1.
Methodism
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Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their inspiration from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and Johns brother Charles Wesley were also significant leaders in the movement and it originated as a revival within the 18th century Church of England and became a separate Church after Wesleys death. Because of vigorous missionary work, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, Wesleys theology focused on sanctification and the effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing Methodist doctrines include an assurance of salvation, imparted righteousness, the possibility of perfection in love, the works of piety and the primacy of Scripture. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all, in theology and this teaching rejects the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several others were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the latter position, Methodism emphasises charity and support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens and schools to follow Christs command to spread the gospel, the movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church. In Britain, the Methodist Church had an effect in the early decades of the making of the working class. In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition. The Methodist revival began with a group of men, including John Wesley and his younger brother Charles, the Wesley brothers founded the Holy Club at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick, the fellowship were branded as Methodist by their fellow students because of the way they used rule and method to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery, unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church, at a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his heart strangely warmed. Charles had reported an experience an few days previously. Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield, Howell Harris, and Selina Hastings, George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade
2.
Lake Junaluska, North Carolina
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Lake Junaluska is a census-designated place in Haywood County, North Carolina, USA in the Blue Ridge Mountains. It is part of the Asheville Metropolitan Statistical Area, Lake Junaluska is named after the after nearby Mount Junaluska, which in turn is named after Chief Junaluska, a Cherokee leader. The 2010 census reports that the community had a population of 2734. The 200 acre manmade lake is surrounded by residences and the Lake Junaluska Conference and Retreat Center. The lake is fed primarily from Richland Creek and discharges into the creek, Richland Creek is a tributary to the French Broad River. Recreation on the lake includes canoes, kayaks, fishing and swimming, only electric trolling motors are permitted on the lake to maintain a quiet environment. There is a 3.5 mile paved walking trail around the lake enjoyed by visitors, the Blue Ridge Parkway is nearby as well as Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The Lake Junaluska Conference and Retreat Center hosts events for the United Methodist Church, Seventh-day Adventist Church, The Salvation Army, Church of the Brethren, several musical events are hosted in Stuart Auditorium including Folkmoot USA programs and Appalachian bluegrass concerts, including the Smoky Mountain Folk Festival. The facilities are intended to be used for the renewal of body, mind, the Terrace hotel, the Lakes primary accommodation, was extensively renovated in 2015, along with Jones Dining hall. The amenities of the Conference and Retreat Center campus include lodging, meeting facilities, the Corneille Bryan Native Garden is one of many subtle features of the campus, containing many plants once abundant but now rare. The Conference and Retreat Center is governed by an active diverse, the Board provides strategic direction, and budget approval for the Conference and Retreat Center, the Lake Junaluska Public Works, residential fees, and utility rates. The Executive Director, who has day-to-day management responsibility, reports to the board of Trustees, the board approves changes to the rules and regulations of the community. The amenities of Lake Junaluska include lodging, meeting facilities, dining, trails, gardens, meditation areas, golf, the maintenance of the public areas around the lake and the dam, which is inspected annually, are funded primarily through charitable giving and proceeds from lodging guests. This includes the removal of sediment that has been washed into the lake from Richland Creek. Lake Junaluska has an oceanic climate under the Köppen climate classification, Lake Junaluska is located at 35°31′40″N 82°58′35″W. It has a setting, Haywood County is known for the 18 peaks over 6,000 feet. Lake Junaluska has a climate with monthly averages ranging from 37.2 F in January to 70.9 F in July. Precipitation averages 46.1 inches annually and snowfall averages 13.8 inches, the Lake Junaluska Public Works office manages the roads and utilities
3.
Houston
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Houston is the most populous city in the state of Texas and the fourth-most populous city in the United States. With a census-estimated 2014 population of 2.239 million within an area of 667 square miles, it also is the largest city in the southern United States and the seat of Harris County. Located in Southeast Texas near the Gulf of Mexico, it is the city of Houston–The Woodlands–Sugar Land. Houston was founded on August 28,1836, near the banks of Buffalo Bayou and incorporated as a city on June 5,1837. The city was named after former General Sam Houston, who was president of the Republic of Texas and had commanded, the burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the citys population. Houstons economy has an industrial base in energy, manufacturing, aeronautics. Leading in health care sectors and building equipment, Houston has more Fortune 500 headquarters within its city limits than any city except for New York City. The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled, the city has a population from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community. Houston is the most diverse city in Texas and has described as the most diverse in the United States. It is home to cultural institutions and exhibits, which attract more than 7 million visitors a year to the Museum District. Houston has a visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District. In August 1836, two real estate entrepreneurs from New York, Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen, purchased 6,642 acres of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city. The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston, the general at the Battle of San Jacinto. The great majority of slaves in Texas came with their owners from the slave states. Sizable numbers, however, came through the slave trade. New Orleans was the center of trade in the Deep South. Thousands of enslaved African Americans lived near the city before the Civil War, many of them near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations, while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs. Houston was granted incorporation on June 5,1837, with James S. Holman becoming its first mayor, in the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas
4.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
5.
Durban
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Durban is the largest city in the South African province of KwaZulu-Natal. Durbans metropolitan municipality ranks third among the most populous areas in South Africa after Johannesburg. It is also the second most important manufacturing hub in South Africa after Johannesburg and it forms part of the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality. Durban is famous for being the busiest port in South Africa and it is also seen as one of the major centres of tourism because of the citys warm subtropical climate and extensive beaches. It is the largest city in KwaZulu-Natal which is the 2nd most populous province in South Africa and it has the highest number of dollar millionaires added per year of any South African city with the number rising 200% between 2000 and 2014. In May 2015, Durban was officially recognised as one of the New7Wonders Cities together with Vigan, Doha, La Paz, Havana, Beirut, archaeological evidence from the Drakensberg mountains suggests that the Durban area has been inhabited by communities of hunter-gatherers since 100,000 BC. He named the area Natal, or Christmas in Portuguese, accompanying Farewell was an adventurer named Henry Francis Fynn. Fynn was able to befriend the Zulu King Shaka by helping him to recover from a wound he suffered in battle. As a token of Shakas gratitude, he granted Fynn a 30-mile strip of coast a hundred miles in depth. During a meeting of 35 European residents in Fynns territory on 23 June 1835, it was decided to build a town and name it dUrban after Sir Benjamin dUrban. The Voortrekkers established the Republic of Natalia in 1838, with its capital at Pietermaritzburg, piet Retief, leader of the Voortrekkers in Natal, negotiated with the Zulu King, Dingane, in order to obtain land for their farming purposes. After negotiations were concluded, Dingane however reneged and had Retief, thereafter the Zulus attacked and killed more than 500 Voortrekkers at Retiefs laager. The Voortrekkers retaliated and broke Dinganes power at the Battle of Blood River, the force arrived on 4 May 1842 and built a fortification that was later to be The Old Fort. On the night of 23/24 May 1842 the British attacked the Voortrekker camp at Congella, the attack failed, and the British had to withdraw to their camp which was put under siege. A local trader Dick King and his servant Ndongeni were able to escape the blockade and rode to Grahamstown, the reinforcements arrived in Durban 20 days later, the Voortrekkers retreated, and the siege was lifted. Fierce conflict with the Zulu population led to the evacuation of Durban, a British governor was appointed to the region and many settlers emigrated from Europe and the Cape Colony. The British established a sugar industry in the 1860s. Farm owners had a difficult time attracting Zulu labourers to work on their plantations, as a result of the importation of Indian labourers, Durban has the largest Asian community on the African continent, and has the largest Indian population outside of India
6.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
7.
Nashville, Tennessee
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Nashville is the capital of the U. S. state of Tennessee and the county seat of Davidson County. It is located on the Cumberland River in the central part of the state. The city is a center for the music, healthcare, publishing, banking and transportation industries and it is known as a center of the country music industry, earning it the nickname Music City, U. S. A. Since 1963, Nashville has had a consolidated city-county government which includes six municipalities in a two-tier system. Nashville is governed by a mayor, vice-mayor, and 40-member Metropolitan Council, thirty-five of the members are elected from single-member districts, five are elected at-large. Reflecting the citys position in government, Nashville is home to the Tennessee Supreme Courts courthouse for Middle Tennessee. According to 2015 estimates from the U. S. Census Bureau, the balance population, which excludes semi-independent municipalities within Nashville, was 654,610. The 2015 population of the entire 13-county Nashville metropolitan area was 1,830,345, the 2015 population of the Nashville-Davidson–Murfreesboro–Columbia combined statistical area, a larger trade area, was 1,951,644. The town of Nashville was founded by James Robertson, John Donelson, and it was named for Francis Nash, the American Revolutionary War hero. Nashville quickly grew because of its location, accessibility as a port on the Cumberland River, a tributary of the Ohio River. By 1800, the city had 345 residents, including 136 African American slaves and 14 free blacks, in 1806, Nashville was incorporated as a city and became the county seat of Davidson County, Tennessee. In 1843, the city was named the permanent capital of the state of Tennessee, by 1860, when the first rumblings of secession began to be heard across the South, antebellum Nashville was a prosperous city. The citys significance as a port made it a desirable prize as a means of controlling important river. In February 1862, Nashville became the first state capital to fall to Union troops, the state was occupied by Union troops for the duration of the war. Within a few years after the Civil War, the Nashville chapter of the Ku Klux Klan was founded by Confederate veteran John W. Morton, meanwhile, the city had reclaimed its important shipping and trading position and developed a solid manufacturing base. The post–Civil War years of the late 19th century brought new prosperity to Nashville and these healthy economic times left the city with a legacy of grand classical-style buildings, which can still be seen around the downtown area. Circa 1950 the state approved a new city charter that provided for the election of city council members from single-member districts. This change was supported because at-large voting diluted the minority populations political power in the city and they could seldom gain a majority of the population to support a candidate of their choice
8.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
9.
Atlanta, Georgia
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Atlanta is the capital of and the most populous city in the U. S. state of Georgia, with an estimated 2015 population of 463,878. Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area, home to 5,710,795 people, Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County, and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County. In 1837, Atlanta was founded at the intersection of two lines, and the city rose from the ashes of the American Civil War to become a national center of commerce. Atlantas economy is considered diverse, with dominant sectors that include logistics, professional and business services, media operations, Atlanta has topographic features that include rolling hills and dense tree coverage. Revitalization of Atlantas neighborhoods, initially spurred by the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, has intensified in the 21st century, altering the demographics, politics. Prior to the arrival of European settlers in north Georgia, Creek Indians inhabited the area, standing Peachtree, a Creek village located where Peachtree Creek flows into the Chattahoochee River, was the closest Indian settlement to what is now Atlanta. As part of the removal of Native Americans from northern Georgia from 1802 to 1825, the Creek ceded the area in 1821. In 1836, the Georgia General Assembly voted to build the Western, the initial route was to run southward from Chattanooga to a terminus east of the Chattahoochee River, which would then be linked to Savannah. After engineers surveyed various possible locations for the terminus, the zero milepost was driven into the ground in what is now Five Points. A year later, the area around the milepost had developed into a settlement, first known as Terminus, and later as Thrasherville after a merchant who built homes. By 1842, the town had six buildings and 30 residents and was renamed Marthasville to honor the Governors daughter, later, J. Edgar Thomson, Chief Engineer of the Georgia Railroad, suggested the town be renamed Atlantica-Pacifica, which was shortened to Atlanta. The residents approved, and the town was incorporated as Atlanta on December 29,1847, by 1860, Atlantas population had grown to 9,554. During the American Civil War, the nexus of multiple railroads in Atlanta made the city a hub for the distribution of military supplies, in 1864, the Union Army moved southward following the capture of Chattanooga and began its invasion of north Georgia. On the next day, Mayor James Calhoun surrendered Atlanta to the Union Army, on November 11,1864, Sherman prepared for the Union Armys March to the Sea by ordering Atlanta to be burned to the ground, sparing only the citys churches and hospitals. After the Civil War ended in 1865, Atlanta was gradually rebuilt, due to the citys superior rail transportation network, the state capital was moved from Milledgeville to Atlanta in 1868. In the 1880 Census, Atlanta surpassed Savannah as Georgias largest city, by 1885, the founding of the Georgia School of Technology and the citys black colleges had established Atlanta as a center for higher education. In 1895, Atlanta hosted the Cotton States and International Exposition, during the first decades of the 20th century, Atlanta experienced a period of unprecedented growth. In three decades time, Atlantas population tripled as the city expanded to include nearby streetcar suburbs
10.
