787, after serving in a shop for some years. He moved to Manchester, and was employed at Satterfields Drapery in St Anns Square, with money borrowed from his brother he set up a workshop making spinning mules but exchanged the business for 6 spinning mules, which he operated in a rented space. His entrepreneurial spirit, management skill and progressive moral views were emerging by the early 1790s, in 1793, he was elected as a member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, where the ideas of reformers and philosophers of the Enlightenment were discussed. During a visit to Scotland, Owen fell in love with Caroline Dale, Owen convinced his partners to buy New Lanark, and after his marriage to Caroline in September 1799, he made his home there. He was a manager and part-owner of the mills, encouraged by his success in the management of cotton mills in Manchester, he hoped to conduct New Lanark on higher principles than purely commercial ones. The mill of New Lanark had been started in 1785 by David Dale, the water power provided by the falls of the River Clyde made it a great attraction. About 2,000 people had associations with the mills,500 of whom were brought at the age of five or six from the poorhouses and charities of Edinburgh. The children were treated by Dale, but the general condition of the people was unsatisfactory. Many of the workers were in the lowest levels of the population, theft, drunkenness, and other vices were common, education and sanitation were neglected, the respectable country people refused to submit to the long hours and demoralising drudgery of the mills. Many employers operated the system, and paid workers in part or totally by tokens. These tokens had no value outside the mill owners truck shop, the owners could supply shoddy goods to the truck shop and charge top prices
5.
Owenism
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Owenism is the utopian socialist philosophy of 19th-century social reformer Robert Owen and his followers and successors, who are known as Owenites. Owenism aimed for radical reform of society and is considered a forerunner of the cooperative movement, the Owenite movement undertook several experiments in establishment of utopian communities organized according to communitarian and cooperative principles. One of the best known of these efforts, which were unsuccessful, was the project at New Harmony, Indiana. Owenism is also associated with the development of the British trade union movement. Owen’s economic thought grew out of poverty in Britain in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. His thought was rooted in seventeenth century English moral economy ideals of “fair exchange, just price, claeys notes that Owen’s ‘Plan’ began as grandiose but otherwise not exceptionally unusual workhouse scheme to place the unemployed poor in newly built rural communities. Owen’s “plan” was itself derivative a number of Irish and English trade unionists such as William Thompson and Thomas Hodgskin, Owens villages thus needed to be compared with the Dickensian Houses of Industry that were created after the passage of the 1834 Poor Law amendment act. Owen’s report was to spark a widespread “socialist” movement that established co-operatives, labour exchanges, and experimental communities in the United Kingdom, the United States, Owen was to disseminate his ideas in North America beginning in 1824. His ideas were most widely received in New York and Philadelphia and these men rooted their thought in Ricardian socialism and the labour theory of value. George Mudie, a printer, formed an Owenite community at Spa Fields, Mudie published a weekly journal, the Economist, which ran from 27 January 1821 to 9 March 1822. The printer Henry Hetherington was a member, Mudie moved to Orbiston after this community failed. Archibald James Hamilton, the laird of Dalzell and Orbiston. He was one of the gentlemen who commissioned Robert Owens’ “Report to the County of Lanark”, in 1821, he and several other Owenite sympathizers such as Abram Combe formed the Edinburgh Practical Society that operated a co-operative store, and a school. In addition, Hamilton provided his 290-acre estate, Orbiston, for the first Owenite co-operative community in the United Kingdom, the community collapsed in 1827 on the death of its founder. Ralahine Community, County Clare, Ireland was organized on the estate of John Vandeleur by Edward T. Craig, unlike other Owenite communities, workers were paid “labour notes” which they could spend in the co-operative store. By this time, Owenism had moved on to its Labour Exchange phase, the experiment ended when Vandeleur lost his estate through gambling. Harmony Hall Community at Queenwood Farm, Hampshire and this is the only other colony than New Harmony in Indiana founded by Robert Owen himself. In 1839 his Association of Classes of All Nations acquired five hundred acres at Queenwood farm and he purchased the community of New Harmony from the religious communists known as the Rappites
6.
Industrial Revolution
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The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and most of the important technological innovations were British, aided by these legal and cultural foundations, an entrepreneurial spirit and consumer revolution drove industrialisation in Britain, which would be emulated in countries around the world. A change in marrying patterns to getting married later made able to accumulate more human capital during their youth. The Industrial Revolution marks a turning point in history, almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth, mechanised textile production spread from Great Britain to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centres of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgium, and later in France. Since then industrialisation has spread throughout much of the world, the precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants. The term Industrial Revolution applied to change was becoming more common by the late 1830s. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of an industrial revolution, however, although Engels wrote in the 1840s, his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, some historians, such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians, the commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s the following gains had been made in important technologies, Textiles – mechanised cotton spinning powered by steam or water greatly increased the output of a worker, the power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50, large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton. Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel, the adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high pressure engine had a power to weight ratio. Steam power underwent an expansion after 1800. Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost for pig iron, using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760 and it was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher furnace temperatures
7.
Socialism
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Social ownership may refer to forms of public, collective, or cooperative ownership, to citizen ownership of equity, or to any combination of these. Although there are varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them. Socialist economic systems can be divided into both non-market and market forms, non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend, the feasibility and exact methods of resource allocation and calculation for a socialist system are the subjects of the socialist calculation debate. Core dichotomies associated with these concerns include reformism versus revolutionary socialism, the term is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the Soviet Union, which critics argue operated in an authoritarian fashion. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism became the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement, by this time, Socialism emerged as the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. Socialist parties and ideas remain a force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of social movements. The origin of the term socialism may be traced back and attributed to a number of originators, in addition to significant historical shifts in the usage, for Andrew Vincent, The word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas and this latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen. The term socialism was created by Henri de Saint-Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled utopian socialism. Simon coined socialism as a contrast to the doctrine of individualism. They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the ownership of resources. The term socialism is attributed to Pierre Leroux, and to Marie Roch Louis Reybaud in France, the term communism also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s. An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption. However, by 1888 Marxists employed the term socialism in place of communism, linguistically, the contemporary connotation of the words socialism and communism accorded with the adherents and opponents cultural attitude towards religion. In Christian Europe, of the two, communism was believed to be the atheist way of life, in Protestant England, the word communism was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic communion rite, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists. Friedrich Engels argued that in 1848, at the time when the Communist Manifesto was published, socialism was respectable on the continent and this latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany
8.
Charles Fourier
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François Marie Charles Fourier was a French philosopher and an influential early socialist thinker later associated with utopian socialism. Some of Fouriers social and moral views, held to be radical in his lifetime, have become mainstream thinking in modern society, Fourier is, for instance, credited with having originated the word feminism in 1837. Fouriers social views and proposals inspired a movement of intentional communities. Later Fourier inspired an array of revolutionary thinkers and writers. Fourier was born in Besançon, France on April 7,1772, the son of a small businessman, Fourier was more interested in architecture than in his fathers trade. He wanted to become an engineer, but the military engineering school accepted only sons of noblemen. Fourier later said he was grateful that he did not pursue engineering, because it would have consumed too much of his time, when his father died in 1781, Fourier received two-fifths of his fathers estate, valued at more than 200,000 francs. This inheritance enabled Fourier to travel throughout Europe at his leisure, in 1791 he moved from Besançon to Lyon, where he was employed by the merchant M. Bousquet. Fouriers travels also brought him to Paris, where he worked as the head of the Office of Statistics for a few months, from 1791 to 1816 Fourier was employed in Paris, Rouen, Lyon, Marseille, and Bordeaux. As a traveling salesman and correspondence clerk, his research and thought was time-limited, he complained of serving the knavery of merchants and he took up writing, and his first book was published in 1808. Fourier died in Paris in 1837, Fourier declared that concern and cooperation were the secrets of social success. He believed that a society that cooperated would see an improvement in their productivity levels. Workers would be recompensed for their labors according to their contribution, Fourier saw such cooperation occurring in communities he called phalanxes, based around structures called Phalanstères or grand hotels. These buildings were four-level apartment complexes where the richest had the uppermost apartments, wealth was determined by ones job, jobs were assigned based on the interests and desires of the individual. There were incentives, jobs people might not enjoy doing would receive higher pay, Fourier considered trade, which he associated with Jews, to be the source of all evil and advocated that Jews be forced to perform farm work in the phalansteries. Fourier characterized poverty as the cause of disorder in society. The transformation of labor into pleasure is the idea in Fouriers giant socialist utopia. He believed that there were twelve common passions which resulted in 810 types of character, one day there would be six million of these, loosely ruled by a world omniarch, or a World Congress of Phalanxes
9.