Anglican Communion
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The Anglican Communion is an international association of autonomous churches consisting of the Church of England and national and regional Anglican churches in full communion with it. Full participation in the life of each church is available to all communicant Anglicans. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England, has a place of honour among the bishops of the Anglican churches and he is recognised as primus inter pares. The archbishop does not exercise authority in the provinces outside England, the churches of the Anglican Communion considers themselves to be part of the nicos one, holy, catholic and apostolic church and to be both Catholic and Reformed. For some adherents, Anglicanism represents a non-papal Catholicism, for others a form of Protestantism though without a dominant guiding figure such as Luther, Knox, Calvin, for others, their self-identity represents some combination of the two. The communion encompasses a spectrum of belief and practice including evangelical, liberal. With a membership estimated at around 85 million members, the Anglican Communion is the third largest Christian communion in the world, after the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. Some of these churches are known as Anglican, such as the Anglican Church of Canada, some, for example the Church of Ireland, the Scottish and American Episcopal churches, and some other associated churches have a separate name. The Anglican Communion has no legal existence nor any governing structure which might exercise authority over the member churches. There is an Anglican Communion Office in London, under the aegis of the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Communion is held together by a shared history, expressed in its ecclesiology, polity and ethos and also by participation in international consultative bodies. Early in its development, Anglicanism developed a vernacular prayer book, unlike other traditions, Anglicanism has never been governed by a magisterium nor by appeal to one founding theologian, nor by an extra-credal summary of doctrine. Instead, Anglicans have typically appealed to the Book of Common Prayer and its offshoots as a guide to Anglican theology and this had the effect of inculcating the principle of Lex orandi, lex credendi as the foundation of Anglican identity and confession. These parameters were most clearly articulated in the rubrics of the successive prayer books. With the expansion of the British Empire, and hence the growth of Anglicanism outside Great Britain and Ireland, the first major expression of this were the Lambeth Conferences of the communions bishops, first convened by Archbishop of Canterbury Charles Longley in 1869. One of the influential early resolutions of the conference was the so-called Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral of 1888. Its intent was to provide the basis for discussions of reunion with the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches, the Apostles Creed, as the Baptismal Symbol, and the Nicene Creed, as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. The two Sacraments ordained by Christ Himself - Baptism and the Supper of the Lord - ministered with unfailing use of Christs Words of Institution, and of the elements ordained by Him. The Historic Episcopate, locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the needs of the nations
11.
Lutheran World Federation
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The Lutheran World Federation is a global communion of national and regional Lutheran churches headquartered in the Ecumenical Centre in Geneva, Switzerland. The federation was founded in the Swedish city of Lund in the aftermath of the Second World War in 1947 to coordinate the activities of the many differing Lutheran churches. Since 1984, the churches are in pulpit and altar fellowship, with common doctrine as the basis of membership. The LWF now has 144 member church bodies in 79 countries representing over 72 million Lutherans, the Department for World Service is the LWFs humanitarian arm. It has programmes in 32 countries, the LWF is a member of ACT Alliance. On October 31,1999, in Augsburg, Germany, the Lutheran World Federation signed the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification with the Roman Catholic Church, the statement is an attempt to narrow the theological divide between the two faiths. The Declaration also states that the mutual condemnations between 16th-century Lutherans and the Roman Catholic Church no longer apply, a similar event took place in Lund Cathedral at the 500th anniversary of the beginning of the Reformation when Pope Francis visited Scania, Swedens southernmost province that originally was Danish. More than 80% of member churches ordain women as ministers, the federation was organized at Lund, Sweden, in 1947. Based in Geneva, Switzerland, it replaced the more informal Lutheran World Convention, a key leader was Executive Secretary Sylvester C. Michelfelder, representing the American Lutheran Church and he had been a leader in organizing $45 million in American help for the rebuilding of Protestant churches in Germany after 1945. By the time of his death in 1951, the federation represented 52 churches in 25 countries, the 20 largest member churches are, The President is the federations chief official representative and spokesperson. He or she presides at meetings of the Assembly, Council and Meeting of Officers, the Lutheran World Federation Council elects the General Secretary, who is appointed for a seven-year term. The person appointed is eligible for re-election and this map shows the global distribution of Lutheranism based on The LWF2013 membership data. Sorted by country in alphabetical order Some member denominations recognize same-gender relationships through marriage, international Lutheran Council Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference List of the largest Protestant denominations World Council of Churches Bonhoeffer, Dietrich. In Jordan J. Ballor and Stephen J. Grabill, eds, Ecumenical Babel, Confusing Economic Ideology and the Churchs Social Witness pp, 29+ Schjørring, Jens Holger, et al. eds. From federation to communion, the history of the Lutheran World Federation Wenz, Lutheran World Federation, in Julius Bodensieck, ed. The encyclopedia of the Lutheran Church
12.
The Salvation Army
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The Salvation Army is a Christian Protestant church and international charitable organisation structured in a quasi-military fashion. The organisation reports a membership of over 1.5 million, consisting of soldiers, officers. Its founders Catherine and William Booth sought to bring salvation to the poor, destitute and it is present in 127 countries, running charity shops, operating shelters for the homeless and disaster relief and humanitarian aid to developing countries. The theology of the Salvation Army is derived from that of Methodism although it is distinctive in institution, the Armys doctrine is typical of evangelical Protestant denominations. The Armys purposes are the advancement of the Christian religion, of education, the relief of poverty, and other charitable objects beneficial to society or the community of mankind as a whole. The Army was founded in 1865 in London by one-time Methodist circuit-preacher William Booth as the East London Christian Mission, in 1878 Booth reorganised the mission, becoming its first General and introducing the military structure which has been retained to the present day. The current world leader of The Salvation Army is General André Cox, the Salvation Army was founded in Londons East End in 1865 by one-time Methodist Reform Church minister William Booth and his wife Catherine as the East London Christian Mission. The name The Salvation Army developed from an incident on 19 and 20 May, William Booth was dictating a letter to his secretary George Scott Railton and said, We are a volunteer army. Bramwell Booth heard his father and said, Volunteer, Im no volunteer, Im a regular. Railton was instructed to cross out the volunteer and substitute the word salvation. The Salvation Army was modelled after the military, with its own flag and its own hymns, often with words set to popular, Booth and the other soldiers in Gods Army would wear the Armys own uniform, for meetings and ministry work. He became the General and his ministers were given appropriate ranks as officers. When William Booth became known as the General, Catherine is known as the Mother of The Salvation Army, William preached to the poor, and Catherine spoke to the wealthy, gaining financial support for their work. She also acted as a minister, which was unusual at the time. William Booth described the approach, The three ‘Ss’ best expressed the way in which the Army administered to the down and outs, first, soup, second, soap. In 1880, the Salvation Army started its work in three countries, Australia, Ireland, and the United States. When the first official officers arrived in Australia and the United States, they found groups of Salvationists already waiting for them and started working with each other. The Booths did not include the use of sacraments in the Armys form of worship, other beliefs are that its members should completely refrain from drinking alcohol, smoking, taking illegal drugs and gambling
13.
Eastern Orthodox Church
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The Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission to the apostles. It practices what it understands to be the original Christian faith, the Eastern Orthodox Church is a communion of autocephalous churches, each typically governed by a Holy Synod. It teaches that all bishops are equal by virtue of their ordination, prior to the Council of Chalcedon in AD451, the Eastern Orthodox had also shared communion with the Oriental Orthodox churches, separating primarily over differences in Christology. Eastern Orthodoxy spread throughout the Roman and later Eastern Roman Empires and beyond, playing a prominent role in European, Near Eastern, Slavic, and some African cultures. As a result, the term Greek Orthodox has sometimes used to describe all of Eastern Orthodoxy in general. However, the appellation Greek was never in use and was gradually abandoned by the non-Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox churches. Its most prominent episcopal see is Constantinople, there are also many in other parts of the world, formed through immigration, conversion and missionary activity. The official name of the Eastern Orthodox Church is the Orthodox Catholic Church and it is the name by which the church refers to itself in its liturgical or canonical texts, in official publications, and in official contexts or administrative documents. Orthodox teachers refer to the Church as Catholic and this name and longer variants containing Catholic are also recognized and referenced in other books and publications by secular or non-Orthodox writers. The common name of the Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, is a shortened practicality that helps to avoid confusions in casual use, for this reason, the eastern churches were sometimes identified as Greek, even before the great schism. After 1054, Greek Orthodox or Greek Catholic marked a church as being in communion with Constantinople and this identification with Greek, however, became increasingly confusing with time. Missionaries brought Orthodoxy to many regions without ethnic Greeks, where the Greek language was not spoken. Today, many of those same Roman churches remain, while a large number of Orthodox are not of Greek national origin. Eastern, then, indicates the element in the Churchs origin and development, while Orthodox indicates the faith. While the Church continues officially to call itself Catholic, for reasons of universality, the first known use of the phrase the catholic church occurred in a letter written about 110 AD from one Greek church to another. Quote of St Ignatius to the Smyrnaeans, Wheresoever the bishop shall appear, there let the people be, even as where Jesus may be, thus, almost from the very beginning, Christians referred to the Church as the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church. The Orthodox Church claims that it is today the continuation and preservation of that same Church, a number of other Christian churches also make a similar claim, the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, the Assyrian Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches. The Church of England separated from the Roman Catholic Church, not directly from the Orthodox Church, the depth of this meaning in the Orthodox Church is registered first in its use of the word Orthodox itself, a union of Greek orthos and doxa
14.