Cotton mill
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Although some were driven by animal power, most early mills were built in rural locations near to fast-flowing rivers and streams and had water wheels to power them. The mechanisation of the process in the early factories was instrumental in the growth of the machine tool industry. Limited companies were developed to construct mills, and the floors of the cotton exchange in Manchester. Mills generated employment, drawing workers from rural areas and expanding urban populations. They provided incomes for girls and women, child labour was used in the mills, and the factory system led to organised labour. Poor conditions became the subject of exposés, and in England, the cotton mill, originally a Lancashire phenomenon, was copied in New England and later in the southern states of America. In the 20th century, North West England lost its supremacy to the United States, then to India, in the mid-16th century Manchester was an important manufacturing centre for woollens and linen and market for textiles made elsewhere. The fustian district of Lancashire, from Blackburn to Bolton, west to Wigan and Leigh and south towards Manchester, used flax and raw cotton imported along the Mersey and Irwell Navigation. During the Industrial Revolution cotton manufacture changed from a domestic to an industry, made possible by inventions. The weaving process was the first to be mechanised by the invention of John Kays flying shuttle in 1733, the manually-operated spinning jenny was developed by James Hargreaves in about 1764 speeded up the spinning process. The roller spinning principle of Paul and Bourne became the basis of Richard Arkwrights spinning frame and water frame, the principles of the spinning jenny and water frame were combined by Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule of 1779, but water power was not applied to it until 1792. Many mills were built after Arkwrights patent expired in 1783 and by 1788, the development of cotton mills was linked to the development of the machinery they contained. By 1774,30,000 people in Manchester were employed using the system in cotton manufacture. The first cotton mills were established in the 1740s to house roller spinning machinery invented by Lewis Paul, the machines were the first to spin cotton mechanically without the intervention of human fingers. They were driven by a single power source which allowed the use of larger machinery. The Paul-Wyatt mills spun cotton for several decades but were not very profitable, Richard Arkwright obtained a patent for his water frame spinning machinery in 1769. Arkwrights first mill – powered by horses in Nottingham in 1768 – was similar to Paul and Wyatts first Birmingham mill although by 1772 it had expanded to four storeys and employed 300 workers. Arkwright recruited large, highly disciplined workforces for his mills, managed credit and supplies, by 1782 his annual profits exceeded £40,000, and by 1784 he had opened 10 more mills
10.
New Lanark
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New Lanark is a village on the River Clyde, approximately 1.4 miles from Lanark, in Lanarkshire, and some 40 km southeast of Glasgow, Scotland. It was founded in 1786 by David Dale, who built cotton mills, Dale built the mills there in a brief partnership with the English inventor and entrepreneur Richard Arkwright to take advantage of the water power provided by the only waterfalls on the River Clyde. The New Lanark mills operated until 1968, after a period of decline, the New Lanark Conservation Trust was founded in 1974 to prevent demolition of the village. By 2006 most of the buildings have restored and the village has become a major tourist attraction. It is one of six UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Scotland, the New Lanark cotton mills were founded in 1786 by David Dale in a brief partnership with Richard Arkwright. M. W. Turner and many other artists, the mills used the recently developed water-powered cotton spinning machinery invented by Richard Arkwright. Dale sold the mills, lands and village in the early 19th century for £60,000, payable over 20 years, to a partnership that included his son-in-law Robert Owen. Owen, who became manager in 1800, was an industrialist who carried on his father-in-laws philanthropic approach to industrial working. New Lanark, with its social and welfare programmes, epitomised his Utopian socialism, the New Lanark mills depended upon water power. A dam was constructed on the Clyde above New Lanark and water was drawn off the river to power the mill machinery, the water first travelled through a tunnel, then through an open channel called the lade. It then went to a number of wheels in each mill building. It was not until 1929 that the last waterwheel was replaced by a water turbine, Water power is still used in New Lanark. A new water turbine has been installed in Mill Number Three to provide electricity for the tourist areas of the village, in Owens time some 2,500 people lived at New Lanark, many from the poorhouses of Glasgow and Edinburgh. Although not the grimmest of mills by far, Owen found the conditions unsatisfactory, the mills thrived commercially, but Owens partners were unhappy at the extra expense incurred by his welfare programmes. Unwilling to allow the mills to revert to the old ways of operating, in 1813 the Board forced an auction, hoping to obtain the town and mills at a low price but Owen and a new board that was sympathetic to his reforming ideas won out. New Lanark became celebrated throughout Europe, with many statesmen, reformers and they were astonished to find a clean, healthy industrial environment with a content, vibrant workforce and a prosperous, viable business venture all rolled into one. Owen’s philosophy was contrary to contemporary thinking, but he was able to demonstrate that it was not necessary for an enterprise to treat its workers badly to be profitable. Owen was able to show visitors the village’s excellent housing and amenities, the planning of employment in the mills alongside housing for the workers and services such as a school also makes the settlement iconic in the development of urban planning in the UK
11.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
12.
Bellshill
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Bellshill is a town in North Lanarkshire, Scotland,10 miles south east of Glasgow city centre and 37 miles west of Edinburgh. Other nearby towns are Motherwell, Hamilton and Coatbridge, since 1996, it has been situated in the Greater Glasgow metropolitan area. The town has a population of 20,705, the earliest record of settlement in the Bellshill area is a village called Belmill, recorded on a map by Timothy Pont published in 1654. The village consisted of a row of workers houses owned by Mr. Bell. After the quarry closed, the disappeared and a settlement developed nearby called Crossgates. About 1810, this new settlement took on the name Bellshill and continued to grow absorbing nearby villages such as Black Moss, Sykehead and Nesnas. According to the first Statistical Account, in the late 1700s the parish of Bothwell, a hundred or so years later, these occupations had changed places in degree of importance to the area economy. With the introduction of new machinery in the mid 19th century, demand for coal to feed British industry meant that by the 1870s 20 deep pits were in operation in the area. The first mine to open was the Thankerton mine, the rise in the migrant Lithuanian population led to the opening of The Scottish Lithuanian Recreation and Social Club within Calder Road in the Mossend area. Iron and Steel production were also central to the development of the town, neilson, developer of the revolutionary hot blast process, opened the first iron works in the area in 1839. During the industrial boom, a number of stations were situated in the area, including Mossend, Fallside. The settlement is now just served by Bellshill railway station, in the 1870s, Bothwell Parochial Board built the two-ward Bellshill Hospital. During World War I, the hospital specialised in infectious diseases, in 1917, the hospital began to change focus to become a maternity hospital, the first in the Lanarkshire area, with new dedicated maternity buildings being opened in 1958 and 1962. The hospital was also the first in the world to have an Obstetric Flying Squad and it was the birthplace of many famous faces including politician Robin Cook, footballer Ally McCoist and singer Sheena Easton. The hospital was closed in 2001 and demolished in 2003 to make way for new housing developments, according to a report by the Halifax Building Society, in the first quarter of 2005 Bellshill was the UKs property hot spot with a 46% rise in house prices. This took the property price to £105,698. In 2006, a new mosque was opened in the Mossend area of Bellshill becoming one of the largest mosques in Scotland, the streetscape project, a plan to regenerate and modernise the town centre, commenced Apr 2007 and was completed nearly three years later. The project, created a one way system on the street with more space for pedestrians
13.
New Harmony, Indiana
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New Harmony is a historic town on the Wabash River in Harmony Township, Posey County, in the U. S. state of Indiana. It lies 15 miles north of Mount Vernon, the county seat, the population was 789 at the 2010 census. It is part of the Evansville metropolitan area, established by the Harmony Society in 1814, the town was originally known as Harmony. Bought at two dollars an acre, the 20, 000-acre settlement was the brainchild of George Rapp and was home exclusively to German Lutherans in its early years. Here, the Harmonists built a new town in the wilderness, Robert Owen, a Welsh industrialist and social reformer, purchased the town in 1825 with the intention of creating a new utopian community and renamed it New Harmony. While the Owenite social experiment was a failure just two years after it began, the community made some important contributions to American society. New Harmony became known as a center for advances in education, New Harmonys residents established the first free library, a civic drama club, and a public school system open to men and women. The town served as the headquarters of the U. S. Many of the towns old Harmonist buildings still stand and have been restored and these structures, along with others related to the Owenite community, are included in the New Harmony Historic District. Contemporary additions to the include the Roofless Church and Atheneum. The New Harmony State Memorial is located there, just to the south of town on State Road 69 is Harmonie State Park. In April 1814 Anna Mayrisch, John L. Baker, and Ludwick Shirver traveled west in search of a new location for their congregation, one that would have fertile soil and access to a navigable waterway. By May 10 the men had found suitable land along the Wabash River in the Indiana Territory, Rapp wrote on May 10, The place is 25 miles from the Ohio mouth of the Wabash, and 12 miles from where the Ohio makes its curve first before the mouth. The town will be located about 1/4 mile from the river above on the channel on a plane as level as the floor of a room, the first Harmonists left Pennsylvania in June 1814 and traveled by flatboat to their new land in the Indiana Territory. In May 1815 the last of the Harmonists who had remained behind until the sale of their town in Pennsylvania was completed departed for their new town along the Wabash River. By 1816, the year that Indiana became a state, the Harmonists had acquired 20,000 acres of land, built 160 homes and other buildings. However, the new arrivals were more of a liability than an asset, Visitors to Harmony commented on the commercial and industrial work being done in this religious settlement along the Wabash River. It seemed as though I found myself in the midst of Germany, in 1819 the town had a steam-operated wool carding and spinning factory, a horse-drawn and human-powered threshing machine, a brewery, distillery, vineyards, and a winery
14.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
15.
William King (physician)
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William King was a British physician and philanthropist from Brighton. He is best known as a supporter of the Cooperative Movement. By 1827, Robert Owen had taken his ideas of a movement to the United States. But they were picked up and amplified by Dr. King, King founded a cooperative store in Brighton. Then in 1828 he started a paper, The Co-operator to promote these ideas, the Co-operator had a wide circulation and a great influence in the emerging movement. Though only published for slightly over two years, the served to educate and unify otherwise scattered groups. Kings articles in the paper gave the movement some philosophical and practical basis that it had lacked before, kings overriding rationale for the movement is best illustrated by the phrases repeated on the masthead of every issue of The Co-operator, Knowledge and union are power. Power, directed by knowledge is happiness, happiness is the end of creation. King lived at 23 Montpelier Road in the Montpelier area of Brighton
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Working class
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The working class are the people employed for wages, especially in manual-labour occupations and in skilled, industrial work. Working-class occupations include blue-collar jobs, some jobs, and most service-work jobs. As with many terms describing social class, working class is defined and used in different ways. The most general definition, used by Marxists and socialists, is that the class includes all those who have nothing to sell but their labor-power. When used non-academically in the United States, however, it refers to a section of society dependent on physical labor. For certain types of science, as well as scientific or journalistic political analysis, for example. Working-class occupations are then categorized into four groups, Unskilled laborers, artisans, outworkers, a common alternative, sometimes used in sociology, is to define class by income levels. The cut-off between working class and middle class here might mean the line where a population has discretionary income, some researchers have suggested that working-class status should be defined subjectively as self-identification with the working-class group. This subjective approach allows people, rather than researchers, to define their own social class, in feudal Europe, the working class as such did not exist in large numbers. Instead, most people were part of the class, a group made up of different professions, trades. A lawyer, craftsman and peasant were all considered to be part of the social unit. Similar hierarchies existed outside Europe in other pre-industrial societies, the social position of these laboring classes was viewed as ordained by natural law and common religious belief. This social position was contested, particularly by peasants, for example during the German Peasants War, wealthy members of these societies created ideologies which blamed many of the problems of working-class people on their morals and ethics. In The Making of the English Working Class, E. P, starting around 1917, a number of countries became ruled ostensibly in the interests of the working class. Since then, four major states have turned towards semi-market-based governance. Other states of this sort have either collapsed, or never achieved significant levels of industrialization or large working classes, since 1960, large-scale proletarianisation and enclosure of commons has occurred in the third world, generating new working classes. Additionally, countries such as India have been slowly undergoing social change, karl Marx defined the working class or proletariat as individuals who sell their labour power for wages and who do not own the means of production. He argued that they were responsible for creating the wealth of a society and he asserted that the working class physically build bridges, craft furniture, grow food, and nurse children, but do not own land, or factories
17.
Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers
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Although other co-operatives preceded them, the Rochdale Pioneers co-operative became the prototype for societies in Great Britain. The model the Rochdale Pioneers used is a focus of study within co-operative economics, the Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers was a group of 28 that was formed in 1844. Around half were weavers in Rochdale, Lancashire, England, on 21 December 1844, they opened their store with a very meagre selection of butter, sugar, flour, oatmeal and a few candles. Within three months, they expanded their selection to include tea and tobacco, and they were known for providing high quality. Ten years later, the British co-operative movement had grown to nearly 1,000 co-operatives, the archive for the co-operative movement in Rochdale is held by Local Studies, Rochdale Boroughwide Cultural Trust. The Pioneers rented their first store at 31 Toad Lane and moved out in 1867 but the movement later purchased it. The museum resurrected the legal name Rochdale Equitable Pioneers Society in 1989, the Rochdale Pioneers History of the cooperative movement David Thompson. Article for lay audience, tracing the history of the Rochdale Pioneers. Includes the objects of the society, kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives, Martin P. Catherwood Library, Cornell University
18.
Rochdale Principles
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The Rochdale Principles are a set of ideals for the operation of cooperatives. The implications of the Rochdale Principles are a focus of study in co-operative economics, the original Rochdale Principles were officially adopted by the International Co-operative Alliance in 1937 as the Rochdale Principles of Co-operation. Updated versions of the principles were adopted by the ICA in 1966 as the Co-operative Principles, the Rochdale Principles, according to the 1995 ICA revision, can be summarised as follows. The first of the Rochdale Principles states that societies must have an open. To discriminate socially is to make a distinction between people on the basis of class or category, examples of social discrimination include racial, religious, sexual, sexual orientation, disability, and ethnic discrimination. To fulfil the first Rochdale Principle, a Co-operative society should not prevent anyone willing to participate from doing so on any of these grounds, given the voluntary nature of co-operatives, members need reasons to participate. Quality of life – Serving the community through a co-operative because doing service makes ones own life better is perhaps the most significant motivation for volunteering, giving back – Many people have in some way benefited from the work of a co-operative and volunteer to give back. Altruism – Some volunteer for the benefit of others, a sense of duty – Some see participation in community as a responsibility that comes with citizenship. In this case, they may not describe themselves as volunteers, career experience – Volunteering offers experiences that can add to career prospects. The second of the Rochdale Principles states that societies must have democratic member control. Men and women serving as elected representatives are accountable to the membership. In primary co-operatives members have voting rights and co-operatives at other levels are also organised in a democratic manner. ”Member economic participation is one of the defining features of co-operative societies. According to the ICA, co-operatives are enterprises in which “Members contribute equitably to, and democratically control, at least part of that capital is usually the common property of the co-operative. Members usually receive limited compensation, if any, on capital subscribed as a condition of membership. ”This principle, in turn, the first part of this principle states that “Members contribute equitably to, and democratically control, the capital of their co-operative. At least part of capital is usually the common property of the co-operative. ”This enshrines democratic control over the co-operative. The second part of the deals with how members are compensated for funds invested in a Co-operative. Unlike for-profit corporations, co-operatives are a form of social enterprise, given this, there are at least three purposes for which surplus funds can be used, or distributed, by a Co-operative. “Members usually receive limited compensation, if any, on capital subscribed as a condition of membership. ”“Developing their co-operative, possibly by setting up reserves, part of which at least would be indivisible, ” in other words, the surplus can be reinvested in the co-operative
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Pound sterling