Pentecostalism
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The term Pentecostal is derived from Pentecost, the Greek name for the Jewish Feast of Weeks. For Christians, this event commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the followers of Jesus Christ, like other forms of evangelical Protestantism, Pentecostalism adheres to the inerrancy of scripture and the necessity of accepting Christ as personal Lord and Savior. It is distinguished by belief in the baptism in the Holy Spirit that enables a Christian to live a Spirit-filled and empowered life and this empowerment includes the use of spiritual gifts such as speaking in tongues and divine healing—two other defining characteristics of Pentecostalism. For this reason, some Pentecostals also use the term Apostolic or Full Gospel to describe their movement, Pentecostalism emerged in the early 20th century among radical adherents of the Holiness movement who were energized by revivalism and expectation for the imminent Second Coming of Christ. In 1900, Charles Parham, an American evangelist and faith healer, the three-year-long Azusa Street Revival, founded and led by William J. While virtually all Pentecostal denominations trace their origins to Azusa Street, an early dispute centered on challenges to the doctrine of the Trinity. As a result, the Pentecostal Movement is divided between trinitarian and non-trinitarian branches, there are over 279 million Pentecostals worldwide, and the movement is growing in many parts of the world, especially the global South. Together, Pentecostal and Charismatic Christianity numbers over 500 million adherents, Pentecostalism is an evangelical faith, emphasizing the reliability of the Bible and the need for the transformation of an individuals life through faith in Jesus. Like other evangelicals, Pentecostals generally adhere to the Bibles divine inspiration and inerrancy—the belief that the Bible, Pentecostals emphasize the teaching of the full gospel or foursquare gospel. The central belief of Pentecostalism is that through the death, burial and this is the Gospel or good news. The fundamental requirement of Pentecostalism is that one be born again, the new birth is received by the grace of God through faith in Christ as Lord and Savior. In being born again, the believer is regenerated, justified, adopted into the family of God, Pentecostal soteriology is generally Arminian rather than Calvinist. The security of the believer is a doctrine held within Pentecostalism, nevertheless, Pentecostals believe in both a literal heaven and hell, the former for those who have accepted Gods gift of salvation and the latter for those who have rejected it. For most Pentecostals there is no requirement to receive salvation. Baptism with the Holy Spirit and speaking in tongues are not generally required, a notable exception is Oneness Pentecostalism, most adherents of which believe both water baptism and Spirit baptism are integral components of salvation. Pentecostals identify three distinct uses of the baptism in the New Testament, Baptism into the body of Christ. Every believer in Christ is made a part of his body, the Holy Spirit is the agent, and the body of Christ is the medium. Baptism with the Holy Spirit, This is an experience distinct from baptism into the body of Christ
15.
Habitat for Humanity
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Habitat for Humanity International, generally referred to as Habitat for Humanity or simply Habitat, is an international, non-governmental, and nonprofit organization, which was founded in 1976. Habitat has been devoted to building simple, decent, and affordable housing, a self-described Christian housing ministry, the international operational headquarters are located in Americus, Georgia, United States, with the administrative headquarters located in Atlanta. There are five area offices located around the world, United States and Canada, Africa and the Middle East, Asia-Pacific, Europe and Central Asia, and Latin America, community-level Habitat offices act in partnership with and on behalf of Habitat for Humanity International. In the United States, these offices are called Habitat affiliates, outside the United States. Each affiliate and national office is a run, nonprofit organization. The mission statement of Habitat for Humanity is Seeking to put God’s love into action, Habitat for Humanity brings people together to build homes, communities, homes are built using volunteer labor and Habitat makes no profit on the sales. In some locations outside the United States, Habitat for Humanity charges interest to protect against inflation and this policy has been in place since 1986. Habitat has helped more than 4 million people construct, rehabilitate or preserve more than 800,000 homes since its founding in 1976, Habitat for Humanity traces its origins to the time Millard Fuller spent at Koinonia Farm in 1965. Every affiliate follows a policy of family selection. Neither race nor religion is a factor in choosing the families who receive Habitat houses, the applicants are required to sign release forms authorizing Habitat for Humanity to perform this background check. This ensures that Habitats risk is reasonable when selling a home, there are typically a First and a Second Mortgage. The Second Mortgage is put in place to protect any equity that is left that is not captured in the first mortgage, the homeowners pay down the first mortgage, and after a stated period of time of living in the same home, the Second Mortgage is forgiven. However, The Right of First Refusal stays in force until the mortgage is paid in full and this sweat equity acts as the down payment on the home. Every hour spent earning this sweat equity must be approved and signed off on by an official Habitat for Humanity representative, sweat equity has no monetary value and cannot be refunded. Once construction on the home is finished and the equity is completed in full. With monthly payments that do not exceed 30% of the monthly income. Mortgage payments from homeowners are deposited into a locally administered Fund for Humanity, in an effort to discourage predatory lenders from targeting Habitat homeowner families, mortgage agreements require the Habitat for Humanity affiliate the right of first refusal. Until the mortgage is paid in full, a Habitat home has no equity, should a homeowner family decide to sell their home during the period of their mortgage, the affiliate will buy it back at market value
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Nelson Mandela
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Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela was a South African anti-apartheid revolutionary, politician, and philanthropist, who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the countrys first black head of state and the first elected in a representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by tackling institutionalised racism, ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as President of the African National Congress party from 1991 to 1997. A Xhosa, Mandela was born in Mvezo to the Thembu royal family and he studied law at the University of Fort Hare and the University of the Witwatersrand before working as a lawyer in Johannesburg. There he became involved in anti-colonial and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943, after the National Partys white-only government established apartheid—a system of racial segregation that privileged whites—he and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. Mandela was appointed President of the ANCs Transvaal branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 Defiance Campaign and he was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the 1956 Treason Trial. Influenced by Marxism, he joined the banned South African Communist Party. Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961, in 1962, he was arrested for conspiring to overthrow the state and sentenced to life imprisonment in the Rivonia Trial. Mandela served 27 years in prison, initially on Robben Island, amid growing domestic and international pressure, and with fears of a racial civil war, President F. W. de Klerk released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk negotiated an end to apartheid and organised the 1994 multiracial general election in which Mandela led the ANC to victory, internationally, he acted as mediator in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial and served as Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. He declined a presidential term and in 1999 was succeeded by his deputy. Mandela became a statesman and focused on combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the charitable Nelson Mandela Foundation. Mandela was a figure for much of his life. Widely regarded as an icon of democracy and social justice, he received more than 250 honours—including the Nobel Peace Prize—and became the subject of a cult of personality. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is referred to by his Xhosa clan name, Madiba. Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in Umtata, given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloquially meaning troublemaker, in later years he became known by his clan name, Madiba. His patrilineal great-grandfather, Ngubengcuka, was king of the Thembu people in the Transkeian Territories of South Africas modern Eastern Cape province, one of Ngubengcukas sons, named Mandela, was Nelsons grandfather and the source of his surname. In 1926, Gadla was also sacked for corruption, but Nelson was told that his father had lost his job for standing up to the magistrates unreasonable demands
17.
Jimmy Carter
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James Earl Jimmy Carter Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States from 1977 to 1981. In 2002, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with the Carter Center, Carter was a Democrat who was raised in rural Georgia. He was a farmer who served two terms as a Georgia State Senator from 1963 to 1967, and one as the Governor of Georgia from 1971 to 1975. He was elected President in 1976, defeating incumbent President Gerald Ford in a close election. On his second day in office, Carter pardoned all evaders of the Vietnam War drafts, during Carters term as President, two new cabinet-level departments, the Department of Energy and the Department of Education, were established. He established an energy policy that included conservation, price control. In foreign affairs, Carter pursued the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the round of Strategic Arms Limitation Talks. On the economic front he confronted persistent stagflation, a combination of inflation, high unemployment. The end of his tenure was marked by the 1979–1981 Iran hostage crisis, the 1979 energy crisis, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident. In response to the Soviet move he ended détente, escalated the Cold War, Carter won the 1980 primary with 51. 13% of the vote but lost the general election in an electoral landslide to Republican nominee Ronald Reagan, who won 44 of 50 states. His presidency has drawn medium-low responses from historians, with many considering him to have accomplished more with his post-presidency work and he set up the Carter Center in 1982 as his base for advancing human rights. He has also traveled extensively to conduct negotiations, observe elections. Additionally, Carter is a key figure in the Habitat for Humanity project, since surpassing Herbert Hoover in September 2012, he has been the longest-retired president in American history. He is also the first president to mark the 40th anniversary of his election and inauguration, in reference to current political views, he has criticized some of Israels actions and policies in regards to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and has advocated for a two-state solution. James Earl Carter, Jr. was born on October 1,1924, at the Wise Sanitarium in Plains and he is a descendant of English immigrant Thomas Carter, who settled in Virginia in 1635. Numerous generations of Carters lived as farmers in Georgia. Carter is also a descendant of Thomas Cornell, an ancestor of Cornell Universitys founder and of Richard Nixon, Plains was a boomtown of 600 people at the time of Carters birth. His father, James Earl Carter, Sr. was a local businessman who ran a general store and had begun to invest in farmland
18.
Boris Trajkovski
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Boris Trajkovski GCMG was the president and Supreme Commander of the Republic of Macedonia from 1999 to 2004, when he died in a plane crash. Trajkovski was born into a Methodist family and his father, Kiro, who died in September 2008, was a landworker who had served in the Bulgarian Army and had been imprisoned for two years for feeding prisoners of war. Trajkovski graduated in 1980 with a degree in law from the Ss. Cyril and he subsequently specialized in commercial and employment law and made several visits to the United States, where he studied theology to become a Methodist lay minister. After he finished his studies, the communist government confined him for a time to a village because of his religious activities. There he took care of Kočani, an impoverished partly Romani congregation of the Evangelical Methodist Church of Macedonia, following political liberalisation in the 1980s, he went on to head the legal department of the Sloboda construction company in Skopje. He served as Methodist youth secretary in the former Yugoslavia for over 12 years, later he was President of the Church Council of the Macedonian Evangelical Methodist Church. From 1988 he took part in the ongoing Youth Exchange programme between the Methodist Church of Macedonia and the Berkhamsted and Hemel Hempstead Methodist Circuit in England, in 1991 he studied English at a Christian Language College in Bournemouth, England. Trajkovski became active in politics following Macedonias declaration of independence from Yugoslavia in November 1991 and he played an important role in developing the partys relations with other European political parties and was appointed Chairman of the partys Foreign Relations Commission. In 1997, he became the Chief of Staff of the Mayor of Kisela Voda and he was appointed Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs on 21 December 1998 but served in this post for less than a year. In the presidential election of 14 November 1999, Trajkovski defeated Tito Petkovski by 52% to 45%, trajkovskis term was marked by tensions between ethnic Macedonians and the republics large ethnic Albanian minority. Although his powers were limited and his largely ceremonial, he presided over a NATO-brokered peace deal in 2001 that ended the violence. He was seen as a moderate in the dialogue, arguing for greater inclusion of ethnic Albanians. In 2002 he was made a knight of the Order of St Michael, in 2002, Trajkovski was awarded the World Methodist Peace Award by the World Methodist Council for his role in promoting peace and political stability. Trajkovski died on 26 February 2004 in a plane en route to an economic conference in Mostar, Bosnia. The aircraft crashed in fog and heavy rain on a mountainside in southeastern Herzegovina, near the villages of Huskovici. Eight other people were also aboard but none survived the impact and it came down in an area that had been heavily mined during the Bosnian War of the 1990s, which significantly hampered the rescue and recovery efforts. After his death there was a State Funeral in his honour, after his death his family continue his legacy through the Boris Trajkovski Foundation. Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary-Grand Cross with chain Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Michael and St
19.
Community of Sant'Egidio
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The Community of SantEgidio is a Christian community that is officially recognized by the Catholic Church as a Church public lay association. It claims 50,000 members in more than 70 countries and its main activities are, prayer, centered on a reading of the Bible spreading the Gospel to help people who are looking for a sense to their life. Service to the poor, which is free and unpaid commitment to dialogue with members of other religions. The Community of SantEgidio was founded in Rome in 1968 by a group of Roman high-school students led by Andrea Riccardi and it is named after the Roman Church of SantEgidio in Trastevere, its first permanent meeting place. Since 1968, the community has gathered each night to pray and read from the Bible, reflecting on the Gospel, eventually spreading throughout the world with a mission of helping those in need. Their activities include setting up refuges for the old, hospices for AIDS patients, and printing a handbook titled Where to Eat, Sleep, the charitable efforts of SantEgidio also led it to be a well-regarded mediator in peace negotiations. In the late 1980s, the Community came to the realization that their efforts in Mozambique, then torn by the Mozambican Civil War. In 1990, the Community was accepted by the ruling FRELIMO and rebel Mozambican National Resistance as a mediator, playing a key role in the Rome General Peace Accords signed in 1992. They continue peace initiatives in Algeria, the Balkans, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the president of the Community as of September 2012 is Marco Impagliazzo. The Community of SantEgidio has received honors and recognitions. 2009, International Charlemagne Prize recognizing Andrea Riccardi, the Societys founder, drug Resources Enhancement against Aids and Malnutrition Pierre Anouilh, Des pauvres a la paix. Aspects de laction pacificatrice de SantEgidio au Mozambique, _ LFM, sciences sociales et missions _, No.17, Dec.2005, pp. 11–40 Eric Morier-Genoud, Sant’ Egidio et la paix. Interviews de Don Matteo Zuppi & Ricardo Cannelli, _ LFM, sciences sociales et missions _, Oct 2003, pp. Banchoff. Bargaining for peace, South Africa and the National Peace Accord by Peter Gastrow, millennium challenges for development and faith institutions by Katherine Marshall, Richard Marsh
20.
Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo
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The Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo is a human rights organization with the goal of finding the children stolen and illegally adopted during the Argentine Dirty War. Its president is Estela Barnes de Carlotto, by 1998 the identities of 256 missing children had been documented. Of those,56 children have been located, and seven others had died, the Grandmothers work led to the creation of the Argentine Forensic Anthropology Team and the establishment of a National Genetic Data Bank. Aided by recent breakthroughs in genetic testing, the Grandmothers succeeded in returning 31 children to their biological families, in 13 other cases, adoptive and biological families agreed on jointly raising the children after they had been identified. The remaining cases are bogged down in court battles between families. As of 2008, their efforts have resulted in finding 97 grandchildren, as an offshoot of the Silvia Quintela case, former dictator Jorge Videla was detained under house-arrest in 2010 on multiple charges of kidnapping children. On July 2012 he was convicted and sentenced to fifty years in prison for the stealing of babies. On 14 September 2011 the Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo received the Félix Houphouët-Boigny Peace Prize in Paris for their work in defense of Human Rights, the Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo was founded in 1977 to protect childrens rights as a response to state sponsored terrorism. Initially they were known as Argentine Grandmothers with Disappeared Grandchildren, geneticists from the United States worked with the Grandmothers. They were able to store blood samples from members in the National Genetic Data Bank until the grandchildren could be located. The Grandmothers fought through the systems to annul the unlawful adoptions. By the mid 1990s legal battles of custody were no longer appropriate because the missing grandchildren were now legal adults, the grandmothers adapted their strategy and started public awareness campaigns to direct the missing grandchildren to contact the organization. As of 2008, their efforts have resulted in finding 97 grandchildren, the difference between Argentinas case and other child trafficking cases is that the disappeared children likely did not know that they were adopted. The organization turned to a campaign and joined with actors to appeal to a younger audience. Their goal was to use popular culture manufacture doubt within the minds of a group of people who would have never questioned their family. A short documentary by Retro Report Interviews with Las Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo, Rita Arditti collection, University Archives and Special Collections, Joseph P
21.
Emory University
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Emory University is a private research university in metropolitan Atlanta, located in the Druid Hills section of DeKalb County, Georgia, United States. The university was founded as Emory College in 1836 in Oxford, in 1915, the college relocated to metropolitan Atlanta and was rechartered as Emory University. The university is the second-oldest private institution of education in Georgia. Emory University, the Georgia Institute of Technology, and Peking University in Beijing, the university operates the Confucius Institute in Atlanta in partnership with Nanjing University. Emory has a faculty research partnership with the Korea Advanced Institute of Science. Emory University students come from all 50 states,6 territories of the United States, the university operates the Winship Cancer Institute, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and many disease and vaccine research centers. Emory University is the coordinator of both the NIAIDs Malaria Host-Pathogen Interaction Center and the U. S. Health Departments National Ebola Training and Education Center, the university is one of four institutions involved in the NIAIDs Tuberculosis Research Units Program. The university is partnered with the Carter Center, the National Science Foundation ranked the university 36th among academic institutions in the United States for research and development expenditures. Emory University research is funded primarily by government agencies, namely the National Institutes of Health. In 1995 Emory University was elected to the Association of American Universities, Emory College was founded in 1836 in Oxford, Georgia by the Methodist Episcopal Church. The college was named in honor of the departed Methodist bishop John Emory, ignatius Alphonso Few was the colleges first president. In 1854, the Atlanta Medical College, a forerunner of Emory University School of Medicine, was founded, on April 12,1861, the American Civil War began. Emory College was closed in November 1861 and all of its students enlisted on the Confederate side, in late 1863 the war came to Georgia and the college was used as hospital and later a headquarters for the Union Army. The university produced many officers who served in the war, including General George Thomas Anderson who fought in every major battle in the eastern theater. Thirty five Emory students lost their lives and much of the campus was destroyed during the war, Emory College, as with the entire Southeastern United States, struggled to overcome financial devastation during the Reconstruction Era. In 1880, Atticus Greene Haygood, Emory College President, delivered a speech expressing gratitude for the end of slavery in the United States, which captured the attention of George I. Seney gave Emory College $5,000 to repay its debts, $50,000 for construction, in the 1880s, the technology department was launched by Isaac Stiles Hopkins, a polymath professor at Emory College
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History of Methodism in the United States
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The history of Methodism in the United States dates back to the mid-18th Century with the ministries of early Methodist preachers such as Laurence Coughlan and Robert Strawbridge. Following the American Revolution most of the Anglican clergy who had been in America came back to England, Methodism thrived in America thanks to the First and Second Great Awakenings beginning in the 1700s. Various African-American denominations were formed during this period, including the African Methodist Episcopal Church, in the early 20th century, many of the splintered Methodist groups joined together to form The Methodist Church. Another merger in 1968 resulted in the formation of United Methodist Church from the Evangelical United Brethren, in 1735, the Wesley brothers, John and Charles, went to the Georgia Colony to minister to the colonialists and teach the Gospel to the Native American tribes. John Wesley returned to England and met with a group of clergymen he respected, the ministers retained their membership in the Church of England. Though not always emphasized or appreciated in the Anglican churches of their day, their teaching emphasized salvation by Gods grace, apprehended through faith in Christ. Three teachings they saw as the foundation of Christian faith were, People are all, by nature, dead in sin and they are justified by faith alone. Faith produces inward and outward holiness, very quickly, these clergymen became popular, attracting large congregations. The nickname students had used against the Wesleys was revived, they, in 1766, Reverend Laurence Coughlan arrived in Newfoundland and opened a school at Black Head in Conception Bay. In the late 1760s, two Methodist lay preachers emigrated to America and formed societies, philip Embury began the work in New York at the instigation of fellow Irish Methodist Barbara Heck. Soon, Captain Webb from the British Army aided him and he formed a society in Philadelphia and traveled along the coast. In 1770, two authorized Methodist preachers, Richard Boardman and Joseph Pilmoor, arrived from the British Connexion and they were immediately preceded by the unauthorized Robert Williams who quietly set about supporting himself by publishing American editions of Wesleys hymnbooks without obtaining permission to do so. These men were followed by others, including Francis Asbury. Asbury reorganized the work in accordance with the Wesleyan model. Missionaries displaced most of the preachers and irritated many of the leading lay members. During the American Revolution, the work diminished, and, by 1778. He remained in Delaware during this period, Robert Strawbridge began a Methodist work in Maryland at the same time as Embury began his work in New York. They did not work together and did not know of others existence
23.
Anglicanism
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Anglicanism is a tradition within Christianity comprising the Church of England and churches which are historically tied to it or hold similar beliefs, worship practices and church structures. The word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to the Magna Carta and before, adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans. As the name suggests, the churches of the Anglican Communion are linked by bonds of tradition, affection and they are in full communion with the See of Canterbury, and thus the Archbishop of Canterbury, in his person, is a unique focus of Anglican unity. He calls the once-a-decade Lambeth Conference, chairs the meeting of primates, Anglicans base their Christian faith on the Bible, traditions of the apostolic Church, apostolic succession, and writings of the Church Fathers. Anglicanism forms one of the branches of Western Christianity, having declared its independence from the Holy See at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the new Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century corresponded closely to those of contemporary Protestantism, the word Anglican originates in ecclesia anglicana, a medieval Latin phrase dating to at least 1246 that means the English Church. Adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans, as an adjective, Anglican is used to describe the people, institutions and churches, as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the Church of England. As a noun, an Anglican is a member of a church in the Anglican Communion, the word is also used by followers of separated groups which have left the communion or have been founded separately from it, although this is sometimes considered as a misuse. The word Anglicanism came into being in the 19th century, although the term Anglican is found referring to the Church of England as far back as the 16th century, its use did not become general until the latter half of the 19th century. Elsewhere, however, the term Anglican Church came to be preferred as it distinguished these churches from others that maintain an episcopal polity, as such, it is often referred to as being a via media between these traditions. Anglicans understand the Old and New Testaments as containing all necessary for salvation and as being the rule. Reason and Tradition are seen as means to interpret Scripture. Anglicans understand the Apostles Creed as the symbol and the Nicene Creed as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith. Anglicans celebrate the sacraments, with special emphasis being given to the Eucharist, also called Holy Communion. Unique to Anglicanism is the Book of Common Prayer, the collection of services that worshippers in most Anglican churches used for centuries and it was called common prayer originally because it was intended for use in all Church of England churches which had previously followed differing local liturgies. The term was kept when the church became international because all Anglicans used to share in its use around the world, in 1549, the first Book of Common Prayer was compiled by Thomas Cranmer, who was then Archbishop of Canterbury. The founding of Christianity in Britain is commonly attributed to Joseph of Arimathea, according to Anglican legend, Saint Alban, who was executed in 209 AD, is the first Christian martyr in the British Isles. A new culture emerged around the Irish Sea among the Celtic peoples with Celtic Christianity at its core, what resulted was a form of Christianity distinct from Rome in many traditions and practices
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Arminianism
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Arminianism is based on theological ideas of the Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius and his historic supporters known as Remonstrants. His teachings held to the five solae of the Reformation, but they were distinct from particular teachings of Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, Jacobus Arminius was a student of Theodore Beza at the Theological University of Geneva. Arminianism is known to some as a diversification of Protestant Calvinist Christianity. However, to others, Arminianism is a reclamation of early Church theological consensus, Dutch Arminianism was originally articulated in the Remonstrance, a theological statement signed by 45 ministers and submitted to the States General of the Netherlands. The Synod of Dort was called by the States General to consider the Five Articles of Remonstrance, must be more particularly determined from the Scriptures. These points, note Drs. Keith D. Stanglin and Thomas H. McCall, are consistent with the views of Arminius, indeed and those who signed this remonstrance and others who supported its theology have since been known as Remonstrants. Some falsely assert that Universalists and Unitarians in the 18th and 19th centuries were theologically linked with Arminianism. The original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself are commonly defined as Arminianism, but more broadly, the term may embrace the teachings of Hugo Grotius, John Wesley, and others as well. Classical Arminianism, to which Arminius is the contributor, and Wesleyan Arminianism. Wesleyan Arminianism is often identical with Methodism, some schools of thought, notably Semipelagianism—which teaches that the first step of salvation is by human will, —are confused as being Arminian in nature. But classical Arminianism holds that the first step of salvation is solely the grace of God, the two systems of Calvinism and Arminianism share both history and many doctrines, and the history of Christian theology. Arminianism is related to Calvinism historically, however, because of their differences over the doctrines of divine predestination and election, many people view these schools of thought as opposed to each other. In short, the difference can be seen ultimately by whether God allows His desire to save all to be resisted by an individuals will or if Gods grace is irresistible, put another way, is Gods sovereignty shown, in part, through His allowance of free decisions. Some Calvinists assert that the Arminian perspective presents a system of Salvation and therefore is not only by grace. Many consider the differences to be crucial differences in doctrine. Jacobus Arminius was a Dutch pastor and theologian in the late 16th and he was taught by Theodore Beza, Calvins hand-picked successor, but after examination of the scriptures, he rejected his teachers theology that it is God who unconditionally elects some for salvation. Instead Arminius proposed that the election of God was of believers, Arminiuss views were challenged by the Dutch Calvinists, especially Franciscus Gomarus, but Arminius died before a national synod could occur. Arminiuss followers, not wanting to adopt their leaders name, called themselves the Remonstrants, when Arminius died before he could satisfy Hollands State Generals request for a 14-page paper outlining his views, the Remonstrants replied in his stead crafting the Five articles of Remonstrance