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It is subdivided into 100 pence. A number of nations that do not use sterling also have called the pound. At various times, the sterling was commodity money or bank notes backed by silver or gold. The pound sterling is the worlds oldest currency still in use, the British Crown dependencies of Guernsey and Jersey produce their own local issues of sterling, the Guernsey pound and the Jersey pound. The pound sterling is also used in the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, the Bank of England is the central bank for the pound sterling, issuing its own coins and banknotes, and regulating issuance of banknotes by private banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Sterling is the fourth most-traded currency in the exchange market, after the United States dollar, the euro. Together with those three currencies it forms the basket of currencies which calculate the value of IMF special drawing rights, Sterling is also the third most-held reserve currency in global reserves. The full, official name, pound sterling, is used mainly in formal contexts, otherwise the term pound is normally used. The abbreviations ster. or stg. are sometimes used, the term British pound is commonly used in less formal contexts, although it is not an official name of the currency. The pound sterling is also referred to as cable amongst forex traders, the origins of this term are attributed to the fact that in the 1800s, the dollar/pound sterling exchange rate was transmitted via transatlantic cable. Forex brokers are sometimes referred to as cable dealers, as another established source notes, the compound expression was then derived, silver coins known as sterlings were issued in the Saxon kingdoms,240 of them being minted from a pound of silver. Hence, large payments came to be reckoned in pounds of sterlings, in 1260, Henry III granted them a charter of protection. And because the Leagues money was not frequently debased like that of England, English traders stipulated to be paid in pounds of the Easterlings, and land for their Kontor, the Steelyard of London, which by the 1340s was also called Easterlings Hall, or Esterlingeshalle. For further discussion of the etymology of sterling, see sterling silver, the currency sign for the pound sign is £, which is usually written with a single cross-bar, though a version with a double cross-bar is also sometimes seen. The ISO4217 currency code is GBP, occasionally, the abbreviation UKP is used but this is non-standard because the ISO3166 country code for the United Kingdom is GB. The Crown dependencies use their own codes, GGP, JEP, stocks are often traded in pence, so traders may refer to pence sterling, GBX, when listing stock prices. A common slang term for the pound sterling or pound is quid, since decimalisation in 1971, the pound has been divided into 100 pence. The symbol for the penny is p, hence an amount such as 50p properly pronounced fifty pence is more colloquially, quite often, pronounced fifty pee /fɪfti, pi and this also helped to distinguish between new and old pence amounts during the changeover to the decimal system
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The Co-operative Group
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It is the largest consumer co-operative in the UK and owned by more than 4 million active members. No year end dividend was paid in 2015, the Co-operative Group has over 70,000 employees across the UK. It introduced The Co-operative brand in 2007, which is used by many consumers co-operatives in the UK and it replaced this for its own businesses with a revitalised version of its late 1960s Co-op logo in 2016. It has held the Fair Tax Mark since 2015, the Groups roots are traced back to the Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers, established in 1844. Although The Co-operative Group incorporates the original Rochdale Society, the core for much of its history were its wholesale operations. This began in 1863 when the North of England Co-operative Wholesale Industrial, by 1872, it was known as the Co-operative Wholesale Society and it was wholly owned by the co-operatives which traded with it. The CWS grew rapidly and supplied produce to co-operative stores across England and it was this continued and fierce competition with other non-co-operative wholesalers which led to the CWS becoming highly innovative. By 1890 the CWS had established significant branches in Leeds, Blackburn, Bristol, Nottingham and Huddersfield alongside a number of factories which produced biscuits, Boots, Soap and textiles. In an attempt to drive down the significant cost of transportation for produce the CWS even began its own shipping line which initially sailed from Goole docks to parts of continental Europe. One of the CWS steamships, the Pioneer, was the first commercial vessel to use the Manchester Ship Canal. This rapid expansion continued so that by the outbreak of World War One the CWS had major offices in the United States, Denmark, Australia and a tea plantation in India. There was a deal of consideration on the role of the CWS in the British co-operative movement around the turn of the twentieth century. In contrast to this, the CWS had its aim to be the centrepoint for the whole movement in the UK. To this end, they started to assist the local societies in more ways than simply as a wholesaler. The CWS Bank, the precursor to The Co-operative Bank, financed loans for societies to use for expansion through purchasing new buildings and it was hoped that these financial ties, as well as the CWS corporate dividend, would increase loyalty to the CWS. This report received criticism from the fiercely local co-operative societies. The Co-operative Independent Commission was tasked with investigating the decline in the co-op movement and this was not to say that the Co-op had not been modernising, notably through opening self-service stores and supermarkets. The CWS responded with operation facelift in 1968 which introduced the first national co-operative branding, though Operation Facelift led to some improvements, the movement remained largely unreformed with its grocery marketshare continuing a downward trend
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Yorkshire
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Yorkshire, formally known as the County of York, is a historic county of Northern England and the largest in the United Kingdom. Due to its size in comparison to other English counties, functions have been undertaken over time by its subdivisions. Throughout these changes, Yorkshire has continued to be recognised as a geographical territory, Yorkshire has sometimes been nicknamed Gods Own County or Gods Own Country. Yorkshire Day, held on 1 August, is a celebration of the culture of Yorkshire. Yorkshire is now divided between different official regions, most of the county falls within Yorkshire and the Humber. The extreme northern part of the county falls within North East England, Small areas in the west of the historic county now form part of North West England, following boundary changes in 1974. Yorkshire or the County of York was so named as it is the shire of the city of York local /ˈjɔːk/ or Yorks Shire, York comes from the Viking name for the city, Jórvík. Shire is from Old English, scir meaning care or official charge, the shire suffix is locally pronounced /-ʃə/ shuh, or occasionally /-ʃiə/, a homophone of sheer. Early inhabitants of Yorkshire were Celts, who formed two tribes, the Brigantes and the Parisi. The Brigantes controlled territory which later became all of the North Riding of Yorkshire, the tribe controlled most of Northern England and more territory than any other Celtic tribe in England. That they had the Yorkshire area as their heartland is evident in that Isurium Brigantum was the town of their civitas under Roman rule. Six of the nine Brigantian poleis described by Claudius Ptolemaeus in the Geographia fall within the historic county, the Parisi, who controlled the area that would become the East Riding of Yorkshire, might have been related to the Parisii of Lutetia Parisiorum, Gaul. Their capital was at Petuaria, close to the Humber estuary, initially, this situation suited both the Romans and the Brigantes, who were known as the most militant tribe in Britain. Queen Cartimandua left her husband Venutius for his bearer, Vellocatus. Cartimandua, due to her relationship with the Romans, was able to keep control of the kingdom. At the second attempt, Venutius seized the kingdom, but the Romans, under general Petillius Cerialis, the fortified city of Eboracum was named as capital of Britannia Inferior and joint-capital of all Roman Britain. During the two years before the death of Emperor Septimius Severus, the Roman Empire was run from Eboracum by him, another emperor, Constantius Chlorus, died in Yorkshire during a visit in 306 AD. This saw his son Constantine the Great proclaimed emperor in the city, in the early 5th century, the Roman rule ceased with the withdrawal of the last active Roman troops
22.
Lancashire
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Lancashire is a non-metropolitan ceremonial county in north west England. The county town is Lancaster although the administrative centre is Preston. The county has a population of 1,449,300, people from Lancashire are known as Lancastrians. The history of Lancashire begins with its founding in the 12th century, in the Domesday Book of 1086, some of its lands were treated as part of Yorkshire. The land that lay between the Ribble and Mersey, Inter Ripam et Mersam, was included in the returns for Cheshire, when its boundaries were established, it bordered Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and Cheshire. Lancashire emerged as a commercial and industrial region during the Industrial Revolution. Liverpool and Manchester grew into its largest cities, dominating global trade, the county contained several mill towns and the collieries of the Lancashire Coalfield. By the 1830s, approximately 85% of all cotton manufactured worldwide was processed in Lancashire, Accrington, Blackburn, Bolton, Burnley, Bury, Chorley, Colne, Darwen, Manchester, Nelson, Oldham, Preston, Rochdale and Wigan were major cotton mill towns during this time. Blackpool was a centre for tourism for the inhabitants of Lancashires mill towns, the detached northern part of Lancashire in the Lake District, including the Furness Peninsula and Cartmel, was merged with Cumberland and Westmorland to form Cumbria. Lancashire lost 709 square miles of land to other counties, about two fifths of its area, although it did gain some land from the West Riding of Yorkshire. Today the county borders Cumbria to the north, Greater Manchester and Merseyside to the south and North and West Yorkshire to the east, with a coastline on the Irish Sea to the west. The county palatine boundaries remain the same with the Duke of Lancaster exercising sovereignty rights, including the appointment of lords lieutenant in Greater Manchester, the county was established in 1182, later than many other counties. During Roman times the area was part of the Brigantes tribal area in the zone of Roman Britain. The towns of Manchester, Lancaster, Ribchester, Burrow, Elslack, in the centuries after the Roman withdrawal in 410AD the northern parts of the county probably formed part of the Brythonic kingdom of Rheged, a successor entity to the Brigantes tribe. During the mid-8th century, the area was incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria, in the Domesday Book, land between the Ribble and Mersey were known as Inter Ripam et Mersam and included in the returns for Cheshire. Although some historians consider this to mean south Lancashire was then part of Cheshire and it is also claimed that the territory to the north formed part of the West Riding of Yorkshire. It bordered on Cumberland, Westmorland, Yorkshire, and Cheshire, the county was divided into hundreds, Amounderness, Blackburn, Leyland, Lonsdale, Salford and West Derby. Lonsdale was further partitioned into Lonsdale North, the part north of the sands of Morecambe Bay including Furness and Cartmel
23.