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First Great Awakening
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It resulted from powerful preaching that gave listeners a sense of deep personal revelation of their need of salvation by Jesus Christ. It had little impact on most Anglicans, Lutherans, Quakers, throughout the colonies, especially in the south, the revivalist movement increased the number of African slaves and free blacks who were exposed to and subsequently converted to Christianity. The Second Great Awakening began about 1800 and reached out to the unchurched, 18th-century American Christians added an emphasis on outpourings of the Holy Spirit to the evangelical imperatives of Reformation Protestantism. Revivals encapsulated those hallmarks and spread the newly created evangelicalism in the early republic, Evangelical preachers sought to include every person in conversion, regardless of gender, race, and status. The evangelical revival was international in scope, affecting predominantly Protestant countries of Europe, historian Sydney E. Ahlstrom sees it as part of a great international Protestant upheaval that also created Pietism in Germany, the Evangelical Revival and Methodism in England. Revivalism was a component of the Great Awakening, and actually began in the 1620s in Scotland among Presbyterians. The idea of a great awakening has been contested by Butler as vague and exaggerated, the First Great Awakening led to changes in Americans understanding of God, themselves, the world around them, and religion. In the Middle and Southern colonies, especially in the country regions. In the southern Tidewater and Low Country, northern Baptist and Methodist preachers converted both white and black people, whether enslaved or free, evangelist leaders in the southern colonies had to deal with the issue of slavery much more frequently than those in the North. Still, many leaders of the revivals proclaimed that slaveholders should educate their slaves so that they could become literate and be able to read, consequently, many Africans were finally provided with some sort of education. Africans hoped that their newly acquired spiritual equality would translate into earthly equalities, as black people started to make up substantial proportions of congregations, they were given a chance to momentarily forget about their bondage and enjoy a slight sense of freedom. Before the American Revolution, the first black Baptist churches were founded in the South in Virginia, South Carolina, the revival began with Jonathan Edwards in Northampton, Massachusetts. Edwards came from Puritan, Calvinist roots, but emphasized the importance and power of immediate, Religious experience had to be immediate, he taught. Scientific inquiry was useless, he taught that only a personal experience can be valid and his sermons were solemn, with a distinct and careful enunciation, and a slow cadence. His sermons were powerful and attracted a large following, both Edwards and Whitefield were slave owners and believed that blacks would acquire absolute equality with whites in the Millennial church. Winiarski examines Edwardss preaching in 1741, especially his famous sermon Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God, at this point, Edwards countenanced the noise of the Great Awakening, but his approach to revivalism became more moderate and critical in the years immediately following. The arrival of young Anglican preacher George Whitefield sparked the Great Awakening, Whitefields reputation preceded his visit as a great pulpit and open-air orator. He traveled through the colonies in 1739 and 1740 and he attracted large and emotional crowds everywhere, eliciting countless conversions as well as considerable controversy
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Nonconformist
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In English church history, a nonconformist was a Protestant Christian who did not conform to the governance and usages of the established Church of England. Broad use of the term was precipitated after the Restoration of the British monarchy in 1660, by the late 19th-century the term specifically included the Reformed Christians, plus the Baptists and Methodists. The English Dissenters such as the Puritans who violated the Act of Uniformity 1559 — typically by practising radical, sometimes separatist, in England and Wales in the late 19th century the new terms free churchman and Free Church started to replace dissenter or Nonconformist. One influential nonconformist minister is Matthew Henry, who beginning in 1710 published his multi-volume Commentary that is still used, issac Watts is an equally recognized nonconformist minister whose hymns are still sung by Christians worldwide. The Act of Uniformity of 1662 required churchmen to use all rites and ceremonies as prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer. Consequently, nearly 2,000 clergymen were ejected from the church for refusing to comply with the provisions of the act. The Great Ejection created an abiding public consciousness of non-conformity, thereafter, a Nonconformist was any English subject belonging to a non-Anglican church or a non-Christian religion. More broadly, any person who advocated religious liberty was typically called out as Nonconformist, culturally, in England and Wales, discrimination against Nonconformists endured even longer. Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Baptists, Calvinists, other reformed groups, following the act, other groups, including Methodists, Unitarians, Quakers, Plymouth Brethren, and the English Moravians were officially labelled as Nonconformists as they became established. A religious census in 1851 revealed Nonconformist comprised about half that of the people who attended services on Sundays. In the larger manufacturing areas, Nonconformists clearly outnumbered members of the Church of England, in Wales in 1850, Nonconformist chapel attendance significantly outnumbered Anglican church attendance. Historians distinguish two categories of Dissenters, or Nonconformists, in addition to the evangelicals or Low Church element in the Church of England, Old Dissenters, dating from the 16th and 17th centuries, included Baptists, Congregationalists, Quakers, Unitarians, and Presbyterians outside Scotland. New Dissenters emerged in the 18th century and were mainly Methodists, the Nonconformist Conscience was their moral sensibility which they tried to implement in British politics. The Nonconformist conscience of the Old group emphasized religious freedom and equality, pursuit of justice, and opposition to discrimination, compulsion, the New Dissenters stressed personal morality issues, including sexuality, temperance, family values, and Sabbath-keeping. Both factions were active, but until mid-19th century the Old group supported mostly Whigs and Liberals in politics. In the late 19th the New Dissenters mostly switched to the Liberal Party, the result was a merging of the two groups, strengthening their great weight as a political pressure group. The joined together on new issues especially regarding schools and temperance, by 1914 the linkage was weakening and by the 1920s it was virtually dead. Dissenters demanded removal of political and civil disabilities that applied to them, the Anglican establishment strongly resisted until 1828
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Pietism
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Pietism was an influential movement within Lutheranism that combined Lutheran emphasis on Biblical doctrine with the Reformed emphasis on individual piety and living a vigorous Christian life. Although the movement was active exclusively within Lutheranism, it had a impact on Protestantism worldwide, particularly in North America. Pietism spread from Germany to Switzerland and the rest of German-speaking Europe, Scandinavia and the Baltics, and it was further taken to North America, primarily by German and Scandinavian immigrants. The movement reached its zenith in the century, and declined through the 19th century. A substantial part of the Pietistic Protestants was formed by German Sectarians, Norwegian Lutherans, Swedish Lutherans, as the forerunners of the Pietists in the strict sense, certain voices had been heard bewailing the shortcomings of the Church and advocating a revival of practical and devout Christianity. The direct originator of the movement was Philipp Jakob Spener and he studied theology at Strasbourg, where the professors at the time were more inclined to practical Christianity than to theological disputation. In 1675, Spener published his Pia desideria or Earnest Desire for a Reform of the True Evangelical Church and this was originally a pejorative term given to the adherents of the movement by its enemies as a form of ridicule, like that of Methodists somewhat later in England. While large numbers of orthodox Lutheran theologians and pastors were deeply offended by Speners book, in 1686 Spener accepted an appointment to the court-chaplaincy at Dresden, which opened to him a wider though more difficult sphere of labor. In Leipzig, a society of young theologians was formed under his influence for the learned study, the theological chairs in the new university were filled in complete conformity with Speners proposals. Orthodox Lutherans rejected this viewpoint as a simplification, stressing the need for the church. Spener died in 1705, but the movement, guided by Francke and fertilized from Halle, spread through the whole of Middle, Spener stressed the necessity of a new birth and separation of Christians from the world. Many Pietists maintained that the new birth always had to be preceded by agonies of repentance, the whole school shunned all common worldly amusements, such as dancing, the theatre, and public games. Some believe this led to a new form of justification by works and its ecclesiolae in ecclesia also weakened the power and meaning of church organization. These Pietistic attitudes caused a counter-movement at the beginning of the 18th century, one leader was Valentin Ernst Löscher, a movement which cultivated religious feeling almost as an end itself. Yet some claim that Pietism contributed largely to the revival of Biblical studies in Germany and to making religion once more an affair of the heart and of life and it likewise gave a new emphasis to the role of the laity in the church. Then came a time when another intellectual power took possession of the minds of men, bonhoeffer denounced the basic aim of Pietism, to produce a desired piety in a person, as unbiblical. Pietism is considered the influence that led to the creation of the Evangelical Church of the Union in Prussia in 1817. The King of Prussia ordered the Lutheran and Reformed churches in Prussia to unite and this union movement spread through many German lands in the 1800s
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Wesleyanism
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Wesleyanism, manifest today in Methodist and holiness churches, is named for its founders, the Wesleys. In 1736, these two brothers traveled to the Georgia colony in America as missionaries for the Church of England, both of them subsequently had religious experiences, especially John in 1738, being greatly influenced by the Moravian Christians. They began to organize a movement within the Church of England to focus on personal faith. The Wesleyan churches are similar to Anglicanism, yet have added a strong emphasis on personal faith. At its heart, the theology of John Wesley stressed the life of Christian holiness, to love God with all heart, mind, soul and strength. Wesley’s teaching also stressed experiential religion and moral responsibility, the doctrine of Wesleyan-Arminianism was founded as an attempt to explain Christianity in a manner unlike the teachings of Calvinism. Arminianism is a study conducted by Jacobus Arminius, from the Netherlands. After the death of Arminius the followers, led by Simon Episcopius and this document is known today as the five articles of Remonstrance. Arminianism was officially recorded and presented to Dutch leaders in 1610 A. D. about one hundred, the doctrine is based upon five essential beliefs that are purposely biblical in nature. The first of five points is the reason for the conflict between Calvinism and Arminianism in its basic foundation, it is the concept of free will. Arminius believed that even after the fall of humankind, all persons had the responsibility to accept Jesus Christ, the second point of Arminianism declares conditional election. Arminius states that the choosing of the elect is based upon the foreknowledge of God as to who would believe and it is this choosing by Gods grace to accept Jesus Christ that elects one to inherit salvation. Thus, salvation is made to initially by Gods prevenient grace and then ones free will. Third, Arminianism explains that redemption is based on the fact that God loves everyone, that Christ was sacrificed for all, the crucifixion of Christ satisfied Gods wrath, provided the means by which forgiveness can occur, and Christs resurrection enables the forgiven to inherit life. However, once again, one must choose Christ in order to be saved, hence Christ died for every person who has lived and will ever live, but only those that freely choose to follow Jesus are elected unto salvation. Fourth, the idea of Obstructable Grace states that since God does desire all persons to be saved, God sent the Holy Spirit to encourage, yet, again because of free will, one may choose to reject salvation and thus resist Gods will. God wills all people to be saved and worship God in spirit and in truth, in the early 1770s, John Wesley, aided by the theological writings of John William Fletcher emphasized Arminian doctrines in his controversy with the Calvinistic wing of the evangelicals in England. Then, in 1778, he founded a journal which he titled the Arminian Magazine
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Methodist doctrine