Gateshead Millennium Bridge
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Opened for public use in 2001, the award-winning structure was conceived and designed by architect WilkinsonEyre and structural engineer Gifford. The bridge is referred to as the Blinking Eye Bridge or the Winking Eye Bridge due to its shape. In terms of height, the Gateshead Millennium Bridge is slightly shorter than the neighbouring Tyne Bridge, the bridge was lifted into place in one piece by the Asian Hercules II, one of the worlds largest floating cranes, on 20 November 2000. It was opened to the public on 17 September 2001, and was dedicated by Queen Elizabeth II on 7 May 2002, the bridge, which cost £22m to build, was part funded by the Millennium Commission and European Regional Development Fund. It was built by Volker Stevin, six 45 cm diameter hydraulic rams rotate the bridge back on large bearings to allow small ships and boats to pass underneath. The bridge takes as little as 4.5 minutes to rotate through the full 40° from closed to open and its appearance during this manoeuvre has led to it being nicknamed the Blinking Eye Bridge. The design is so efficient it costs just £3.60 each time it opens. The bridge has operated reliably since construction, opening to allow traffic to pass. It also opens periodically for sightseers and for events such as the Northumbrian Water University Boat Race. One of the requirements for opening the bridge is to allow access to HMS Calliope where Royal Navy patrol boat HMS Example is based. For the construction of the bridge, the architect WilkinsonEyre won the 2002 Royal Institute of British Architects Stirling Prize, in 2005, the bridge received the Outstanding Structure Award from the International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering. Bollards were installed when the bridge was built to protect it from collisions, as the bollards were unsightly, and as it became noted that they were not really needed, they were removed in March 2012. Tilt times for the bridge are displayed both on the bridge itself, and also on a page on the Gateshead Council website, Gateshead Millennium Bridge at Structurae Gateshead Council page Gateshead Millennium Bridge by Sándor Kabai, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project
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Newcastle upon Tyne
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Newcastle is the most populous city in the North East and forms the core of the Tyneside conurbation, the eighth most populous urban area in the United Kingdom. Newcastle is a member of the English Core Cities Group and is a member of the Eurocities network of European cities. Newcastle was part of the county of Northumberland until 1400, when it became a county of itself, the regional nickname and dialect for people from Newcastle and the surrounding area is Geordie. Newcastle also houses Newcastle University, a member of the Russell Group, the city developed around the Roman settlement Pons Aelius and was named after the castle built in 1080 by Robert Curthose, William the Conquerors eldest son. The city grew as an important centre for the trade in the 14th century. The port developed in the 16th century and, along with the lower down the River Tyne, was amongst the worlds largest shipbuilding and ship-repairing centres. Newcastles economy includes corporate headquarters, learning, digital technology, retail, tourism and cultural centres, among its icons are Newcastle United football club and the Tyne Bridge. Since 1981 the city has hosted the Great North Run, a marathon which attracts over 57,000 runners each year. The first recorded settlement in what is now Newcastle was Pons Aelius and it was given the family name of the Roman Emperor Hadrian, who founded it in the 2nd century AD. This rare honour suggests Hadrian may have visited the site and instituted the bridge on his tour of Britain, Pons Aelius population at this period was estimated at 2,000. Fragments of Hadrians Wall are visible in parts of Newcastle, particularly along the West Road, the course of the Roman Wall can be traced eastwards to the Segedunum Roman fort in Wallsend—the walls end—and to the supply fort Arbeia in South Shields. After the Roman departure from Britain, completed in 410, Newcastle became part of the powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, conflicts with the Danes in 876 left the river Tyne and its settlements in ruin. After the conflicts with the Danes, and following the 1088 rebellion against the Normans, Monkchester was all, because of its strategic position, Robert Curthose, son of William the Conqueror, erected a wooden castle there in the year 1080. The town was known as Novum Castellum or New Castle. The wooden structure was replaced by a castle in 1087. The castle was again in 1172 during the reign of Henry II. Much of the keep which can be seen in the city dates from this period. Throughout the Middle Ages, Newcastle was Englands northern fortress, incorporated first by Henry II, the city had a new charter granted by Elizabeth in 1589
25.
Co-operatives UK
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Co-operatives UK is the central membership organisation for co-operative enterprise throughout the UK. The head office, Holyoake House in Manchester, is a Grade II listed building, membership of Co-operatives UK includes organisations as diverse as the Woodcraft Folk, Suma Wholefoods and the Co-operative Group. The modern organisation began to shape when Dame Pauline Green became the first female chief executive of the Co-operative Union on New Years Day 2000. Green served on the Commission, chaired by John Monks, the fruit of these closer ties was an increased visibility and role for the Union across the Co-operative Movement. The Union began providing services for the United Kingdom Co-operative Council. The two groups members voted to merge in the Autumn of 2001, with ICOM moving its staff, the Union went through a two-year transitional period before the membership voted in December 2002 to rename it Co-operatives UK. All three initiatives were recommended by the Co-operative Commission to assure the future of the Co-operative Movement. Green announced that she intended to retire as executive of the organisation in 2009, saying, I will be 60 at. The Board and I agreed that it made sense for me to finish after Co-operative Congress 2009, which is, to all intents and purposes, the end of our co-operative year. In July 2009, it was announced that Ed Mayo would become Secretary General of Co-operatives UK and he took up the position officially the following November. The Cooperative Retail Group is expanding and will create 1,500 new jobs, in 2010, Co-operatives UK coordinated the UKs first ever Co-operatives Fortnight, running from 19 June to 3 July. The fortnight was marketed as an opportunity to promote the co-operative alternative to business models. During the Fortnight,13 co-operative schools were established and two parliamentary motions were passed in Westminster and Holyrood, Co-operatives Fortnight has continued as an annual fixture since 2010. The success brought pride but also anxiety for the leaders as they began to fear that societies might forget their co-operative ideals in the face of material success. These educational activities were formalised first in 1882 with the creation of the education committee, ultimately, this led to the splitting of the worker and consumer sectors of the UK Movement, prompted by the CWS rejection of the idea of profit-sharing with its employees in 1880. From that point the Co-operative Union became an organisation that predominantly dealt with co-operative retail societies, in 1906 the co-operative activist George Jacob Holyoake died and the Co-operative Movement decided that to commemorate him by building a permanent headquarters for the Co-operative Union. The building was designed by architect F. E. L. Harris and it was erected in 1911 on Hanover Street and named Holyoake House. The building was extended in the 1930s, and the Training Centre on the top floor was destroyed by a bomb in the Manchester Blitz of 1940
26.
International Co-operative Alliance
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The International Co-operative Alliance is a non-governmental co-operative federation or, more precisely, a co-operative union representing co-operatives and the co-operative movement worldwide. It was founded in 1895 to unite, represent and serve co-operatives worldwide, the Alliance maintains the internationally recognised definition of a co-operative in the Statement on the Co-operative Identity. The ICA represents 272 co-operative federations and organisations in 94 countries, the Alliance provides a global voice and forum for knowledge, expertise and co-ordinated action for and about co-operatives. The Alliance has members from 100 countries, representing close to one billion individuals worldwide, around one hundred million people work for a co-operative globally. Co-operatives are values based businesses owned by their members, whether they are customers, employees or residents, the members get an equal say in the business and a share of the profits. In 2006 the ICA published the first major index of the worlds largest co-operative and mutual enterprises, the ICA Global 300, on the first Saturday of July each year, the ICA coordinates celebrations of International Co-operative Day. In December 2009, the United Nations declared 2012 as the International Year of Cooperatives, the ICA consists of a 20-member governing board, a General Assembly, four regions, sectoral organisations and thematic committees. In 2001 a new flag was adopted at the ICA General Assembly in Seoul, Korea, to avoid confusion with other rainbow flags, the present flag shows the ICA seven-color logo on a white background. The logo depicts a rainbow with a flock of stylized doves of peace scattering from the top. The rainbow has only six stripes and the color appears in the lettering under the rainbow. The flag exists in four different versions showing the ICA acronym in different languages, list of Co-operative Federations Capital and the Debt Trap The International Co-operative Alliance The story of the ICA flag
27.