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Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their inspiration from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and Johns brother Charles Wesley were also significant leaders in the movement and it originated as a revival within the 18th century Church of England and became a separate Church after Wesleys death. Because of vigorous missionary work, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, Wesleys theology focused on sanctification and the effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing Methodist doctrines include an assurance of salvation, imparted righteousness, the possibility of perfection in love, the works of piety and the primacy of Scripture. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all, in theology and this teaching rejects the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several others were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the latter position, Methodism emphasises charity and support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens and schools to follow Christs command to spread the gospel, the movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church. In Britain, the Methodist Church had an effect in the early decades of the making of the working class. In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition. The Methodist revival began with a group of men, including John Wesley and his younger brother Charles, the Wesley brothers founded the Holy Club at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick, the fellowship were branded as Methodist by their fellow students because of the way they used rule and method to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery, unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church, at a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his heart strangely warmed. Charles had reported an experience an few days previously. Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield, Howell Harris, and Selina Hastings, George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade
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Articles of Religion (Methodist)
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The Articles of Religion are an official doctrinal statement of Methodism. John Wesley abridged the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England, removing the Calvinistic parts among others, the Articles were adopted at a conference in 1784 and are found in paragraph 103 of the United Methodist Church Book of Discipline. They have remained unchanged since 1808 by Methodists worldwide. And in unity of this Godhead there are three persons, of one substance, power, and eternity—the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost. Article IV - Of the Holy Ghost The Holy Ghost, proceeding from the Father and the Son, is of one substance, majesty, and glory with the Father and the Son, very and eternal God. In the name of the Holy Scripture we do understand those canonical books of the Old, all the books of the New Testament, as they are commonly received, we do receive and account canonical. Wherefore they are not to be heard who feign that the old fathers did look only for transitory promises. Article IX - Of the Justification of Man We are accounted righteous before God only for the merit of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, by faith, wherefore, that we are justified by faith, only, is a most wholesome doctrine, and very full of comfort. Article XI - Of Works of Supererogation Voluntary works—besides, over and above Gods commandments—which they call works of supererogation, cannot be taught without arrogancy, article XII - Of Sin After Justification Not every sin willingly committed after justification is the sin against the Holy Ghost, and unpardonable. Wherefore, the grant of repentance is not to be denied to such as fall into sin after justification. After we have received the Holy Ghost, we may depart from grace given, and fall into sin, and, by the grace of God, rise again and amend our lives. And therefore they are to be condemned who say they can no more sin as long as they live here, there are two Sacraments ordained of Christ our Lord in the Gospel, that is to say, Baptism and the Supper of the Lord. The Sacraments were not ordained of Christ to be gazed upon, or to be carried about, but that we should duly use them. And in such only as worthily receive the same, they have an effect or operation. The Baptism of young children is to be retained in the Church, the body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten in the Supper, only after a heavenly and spiritual manner. And the mean whereby the body of Christ is received and eaten in the Supper is faith, the Sacrament of the Lords Supper was not by Christs ordinance reserved, carried about, lifted up, or worshiped. Every particular church may ordain, change, or abolish rites and ceremonies, and the said states are a sovereign and independent nation, and ought not to be subject to any foreign jurisdiction. Article XXIV - Of Christian Mens Goods The riches and goods of Christians are not common as touching the right, title, notwithstanding, every man ought, of such things as he possesseth, liberally to give alms to the poor, according to his ability
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Assurance (theology)
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Assurance is a Protestant Christian doctrine that states that the inner witness of the Holy Spirit allows the justified disciple to know that he or she is saved. Based on the writings of St. Augustine of Hippo, assurance was historically an important doctrine in Lutheranism and Calvinism. John Wesley believed that all Christians have a faith which implies an assurance of Gods forgiving love, and this understanding is grounded in Pauls affirmation. ye have received the Spirit of adoption, whereby we cry Abba, Father. The same Spirit beareth witness with our spirits, that we are the children of God and this experience was mirrored for Wesley in his Aldersgate experience wherein he knew he was loved by God and that his sins were forgiven. I felt my heart strangely warmed, I felt I did trust in Christ, Christ alone for salvation, and an assurance was given me that He had taken my sin, even mine. - from Wesleys Journal Early in his ministry Wesley had to defend his understanding of assurance, in 1738 Rev. Arthur Bedford had published a sermon in which he misquoted Wesleys teachings. Bedford had understood Wesley as saying that a Christian could be assured of persevering in a state of salvation, the Calvinist view. In a letter dated September 28,1738 Wesley wrote, The assurance of which I alone speak I should not choose to call an assurance of salvation, but rather, the assurance of faith. Lutheranism accepts monergism, which states that salvation is by Gods act alone, Lutherans believe that the elect are predestined to salvation. According to Lutheranism, Christians should be assured that they are among the predestined, Lutherans believe that all who trust in Jesus alone can be certain of their salvation, for it is in Christs work and his promises in which their certainty lies. However, they disagree with those that make predestination the source of rather than Christs suffering, death. Unlike Calvinists, Lutherans do not believe in a predestination to damnation, Calvinism teaches that believers may have assurance of their salvation especially through the work of the Holy Spirit and also by looking at the character of their lives. The idea that good works necessarily result from true faith one can gain assurance by observing evidences of faith in their life is called the practical syllogism. This assurance is not, however, a consequence of salvation. Indeed, the Westminster Confession of Faith affirms that assurance is attainable though the wait for it may be long, and this is especially important because the Reformed position says that works can never enter into the faith that procures the justification because works are all in sanctification. So, if works can never enter into the faith that one needs for justification how can they ever qualify the faith that one needs for justification, so, now there is a double-dilemma. Catholics recognize that a certainty of faith is ascribed to St. Paul, Jesus Christ as man, however, did not need to believe since he knew it. The point in question is however certain, the hope must retain its proper name
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Conditional preservation of the saints
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Arminians find the Scriptures describing both the initial act of faith in Christ, whereby the relationship is effected, and the persevering faith in Him whereby the relationship is sustained. The relationship of the believer to Christ is never a static relationship existing as the consequence of a past decision, act. Rather, it is a living union proceeding upon a living faith in a living Savior and this living union is captured in this simple command by Christ, Remain in me, and I in you. According to Arminians, biblical saving faith expresses itself in love, Arminians believe that It is abundantly evident from the Scriptures that the believer is secure. Furthermore, believers have assurance in knowing there is no power or circumstance that can separate them from the love of God they enjoy in union with Christ. Therefore, Arminians seek to follow the writers in warning believers about the real dangers of committing apostasy. A sure and biblical way to avoid apostasy is to admonish believers to mature spiritually in their relationship with God in union with Christ, Arminius himself and the original Remonstrants avoided a clear conclusion on this matter. Those tendencies indicated by the questions raised did not take long to reach fruition, prior to the time of the debate between Calvinists and the Arminians at the Synod of Dort, the view in the early church appears to be on the side of conditional security. From his research of the writings of the church fathers. On another occasion he notes that such a view was never reckoned as a heretical opinion, so that it is not possible for them, by any of the cunning craftiness or power of Satan, to be either seduced or dragged out of the hands of Christ. On the other hand, certain passages are produced for the doctrine which are worthy of much consideration. For Arminius the believer’s security is conditional—provided they stand prepared for the battle, implore his help, and be not wanting to themselves. In another place he writes, wills that they, who believe and persevere in faith, shall be saved, but that those, after the death of Arminius in 1609, the Remonstrants maintained their leaders view on conditional security and his uncertainty regarding the possibility of apostasy. They formalized their views in The Opinion of the Remonstrants, True believers are able to fall through their own fault into shameful and atrocious deeds, to persevere and to die in them, and therefore finally to fall and to perish. John Goodwin was a Puritan who presented the Arminian position of falling away in Redemption Redeemed which drew a lot of attention from Calvinists, in his book, English bishop Laurence Womock provides numerous scriptural references to the fifth article concerning perseverance delivered by the later Remonstrants. Philip van Limborch penned the first complete Remonstrant Systematic Theology in 1702 that included a section on apostasy, in 1710, a minister in the Church of England, Daniel Whitby, published a major work criticizing the five points of Calvinism—which involves their doctrine of unconditional perseverance. John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, was a defender of conditional security. In 1751, Wesley defended his position in a work titled, in it he argued that a believer remains in a saving relationship with God if he continue in faith or endureth in faith unto the end
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Wesleyan Quadrilateral
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The Wesleyan Quadrilateral, or Methodist Quadrilateral, is a methodology for theological reflection that is credited to John Wesley, leader of the Methodist movement in the late 18th Century. The term itself was coined by 20th century American Methodist scholar Albert C and this method based its teaching on four sources as the basis of theological and doctrinal development. These four sources are scripture, tradition, reason, and Christian experience, upon examination of Wesleys work, Outler theorized that Wesley used four different sources in coming to theological conclusions. Wesley believed, first of all, that the core of the Christian faith was revealed in scripture as the sole foundational source. The centrality of scripture was so important for Wesley that he called himself a man of one book, however, doctrine had to be in keeping with Christian orthodox tradition. So, tradition became in his view the second aspect of the so-called Quadrilateral, in other words, truth would be vivified in personal experience of Christians, if it were really truth. And every doctrine must be able to be defended rationally and he did not divorce faith from reason. Tradition, experience, and reason, however, are always to scripture. Each of the legs of the Wesleyan Quadrilateral must be taken in balance, none of these should be taken in isolation without the balancing effect of the others, and always Scripture should have the central place of authority. Scripture Wesley insisted that scripture is the first authority and contains the only measure whereby all other truth is tested and it was delivered by authors who were divinely inspired. It is a sufficient of itself. It neither needs, nor is capable of, any further addition, the scripture references to justification by faith as the gateway to scriptural holiness are well known to true Wesleyans, Deut. 5,48,22,37, Luke 1,69, John 17, 20-23,5,23, Titus 2, 11-14, I John 3,8,4,17. Tradition Wesley wrote that it is supposed that traditional evidence is weakened by length of time. Although other evidence is stronger, he insisted, Do not undervalue traditional evidence. Let it have its place and its due honour and it is highly serviceable in its kind, and in its degree. Wesley states that those of strong and clear understanding should be aware of its full force, for him it supplies a link through 1,700 years of history with Jesus and the apostles. He states quite clearly that without reason we cannot understand the essential truths of Scripture, reason, however, is not a mere human invention
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Covenant theology