Consensus decision-making
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Consensus decision-making is a group decision-making process in which group members develop, and agree to support a decision in the best interest of the whole. Consensus may be defined professionally as a resolution, one that can be supported. Consensus is defined by Merriam-Webster as, first, general agreement and it has its origin in the Latin word cōnsēnsus, which is from cōnsentiō meaning literally feel together. It is used to both the decision and the process of reaching a decision. Consensus decision-making is thus concerned with the process of deliberating and finalizing a decision, as a decision-making process, consensus decision-making aims to be, Agreement Seeking, A consensus decision making process attempts to generate as much agreement as possible. Collaborative, Participants contribute to a proposal and shape it into a decision that meets the concerns of all group members as much as possible. Cooperative, Participants in a consensus process should strive to reach the best possible decision for the group and all of its members. Egalitarian, All members of a consensus decision-making body should be afforded, as much as possible, All members have the opportunity to present, and amend proposals. Inclusive, As many stakeholders as possible should be involved in the consensus decision-making process, participatory, The consensus process should actively solicit the input and participation of all decision-makers. Consensus decision-making is an alternative to commonly practiced group decision-making processes, roberts Rules of Order, for instance, is a guide book used by many organizations. This book allows the structuring of debate and passage of proposals that can be approved through majority vote and it does not emphasize the goal of full agreement. Critics of such a process believe that it can involve adversarial debate and these dynamics may harm group member relationships and undermine the ability of a group to cooperatively implement a contentious decision. Consensus decision-making attempts to address the beliefs of such problems, proponents claim that outcomes of the consensus process include, Better decisions, Through including the input of all stakeholders the resulting proposals may better address all potential concerns. Better implementation, A process that includes and respects all parties, Better group relationships, A cooperative, collaborative group atmosphere can foster greater group cohesion and interpersonal connection. The level of agreement necessary to finalize a decision is known as a decision rule and these groups use the term consensus to denote both the discussion process and the decision rule. Other groups use a process to generate as much agreement as possible. In this case, someone who has a strong objection must live with the decision, Giving consent does not necessarily mean that the proposal being considered is one’s first choice. Group members can vote their consent to a proposal because they choose to cooperate with the direction of the group, sometimes the vote on a proposal is framed, “Is this proposal something you can live with. ”This relaxed threshold for a yes vote can achieve full consent
28.
Hierarchy
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A hierarchy is an arrangement of items in which the items are represented as being above, below, or at the same level as one another. A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or diagonally, indirect hierarchical links can extend vertically upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction, following a path. This is akin to two co-workers or colleagues, each reports to a superior, but they have the same relative amount of authority. Organizational forms exist that are alternative and complementary to hierarchy. A hierarchy is a system or organization in which people or groups are ranked one above the other according to status or authority, Hierarchies have their own special vocabulary. Most hierarchies use a more specific vocabulary pertaining to their subject, for example, with data structures, objects are known as nodes, superiors are called parents and subordinates are called children. In a business setting, a superior is a supervisor/boss and a peer is a colleague, degree of branching refers to the number of direct subordinates or children an object has a node has). Hierarchies can be categorized based on the degree, the highest degree present in the system as a whole. Categorization in this way yields two broad classes, linear and branching, in a linear hierarchy, the maximum degree is 1. In other words, all of the objects can be visualized in a lineup, note that this is referring to the objects and not the levels, every hierarchy has this property with respect to levels, but normally each level can have an infinite number of objects. An example of a hierarchy is the hierarchy of life. In a branching hierarchy, one or more objects has a degree of 2 or more, for many people, the word hierarchy automatically evokes an image of a branching hierarchy. Branching hierarchies are present within numerous systems, including organizations and classification schemes, the broad category of branching hierarchies can be further subdivided based on the degree. A flat hierarchy is a hierarchy in which the maximum degree approaches infinity. Most often, systems intuitively regarded as hierarchical have at most a moderate span, therefore, a flat hierarchy is often not viewed as a hierarchy at all. For example, diamonds and graphite are flat hierarchies of numerous carbon atoms which can be decomposed into subatomic particles. An overlapping hierarchy is a hierarchy in which at least one object has two parent objects. Pseudo-Dionysius used the related Greek word both in reference to the hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy
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Anarchism
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Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates self-governed societies based on voluntary institutions. These are often described as stateless societies, although several authors have defined them more specifically as institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations, Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, and harmful. While anti-statism is central, anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of all relations, including, but not limited to. Anarchism does not offer a fixed body of doctrine from a particular world view. Many types and traditions of anarchism exist, not all of which are mutually exclusive, Anarchist schools of thought can differ fundamentally, supporting anything from extreme individualism to complete collectivism. Strains of anarchism have often divided into the categories of social. The term anarchism is a word composed from the word anarchy and the suffix -ism, themselves derived respectively from the Greek ἀναρχία, i. e. anarchy. The first known use of this word was in 1539, various factions within the French Revolution labelled opponents as anarchists although few shared many views of later anarchists. The first political philosopher to call himself an anarchist was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, on the other hand, some use libertarianism to refer to individualistic free-market philosophy only, referring to free-market anarchism as libertarian anarchism. The earliest anarchist themes can be found in the 6th century BC, among the works of Taoist philosopher Laozi, zhuangzis philosophy has been described by various sources as anarchist. Zhuangzi wrote, A petty thief is put in jail, a great brigand becomes a ruler of a Nation. Diogenes of Sinope and the Cynics, their contemporary Zeno of Citium, Jesus is sometimes considered the first anarchist in the Christian anarchist tradition. Georges Lechartier wrote that The true founder of anarchy was Jesus Christ, the first anarchist society was that of the apostles. This is exemplified when the glorification of the state is viewed as a form of sinful idolatry, the French renaissance political philosopher Étienne de La Boétie wrote in his most famous work the Discourse on Voluntary Servitude what some historians consider an important anarchist precedent. The radical Protestant Christian Gerrard Winstanley and his group the Diggers are cited by authors as proposing anarchist social measures in the 17th century in England. The term anarchist first entered the English language in 1642, during the English Civil War, as a term of abuse, used by Royalists against their Roundhead opponents. By the time of the French Revolution some, such as the Enragés, began to use the term positively, in opposition to Jacobin centralisation of power, by the turn of the 19th century, the English word anarchism had lost its initial negative connotation. Modern anarchism emerged from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, as part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought
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Libertarian socialism
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It criticizes wage labour relationships within the workplace. Instead, it emphasizes workers self-management of the workplace and decentralized structures of political organization, as such libertarian socialism, within the larger socialist movement, seeks to distinguish itself both from Leninism/Bolshevism and from social democracy. Libertarian socialism is a Western philosophy with diverse interpretations, though some general commonalities can be found in its many incarnations and they propose that this economic system be executed in a manner that attempts to maximize the liberty of individuals and minimize concentration of power or authority. Libertarian socialists are critical of coercive institutions, which often leads them to reject the legitimacy of the state in favor of anarchism. Adherents propose achieving this through decentralization of political and economic power, usually involving the socialization of most large-scale private property, the next recorded use of the term was in Europe, when libertarian communism was used at a French regional anarchist Congress at Le Havre. January the following year saw a French manifesto issued on Libertarian or Anarchist Communism, finally,1895 saw leading anarchists Sébastien Faure and Louise Michel publish La Libertaire in France. The word stems from the French word libertaire, and was used to evade the French ban on anarchist publications, in the context of the European socialist movement, libertarian has conventionally been used to describe those who opposed state socialism, such as Mikhail Bakunin. Early in the century, libertarian socialism was as powerful a force as social democracy. Libertarian socialists played a role in the Russian revolutions of 1905 and 1917. Libertarian socialists played a dominant role in the Mexican Revolution of 1911, twenty years after World War I was over, libertarian socialists were still strong enough to spearhead the social revolution that swept across Republican Spain in 1936 and 1937. The history of socialist thought includes a long associational and anti-statist tradition prior to the victory of the Bolshevism in the east. Libertarian socialists are anti-capitalist, and can thus be distinguished from right-wing libertarians, whereas capitalist principles concentrate economic power in the hands of those who own the most capital, libertarian socialism aims to distribute power more widely amongst members of society. This is sometimes characterized as a desire to maximize free creativity in a society in preference to free enterprise and it is a negatively connoted term used to draw an analogy between slavery and wage labor by focusing on similarities between owning and renting a person. Libertarian socialists believe that freedom, society works towards a system in which individuals have the power to decide economic issues along with political issues. Many libertarian socialists believe that large-scale voluntary associations should manage industrial production and they see a distinction between concepts of private property and personal possession. Private property grants an exclusive control over a thing whether it is in use or not. Also the separation of work and life is questioned, and alternatives suggested that are underpinned by notions of dignity, self-realization, Libertarian socialists generally regard concentrations of power as sources of oppression that must be continually challenged and justified. Libertarian socialists typically oppose rigid and stratified structures of authority, be political, economic