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Covenant theology is a conceptual overview and interpretive framework for understanding the overall flow of the Bible. It uses the concept of a covenant as an organizing principle for Christian theology. Historical Reformed systems of thought treat covenant theology not merely as a point of doctrine or as a central dogma, as a framework for biblical interpretation, covenant theology stands in contrast to dispensationalism in regard to the relationship between the Old Covenant and the New Covenant. Many covenant theologians have also seen a distinct future promise of restoration for unregenerate Israel. The nature of Gods covenantal relationship with his creation is not considered automatic or of necessity, rather, God chooses to establish the connection as a covenant, wherein the terms of the relationship are set down by God alone according to his own will. Having created man in His image as a creature with knowledge, righteousness. Like Adam, they have trespassed the covenant is the reference to the covenant of works. The covenant of works, also called the covenant of life, was made in the Garden of Eden between God and Adam who represented all mankind as a federal head and it promised life for perfect and perpetual obedience and death for disobedience. Adam, and all mankind in Adam, broke the covenant, the covenant of works continues to function after the fall as the moral law. The term foedus operum was first used by Dudley Fenner in 1585, the covenant of works became common in Reformed theology by 1590, though it was not adopted by all, and some members of the Westminster Assembly in the 1640s opposed it. While John Calvin had spoken of a period for Adam, a promise of life for obedience. It has also noted that Jeremiah 33, 20–26 compares the covenant with David to Gods covenant with the day and the night. This has led some to all of creation as covenantal. The covenant of works might then be seen as the moral law component of the broader creational covenant, the covenant of grace promises eternal life for all people who have faith in Christ. He also promises the Holy Spirit to the elect to give them willingness, Christ is the substitutionary covenantal representative fulfilling the covenant of works on their behalf, in both the positive requirements of righteousness and its negative penal consequences. It is the expression of the eternal covenant of redemption. Genesis 3,15, with the promise of a seed of the woman who would crush the head, is usually identified as the historical inauguration for the covenant of grace. The covenant of grace runs through the Old and New Testaments, under the law, the sacrifices, prophesies, and other types and ordinances of the Jews signified Christ, and men were justified by their faith in him just as they would be under the gospel
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Ten Commandments
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The Ten Commandments, also known as the Decalogue, are a set of biblical principles relating to ethics and worship, which play a fundamental role in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Different religious groups follow different traditions for interpreting and numbering them, the Ten Commandments are listed twice in the Hebrew Bible, first at Exodus 20, 1–17, and then at Deuteronomy 5, 6–21. Both versions state that God inscribed them on two tablets, which he gave to Moses on Mount Sinai. Modern scholarship has found likely influences in Hittite and Mesopotamian laws and treaties, but is divided over exactly when the Ten Commandments were written and who wrote them. In biblical Hebrew, the Ten Commandments are called עשרת הדברים and in Rabbinical Hebrew עשרת הדברות, the Tyndale and Coverdale English translations used ten verses. The Geneva Bible used tenne commandements, which was followed by the Bishops Bible, Most major English versions use commandments. The stone tablets, as opposed to the commandments inscribed on them, are called לוחות הברית, Luchot HaBrit, the biblical narrative of the revelation at Sinai begins in Exodus 19 after the arrival of the children of Israel at Mount Sinai. The people were afraid to hear more and moved afar off, and Moses responded with Fear not. And the LORD said unto Moses, Come up to me into the mount, and be there, and I will give thee tablets of stone, and a law, and commandments which I have written, that thou mayest teach them. 13 And Moses rose up, and his minister Joshua, the mount was covered by the cloud for six days, and on the seventh day Moses went into the midst of the cloud and was in the mount forty days and forty nights. The passages in Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 contain more than ten imperative statements, different religious traditions divide the seventeen verses of Exodus 20, 1–17 and their parallels at Deuteronomy 5, 4–21 into ten commandments or sayings in different ways, shown in the table below. Some suggest that the ten is a choice to aid memorization rather than a matter of theology. Traditions, LXX, Septuagint, generally followed by Orthodox Christians, P, Philo, same as the Septuagint, but with the prohibitions on killing and adultery reversed. S, Samaritan Pentateuch, with an additional commandment about Mount Gerizim as 10th, T, Jewish Talmud, makes the prologue the first saying or matter and combines the prohibition on worshiping deities other than Yahweh with the prohibition on idolatry. C, Catechism of the Catholic Church, largely follows Augustine, R, Reformed Christians follow John Calvins Institutes of the Christian Religion, which follows the Septuagint, this system is also used in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. All scripture quotes above are from the King James Version, click on verses at top of columns for other versions. The Ten Commandments are written with room for varying interpretation, reflecting their role as a summary of fundamental principles and they are not as explicit or detailed as rules or many other biblical laws and commandments, because they provide guiding principles that apply universally, across changing circumstances. They do not specify punishments for their violation and their precise import must be worked out in each separate situation
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Born again (Christianity)
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In some Christian movements, particularly in Evangelicalism, to be born again is a popular phrase referring to spiritual rebirth, or a regeneration of the human spirit from the Holy Spirit. This is contrasted with the physical birth everyone experiences, in contemporary Christian usage, the term is distinct from sometimes similar terms used in mainstream Christianity to refer to being or becoming Christian, which is linked to baptism. Individuals who profess to be born again often state that they have a relationship with Jesus Christ. The phrase born again is also used as an adjective to describe members of the movement who espouse this belief. The term is derived from an event in the New Testament in which the words of Jesus were not understood by a Jewish pharisee, Jesus replied, Very truly I tell you, no one can see the kingdom of God unless they are born again. How can someone be born when they are old, surely they cannot enter a second time into their mothers womb to be born. Jesus answered, Very truly I tell you, no one can enter the kingdom of God unless they are born of water and the Spirit. The Greek phrase in the text in itself is not so clear, resulting in a wordplay in which Jesus meaning, born again is rendered as born from above, in translations such as the NET. Historically, Christianity has used various metaphors to describe its rite of initiation, that is, spiritual regeneration via the sacrament of baptism by the power of the water and the spirit. This remains the common understanding in most of Christendom, held, for example, in Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, Lutheranism, and in much of Protestantism. This same belief is, historically, also a part of Methodist doctrine. Such Rebirth has often been identified with a definite, temporally datable form of conversion, with the intellectual type, it leads to an activation of the capabilities for understanding, to the breakthrough of a vision. With others it leads to the discovery of a beauty in the order of nature or to the discovery of the mysterious meaning of history. With still others it leads to a new vision of the life and its orders. Each person affected perceives his life in Christ at any time as “newness of life. ”According to Melton. It is an experience when everything they have taught as Christians becomes real. According to Purves and Partee, Sometimes the phrase seems to be judgemental, descriptive, like the distinction between liberal and conservative Christians. Occasionally, the phrase seems historic, like the division between Catholic and Protestant Christians, furthermore, the term usually includes the notion of human choice in salvation and excludes a view of divine election by grace alone
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Plain dress
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Plain dress is a practice among some religious groups, primarily some Christian churches in which people dress in clothes of traditional modest design, sturdy fabric, and conservative cut. It is intended to show humility and preserve communal separateness from the rest of the world, Amish, Old Order Mennonites and Conservative Mennonites share the same Swiss-German/South-German Anabaptist tradition. Among the Amish and other groups, plain dress is not considered to be a costume. Plain, simple dress is governed by a code of conduct, called ordnung among Anabaptists. Plain dress is attributed to reasons of theology and sociology, in general, plain dress involves the covering of much of the body, with minimal ornamentation, rejecting print fabrics, trims, fasteners, and jewelry. Non-essential elements of such as neckties, collars, and lapels may be minimized or omitted. Practical garments such as aprons and shawls may be layered over the basic ensemble, Plain dress garments are often handmade and may be produced by groups of women in the community for efficiency and to ensure uniformity of style. Plain dress practices can extend to the grooming of hair and beards and may vary somewhat to accommodate stages in the life cycle such as allowing children, within these general practices, distinctions abound. In some groups, for example, the womens preferred head covering is lacy or translucent, in others, the traditional plain dress worn by the Anabaptists and other religious groups has long sleeves with a set waist, long skirt, and no adornment. It denotes utility, modesty, long wear and inconspicuousness, does not display any trademark, shawl, aprons, bonnets and cap are part of plain dress. Plain dressing Christians cite Pauls advice to the Romans, Be not conformed to this world, other scripture passages counsel women to wear head coverings while praying, not to cut their hair, and for men not to shave or cut their beards. Plain dress may establish a sense of belonging within the community while also marking the groups members as different in the wider society, some practitioners describe their dress as a protection from unwanted attention. Quaker minister Elizabeth Fry considered her plain dress to serve as a hedge against the world, marketing through the internet has these sites which propagate plain dress, Quaker Jane, Plain and Simple Headcoverings, Rachel’s Seamstress Services and Mennonite Maidens. Simple dress, considered sensible and useful and necessary, is hard to find as the clothing market is dictated by fashion conscious people who consider plain dress dull. Dressing heroines in Victorian literature in plain dress is often assumed to be a way of making characters appear classless and sexless, additionally, plain dress may signify a characters rejection of societal norms and willingness to leave the household to act on her desires. Plain people Journeyman uniform in Germany Normcore
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Prevenient grace
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Prevenient grace is a Christian theological concept rooted in Arminian theology, though it appeared earlier in Catholic theology. It is divine grace that precedes human decision and it exists prior to and without reference to anything humans may have done. Prevenient grace is embraced primarily by Arminian Christians who are influenced by the theology of Jacob Arminius or John Wesley, whereas Augustine held that grace cannot be resisted, Wesleyan Arminians believe that it enables, but does not ensure, personal acceptance of the gift of salvation. Wesley typically referred to it in 18th-century language as prevenient grace, in modern English, the phrase preceding grace would have a similar meaning. Arminian Free Will Baptist theologian Robert E. Picirilli says that the word prevenient in prevenient grace comes from an archaic English usage meaning anticipating, coming before, Picirilli says that a good synonym for prevenient grace is enabling grace, as it enables sinful mankind to believe. The United Methodist Book of Discipline defines prevenient grace as. the divine love that all humanity and precedes any. This grace prompts our first wish to please God, our first glimmer of understanding concerning Gods will, Gods grace also awakens in us an earnest longing for deliverance from sin and death and moves us toward repentance and faith. The Church of the Nazarene has made prevenient grace one of its sixteen Articles of Faith found in the Nazarene Manual, predecessor to the Nazarene Articles of Faith are the Articles of Religion, which John Wesley adapted for use by American Methodists. Thomas Oden of Drew University defines prevenient grace as. the grace that begins to one to choose further to cooperate with saving grace. By offering the will the restored capacity to respond to grace, infant baptism is seen in Methodism as a celebration of prevenient grace. Although infant baptism is important for the journey of the faithful disciple. This grace goes before, accompanies, and follows, it excites, assists, operates that we will, No one can say Jesus is Lord except by the Holy Spirit. Every time we begin to pray to Jesus it is the Holy Spirit who draws us on the way of prayer by his prevenient grace. The Second Council of Orange of 529 stated that faith, though a free act, resulted even in its beginnings from the grace of God, enlightening the human mind, in canon 23 it is said that God prepares our wills that they may desire the good. Canon 25 states, “In every good work, it is not we who begin, but He first inspires us with faith and love of Him, through no preceding merit on our part. Wesley insisted on prevenient grace as a solution to two problems in Christianity, the belief of original sin and the Protestant doctrine of salvation by grace alone. Wesley thought that prevenient grace enabled the doctrines of sin and salvation by grace to co-exist while still maintaining Gods sovereignty. Scriptures used to support the doctrine include, Jeremiah 1,5, Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, Jeremiah 31,3. I have loved thee with an everlasting love, therefore with lovingkindness have I drawn thee
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Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist
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By contrast, the doctrine is rejected by the Radical Reformers and their followers. Efforts at mutual understanding of the range of beliefs led in the 1980s to consultations on Baptism, Eucharist and these consultations included the Catholic Church. Contrary positions were taken by Paschasius Radbertus and Ratramnus, Ratramnus held that the body of Christ was present spiritually but not physically, while Paschasius emphasized the true presence of the body of Christ. This caused a controversy which led to the clarification of the doctrine of the Eucharist. In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council used the word transubstantiated in its profession of faith, scholasticism cast Christian theology in the terms of Aristotelianism. Medieval philosophers who used Aristotelian concepts frequently distinguished between substantial forms and accidental forms, for Aristotle, a substance is an individual thing, which may possess accidental forms as non-essential properties. During the later period, the question was debated within the Western Church. Following the Protestant Reformation, it became a topic of division between the various emerging confessions. The Lutheran doctrine of the presence, known as the Sacramental Union, was formulated in the Augsburg Confession of 1530. Luther decidedly supported the doctrine, publishing The Sacrament of the Body, zwinglis view became associated with the term Memorialism, suggesting an understanding of the Eucharist held purely in memory of Christ. Eastern Orthodoxy did not become involved in the prior to the 17th century. It became virulent in 1629, when Cyril Lucaris denied the doctrine of transubstantiation, to counter the teaching of Lucaris, Metropolitan Petro Mohyla of Kiev drew up in Latin an Orthodox Confession in defense of transubstantiation. This Confession was approved by all the Greek-speaking Patriarchs in 1643, and again by the 1672 Synod of Jerusalem. One hymn of the Church, Ave Verum Corpus, greets Christ in the Eucharist as follows, Hail, true body, born of Mary Virgin, nor does its use in the Orthodox Church commit theologians to the acceptance of Aristotelian philosophical concepts. 10.16,11. 23-29 or the discourse in John 6. 26-58, in light of this fact, it teaches that the gifts should be treated with reverence throughout the entirety of the service. We dont know the time in which the change takes place. The Eastern Orthodox Church Synod of Jerusalem declared, We believe the Lord Jesus Christ to be present, not typically, nor figuratively, nor by superabundant grace, the Lutheran doctrine of the real presence is more accurately and formally known as the Sacramental Union. For Lutherans, there is no Sacrament unless the elements are used according to Christs institution and this was first articulated in the Wittenberg Concord of 1536 in the formula, Nihil habet rationem sacramenti extra usum a Christo institutum
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Christian perfection
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Christian perfection is the name given to various teachings within Christianity that describe the process of achieving spiritual maturity or perfection. The ultimate goal of process is union with God characterized by pure love of God. Various terms have been used to describe the concept, such as Christian holiness, entire sanctification, perfect love, the baptism with the Holy Spirit, and the second blessing. Certain traditions and denominations teach the possibility of Christian perfection, including the Catholic Church and it is also taught in Methodist churches and the holiness movement, in which it is sometimes termed Wesleyan perfectionism. Other denominations, such as the Lutheran and Reformed churches, reject teachings associated with Christian perfection as contrary to the doctrine of salvation by faith alone, the terms perfect and perfection are drawn from the Greek teleios and teleiōsis, respectively. The root word, telos, means an end or goal, in contemporary translations, teleios and teleiōsis are often rendered as mature and maturity, respectively, so as not to imply infallibility or the absence of defects. Rather, in the Christian tradition, teleiōsis has referred to progressing towards spiritual wholeness or health, in antiquity, baptism was commonly referred to as the perfecting of the Christian. In another work, the Stromata, Clement discussed three stages in Christian life that led to a more mature perfection, the first stage was marked by the change from heathenism to faith and initiation into the Christian religion. The second stage was marked by a knowledge of God that resulted in continuing repentance from sin. The third stage led to contemplation and agape love, origen also proposed his own stages of spiritual ascent beginning with conversion and ending with perfect union with God in love. Gregory of Nyssa defined human perfection as constant growth in the good, for Gregory, this was brought about by the work of the Holy Spirit and the self–discipline of the Christian. By the 4th century, the pursuit of the life of perfection was identified with asceticism, especially monasticism, in the 12th century, Bernard of Clairvaux developed the idea of the ladder of love in his treatise, On the Love of God. This ladder had four rungs or degrees, the first and lowest degree was love of self for self. The second degree was love of God for what he gives, the third degree was love of God for his own sake, it would not be difficult, according to Bernard, for those who truly loved God to keep his commandments. The fourth degree was love of self only for Gods sake, thomas Aquinas wrote of three possible levels of perfection. The first, absolute perfection, is where God is loved as much as he can be loved, the second level, where love for God fills a person constantly, is possible after death but not in life. The lowest level of perfection was thought to be possible to achieve while living, noble described Aquinass view of this level of perfection as follows, All Christians have the grace of caritas infused into them at baptism and this love for God excludes all mortal sins. Such sins are not impossible, and, if committed, require the grace of penance and that is incompatible with the state of grace
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Imparted righteousness
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Imparted righteousness, in Methodist theology, is that gracious gift of God given at the moment of the new birth which enables a Christian disciple to strive for holiness and sanctification. John Wesley believed that imparted righteousness worked in tandem with imputed righteousness. Jeremiah 31, 33-34 But this is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel after those days, declares the Lord, I will put my law within them, and I will be their God, and they shall be my people. And no longer shall each one teach his neighbor and each his brother, saying, ‘Know the Lord, ’ for they all know me, from the least of them to the greatest. For I will forgive their iniquity, and I will remember their sin no more. ”2 Corinthians 3,18 And we all, with unveiled face, for this comes from the Lord who is the Spirit. This comes through in the Wesleyan hymnody such as his famous hymn And can it be, the last verse reads, No condemnation now I dread, Jesus, and all in Him, is mine. Alive in Him, my living Head, And clothed in righteousness divine, Bold I approach the throne, And claim the crown. Ephesians 6,14 says Stand firm then with the belt of truth buckled around your waist, preachers and theologians from various Protestant traditions use the term imparted righteousness to identify the righteous principle imparted by God to believers when He regenerates them. Believers thereby become partakers of the divine nature and it is this principle of righteousness imparted to men in regeneration which is ever in conflict with the old Adamic nature. It is somewhat problematic for some Christians to call the doctrine imparted righteousness, for that which is imparted is a righteous principle into mans nature and this section is a precis of N. T. Wrights work in What Saint Paul Really Said. He relates the court-room metaphor, pointing out there are three parties in the Hebrew court - two parties in disagreement and one judge. The judge decides the dispute between the parties declaring one to be correct and the other incorrect, the one who is declared correct in court is called righteous in the matter that was judged. The righteousness of God, referring to Gods faithfulness to the covenant relationship, can be neither imputed nor imparted to anybody, righteousness from God is roughly equivalent to vindication, meaning that God is pronouncing that particular party to be correct/vindicated/righteous/acquitted in their dispute with the other party. The dispute in question in Christian theology is between those of faith, and the wicked, meaning everybody opposed to those of faith. Paul was positing that the people of faith are vindicated when Messiah returns, being declared righteous. This means that we do not receive the righteousness of God in the classical Evangelical vernacular, the righteousness of God remains His alone, and our righteousness from God means that we are found to be of the people of God. Pauls argument is that it has always been so, but what has changed is that the Messiah, in Jesus of Nazareth, has now appeared. An important verse to note is 2 Cor 5,21, For our sake he made him to be sin who knew no sin, which has traditionally been interpreted to mean that the Christian has, in some way, become righteous, in exchange for Jesus sinlessness
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Sabbatarianism
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Its historical origins lie in Puritan Sabbatarianism, which delineated precepts for keeping Sunday holy in observance of Sabbath commandment principles. This observance of Sunday is the purest form of first-day Sabbatarianism, Seventh-day Baptists leave most other Sabbath considerations of observance to individual conscience. The Seventh-day Adventist Church and Church of God have similar views, non-Sabbatarianism is the view opposing all Sabbatarianism, declaring Christians to be free of mandates to follow such specific observances. It includes all Catholics and Orthodox, and most Protestant denominations, Sabbath in the Bible is informed by the Genesis creation narrative and has a formal origin before the giving of the Ten Commandments. By the time of Jesus, an emphasis on freedom from legalistic Sabbaths had arisen, some of Jesuss teachings are considered as redefining the Pharisees Sabbath laws. Later, Church fathers Justin Martyr and Augustine also taught specifically that Sabbath according to the Decalogue does not apply in a fashion to Christians. Judaizing influences diminished and almost disappeared as all of Christianity, east and west, most of it remains so today. Not seeking to re-establish Mosaic Law or Hebrew Sabbath practices, their connection to Judaizing was limited to the use of a code by which Christians might be judged. Most identify with the early Jewish Christians, and consider early church condemnations of Judaizing to be the marks of a Great Apostasy in early Christianity, differences among non-Sabbatarians in their views of Christian law reflect both their interpretation of Christian liberty and the nature of their rejection of Sabbatarianism. For others, it is liberty from the law, considered to be replaced along with the Mosaic covenant. For yet others, it is founded on the belief that all or some of Mosaic law has been set aside or abrogated. The common ground in non-Sabbatarianism, though, is the rejection in principle of the force of any required code of Sabbath-related conduct. However, in recent decades, the expression of the difference between Sabbath and Sunday has been blurred through a looser, non-doctrinal application of terminology, often used among non-Sabbatarians in regions where Sabbatarianism itself has had its greatest prominence, it signifies a contrast with seventh-day Sabbatarianism. First-day Sabbatarian is often applied to more accurately described non-Sabbatarians, because of their Sunday worship. But not all non-Sabbatarians would agree to being called first-day Sabbatarians, wishing to disassociate with all of Sabbatarianism, however, many non-Sabbatarians resist that usage as inaccurate. Most continue to make a distinction or separation between the Sabbath and Sunday, arguing that the Christian observances on Sunday stand on their own without any necessary connection. The Puritans of England and Scotland brought a new rigour to the observance of the Christian Lords Day, in reaction to the customary Sunday observance of the time, Sunday Sabbatarianism is enshrined in its most mature expression, the Westminster Confession of Faith, in the Calvinist theological tradition. Chapter 21, Of Religious Worship, and the Sabbath Day, the confession holds that not only is work forbidden in Sunday, but also works, words, and thoughts about worldly employments and recreations
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Teetotalism
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Teetotalism is the practice or promotion of complete personal abstinence from alcoholic beverages. A person who practices teetotalism is called a teetotaler or is said to be teetotal. The teetotalism movement was first started in Preston, England, in the early 19th century, there is some dispute over the origin of the word teetotaler. One anecdote attributes the origin of the word to a meeting of the Preston Temperance Society in 1833, the story attributes the word to Richard Turner, a member of the society, who in a speech said Ill be reet down out-and-out t-t-total for ever and ever. A variation on the account is found on the pages of The Charleston Observer, Teetotalers. --The origin of this convenient word, is, we imagine, known. Hence total abstainers have been called teetotalers, an alternative explanation is that teetotal is simply a reduplication of the first T in total. It is said that as early as 1827 in some Temperance Societies signing a T after ones name signified ones pledge for total abstinence, according to historian Daniel Walker Howe the term was derived from the practice of American preacher and temperance advocate Lyman Beecher. He would take names at his meetings of people who pledged alcoholic temperance, such persons became known as Teetotallers. Some common reasons for choosing teetotalism are psychological, religious, health, medical, familial, philosophical and social, alcoholism, or sometimes it is simply a matter of taste or preference. When at drinking establishments, teetotalers either abstain from drinking completely, or consume non-alcoholic beverages such as water, juice, tea, coffee, most teetotaler organizations also demand from their members that they do not promote or produce alcoholic intoxicants. Methodists also historically abstained from alcohol, though many Methodist denominations no longer teach this, members are also required to refrain from selling such products. A translation of the New Testament, the Purified Translation of the Bible, abstention from alcohol is a tenet of a number of religious faiths, including those of the Sikhs, Baháís, Hare Krishnas, Hindus, Jains, and Meivazhi-ites, Pillays. Khamr is the term for all intoxicants which are prohibited in Islam, a number of Christian denominations also forbid the consumption of alcohol, including the Amish, Seventh-day Adventists, Mennonites, Church of the Brethren members, and Christian Scientists. Many Christian groups, such as Methodists, Mormons, and Quakers, are associated with teetotalism due to their traditionally strong support for temperance movements. However, tenets forbidding the consumption of alcohol are variably practiced, in many Christian denominations, abstinence is not a religious requirement, but the tradition is strong enough to make ritual and recreational alcohol consumption a controversial issue among members. Members of the Salvation Army make a promise on joining the movement to observe lifelong abstinence from alcohol, several authors have conducted research looking at the social and subjective experiences of young people who do not drink alcohol in varied social settings. A2015 study by the Office for National Statistics showed that young Britons were more likely to be teetotallers than their parents