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Political power
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In social science and politics, power is the ability to influence or outright control the behavior of people. The term authority is used for power perceived as legitimate by the social structure. Power can be seen as evil or unjust, but the exercise of power is accepted as endemic to humans as social beings, in business, power is often expressed as being upward or downward. With downward power, a companys superior influences subordinates, when a company exerts upward power, it is the subordinates who influence the decisions of their leader or leaders. The use of power need not involve force or the threat of force, at one extreme, it closely resembles what an English-speaking person might term influence, although some authors distinguish influence as a means by which power is used. One such example is power, as compared to hard power. The philosopher Michel Foucault saw power as an expression of a complex strategic situation in a given social setting that requires both constraint and enablement. Social psychologists John R. P. French and Bertram Raven, in a now-classic study, a must draw on the base or combination of bases of power appropriate to the relationship, to effect the desired outcome. Drawing on the power base can have unintended effects, including a reduction in As own power. French and Raven argue that there are five significant categories of such qualities, further bases have since been adduced – in particular by Gareth Morgan in his 1986 book, Images of Organization. Also called positional power, it is the power of an individual because of the relative position, legitimate power is formal authority delegated to the holder of the position. It is usually accompanied by various attributes of such as a uniform. Referent power is the power or ability of individuals to attract others and it is based on the charisma and interpersonal skills of the power holder. A person may be admired because of specific personal trait, here the person under power desires to identify with these personal qualities, and gains satisfaction from being an accepted follower. Nationalism and patriotism count towards a sort of referent power. For example, soldiers fight in wars to defend the honor of the country and this is the second least obvious power, but the most effective. Advertisers have long used the referent power of sports figures for products endorsements, the charismatic appeal of the sports star supposedly leads to an acceptance of the endorsement, although the individual may have little real credibility outside the sports arena. Abuse is possible when someone that is likable, yet lacks integrity and honesty, rises to power, referent power is unstable alone, and is not enough for a leader who wants longevity and respect
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Industrial and provident society
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An industrial and provident society was a legal entity for a trading business or voluntary organisation in the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, and New Zealand. The name is used in New Zealand, the Republic of Ireland. Recent legal developments in Great Britain include the Co-operative and Community Benefit Societies Act 2014, from 1 August 2014 a new society has had to register as either a co-operative or a community benefit society rather than, as was the case previously, a society that meets either requirement. However, for administrative purposes the three types of society are categorised separately, the Act applies to Great Britain but not Northern Ireland. See Co-operative and Community Benefit Societies Act 2014 for information about the current law on these societies, in 1965, an act of Parliament came into effect called the Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1965. In 2006, the Friendly and Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1968 Order 2006 increased the exemption threshold level for industrial. Also the Charities Act 2006 removed certain exemptions of charitable IPSs in England, from that point, charitable IPSs had to register with both the FCA and the Charity Commission, except registered social landlords, who register with the Tenant Services Authority. Since 2010 the IPS laws explicitly name co-operatives in their titles, the Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1965 was renamed Co-operative and Community Benefit Societies and Credit Unions Act 1965. In January 2012, the UK Prime Minister, David Cameron announced a project to all the legislation applicable to industrial. There was some uncertainty as to how far new developments would address the problems with the legislation, Cameron stated, We know that breaking monopolies, encouraging choice, opening up new forms of enterprise is not just right for business but the best way of improving public services too. Ed Mayo, Secretary General of Co-operatives UK, welcomed the project, in mid-2012, revision of laws for co-operative was in its early stages. Some felt the reforms did not deal with certain key problems, the registration function for societies was transferred to the FCA while the prudential regulation of credit unions was transferred to the PRA. In September 2013, the English and Scottish Law Commissions published a draft consolidation bill, draft regulations linked to that consultation were also available, having been circulated to a small number of people. Those drafts and other materials, including a members bill to liberalise the use of share capital by societies presented to the UK House of Lords were explained. In 2014, the Co-operative and Community Benefit Societies Act 2014 was given royal assent, IPSs were registered by the Financial Conduct Authority, which took over the job from the Registrar of Friendly Societies when it was part of the Financial Services Authority. Note that IPS registration is quite separate from the FCAs function of regulating financial institutions, the legislation in the Republic of Ireland is based on modifications of the UK Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1893. However, in a not-for-profit IPS the share capital may be limited to a nominal amount, rather they are par-value shares, which can only be redeemed at face value. The profits and losses of an IPS are thus the property of the members
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Altruism
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Altruism or selflessness is the principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others. Altruism or selflessness is the opposite of selfishness, the word was coined by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in French, as altruisme, for an antonym of egoism. He derived it from the Italian altrui, which in turn was derived from Latin alteri, Altruism can be distinguished from feelings of loyalty, in that whilst the latter is predicated upon social relationships, altruism does not consider relationships. Much debate exists as to whether true altruism is possible in human psychology, the validity of this argument depends on whether intrinsic rewards qualify as benefits. The actor also may not be expecting a reward, the term altruism may also refer to an ethical doctrine that claims that individuals are morally obliged to benefit others. Used in this sense, it is contrasted with egoism. The concept has a history in philosophical and ethical thought. Whilst ideas about altruism from one field can affect the other fields, in simple terms, altruism is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help them. Marcel Mausss book The Gift contains a passage, Note on alms and this note describes the evolution of the notion of alms from the notion of sacrifice. In it, he writes, Alms are the fruits of a notion of the gift and of fortune on the one hand. Generosity is an obligation, because Nemesis avenges the poor and the gods for the superabundance of happiness and this is the ancient morality of the gift, which has become a principle of justice. The gods and the spirits accept that the share of wealth and happiness that has offered to them and had been hitherto destroyed in useless sacrifices should serve the poor. Compare Altruism – perception of altruism as self-sacrifice, compare explanation of alms in various scriptures. Theories of apparently altruistic behavior were accelerated by the need to produce theories compatible with evolutionary origins, two related strands of research on altruism have emerged from traditional evolutionary analyses and from evolutionary game theory a mathematical model and analysis of behavioural strategies. Some of the mechanisms are, Kin selection. That animals and humans are more altruistic towards close kin than to distant kin and non-kin has been confirmed in numerous studies across many different cultures, even subtle cues indicating kinship may unconsciously increase altruistic behavior. One kinship cue is facial resemblance, one study found that slightly altering photographs so that they more closely resembled the faces of study participants increased the trust the participants expressed regarding depicted persons. Another cue is having the family name, especially if rare
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Community interest company
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CICs are intended to be easy to set up, with all the flexibility and certainty of the company form, but with some special features to ensure they are working for the benefit of the community. They have proved popular and some 10,000 registered in the statuss first 10 years, CICs tackle a wide range of social and environmental issues and operate in all parts of the economy. By using business solutions to public good, it is believed that CICs have a distinct and valuable role to play in helping create a strong, sustainable. They include social and community enterprises, social firms, mutual organisations such as co-operatives, CICs must be limited companies of one form or another. A CIC cannot be a charity, an IPS or an unincorporated organisation, regular limited liability companies that do not have charitable status find it difficult to ensure that their assets are dedicated to public benefit. There is no simple, clear way of locking assets of such a company to a public benefit purpose other than applying for charitable status, the community interest company is intended to meet this need. When a CIC is requested, the CIC regulator considers whether applications meet the criteria to become a CIC, if satisfied, the regulator advises the registrar in Companies House who, provided that all the documents are in order, will issue a certificate of incorporation as a CIC. A charity can convert to a CIC with the consent of the Charity Commission, in so doing it will lose its charitable status including tax advantages. A charity may own a CIC, in case the CIC would be permitted to pass assets to the charity. CICs are more lightly regulated than charities but do not have the benefit of charitable status and those who may want to set up a CIC are expected to be philanthropic entrepreneurs who want to do good in a form other than charity. This may be because, CICs are specifically identified with social enterprise, some organisations may feel that this is more suitable than charitable status. Members of the board of a charity may only be paid where the constitution contains such a power and this limitation does not apply to CICs. The definition of community interest that applies to CICs is wider than the public interest test for charity, the formation and registration is similar to that of any limited company
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Marx's theory of alienation
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Karl Marxs theory of alienation describes the estrangement of people from aspects of their Gattungswesen as a consequence of living in a society of stratified social classes. The alienation from the self is a consequence of being a part of a social class. Karl Marx expressed the Entfremdung theory, of estrangement from the self, each of us would have, in two ways, affirmed himself, and the other person. Our products would be so many mirrors in which we saw reflected our essential nature, in the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, Karl Marx identified four types of alienation that occur to the worker labouring under a capitalist system of industrial production. The worker is alienated from the means of production via two forms, wage compulsion and the production content. The worker is bound to unwanted labour as a means of survival, labour is not voluntary, the worker is only able to reject wage compulsion at the expense of their life and that of their family. The distribution of property in the hands of wealth owners. In a capitalist world our means of survival is based on exchange, therefore we have no other choice than to sell our labour power. Does not feel content but unhappy, does not develop freely his physical and mental energy but mortifies his body, the worker therefore only feels himself outside his work, and in his work feels outside himself. Labor is external to the worker, it is not a part of their essential being, during work the worker is miserable, unhappy and drained of their energy, work mortifies his body and ruins his mind. The production content, direction and form are imposed by the capitalist and this means he cannot freely and spontaneously create according to his own directive, labors form and direction belong to someone else. The Gattungswesen, human nature of individuals is not discrete from their activity as a worker, as such, species-essence also comprises all of innate human potential as a person. The psychic value of a human consists in being able to conceive of the ends of their actions as purposeful ideas, which are distinct from the actions required to realize a given idea. That is, humans are able to objectify their intentions, by means of an idea of themselves, as the subject, and an idea of the thing that they produce, the object. In the course of history, to individual survival, societies have organized themselves into groups who have different. In a capitalist economy, the businesses who own the means of production establish a competitive labour-market meant to extract from the worker as much labour as possible, in Marxist theory, Entfremdung is a foundational proposition about mans progress towards self-actualisation. In the Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Ted Honderich described the influences of G. F. W, Hegel and Ludwig Feuerbach upon Karl Marx, For Hegel, the unhappy consciousness is divided against itself, separated from its essence, which it has placed in a beyond. As used by the philosophers Hegel and Marx, the reflexive German verbs entäussern and entfremden indicate that the term alienation denotes self-alienation, in The Phenomenology of Spirit, G. F. W
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Marxism
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It originates from the mid-to-late 19th century works of German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat through the alienation of labor, Marxism has since developed into different branches and schools of thought, and there is now no single definitive Marxist theory. Marxism has been adopted by a number of academics and theorists working in various disciplines. Critics have taken issue with particular Marxist claims or accused Marxism as a whole of being inconsistent, refuted based on new information. The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of the material conditions, the economic system and these social relations form a base and superstructure. As forces of production, most notably technology, improve, existing forms of social organization become inefficient, from forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social revolution and these inefficiencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority who own the means of production, and the vast majority of the population who produce goods, the socialist system would succeed capitalism as humanitys mode of production through workers revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising from crisis theory, socialism is a historical necessity, in a socialist society private property, in the form of the means of production, would be replaced by co-operative ownership. A socialist economy would not base production on the creation of private profits, Society does not consist of individuals, but expresses the sum of interrelations, the relations within which these individuals stand. The historical materialist theory of history analyses the causes of societal development. All constituent features of a society are assumed to stem from economic activity, the base and superstructure metaphor portrays the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, The sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society and this relationship is reflexive, at first the base gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. As Friedrich Engels clarified, The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles, accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production. Primitive Communism, as in tribal societies. Slave Society, a development of tribal to city-state, aristocracy is born, feudalism, aristocrats are the ruling class, merchants evolve into capitalists. Capitalism, capitalists are the class, who create and employ the proletariat. According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin, the content of Marxism was Marxs economic doctrine
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Participatory democracy
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Participatory democracy emphasizes the broad participation of constituents in the direction and operation of political systems. Etymological roots of democracy imply that the people are in power, however, participatory democracy tends to advocate more involved forms of citizen participation and greater political representation than traditional representative democracy. Effectively increasing the scale of participation, and translating small but effective participation groups into small world networks, are currently being studied. Other advocates have emphasised the importance of face to face meetings and these scholars tend to stress the value of separation between the realm of civil society and the formal political realm. In 2011, considerable grassroots interest in participatory democracy was generated by the Occupy movement, Participatory democracy has a long history. One instance is the Iroquois confederacy which operates under the oldest surviving constitution in the world and this caused much hardship and discontent among the common people, with many having to sell their land due to debts, and even suffer from debt slavery. About a century later, Solons reforms were further enhanced for even more direct involvement of citizens by Cleisthenes. Athenian democracy came to an end in 322BC, when democracy was revived as a political system about 2000 years later, decisions were made by representatives rather than by the people themselves. A minor exception to this was the form of direct democracy which flourished in the Swiss Cantons from the later Middle Ages. In the late 19th century, a number of thinkers, including Oscar Wilde. During the Spanish civil war, from 1936–1938, the parts of Spain controlled by anarchist members of the Spanish Republican faction was governed almost totally by participatory democracy. In 1938 the anarchists were displaced after betrayal by their former Republican allies in the Communist party, the mystic and philosopher Simone Weil, who had helped the Spanish anarchists as a combat soldier, would later promote participatory democracy in her political manifesto The Need for Roots. In the 1960s the promotion and use of participatory democracy was a theme for elements of the American Left. In the 1980s, the profile of participatory democracy within academia was raised by James S. Fishkin, a World Bank study found that participatory democracy in these cities seemed to result in considerable improvement in the quality of life for residents. In the early 21st century, low profile experiments in participatory democracy began to spread throughout South and North Americas, to China, across the European Union and also to Great Britain. A partial example in the USA occurred with drawing up the plans to rebuild New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina and their decision process was an attempt to combine equality, mass participation, and deliberation, but caused slow decisions. By November 2011 the movement had been criticized for not yet coalescing around clearly identifiable aims. Bioregional democracy is often but not necessarily participatory, grassroots democracy is an alternative term that has been used to imply almost any combination of the above
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Direct democracy
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Direct democracy is a form of democracy in which people decide policy initiatives directly. This differs from the majority of democracies, which are representative democracies. Direct democracy is similar to, but distinct from, representative democracy, two leading forms of direct democracy are participatory democracy and deliberative democracy. Semi direct democracies in which representatives administer day-to-day governance, but the citizens remain the sovereign, the first two forms—referendums and initiatives—are examples of direct legislation. Compulsory referendum subjects the legislation drafted by political elites to a popular vote. This is the most common form of direct legislation, popular referendum empowers citizens to make a petition that calls existing legislation to a citizens vote. Institutions specify the frame for a valid petition and the number of signatures required. This form of direct democracy effectively grants the voting public a veto on laws adopted by the elected legislature, initiatives may be direct or indirect, With the direct initiative, a successful proposition is placed directly on the ballot to be subject to vote. Such a form of initiative is utilized by Switzerland for constitutional amendments. Power of Recall gives the public the power to elected officials from office before the end of their term. Some of the most important modern thinkers who were inspired by the concept of democracy are Cornelius Castoriadis, Hannah Arendt. The earliest known direct democracy is said to be the Athenian democracy in the 5th century BC, although it was not a democracy, women, foreigners. There were only about 30,000 male citizens, but several thousand of them were active in each year. Modern democracies, being representative, not direct, do not resemble the Athenian system, also relevant to the history of direct democracy is the history of Ancient Rome, specifically the Roman Republic, beginning around 509 BC. Rome displayed many aspects of democracy, both direct and indirect, from the era of Roman monarchy all the way to the collapse of the Roman Empire. As to direct democracy, the ancient Roman Republic had a system of citizen lawmaking, or citizen formulation and passage of law, and a citizen veto of legislature-made law. Many historians mark the end of the Republic with the passage of a law named the Lex Titia,27 November 43 BC, modern-era citizen lawmaking began in the towns of Switzerland in the 13th century. In 1847, the Swiss added the statute referendum to their national constitution and they soon discovered that merely having the power to veto Parliaments laws was not enough
